UNIT 8 SECOND-ORDER LINEAR ORDINARY

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Unit Structure

8.0 Overview
8.1 Learning Objectives
8.2 Introduction
8.3 Homogeneous Equations with Constant Coefficients
8.4 Differential Operators
8.5 Solving the Inhomogeneous Equation
8.6 Summary
8.7 Answers to Activities



8.0 OVERVIEW

In this Unit, we shall study second-order ordinary differential equations. First we
consider the solution of homogeneous equations, and then show how to solve
inhomogeneous equations.

8.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to do the following:

1. Find the general solution of homogeneous equations.
2. Use D-operators.
3. Obtain the complementary function and particular integral of inhomogeneous
second-order linear differential equations.

8.2 INTRODUCTION

We shall study 2
nd
-order constant-coefficient ordinary differential equations of the form

) (
2
2
x f y c
dx
dy
b
dx
y d
a = + + , (1)

where the coefficients a, b, c are real constants and 0 a . is called the free term
or the forcing function.
) (x f

If , then (1) is called a Homogeneous differential equation. If , then
(1) is called an Inhomogeneous differential equation.
0 ) ( x f 0 ) ( x f

8.3 HOMOGENEOUS EQUATIONS WITH CONSTANT
COEFFICIENTS
The simplest 2
nd
-order differential equation is 0
2
2
=
dx
y d
. To find its general solution we
simply integrate twice w.r.t. x. Now,

0 0
2
2
=

=
dx
dy
dx
d
dx
y d
.
Integrating w.r.t. x, we have A dx
dx
dy

= = 0 ;
Integrating again w.r.t. x gives

+ = = B Ax dx A y .
Hence the general solution of 0
2
2
=
dx
y d
is B Ax y + = , where A and B are arbitrary
constants, which can be fixed if we are given two conditions on x and y.




Example 1

Solve 0
2
2
=
dx
y d
, given that 3 ) 1 ( ' , 2 ) 1 ( = = y y .

The general solution is B Ax y + = . The condition 2 ) 1 ( = y (i.e., when 2 = y 1 = x )
yields
B A + = 1 2
The second condition (i.e., 3 ) 1 ( ' = y 3 '= y when 1 = x ) gives [since ] A x y = ) ( '
A = 3 .
Hence we have ; therefore theparticular solution is 1 , 3 = = B A
1 3 = x y .
In general, to solve the equation ) (x f
dx
y d
n
n
= , we just integrate n times w.r.t. x.
Example 2

Solve
x
e x x
dx
y d
3 2
2
2
sin + + = .
Integrating once, we have

.
3
cos
3
) sin (
3 3
3 2
A
e
x
x
dx e x x
dx
dy
x
x
+ + =
+ + =


Integrating once more now yields the general solution
B Ax e x x y
x
+ + + =
3
9
1
4
12
1
sin .
[N.B. Since we are not given any conditions on x and y, we cant determine A and B.]

Activity 1

Solve the following differential equations:
(i) 1 ) 2 ( ' , 3 ) 2 ( , 0
2
2
= = = y y
dx
y d
;
(ii) 2 ) 0 ( ' , 1 ) 0 ( , 0
2
2
= = = y y
dx
y d
;
(iii) 3 ) 2 ( , 2 ) 1 ( , 0
2
2
= = = y y
dx
y d
;
(iv) 2 ) 1 ( , 3 ) 1 ( , 0
2
2
= = = y y
dx
y d
;
(v) 2 5
2
2
= x
dx
y d
;
(vi) 4 cosh 3 sinh 2
2
2
+ + = x x
dx
y d
;
(vii) 3 ) 0 ( ' , 2 ) 0 ( , 1 3 2
2
2
= = + =

y y x e
dx
y d
x
;
(viii) 5 ) 2 ( , 3 ) 1 ( , 7 6
2
2
= = = y y x
dx
y d
;
We shall now learn how to solve the homogeneous equation
0
2
2
= + + y c
dx
dy
b
dx
y d
a . (2)
Let us assume that is a solution of (2). Then
mx
Ae y =
mx
mAe
dx
dy
= ,
mx
Ae m
dx
y d
2
2
2
= .
On substituting into (2), we obtain
0
2
= + +
mx mx mx
cAe bmAe Ae am .
Since , this simplifies to 0
mx
Ae
0
2
= + + c bm am .
This quadratic equation is called the Auxiliary Equation (A.E.) of Eqn (2).
The auxiliary equation can easily be written down. We simply replace y by 1,
dx
dy
by m,
and
2
2
dx
y d
by .
2
m
Now, the quadratic equation can have either 2 distinct roots, or 2 equal roots, or 2
complex roots. Each case gives a different type of solution to Eqn (2), which is given in
the table below.

