OPTION E: ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY

E 1. Air pollution
E 1.1 Describe the main sources of carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), oxides of sulfur (SOx),
particulates and olatile organic compounds (!OCs) in the atmosphere.
E 1." Ealuate current methods for the reduction of air pollution.
Air pollutant = any c!"ical in #uc conc!ntration $%r!at!r tan it# natural l!&!l#' in t! air tat it
pro(uc!# an ar")ul !))!ct on t! !n&iron"!nt i.!. u"an#* ani"al#* &!%!tation or "at!rial#.
Pri"ary air pollutant = an air pollutant +ic i# a +a#t! pro(uct )ro" a u"an acti&ity an( +ic i#
a((!( (ir!ctly into t! air $a# oppo#!( to a #!con(ary air pollutant +ic i# )or"!( in t! air a# a
pro(uct o) a c!"ical r!action o) a pri"ary pollutant in t! air'.
T! #ourc!# o) t! "ain air pollutant# an( curr!nt "!to(# )or t!ir r!(uction.
See separate fact sheet #$ir pollutants%. &emember health effects are not part of the assessment.
$dditional notes
'he concentration of most pollutants is measured in ppm ((parts per million) and )ou should be able to
conert this into * +hich is completed b) diiding the ppm alue b) 1,,,,,.
-t is important to appreciate that the health effect of these air pollutants depends on the amount present,
their toxicit) and length of time that the) are in the atmosphere.
Catalytic con&!rt!r. a deice in +hich hot exhaust gases carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides and unburnt
h)drocarbons are mixed +ith more air and are passed oer a catal)st such as platinum during +hich
carbon monoxide is oxidi/ed +ith ox)gen +hich comes from the reduction of nitrogen oxides to nitrogen.
E,uation# o) t! r!action# in a catalytic con&!rt!r#:
oxidation catal)tic conerter. oxidation of carbon monoxide. "CO (g) 0 O" (g) "CO" (g)
12+a) conerters. redox. "NO (g) 0 "CO (g) "CO" (g) 0 N" (g)
but also oxidation of !OCs (unburnt fuel). "C3413 (g) 0 "5O" (g) 16CO" (g) 0 134"O (g)
To aci!&! i% rat! o) r!action )or ti# r!(o- proc!##.
exhaust gases are passed oer platinum +hich acts as a heterogeneous catal)st7
conerter has a hone) comb structure to increase surface area7
er) high temperature of the exhaust gases also increase the rate of reaction dramaticall).
E&aluation o) curr!nt "!to(# o) air pollution r!(uction
a(&anta%!# (i#a(&anta%!#
Catal)tic conerter &educes CO8NO8unburnt !OCs
emissions
&educes performance8fuel efficienc) of a
car
Expensie to replace as platinum is
expensie
Contributes to CO" and N"O emmissions
Onl) +or9s +ith unleaded petrol

:earn burn engine

(increasing air to
fuel ratio)
Decreases CO and NOx
emissions
-ncreases !OCs (h)drocarbons) if er)
lean
-ncreases NO if not too lean
Need expensie and complex catal)tic
conerters
'hermal exhaust
reactor
&educes CO emissions :o+ers car performance
-ncreases CO" emissions
$l9aline scrubbing &educes SO" emissions ;roduces CO"
c
-< option E S: notes
1
:imestone fluidi/ed
combustion beds
&educes SO" emissions ;roduces CO"
Expensie
;roduces +aste sludge +hich needs to
be disposed
&ecirculation of
exhaust gases
&educes NOx emissions :o+ers car performance
-ncreased particulate emissions
Electrostatic
precipitators
&emoes particulates from air =ses a lot of electrical energ)
Onl) +or9s +ith dr) emissions
>et scrubbers &emoes particulates from air ;roduces +aste sludge that needs to be
disposed
=se lo+ sulphur
fuels or remoe
sulphur from fuel
&educes SO" emissions Expensie
E .. Aci( (!po#ition
E ".1 State +hat is meant b) the term acid deposition and outline its origins.
E "." Discuss the enironmental effects of acid deposition and possible methods to counteract them.
$cid deposition refers to the arious +a)s b) +hich acidic particles (acidic solution particles or particles
+hich can dissole8dissociate to form 4
0
ions) leae the atmosphere and are brought bac9 do+n to earth e.g.
on the ground, on trees, buildings, ?
'here are t+o t)pes of acid deposition.
+et deposition. acid rain, fog, sleet and sno+.
dr) deposition. gas molecules or acidic particles attached onto small airborne particles such as dust.
Ori%in o) aci( (!po#ition
&ain is naturall) slightl) acidic because of the carbon dioxide dissoling into rain +ater to form carbonic acid
according to the e@uation.
CO" (g) 0 4"O (l) 4"CO1 (a@)
Carbon acid is a +ea9 acid that dissociates partiall) to produce 4
0
ions to ma9e rain +ater slightl) acidic.
4"CO1 (a@) 4CO1
2
(a@) 0 4
0
(a@)
Aci(ic rain i# rain +it a pH o) l!## tan /.0 as it contains nitric acid and sulphuric acid.
'he main chemicals responsible for acid rain. nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides.
NOx. formed as a result of high temperatures in int!rnal co"1u#tion !n%in!#, i.e. cars and Aet engines.
1. production of nitrogen oxides. N" (g) 0 O" (g) "NO (g)

"NO (g) 0 O" (g) "NO" (g)

". the follo+ing e@uations sho+ t+o +a)s in +hich nitric (!) acid is formed in the atmosphere.
" NO" (g) 0 4"O (l) 4NO1 (a@) 0 4NO" (a@) ((nitrous acid or nitric (---) acid)
or
B NO" (g) 0 "4"O (l) 0 O" (g) B4NO1 (a@)
SOx. from burning of coal +hich contains sulphur and from smelting plants.
1. production of oxides. S (g) 0 O" (g) SO" (g)

"SO" (g) 0 O" (g) "SO1 (g) (oxidation)
". formation of atmospheric sulphuric (!-) acid and sulfurous acid (or sulphuric (-!) acid)
-< option E S: notes
2
SO1 (g) 0 4"O (l) 4"SOB (a@) SO" (g) 0 4"O (l) 4"SO1(a@)
En&iron"!ntal !))!ct# o) aci( (!po#ition on:
humans
-rritation of mucus membranes and lung tissue +hen breathing in fine droplets of acid
rain.
-ncreased ris9 of respirator) illnesses such as asthma and bronchitis.
$cidic +ater also dissoles and leaches poisonous ions li9e $l
10
(lin9ed +ith $l/heimer
disease) and ;b
"0
+hich end up in food chain.
buildings
Corrosion of materials such as marble and dolomite (CaCO1.CgCO1).
e@uation. CaCO1 (s) 0 4"SOB (a@) CaSOB (s) 0 4"O (l) 0 CO" (g)
Daster corrosion of iron and steel structures in buildings or bridges.
a@uatic
life
-ncreased leels of aluminum ions, $l
10
, dissoled from the soil b) the acidic +ater 9ills
fish as it reduces the effectieness of gills.
$ lot of fish, algae, insect larae een plan9ton cannot surie in +ater belo+ certain p4.
egetation
-ncreased soil acidit) leaches important nutrients (e.g. Ca
"0
8E
0
8 Cg
"0
) out of the top soil7
Cg
"0
is necessar) to ma9e chloroph)ll so remoal of this ion results in lo+ering rate of
photos)nthesis and reducing gro+th of plants and crop )ields7
-ncreased concentration of $l
10
in the soil +hich damages roots7
Stunted gro+th of crops7
'hinning of tree tops7
Fello+ing and loss of leaes.
M!to(# to count!ract t! !n&iron"!ntal !))!ct# o) aci( rain
Dundamentall), an) measure that controls the emissions of nitrogen and sulphur oxides +ill reduce the
occurrence of acid rain. Fou hae studied these alread) under air pollutants.
Cutting do+n emissions of nitrogen oxides b) using catal)tic conerters and thermal exhaust s)stems.
=se of lo+ sulphur fuels (although the) still release some sulphur dioxide) or remoe sulphur altogether
before using the fuel.
&emoal of sulphur oxides from exhaust fumes using fluidi/ed bed combustion and al9aline scrubbing.
=se of alternatie sources of energ) +hich do not inole fossil fuels and the production of er) high
temperatures.
Dealing +ith acid rain itself. neutrali/ation of la9es using calcium carbonate or calcium oxide.
e.g. CaO (s) 0 4"SOB (a@) CaSOB (s) 0 4"O (l)
E 2. 3r!!nou#! !))!ct
E 1.1 Describe the greenhouse effect.
E 1." :ist the main greenhouse gases and their sources, and discuss their relatie effects.
E 1.1 Discuss the influence of increasing amounts of greenhouse gases on the atmosphere.
3r!!nou#! !))!ct
$fter passing through the atmosphere, the isible light and =! 2 shorter +aelength radiation 2 coming from
the Sun hits the surface of the Earth and is conerted and reradiated b) the Earth as radiation +ith longer
+aelength such as infrared radiation, -& (longer +aelength8lo+er fre@uenc) than isible light and =!).
Some of this infrared radiation is preented from returning to space b) gases (called greenhouse gases) in
the atmosphere +hich absorb the infrared radiation to increase their bond ibrations7 these ibrations cause
the atmosphere to heat up +hich then radiates that heat bac9 to Earth.
'his effect is called the greenhouse effect.
Natural greenhouse effect.
-< option E S: notes
3
'his greenhouse effect has al+a)s been there G HnaturalI greenhouse effect 2 and is one of the factors that
has allo+ed lie to exist on Earth7 but there has al+a)s been an e@uilibrium bet+een the energ) reaching the
Earth from the Sun and the energ) reflected bac9 into space +hich is partl) controlled b) the greenhouse
effect. 'his e@uilibrium controls the EarthIs temperature.
&ecentl), the greenhouse effect has increased upsetting the e@uilibrium and this is resulting in global
+arming. 'his greenhouse effect is called the HenhancedI greenhouse effect.
3lo1al +ar"in% ( a gradual increase in planet2+ide temperatures.
J;ositie feedbac9. global +arming increases eaporation +hich result in more +ater apour in the
atmosphere +hich increases the greenhouse effect further.
3r!!nou#! %a#!# ar! %a#!# tat allo+ &i#i1l! li%t an( 4V ra(iation (short2+aelength8high fre@uenc))
to pa## trou% t!" 1ut (because of the nature of the coalent bonds in their molecules) a1#or1 t!
in)rar!( ra(iation (longer2+aelength radiation) radiated from the Earth and r!ra(iat!# ti# in)rar!(
ra(iation 1ac5 to t! Eart.
$s each greenhouse gas has its o+n t)pe of bond, each greenhouse gas absorbs at slightl) different -&
+aelengths.
'he combined absorption bands of carbon dioxide and +ater can be seen to bloc9 most of the infrared
radiation radiated from Earth. 'here is, ho+eer, a region +ithin the infrared spectrum through +hich
radiation can escape7 this region is referred to as the #atmospheric +indo+%.
'his +indo+ can be closed b) greenhouse gases other than +ater and carbon dioxide such as CDCs and
methane.
'he fact that methane and CDCIs absorb in the atmospheric +indo+ region is one of the factors +h) both
methane and CDCs hae a greater greenhouse factor8effect than +ater and carbon dioxide.
'he greenhouse factor8effect compares the abilit) of a greenhouse gas to absorb infrared radiation to carbon
dioxide and is determined b).
their abilit) to absorb heat or infrared radiation in the atmospheric +indo+ or not
the number of different ranges of +aelength the) absorb is caused b) the molecules haing different
t)pes of bonds7 each t)pe absorbs at its o+n fre@uenc)7
the intensit) of the absorption e.g. methane has B C24 bonds +hich means it can absorb more at a
certain fre@uenc)K
the abundance of the chemical
the lifespan of the chemical
3r!!nou#!
%a#
Sourc!# R!lati&! !))!ct#6#i%ni)icanc!
CO"
4uman. burning fossil fuels and +ood, forest
fires, burning +aste
Natural. respiration, deca) of organic matter,
natural forest fires