General Solution of Eqn (2)
Distinct Roots
2 1
, m m
x m x m
e B e A y
2 1
+ =
Equal Roots
0 0
, m m
x m
e B Ax y
0
) ( + =
Complex Roots
i q p
) sin cos ( qx B qx A e y
px
+ =

Note that the arbitrary constants have been called A and B here; other symbols could be
used.
We shall now consider a few examples to illustrate.

Example 3
Consider the differential equation
d y
dx
y
2
2
= , (3)

The A.E. is , which has distinct roots 0 1
2
= m 1 , 1 = m . Hence, from the table,
is the m

xample 4
x x
Be Ae y + =

ost general solution of (3).
E
olve the differential equation S
0 6 5
2
2
= + y
dx
dy
dx
y d
.
Now the A.E. is , whose roots are 0 6 5
2
= + m m 3 , 2 = m . Therefore, the general
.
Example 5
solution is
x x
Be Ae y
3 2
+ =

differential equation Consider the
0 9 6
2
2
= + y
dx
dy
dx
y d
.
The A.E. gives 0 9 6
2
= + m m 3 , 3 = m , two repeated roots.
general solution
.
Example 6
Hence the is
x
e Bx A y
3
) ( + =

uation Solve the eq
0 13 4
2
2
= + y
dx
dy
dx
y d
.
The A.E. is given by , whose roots are 0 13 4
2
= + m m i m 3 2 = . The general solution
.
Obtaining Particular Solutions.
is
) 3 sin 3 cos (
2
x B x A e y
x
+ =
First we solve the A.E. and obtain the general solution. Using the 2 conditions given, we
then fix the 2 arbitrary constants.
Example 7
Solve the following differential equation
14 ' 19 ' ' 3 5 ) 0 ( ' , 1 ) 0 ( , 0 = = y y y = y y .
The A.E. is , whose roots are 0 14 19 3
2
= m m 7 ,
3
2
= m . Hence the general solution
is
x
x
Ae y
3
2
=

No
Be
7
+ .
w yields 1 ) 0 ( = y 1 = + B A .
x
x
Be x y 7 ) ( '
3
2
+

at gives 5 7
3
2
= + B A . Ae
7
3
2
= , so th 5 ) 0 ( ' = y
Solving simultaneously fo , we see r A and B that
23
17
23
6
, = = B . A
Hence our particular solution is
x
x
e e y
7
23
17
23
6 3
2
+ =

.
Example 8
ferential equation Solve the dif
6 ' ' 5 ) 0 ( ' , 2 ) 0 ( , 0 25 ' + y y = = = y y y .
The A.E. is , whose roots are 0 25 6
2
= + m m i m 4 3 = . The general solution is
by
.
We now determine A and B.
in = = A .
, B e x y
x
+ + = on using product rule.
0
+ + =
therefore given
) 4 sin 4 cos (
3
x B x A e y
x
+ =
s 0 cos ( 2 ) 0 (
0
+ = B A e y 2 2 ) 0
So, ) 4 sin 4 cos 2 (
3
x B x e y
x
+ =
Now x ] 4 sin ) 8 3 ( 4 cos ) 6 4 [( ) ( '
3
x B
5 ' = ] 0 sin ) 8 3 ( 0 cos ) 6 4 [( 5 ) 0 ( B B e
i.e.
y
5 6 4 = + B
B
4
1
=
Hence, the particular solution is
) 4 sin 4 cos 2 (
4
1
3
x x e y =
x
.
Activity 2

Solve the following differential equations:
i)