&elatie effect. 1 (( standard)
Cost important greenhouse gas (5,*
contribution to greenhouse effect)
because of its great abundance (second
largest after +ater apour) and the large
range oer +hich it absorbs -&.
4"O
4uman. combustion of h)drocarbons
Natural. eaporation of ocean8la9es +ater
&elatie effect (compared to CO"). ,.1
:east effectie in trapping radiation but it
is the most abundant.
C4B
4uman. cattle farming, rice paddies,
petroleum and natural gas production,
Natural. in digestie tracts of ruminants, cattle,
bogs or marshes, bacterial fermentation G
methane is produced +hen organic matter is
decomposed anaerobicall)
&elatie effect. 1,
:o+ abundance in atmosphere but it is
effectie in absorbing infrared radiation,
ho+eer, its atmospheric lifespan in the
atmosphere is short.
N"O
4uman. use of nitrogen based fertili/ers, &elatie effect. 15,
!er) effectie in absorbing radiation,
-< option E S: notes
4
decomposition of organic matter
Natural. bacterial action
fairl) long atmospheric life.
CDCs
4uman. refrigerators, air2 conditioning,
aerosols in spra)ing cans, foaming agents
Natural. noneKKKK
&elatie effect. 1, ,,, G "5 ,,,
!er) effectie in absorbing radiation,
er) long atmospheric life.
SD6 4uman. electrical insulators &elatie effect. "B ,,,
7y (o o-y%!n* nitro%!n an( ar%on not act# a# %r!!nou#! %a#!#8
Dor -& to be absorbed the follo+ing re@uirements need to be met.
-& photons can onl) cause bond ibrations to moe up to higher energ) leels7 noble gases cannot
absorb -& as the) are monatomic molecules +ith no coalent bonds7
-& absorption re@uires that the radiation causes changes to the electric field or the dipole moment of
the molecule +hich eliminates non2polar molecules e.g. ox)gen and nitrogen7 all greenhouse gases
are pol)atomic7
In)lu!nc! o) incr!a#in% a"ount# o) %r!!nou#! %a#!# on %lo1al +ar"in%
$n increase in the earthIs aerage temperature b) almost 1., degree oer last 1,, )ears.
'he 1, +armest )ears hae all occurred since 1LL3.
-ncrease in precipitation in some areas of the +orld.
>orld +ide rise in sea leels resulting from partial melting of glaciers and polar ice caps and thermal
expansion of +ater (as a result of heating).
Changes in crop )ields. some crops +ill gro+ better, other +orse.
Changes in distribution of commercial crops, animals, insects,..
Changes in the distribution of pests and disease2carr)ing organisms e.g. malaria.
Core floods in particular of coastal areas7 more seere storms e.g. ",1, monsoon floods in ;a9istan.
Core seere droughts e.g. ",1, +orst drought in $ma/on.
-ncrease in si/e of deserts.
S!a#onal )luctuation# in %lo1al car1on (io-i(! conc!ntration# in t! at"o#p!r!
'he use (photos)nthesis) and release (respiration) of carbon dioxide in the northern hemisphere has a much
greater impact on the global carbon dioxide concentration than the southern hemisphere because there is
more land and therefore plants in the northern hemisphere.
;ea9s. Coincide +ith +inter in northern hemisphere +hen most trees hae lost their leaes, less
photos)nthesis actiit) so less carbon dioxide remoed from the atmosphere resulting in a relatie increase
in the global annual carbon dioxide concentration.
'roughs. Coincide +ith summer in northern hemisphere and +inter in southern hemisphere. Northern
hemisphere has more land mass8trees so more photos)nthesis occurs during summer resulting in a net
decrease of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
E))!ct o) particulat!# on %lo1al +ar"in%: coolin% !))!ct6count!ract %r!!nou#! !))!ct
;articulates scatters and reflect the incoming sunlight (isible and =!) so that less solar radiation enters
the atmosphere G negatie feedbac9.
;articulates also cause a lo+ering of the temperature as the) proide condensation nuclei around +hich
+ater particles condense to form clouds reducing solar heating as clouds reflect radiation.
-< option E S: notes
5
!olcanic eruptions and large forest fires greatl) increase the amount of particulates.
E 9. O:on! (!pl!tion in #trato#p!r!
E B.1 Describe the formation and depletion of o/one in the stratosphere b) natural processes.
E B." :ist the o/one2depleting pollutants and their sources.
E B.1 Discuss the alternaties to CDCs in terms of their properties.
O/one ( er) pale bluish gas, pungent smelling odor, po+erful oxidi/ing agent (easil) reduced to O").
Detection of o/one. MO1N in an air sample can be measured using =! spectroscop). the sample of air is
radiated +ith =! light and its absorption measured7 the more =! is absorbed, the greater M,1N.
O/one in the upper atmosphere (15 to B5 9m) has t+o functions +hich are beneficial to us.
1. $bsorbs =!2< +hich has a +aelength of "L,21", nm7 this t)pe of radiation.
causes sunburn, s9in cancer and e)e cataracts in humans7
reduces plant gro+th7 it reduces the rate of photos)nthesis because the o/one destro)s the apparatus for
photos)nthesis7
can cause genetic mutations as it can damage biological molecules li9e amino acids and nucleic acids7
causes loss of plan9ton.
". O/one production releases energ) (=! radiation is conerted into 9inetic energ)) +hich produces an
increase in temperature +ith increase in altitude in the stratosphere7 this gies stabilit) to the stratosphere as
it preents large conections of air in the atmosphere.
Depletion of the o/one +ould result in an increase of sunburn, s9in cancer, cataracts and een blindness. -t
+ould reduce crop )ields, cause loss of plan9ton +hich +ould upset food chains in a@uatic enironments and
might increase mutations.
E&i(!nc! )or o:on! (!pl!tion
Conitoring of stratosphere aboe $ntarctica since 1L31 using =! spectroscop) from satellites, high2altitude
planes and balloons. in 1L35 o/one column +as reduced b) B,* in September and October. $lso o/one
concentrations hae fallen oer Northern Europe.

Natural )or"ation an( (!pl!tion "aintainin% a #t!a(y;#tat! conc!ntration
Stratospheric o/one is in a d)namic e@uilibrium +ith ox)gen and is continuall) being formed and decomposed b)
the follo+ing processes.
Dormation of o/one.
1. 'he +hole c)cle starts +ith the formation of free radical atoms7 the most important free radical (( a
particle +ith an unpaired electron), as it is present at the highest concentration, is the ox)gen free
radical +hich is formed as the result of the photodissociation ((decomposition b) light) of ox)gen
molecules
O" (g) 0 u O (g) 0 O (g)
-t is important to reali/e that the =! radiation absorbed in this process has higher fre@uenc)8lo+er
+aelength radiation than the =! radiation +e need protecting from. 'he fre@uenc) needed is high
so it can brea9 the strong double bonds in the ox)gen molecules. (h ( ultraiolet photon +ith a
+aelength of maximum "B" nm). $n) =! radiation not absorbed b) the aboe process does not
reach the earthIs surface an)+a).
". o/one is formed +hen such an ox)gen free radical then reacts +ith a diatomic ox)gen molecule.
O" (g) 0 O (g) O1 (g)
-< option E S: notes
6

M,1N fluctuates during night and da) and seasons as the production inoles =! light.
Depletion of o/one.
O/one is depleted in t+o +a)s.
1. b) reacting +ith a free radical e.g. an ox)gen atom to form t+o diatomic ox)gen molecules7
O1 (g) 0 O (g) "O" (g)
". photodissociation b) absorbing harmful =! radiation (the photon of =! radiation has less energ)8lo+er
fre@uenc)8higher +aelength than the one needed to brea9 the double bonds in the ox)gen molecule as
the ox)gen bonds in o/one are less strong) producing a diatomic ox)gen molecule and an ox)gen free
radical +hich then can be used to form a ne+ o/one molecule or decompose an existing molecule7 the
ox)gen free radical is then used to ma9e o/one again7 the rate of reaction usuall) depends on season,
time of da), latitude and solar emissions
O1 (g) 0 u O" (g) 0 O (g)

'he ultraiolet photon necessar) for this reaction has the same +aelength (or re@uired amount of
energ)) to the radiation +hich causes sunburn and s9in cancer7
Condition. production of o/one needs shorter +aelength8higher fre@uenc) radiation as more energ)
is needed than the destruction of o/one.
'he rate at +hich o/one is formed is e@ual to the rate at +hich it is depleted.
=p in the stratosphere, the gas2phase reactions that hae been described aboe occur at a lo+ rate.
4o+eer, there are other free radicals +hich cause natural depletion of o/one but +hich occur at far smaller
concentrations in the atmosphere, these chemicals are methane, nitrogen monoxide and h)drox)l radical.
Oust li9e +ith ox)gen the process starts +ith the photodissociation of these molecules to form radicals +hich
react +ith o/one molecules7 the free radicals are regenerated in another step +hich ma9es the destruction of
o/one b) these chemicals a catal)tic chain reaction as the regenerated free radical can destro) further o/one
molecules. Each free radical can decompose man) o/one molecules.
'hese catal)tic destructions also occur at higher rates than the depletion caused b) the ox)gen free radical7
this is also +h) this depletion is called a catal)tic chain reaction.
Peneral mechanism for these depletion reactions.
Q(g) 0 O1 (g) QO (g) 0 O" (g) Q ( an) radical other than ox)gen
QO (g) 0 O (g) Q (g) 0 O" (g)
O (g) 0 O1 (g) "O" (g)
Man;"a(! (!pl!tion: C<C=# an( nitro%!n o-i(!# +ic cataly#! t! (!pl!tion
Caused b) the release of chemicals +hich produce radicals +hich can catal)se8speed up the depletion of
o/one b) the mechanism sho+n aboe.

$nthropogenic sources of these chemicals.
1. CDCIs. refrigerants, air conditioners, blo+ing8foaming agents, aerosol propellant, solents eg dr) cleaning
agents.
". Nitrogen oxides. nuclear explosions, Shuttle spacecraft, combustion (car engines8po+er stations),
nitrogenous fertili/ers, high2fl)ing commercial and militar) aircraft.
&easons +h) CDCs are still used +idel) despite being banned in man) countries.
-< option E S: notes
7
CDCIs are industriall) useful compounds as the) are or hae
chemicall) stable. strong bonds and little polarit)7 (unfortunatel) this also means long atmospheric life2
time)7
lo+ toxicit)7
lo+ cost to manufacture7
olatile li@uids but can also easil) be li@uified
good solent characteristics7
insulating7
fire suppressie.
O/one depletion
CDCIs photodissociate (=!) in the stratosphere (the) get up there because the) are stable) to form chlorine
free radicals (it is the C2Cl bond +hich brea9s at it is +ea9er) +hich catal)se the depletion of o/one as the)
are also regenerated in a subse@uent step7 a CDC li9e trichlorofluoromethane can release 1 chlorine free