(i) 0 2 ' 3 ' ' = + y y y ;
(i 1 ) 0 ( ' , 0 ) 0 ( , 0 4 ' 4 ' ' = = = + y y y y y ;


( , 0 ' 5 ' '
(iii) 0 2 ' 2 ' ' = + y y y ;
(iv) 0 6 ' ' ' = + y y y ;
(v) ) 0 1 ) 0 ( ' , 0 = = = y y y ;



y
(vi) 0; ' 3 ' ' 2 = + y y y
(vii) 0 ' 2 ' ' 4 = y y y ;
(viii) 0 ' 6 ' ' 5 = + y y ;
(ix) 1 ) 0 ( ' , 0 ) 0 ( , 0 5 ' 4 ' ' = = = + + y y y y y ;
2
+ + k y k . (x) ' = y y 0 ' 2 '
8.4 DIFFERENTIAL OPERATORS

The D-operator
Let D denote the differentiation operator
d
dx
. Then
dy
dx
Dy = , ( ) y D
dx
y d
y D Dy D
dx
dy
dx
d
dx
y d
n
n
n
= = =

= , ,
2
2
2
L .
We can now express our differential equations in terms of the D operator. Thus Eqn (1)
can be written as
) ( ) (
2
x f y c bD aD = + + .
Similarly, the differential equation
x y y y 3 sin 2 ' 3 ' ' 5 = +
can be written as
. (*) x y D D 3 sin ) 2 3 5 (
2
= +

Inverse of the D operator
Since D denotes differentiation w.r.t. x, its inverse will represent integration w.r.t. x.
In general will mean integrate n times w.r.t. x. The symbol may also be written
as
1
D
n
D
1
D
1
D
. In general, it is customary to write as
m
D

1
D
m
when m is a positive integer.

Thus,
D
D D

=
2
2
1 1
D
1
, i.e., integrate twice.
So,

( )
.
24 6
) (
;
6 2
4 3
2 1 3
3 2
2

= = =
= = =

x
dx
x
x D D x D
x
dx
x
dx x x D

While evaluating , the arbitrary constant of integration may be omitted. ) (
1
x f D

Some Properties of the D operator
We shall denote by a function of the D operator, e.g., in the above Eqn (*), ) (D L
2 3 5 ) (
2
+ = D D D L .
Symbolically we can write a differential equation in the form
) ( ) ( x f y D L = ,
or,
). (
) (
1
x f
D L
y =
Our task is to find ways of evaluating the RHS for different functions ). (x f
We first consider some properties of the D operator. You can easily verify all these
properties.
(i) ; ) ( ) ( a L e e D L
ax ax
=
(ii) ; ) ( ) ( )] ( [ ) ( x f a D L e x f e D L
ax ax
+ =
(iii) ; ax a L ax D L cos ) ( cos ) (
2 2
=
(iv) ; ax a L ax D L sin ) ( sin ) (
2 2
=
(v) ; ax a L ax D L cosh ) ( cosh ) (
2 2
=
(vi) . ax a L ax D L sinh ) ( sinh ) (
2 2
=

We note that there are no simple formulae for , and the
hyperbolics.
ax D L ax D L cos ) ( , sin ) (

Lets see how to use the above properties.

Example 9
(a) Suppose we wish to evaluate . Of course we could do it from
first principles; however, using Property (i), we find that here
x
e D D
3 2
) 7 2 5 ( +

7 2 5 ) (
2
+ = D D D L
and . 3 = a

44 7 ) 3 ( 2 ) 3 ( 5 ) 3 ( ) (
2
= + = = L a L .

Hence, .
x x
e e D D
3 3 2
44 ) 7 2 5 ( = +
(b) Prove that
( )( ) ( ) 14 32 12 2
2 3 3 2 2 3
+ + = + x x e e x D D D
x x
.