radicals +hich can each destro) 1,,,,, o/one molecules each before the) collide +ith another particle that
changes them chemicall)7 (the concentration of other particles +ill be a lot less than the concentration of
o/one at that leel in the atmosphere) (catal)tic depletion)7
E@uation photodissociation of CDCIs. CCl"D" (g) 0 u CClD (g) 0 Cl (g)
Catal)tic depletion. Cl free radical atom catal)ses the decomposition of o/one and is not used up
Cl (g) 0 O1 (g) ClO (g) 0 O" (g)
ClO (g) 0 O (g) Cl (g) 0 O" (g)
O (g) 0 O1 (g) "O" (g)
'his reaction occurs at a faster rate than the natural depletion of the o/one as the reaction bet+een the
chlorine and the o/one has a lo+er actiation energ)7 the formation of o/one cannot 9eep up +ith the rate of
depletion7 (it must be appreciated that the rates are slo+ as the concentrations are lo+ at that height)7
$s the o/one is depleted (thinner la)er ( HholeI) b) the radicals there are less o/one molecules to absorb the
harmful =!2< radiation7
$lthough nitrogen oxides are natural reagents in the depletion of o/one, human actiit) greatl) increases the
concentration and therefore also speeds up the depletion caused b) nitrogen monoxide.
NO (g) 0 O1 (g) NO" (g) 0 O" (g)
Alt!rnati&!# to C<C=#: "u#t a&! #i"ilar po#iti&! prop!rti!# 1ut +itout t! pro(uction o) Cl ra(ical#
or any ot!r ra(ical tan can cau#! it.
$dantages of these alternaties. reduced production of Cl free radical.
'hese alternaties should be8hae. lo+ boiling points, non2toxic, non2reactie, non2flammable and not acts
as greenhouse gases.
4o+eer, there are also some disadantages using these alternaties.
1. 4)drocarbons. =se of propane and "2meth)lpropane h)drocarbons as refrigerant coolants. no halogens
so do not release chloride ionsKKK <ut the) are greenhouse gases 0 the) are more flammable than CDCs.
". Dluorocarbons (e.g. tetrafluoromethane) and h)drofluorocarbons. not toxic or flammable, strong C2D bond
ma9es them more stable to =! (also greenhouse gases).
-< option E S: notes
8
1. 4)drochlorofluorocarbons. 4CDCIs, the h)drogen in the molecule ma9es it a little more stable but still
causes some depletion as it still has C G Cl bond but bond is relatiel) stronger than in normal CDC.
<ut??.also greenhouse gas.
E /. >i##ol&!( o-y%!n in +at!r
E 5.1 Outline biochemical ox)gen demand (<OD) as a measure of ox)gen2 demanding +astes in +ater.
E 5." Distinguish bet+een aerobic and anaerobic decomposition of organic material in +ater.
E 5.1 Describe the process of eutrophication and its effects.
E 5.B Describe the source and effects of thermal pollution in +ater.
I"portanc! o) (i##ol&!( o-y%!n in +at!r
Dissoled ox)gen is necessar) for the aerobic respiration of a@uatic plants and animals. Dish need on
aerage 1 ppm dissoled ox)gen (or ,.,,1 g dm
21
or ,.,,1*) to surie. Dor an) bod) of +ater to hae to
hae a er) large biodiersit) 6 ppm dissoled ox)gen is needed.
Solubilit) of ox)gen at 1 atm and ", C is L ppm. Solubilit) of an) gas decreases as temperature rises.
<iochemical ox)gen demand (<OD) as a measure of the amount of ox)gen2demanding +astes in a sample
+ater. -mpure +ater has more ox)gen2demanding +aste and therefore a greater <OD than pure +ater.
T! ?O> = t! a"ount o) o-y%!n $in pp"' u#!( up 1y a!ro1ic 1act!ria to (!co"po#! t! or%anic
"att!r in a )i-!( &olu"! o) +at!r o&!r a p!rio( o) u#ually / (ay# at .@ C or .A2B.
$n) organic +aste (e.g. faeces, dead organisms, urea, se+age, +astes from food producing plants and so
on) and ammonia that is added to +ater is initiall) decomposed b) aerobic bacteria, +ho oxidise the +aste
into +ater, carbon dioxide (from the carbon in the +aste) and inorganic ions li9e nitrates (from the nitrogen in
the +aste), nitrites, phosphates (from the ; in the +aste), sulphates, h)drogen carbonates and sulphates, in
order to obtain energ).
'his decomposition of the organic +aste uses up the ox)gen +hich is dissoled in the +ater7 so the more
organic matter a +ater sample contains the less ox)gen +ill be dissoled in it.
'his amount of ox)gen that is used up for the purpose of the oxidation of organic +aste can be measured
using the follo+ing procedure.
1. >ater sample is collected and added to +ater +hich is saturated +ith ox)gen (initial concentration of DO
G dissoled ox)gen 2 is 9no+n)7
2. >ater is left for 5 da)s at ", C.
1. :o+er ox)gen concentration is measured using an ox)gen electrode or titration inoling CnO".
B. 'he difference bet+een the original and final ox)gen concentration is the <OD of the +ater sample.
'he greater the <OD, the greater the amount of ox)gen2demanding +aste there +as in the +ater.
$lmost pure +ater has a <OD of less than 1ppm7 an)thing higher than 5 ppm is considered as polluted
+ater.