Here,
D D D D L + =
2 3
2 ) ( , . Then, Property (ii) gives
2
) ( , 3 x x f a = =

( )( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) { }
2 2 3 3 3 2 2 3
3 3 2 3 2 x D D D e e x D D D
x x
+ + + + = +

( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ). 14 32 12
12 2 16 2 7 0
12 16 7
2 3
2 3
2 2 3 3
+ + =
+ + + =
+ + + =
x x e
x x e
x D D D e
x
x
x

(c) Evaluate . x D D 7 cos ) 2 5 3 (
2
+
We use Property (iii). We have , and 2 5 3 ) (
2
+ = D D D L 7 = a .
We therefore replace by . [ Note: ]
2
D
2
7 49 7
2
=

x x
x
dx
d
x
x D x
x D
x D x D D
7 sin 35 7 cos 145
7 cos 5 7 cos 145
) 7 (cos 5 7 cos 145
7 cos ) 5 145 (
7 cos ] 2 5 ) 49 ( 3 [ 7 cos ) 2 5 3 (
2
+ =
=
=
=
+ = +


8.5 SOLVING THE INHOMOGENEOUS EQUATION

The method of solution of the inhomogeneous equation
) (
2
2
x f y c
dx
dy
b
dx
y d
a = + +
consists of 3 parts:
1. Find the Complementary Function
C
y
2. Find the Particular Integral
P
y
3. The general solution is then given by
P C
y y y + = .
The complementary function (C.F.) is obtained by solving the corresponding
homogeneous differential equation, i.e.,
0
2
2
= + + y c
dx
dy
b
dx
y d
a , or 0 ) (
2
= + + y c bD aD
as we have done above.

The second step, finding the particular integral (P.I), is the hardest part. The P.I. is
obtained by the following result
) (
) (
1
x f
D L
y
P
= .
The following table summarizes the main results for different forcing functions . ) (x f









Table of Inverse Operator Techniques

1.
ax
ke
D L ) (
1
, k :constant
0 ) (
) (
a L
a L
e k
ax

2. (i) ) cos(
) (
1
2
b ax k
D L
+

(ii) ) sin(
) (
1
2
b ax k
D L
+
) cos(
) (
2
b ax
a L
k
+

0 ) (
2
a L
) sin(
) (
2
b ax
a L
k
+

3. ) (
) (
1
x P
D L
, where is a ) (x P
polynomial of degree m
Expand
) (
1
D L
in ascending powers of D by
the Binomial Theorem as far as the term in
. Then operate on .
m
D ) (x P
4. ) (
) (
1
x e
D L
ax
) (
) (
1
x
a D L
e
ax

+
[Shift Theorem]
5. ) (
1
x f
m D


dx x f e e
mx mx
) (
6.
ax
r
e
a D ) (
1

K , 2 , 1 ,
!
= r e
r
x
ax
r

7. ) cos(
1
2 2
b ax k
a D
+
+

) sin(
1
2 2
b ax k
a D
+
+

) sin(
2
b ax
a
kx
+
) cos(
2
b ax
a
kx
+

We shall now consider a few examples to illustrate.
Example 10
Solve the differential equation
9 12 ' 5 ' ' 2 = y y y .
In terms of the D operator, our equation is
9 ) 12 5 2 (
2
= y D D .
If we compare with the entries in the table, we find that here we need to use the first entry
where
12 5 2 ) (
2
= D D D L
9 , 0 = = k a
We now find the solution to our equation.

STEP 1. Obtain the Complementary Function .
.
C
y
Now, the A.E. is
0 12 5 2
2
= m m
4 ,
2
3
= m .
Hence

STEP 2. Find the Particular Integral
rom the table,
x x
C
e B e A y
4 2 / 3
+ =

.
P
y
F
4
3
9
12 0 0
1
9
12 5 2
1
= y
2
=

=
D D
P
[Putting 0 = = a D ]


TEP 3. Write down the General Solution S
P C
y y y + =
4
3
4 2 / 3
+ =
x x
e B e A y .
Example 11
Solve the differential equation
.

x
e y y y
3
4 10 ' 3 ' '

= +
Now we have
10 3 ) (
2
= D D D L
3 , 4 = = a k
5 , 2 0 10 3
2
= = m m m A.E.
C.F. is

x x
C
e B e A y
5 2
+ = .
P.I. is
x
x
x
P
e
e
e
D D
y
3
2
1
2
3
3
2
10 ) 3 ( 3 ) 3 (
4
4
10 3
1

=

=

=
[Putting 3 = = a D ]
General solution is
x x x
e e B e A y
3
2
1
5 2
+ + = .
Example 12
Solve the differential equation
x x
e e y
dx
dy
dx
y d
2
2
2
5 2 9 6

= + + .
7 ) 0 ( ' , 0 ) 0 ( = = y y .
Here we note that the forcing function consists of 2 terms, and . To find the
P.I., we use entry 1 of the table twice, and add the results, i.e.,
x
e
x
e
2
5

2
) 5 (
) (
1
2
) (
1
2x x
P
e
D L
e
D L
y

+ = ,
where .

0 9 6
2
= = + + m m m
.F.
2 2
) 3 ( 9 6 ) ( + = + + = D D D D L
A.E. 3 3 ,

x
C
e B Ax y
3
) (

+ = C
P.I.
x x
x x
x x
P
e e
e e
e
D
e
D
y
2
8
1
2
2
2
2
2 2
5
) 3 2 (
5
) 3 1 (
2
) 5 (
) 3 (
1
2
) 3 (
1

=
+

+
+
=

+
+
+
=

General solution is
x x x
e e e B Ax y
2
8
1
3
5 ) (

+ + = .
es of A and B. We now fix the valu
8
39
8
1
0 5 0 ) 0 ( = = + = B B y
Also, we have on differentiating and simplifying

)] 24 8 ( 80 24 [ ) ( '
3
8
1
e B e x y
x x
+ + =
4
x A e
x
+

0 ] 8 1 80 24 [ 0 ) 0 ( '
8
1
= + + + = A B y

2
9
= A after putting
Hence, th lution is
8 / 39 = B .

e Particular So
x x x
e e e x y
2
8
1
3
8
39
2
9
5 ) (

+ + = .

Example 13
Solve the differential equation
. x y D D 2 cos 5 ) 1 (
2
= + +
m m
2
0 1= + + i m A.E.
2
3
2
1
=

=

x B x A e y
x
C
2
3
sin
2
3
cos
2 /
C.F.

We now use entry 2(i) in the table with 0 , 2 , 5 = = = b a k . Note we replace only
y . The D stays as it is.
2
D

2
a b
x
D
x
D
x
D D
P
2 cos 5
3
1
2 cos 5
1 2
1
2 cos 5
1
1
2
2
y

=
+ +
=
+ +

Since the result works only for , the trick is to obtain in the denominator. This is
achieved by multiplying top and bottom by
=
2
D
2
D
3 + D . This then gives
) 2 cos 3 2 sin 2 (
13
5
2 cos ) 3 (
13
5
2 cos 5
9 2
3
2 cos 5
9
3
2 cos 5
3
1
D
x
D
y
P
+

2
2
x x
x D
x
D
x
D
+ =
+ =

+
=

=
=

Hence the General solution is

.
13
2 cos 15 2 sin 10
2
3
sin
2
3
cos
2
1
x

x x
x B x A e y

+

=

Example 14
Solve the differential equation
x y D D 3 sin 4 ) 6 5 (
2
= + + ,
0 ) 0 ( ' , 0 ) 0 ( = = y y .


A.E.
C.F.
the Particular Integral. We use entry 2(ii) in the table with
.



3 , 2 0 6 5
2
= = + + m m m
x x
C
e B Ae y
3 2
+ =

Next, we find
k 0 , 3 , 4 = = = b a
P.I.
) 3 sin 3 cos 5 (
39
2
3 sin ) 3 5 (
117
2
3 sin 4
9 ) 3 ( 25
3 5
3 sin 4
9 25
3 5
3 sin 4
3 5
1
3 sin 4
6 5 3
1
3 sin 4
6 5
1
2
2
2
2
x x
x D
x
D
x
D
D
x
D
x
D
x
D D
y
P
+ =
+ =

+
=

+
=

=
+ +
=
+ +
=

Hence, the General Solution is
) 3 sin 3 cos 5 (
39
2
3 2
x x e B Ae y
x x
+ + =

.
We now determine the arbitrary constants.