Eutropication

=nder normal natural conditions in most la9es and riers there is usuall) sufficient ox)gen dissoled in the
+ater to allo+ aerobic bacteria to decompose an) organic +aste that ends up in the +ater. 4o+eer in most
-< option E S: notes
9
la9es the amount of nutrients in the +ater +ill increase but er) slo+l) 2 ta9ing thousands of )ears. 'he
natural process b) +hich a la9e or a rier becomes excessiel) rich in nutrients is called natural
!utropication.
'his process of eutrophication ((excessie nutrients) can be greatl) accelerated as a result of human
actiit). 'he inorganic ions, such as nitrate and phosphate ions, formed as a result of the aerobic
decomposition of the organic matter (ox)gen demanding +aste) are nutrients to man) a@uatic organisms
such as algae. -f, as a result of human actiit), a much larger amount of organic +aste is released into the
la9e (e.g. se+erage spill) algae could start increasing er) rapidl) in a short period of time producing +hat is
called an algal bloom or Hred tideI. >ith all algae respiring aerobicall) the <OD becomes er) large7 the
amount of dissoled ox)gen decreases rapidl) resulting in both the algae as +ell as other a@uatic species
d)ing. 'his further increases the organic +aste +hich results in more aerobic respiration b) bacteria leading
to further reduction in dissoled ox)gen resulting into more deaths of a@uatic organisms and so on
continuall) increasing the <OD.
$t some point the amount of dissoled ox)gen +ill be belo+ a leel sufficient for aerobic bacteria to complete
the decomposition of the organic +aste. -n that case the decomposition of organic matter is ta9en oer b)
anaerobic bacteria that oxidise the organic matter using other oxidising agents than ox)gen. 'his anaerobic
decomposition of organic +aste produces different products, usuall) foul2smelling, as sho+n in the table
belo+.
Element $erobic respiration $naerobic respiration
C CO" C4B
N NO1
2
N41
S SOB
"2
4"S
; ;OB
12
;41
Can2made !utropication (this time a fast increase in the amount of nutrients in the rier or la9e) is often
characteri/ed b) rapid algae gro+th usuall) caused b) one of the follo+ing.
large concentrations of nitrates (from fertili/ers) and phosphates (from detergents) in the +ater7
large amounts of organic +aste e.g. from se+erage, meat processing, food pac9ing, ..
'he rapid gro+th of algae reduces the amount of dissoled ox)gen after +hich all algae die as the) consume
too much ox)gen. >hen the) all die the) dramaticall) increase the amount of organic +aste and aerobic
decomposition after +hich anaerobic decomposition ta9es oer producing foul2smelling compounds.
E))!ct o) !at on (i##ol&!( o-y%!n an( "!ta1oli#"
'he higher the temperature, the lo+er the solubilit) of gases. 'here is an e@uilibrium bet+een the dissoled
and undissoled ox)gen in the air7 the dissoling of ox)gen is exothermic7 increasing the temperature of the
+ater ino9es :e Chateliers ;rinciple causing the e@uilibrium to shift to+ards the undissoled ox)gen.
'he problem of a reduced amount of dissoled ox)gen in +arm +ater is made een +orse as the higher
temperature also increases the rate of metabolism of a@uatic animals causing them to need more ox)gen of
+hich less is aailable to them. -n addition some species are intolerant to higher temperatures although
algae seem to thrie on higher temperatures.
E 0. 7at!r tr!at"!nt
E 6.1 :ist the primar) pollutants found in +aste +ater and identif) their sources.
E 6." Outline the primar), secondar) and tertiar) stages of +aste +ater treatment, and state the substance that is
remoed during each stage.
E 6.1 Ealuate the process to obtain fresh +ater from sea +ater using multi2stage distillation and reerse osmosis.
R!a#on# )or tr!atin% +at!r: i% (!"an( )or +at!r C pl!nty o) pato%!n#
+ater is an excellent solent ()ou should be able to explain +h). highl) polar solent, capable of
h)drogen bonding KKKK) and therefore an) +ater used for drin9ing purposes +ill er) li9el) contain man)
solutes +hich could be harmful to humans7 solutes li9e hea) metals, nitrates and carcinogenic organic
compounds. Cost of these solutes end up in the +ater as a result of human actiit)7
-< option E S: notes
10
+ater also forms the habitat to man) micro2organisms some of +hich could be pathogenic ( a lot of
pathogens enter the +ater ia human faces) and need to be 9illed7
a lot of +ater also contains suspended particles (ma9s it loo9 cloud)) as it is a moing mediumK
to remoe unpleasant odours and colour7
to reduce <OD.
Pri"ary pollutant# in +at!r
pollutant# #ourc!#
pesticides agriculture
dioxins formed as part of large2scale processes li9e combustion of +aste (+aste incineration),
manufacture of herbicides and paper pulp bleaching +ith chlorine7 extremel) toxic.
;C<Is.
pol)chlorinated
biphen)ls7
lea9ed from electrical insulators, circuit brea9ers, transformers, capacitors
oerexposure result in a disease called chloracne +hich is a s9in condition +hich
produces c)sts containing a stra+ coloured li@uid7 other s)mptoms are loss of
appetite, nausea, omiting and +ea9ness
most ;C<Is hae lo+ toxicit) for humans
organic matter Se+age, agricultural run off e.g. cleaning out of stables, co+ sheds, food industr)
nitrates and
phosphates
nitrates Oer2use of fertilisers results in leaching of nitrates into riers8run2
off of fertili/ers, animal and human +aste.
phosphates ;hosphate2containing detergents
hea) metals
cadmium b)2product of the extraction of /inc and lead7 cadmium is al+a)s
found near /inc
used in pigments in ceramics7
industrial discharge from the follo+ing processes.
/inc2plating al+a)s contains some cadmium7
rechargeable batteries
lead lead paints
lead based solder in +ater pipes and fittings7
car exhausts7
car batteries
mercur) mercur) cell e.g. used in the electrol)sis of brine 7 greatest
dischargers7
seed dressing7 reduces mould formation7
batteries7
mercur) salts used as fungicides
Pri"ary* #!con(ary an( t!rtiary tr!at"!nt o) +a#t! +at!r
'he purpose of +aste +ater treatment is to produce an effluent ((treated +ater) that can safel) be
discharged into a rier s)stem.
>aste +ater (can) contain.
solids soluble organic compounds, phosphates, nitrates, hea) metals,
organic matter
insoluble J, floating solids7
J1 suspended solid.
J" settleable solids
J1 non2settleable solids (e.g. organic +aste)
li@uids soluble8miscible alcohols
insoluble8immiscible oils, lubricants
micro2organisms
Pri"ary tr!at"!nt: r!"o&al o) t! )loatin% o1D!ct# an( "o#t o) t! #u#p!n(!( #oli(# $colloi(#'
-< option E S: notes
11
;rocesses inoled (ph)sical processes).
JB filtration. remoes the solid floating obAects b) using screens or grids or sand beds7 also immiscible
li@uids li9e oil and grease are remoed7
J5 flocculation. inoles the addition of alum ($l"(SOB)1 +hich contains aluminium ions (flocculating agent)
+hich causes coagulation (( coming together) of the non2settleable (do not settle at the bottom)
suspended solids7 the $l
10
ions (also Ca
"0
can be used) react +ith al9ali substances to produce an
$l(O4)1 precipitate +hich traps the suspended solid particles and causes them to settle at the bottom
((sedimentation).
J6 sedimentation. settleable solids sin9 to the bottom +hen the +ater is 9ept stationar) in the sedimentation
tan97 the sludge (all the sediment) is remoed dail) as anaerobic decomposition starts occurring.
'he primar) treatment remoes approx 5, * of suspended solids as primar) sludge but does not remoe the
finer suspended organic particles or an) of the dissoled particles.
Effectieness of primar) treatment.
remoes. insoluble solids8li@uids and suspended particles e.g. sand approx 5,* of solid remoed and
some ox)gen2demanding +astes.
+ater still contains.
dissoled and some suspended organic matter (large <OD)7
micro2organisms
dissoled inorganic ions and hea) metals.
S!con(ary tr!at"!nt: u#! o) o-y%!n an( 1act!ria to r!"o&! o-y%!n (!"an(in% +a#t!#
;rocesses inoled (biological processes).
Activated sludge. inoles the agitation of the +ater +ith bacteria in a reactor.
&educes the <OD greatl) b) remoing a lot of mainl) suspended organic +aste b) using natural biological
processes7 respiration b) bacteria +hich oxidise the organic +aste into +ater, carbon dioxide, nitrates and
phosphates (remember that the last t+o cause eutrophication and should reall) be remoed before the +ater
is released in the rier).
'he +aste +ater is added into a settling tan9 in +hich the bacteria act7 this tan9 is constantl) aerated +ith
ox)gen and this causes flocs to form7 a floc is a large porous clump ((bubble of air) +hich contains the
bacteria and around +hich the suspended organic +aste adsorbs and coagulates. 'he bacteria decompose
the +aste and turn it in into a gelatinous slime ((sludge), +hich sin9s to the bottom of another sedimentation
tan9, and other products li9e +ater, carbon dioxide, nitrates and phosphates.
$s the slime also contains the bacteria, most of the sludge is rec)cled and pumped bac9 into the aeration
tan97 pollutants in the incoming se+age are adsorbed onto the rec)cled sludge flocs +hich bubble up as the
tan9 is aerated. Occasionall) excess sludge is remoed and can be used as fertili/er.
'he aeration also proides enough ox)gen for the bacterial decomposition.
'here are t+o main reasons +h) the sludge is rec)cled.
JR to maintain the bacteria populations as the) are still actie and can be rec)cled7
J3 addition of the sludge to the ne+ incoming +aste +ater ma9es the adsorbance of the incoming pollutants
onto the flocs more efficient as the sludge ma9es the formation of flocs more efficient.
Spraying of wastewater over a bed of gravel or sand/trickle filter.
&otating pipes sprin9le the +ater oer a bed of stones onto +hich bacteria and algae are allo+ed to gro+7
these organisms consume the organic molecules as +ell as some nitrates
-< option E S: notes
12
Effectieness.
remoes. L,* of organic +aste is remoed reducing <OD7
+ater still contains. some dissoled organic compounds (onl) traces are the) are onl) er) slightl)
soluble) and inorganic ions li9e nitrates, phosphates and hea) metal ions7
;athogens are remoed using chlorine or o/one before +ater is released in rier or la9es.
T!rtiary tr!at"!nt: to r!"o&! #olu1l! particl!#: !a&y "!tal ion#* nitrat!# an( po#pat!#
;rocesses (more chemical processes but also biological). one or more of the follo+ing are used.
actiated carbon2bed (chemical). actiated carbon can easil) adsorb organic +aste, dioxins and ;C<s
oxidi/e them7 it is actiated b) heating it to high temperatures.
denitrif)ing bacteria (biological). these bacteria change nitrates bac9 into nitrogen.
chemical precipitation. toxic hea) metal ions li9e cadmium, lead and mercur) and phosphate ions can
be precipitated b) adding ions +hich form insoluble compounds +ith the hea) metal or phosphate ions
to precipitate phosphates, aluminium or calcium ions are added +hich form insoluble phosphates that
precipitate out.
1Ca
"0
(a@) 0 " ;OB
12
(a@) Ca1(;OB)" (s)
to precipitate out hea) metal ions, h)drogen sulphide gas can be added7 the hea) metal ions form
sulphide salts +ith er) lo+ solubilities in +ater and precipitate.
e.g. ;b
"0
(a@) 0 4"S (g) ;bS (s) 0 "4
0
(a@)
reerse osmosis and ion exchange (chemical methods) also +or9 for nitrates.
al9aline treatment for nitrates.
'here is an increased need for tertiar) treatment of +ater as more nitrates, phosphates and ammonium ions
end up in the +aste +ater (greater use of artificial fertili/ers and detergents) +hich can eutroph) rier and
la9e +ater.
7ay# to o1tain )r!# +at!r )ro" #!a +at!r
Culti2stage distillation
Sea +ater is heated in a series of coiled pipes and then introduced into a chamber at lo+er pressure. =nder
this lo+er pressure some of the sea +ater boils immediatel). 'he +ater apour is condensed b) contact +ith
cold +ater pipes +hich carr) the sea +ater. 'he condensed +ater no+ is free of impurities. -n this +a) the
heat released during the condensation is used to preheat some of the +ater.
'he remaining sea +ater that has not boiled )et is directed to another set of chambers each +ith a lo+er
pressure than the preceding chamber. 'his method maximises the use of energ).
&eerse osmosis
Osmosis ( moement of +ater from dilute to concentrated solution.
&eerse osmosis is a process +hich goes against +aterIs natural moement from a high concentration of
+ater to a lo+ concentration7 this natural moement can be stopped b) using a high pressure.
$ high pressure (greater then osmotic pressure i.e. greater than R, atm) is applied to sea +ater (lo+
concentration of +ater) side of a partiall) permeable membrane (onl) allo+s +ater through and no ions or
solute particles). 'he pure +ater from the sea +ater is forced out of the solution through the membrane
leaing the salt behind (salt ions cannot pas through) and into pure +ater (high concentration of +ater).
Ealuation of both methods
-< option E S: notes
13
Culti2 stage distillation &eerse osmosis
adantages Efficient
Can produce +ater on a large scale
&emoes more impurities
&e@uires less energ)
Cheaper
disadantages 4igh energ) costs
;roduces large amounts of CO"
Cust be 9ept running
;re2treatment of +ater is needed e.g.
debris, liing organisms)
E E. Soil (!%ra(ation $conc!rn# t! a1ility o) #oil to #upport li)!'
E R.1.Discuss salini/ation, nutrient depletion and soil pollution as causes of soil degradation.
E R." Describe the releance of the soil organic matter (SOC) in preenting soil degradation, and outline its ph)sical
and biological functions
E R.1 :ist common organic soil pollutants and their sources.
Soil degradation can be caused b) salini/ation, nutrient depletion and soil pollution.
Salini:ation
Salini/ation is the result of irrigating soils i.e. +atering them. >ater used for irrigation usuall) contains
dissoled salts, +hich are left behind in the soil after the +ater eaporates.
-n poorl) drained soils, the salts left behind are not +ashed a+a) and begin to accumulate in the topsoil.
;lants cannot gro+ in soil that is too salt) as the) are unable to absorb +ater through the roots.
Nutri!nt (!pl!tion
;lants remoe nutrients, N.; and E, from the soil. Natural nutrient c)cles ensure that oer time these
nutrients +ill be replaced but this ta9es time.
-f the soil is not allo+ed to recoer i.e. allo+ed time for the remoed nutrients to be replaced through natural
nutrient c)cles the soil becomes depleted in nutrients and this +ill reduce future productiit). Nutrients can
also be replaced b) using artificial fertili/ers or compost.
4aresting crops stops this natural nutrient c)cle as the nutrients are remoed permanentl).
Conoculture, i.e. gro+ing the same crop time after time, accelerates nutrient depletion.
Nutrient depletion can be preented or slo+ed b).
allo+ing soils to remain fallo+ (no crops are gro+n and nutrients can be replaced) for a +hile
use crop rotation i.e. gro+ different crops +hich absorb different nutrients are some solutions.
Nutrients can also be replaced b) using artificial fertili/ers or compost.
Soil pollution
'his can arise from.
Excessie use of chemicals such as pesticides and fertili/ers.
-mproper disposal or spills of toxic +aste.
Cining actiities.
'hese chemicals can disrupt the soil food +eb, reduces the soilIs biodiersit) and ultimatel) ruin the soil. 'he
chemicals also run off the soil into surface +aters and moe through the soil, polluting ground+ater.
Soil or%anic "att!r $SOM'