0 0 ) 0 (
39
10
= + = B A y ----- (i)
Also,
) 3 cos 3 sin 5 ( ) 3 2 ( ) ( '
13
2
3 2
x x e B e A x y
x x
+ + =


0 3 2 0 ) 0 ( '
13
2
= + + = B A y -----(ii)

Solving (i) and (ii) simultaneously, we obtain
3
2
13
12
, = = B A .

Hence, the Particular Solution is given by

) 3 sin 3 cos 5 (
39
2
3
3
2
2
13
12
x x e e y
x x
+ =

.




Evaluating ) (
) (
1
x P
D L
when is a polynomial of degree m. ) (x P
In this case we expand the operator
) (
1
D L
by the binomial theorem in ascending powers
of D as far as the term in .
m
D

If is factorisable, use partial fractions and then expand. ) (D L
For this purpose, the following binomial expansions are useful:

( )
( ) L
L
+ + + + + =
+ + = +

4 3 2 1
4 3 2 1
1 1
1 1
D D D D D
D D D D D

( )
( ) L
L
+ + + + + =
+ + = +

4 3 2 2
4 3 2 2
5 4 3 2 1 1
5 4 3 2 1 1
D D D D D
D D D D D


Note that we need to have our expression in the right form before carrying out the
expansion. Thus to expand we must first express it as
1
) 5 3 (

+ D
1
5
3
1
) 1 ( 5

+ D .

Likewise, must first be written as
1
) 7 2 (

D
1
7
2
1
) 1 ( 7

D . Also, we must express
as
2
) 4 5 (

D
2
5
4
2
) 1 ( 5

D and then expand.

Example 15
Evaluate
4
1
1
x
D
.
Here the degree of the polynomial is 4; we therefore expand
1
1
D
up to .
4
D
). 24 24 12 4 (
) 1 (
) 1 (
) 1 (
1
1
1
2 3 4
4 4 3 2
4 1
4 4
+ + + + =
+ + + + + =
=

=

x x x x
x D D D D
x D
x
D
x
D
L

Note: We just differentiate the previous term as we go along.
Example 16

Solve the differential equation
3 2
3 6 7 2 ' 3 ' ' x x x y y y + = + .
A.E. 2 , 1 0 2 3
2
= = + m m m
C.F.
x x
C
e B e A y
2
+ =
P.I.
] 3 6 7 [
2 3
1
3 2
2
x x x
D D
y
P
+
+
=
Here the degree of the polynomial is 3, therefore expand up to . Also, the operator is
factorisable and so we split it into partial fractions before expanding. Thus
3
D
1
1
2
1
) 2 )( 1 (
1
2 3
1
2

=

=
+ D D D D D D
.
On using the binomial theorem we obtain
) 1 ( ) (
3 2
16 8 4 2
1
3 2
L L D D D
D D D

which simplifies to
) 15 14 12 8 (
3 2
16
1
D D D + + +

Hence, is given by
P
y

] 5 18 6 4 [
)] 6 ( 15 ) 6 6 ( 14
) 3 6 6 ( 12 ) 3 6 7 ( 8 [
] 3 6 7 )[ 15 14 12 8 ( ] 3 6 7 [
2 3
1
2 3
8
1
2 3 2
16
1
3 2 3 2
16
1
3 2
2
+ =
+ + +
+ + + =
+ + + + = +
+
x x x
x
x x x x x
x x x D D D x x x
D D

Note again, we just differentiate previous brackets, while paying attention to the coefficients of the in
the first brackets.
i
D

General Solution: ) 5 18 6 4 (
2 3
8
1
2
+ + + = x x x e B e A y
x x
.

Example 17

Solve the differential equation
9 7 2 5 ' 3 ' '
3
+ = + x x y y y .

A.E. i m m m
2
11
2
3
2
0 5 3 = = +

C.F. ] sin cos [
2
11
2
11 2 / 3
x B x A e y
x
C
+ =

P.I.
) 9 7 2 (
5 3
1
3
2
+
+
= x x
D D
y
P
.