>hat is SOCS
;lant and animal tissue such as leaes, t+igs, animal parts e.g. s9in, hair, ... that hae not been
decomposed )et.
Decomposition products of those animal and plant tissues such as.
-< option E S: notes
14
o high2molecular2mass organic materials such as pol)saccharides and proteins and
o simpler organic substances such as sugars, amino acids and other small molecules
4umus +hich is +hat is left after plant and animal tissues are not being decomposed an)more.
>hat is the function of SOCS
SOC preents soil degradation because of the follo+ing functions that can be broadl) classified into.
biological. proides nutrients for the plants, in particular, nitrogen as it contains amines and amino acids7
ph)sical.
o improes structural stabilit) of the soil. reduces soil densit), allo+s more air and +ater in
spaces
o influences +ater2retention properties of soil. the polar O4 and N4" groups on the SOC.
molecules allo+ h)drogen bonding bet+een these molecules and +ater molecules in the soil.
o alters the soil thermal properties i.e. allo+s sufficient cooling but also maintains heat.
chemical. see 4:KKK
Co""on or%anic #oil pollutant#

Pollutant# Sourc!#
$grichemicals ;esticides (insecticides, fungicides, herbicides), fertili/ers, gro+th hormones
through direct application +hich is fine if controlled7 problem is spills and oeruse.
4)drocarbons
(!OCs)
Compounds such as hexane, petrol, ben/ene, diesel oil, Aet fuels, lubricating
oils.
'ransport, solents, direct spills, lea9s (e.g. from landfills or underground
storage tan9s), being dumped
Organic solents Spills8lea9s8dumping of dr) cleaning solents, paint thinners, nail polish
remoer, detergents, ?
;ol)nuclear
aromatic
h)drocarbons
(;$4s)
;$4s are present in coal, tar and crude oil and are released during
combustion e.g. industrial8po+er station emissions and +aste incinerators
Chemicals common in coal, tar e.g. creosote +hich is used to presere +ood
in buildings, fences, ships.
;ol)chlorinated
biphen)ls (;C<s),
Stable compounds that can function as fire retardants and plastici/ers.
:ea9s from transformers, circuit brea9ers, electromagnets, h)draulic oils,
paints, coolants.
Organotin
compounds
Compounds +hich contain at least one bond bet+een tin and a h)drocarbon
chain.
=sed in manufacture of antifouling compounds (coatings or paints) +hich
preent organisms (e.g. barnacles) gro+ing on surfaces exposed to +ater e.g.
ship hulls,
$lso used in fungicides and pesticides.
dioxins -ncineration plants, +ood burning, traffic.
Spread trough the air and settle on soil.
E F. 7a#t!
E 3.1 Outline and compare the arious methods for +aste disposal.
E 3." Describe the rec)cling of metal, glass, plastic and paper products, and outline its benefits.
E 3.1 Describe the characteristics and sources of different t)pes of radioactie +aste.
E 3.B Compare the storage and disposal methods for different t)pes of radioactie +aste.
M!to(# o) +a#t! (i#po#al
-< option E S: notes
15
M!to( A(&anta%! >i#a(&anta%!
Lan()ill#: >aste
is buried in the
ground
rotting material produces methane gas
+hich cold be collected
filled ground can be reused
lo+ cost
can deal +ith large olumes
Cethane gas could escape i.e.
greenhouse gas
;ollution of ground +ater
Incin!ration:
burning of +aste
>aste could be used as fuel Gsource of
energ)
&e@uires little land
&educes olume as most of +aste is
conerted into gases
$dds to greenhouse effect as CO"
produced
Can produce toxins such as dioxin
&e@uires energ) as this need to
be done at high temperatures to
destro) most toxic substances
R!cyclin%: &educes energ) cost
&educes CO" emissions
&eduction in olume of +aste
Saes EarthIs metal ores reseres
Creates Aobs in collecting, sorting and
rec)cling
R!cyclin%
Mat!rial M!to(
glass Different glass t)pes must be separated
Plass is then crushed
Other substances are remoed such as metals, labels
Plass is melted and remoulded
plastic Difficult to rec)cle as there are so man) different plastics each needed a different t)pe of
rec)cling. Cain stages.
$fter collection, manuall) sorting of different plastics
>ashing of plastic
Cost plastics melted and then moulded into ne+ shape7
Other first shredded into fla9es, then molten and processed into granules or pellets
Duture ( biodegradable plastics +hich are decomposed b) aerobic bacteria.
paper >ater is added to +aste paper to ma9e HpulpI and separate fibres
;ulp is centrifuged to remoe denser components such as cla), dirt, metals, ..
$ir is pumped through it to remoe in9
;ulp is compressed to ma9e ne+ paper
metals Collecting, sorting and rec)cling
Separation in the case of allo)s
Ra(ioacti&! +a#t!
Lo+ l!&!l +a#t!
caract!ri#tic# short half2life, lo+ actiit) and high olume (approx L,*)
#ourc!# materials such as gloes, coats, paper, tools, to+els, s)ringes, inAection needles
+hich hae become radioactie because the) hae been exposed to radiation in
actiities such as sterili/ing e@uipment in hospitals, manufacture of smo9e detectors,
irradiating of food, radiotherap), ?
#tora%!6(i#po#al Different methods.
stored on site e.g. in steel containers, until radioactie leel is at safe leel and
then it is disposed off as normal +aste buried in land fill sites
-< option E S: notes
16
incinerated
Int!r"!(iat! l!&!l +a#t!
caract!ri#tic# releases some heat
#ourc!# -t t)picall) comprises resins, chemical sludges and reactor components, as +ell as
contaminated materials from reactor decommissioning.
#tora%!6(i#po#al +aste is first sealed in concrete and then in steel drums +hich are placed in concrete
cas9s in concrete trenches. >hen a trench is completel) filled it is coered +ith a
concrete slab, a la)er of compacted cla) and a reinforced concrete intrusion shield
and a final la)er of cla).
Hi% l!&!l +a#t!
caract!ri#tic# long half2life, high actiit) and lo+ olume
er) hot
#ourc!# used nuclear fuels from nuclear reactors,
+aste products from processing used fuel
nuclear +eapons
#tora%!6(i#po#al is itrified (made into glass) +hich is sealed in steel containers and then buried
underground in granite roc9 or in deep mines;
i##u!# ma) still lea9 into +ater table7
remains actie for a er) long time7
geological instabilit) (e.g. earth@ua9es)7
potential +eapon for terrorists7
-< option E S: notes
17