In this case, the degree of the polynomial is 3, so that we need to expand up to . But
now the operator does not factorize, so that we cant use partial fractions. We therefore
proceed as follows:
3
D

L
L
+ + + =

+ = + =
+

3 2
3
2
2
2 2
1
2
1 2
2
625
3
125
4
25
3
5
1
5
3
5
3
5
3
1
5
1
5
3
1
5
1
) 5 3 (
5 3
1
D D D
D D D D D D
D D
D D
D D



Hence, the P.I. is

]. 636 1115 450 250 [
) 12 ( ) 12 ( ) 7 6 ( ) 9 7 2 (
) 9 7 2 (
625
3
125
4
25
3
5
1
) 9 7 2 (
5 3
1
2 3
625
1
625
3
125
4
2
25
3
3
5
1
3 3 2 3
2
+ + =
+ + + + =
+

+ + = +
+
x x x
x x x x
x x D D D x x
D D


Then, the general solution is given by

] 636 1115 450 250 [ ] sin cos [
2 3
625
1
2
11
2
11 2 / 3
+ + + + = x x x x B x A e y
x
.
The Shift Theorem

Evaluating ) (
) (
1
x e
D L
ax
. [Here, ] ) ( ) ( x e x f
ax
=

We use the formula
) (
) (
1
) (
) (
1
x
a D L
e x e
D L
ax ax

+
=
The D is shifted to . a D+


Example 18

Evaluate ). (
1 2
1
3
2
x e
D D
x
+

Here, ( ) . ) ( , 1 , 1 2
3 2
x x a D D D L = = + =
1
2 1
1
1
2
3
2
3
D D
e x
D
e x
x x
+
=
( )

3
2
] 1 ) 1 [(
1
x
D
e
x
+
=
3
2
1
x
D
e
x
= .
20
5
x
e
x
= (Integrating twice).



Example 19

Solve the differential equation .
x
e x x y y
3 2
) 9 7 6 ( 4 ' 5 ' ' + = +

A.E. . 0 4 5
2
= + m m 4 , 1 = m
C.F. .
x x
C
Be Ae y
4
+ =
We now need to find the particular integral.
P.I.
x
P
e x x
D D
y
3 2
2
) 9 7 6 (
4 5
1
+
+
=
Here . 9 7 6 ) ( , 3 , 4 5 ) (
2 2
+ = = + = x x x a D D D L

The Shift Theorem gives


) 9 7 6 (
1 2
) 9 7 6 (
) 1 )( 2 (
1
) 9 7 6 (
2
1
) 9 7 6 (
4 ) 3 ( 5 ) 3 (
1
) 9 7 6 (
4 5
1
2 3
1
3
1
3
2 3
2
2
3
2
2
3 3 2
2
+

+
+

=
+
+
=
+
+
=
+
+ + +
= +
+
x x
D D
e
x x
D D
e
x x
D D
e
x x
D D
e e x x
D D
x
x
x
x x


We now proceed as for Case 3; we expand the operators by the binomial theorem up to
the term in since we have a 2
nd
degree polynomial. Thus
2
D

[ ]
.
8
3
4 2
1
) 1 ( ) 2 / 1 (
3
1
1 2
2
1 1
2
1 3
1
3
1

+ + + =
+ + =

+
+

L
D D
D D
D D

Now,
4
29
2
1
2 2
2
3 ) 9 7 6 (
8
3
4 2
1
+ = +

+ + x x x x
D D
.
) 3 (
4
29
2
1
2 3
+ = x x e y
x
P
.
The general solution is hence given by
) 3 (
4
29
2
1
2 3 4
+ + + = x x e Be Ae y
x x x
.


Example 20
Solve the equation . 0 ) 0 ( ' , 1 ) 0 ( , sin 2 ' 3 ' '
2
= = = + + y y x e y y y
x

A.E. , so that 0 2 3
2
= + + m m 2 , 1 = m .
x x
C
Be Ae y
2
+ = .
Next we find theP.I. We have here
Then, by the Shift Theorem ( ) . sin ) ( , 2 , 2 3
2
x x a D D D L = = + + =
x
D D
e x e
D D
y
x x
P
sin
2 ) 2 ( 3 ) 2 (
1
sin
2 3
1
2
2 2
2
+ + + +
=
+ +
=
=
+ +
e
D D
x
x 2
2
1
7 12
sin
=
+ +
e
D
x
x 2
1
1 7 12
sin (replacing by
2
D
2
1 )

( )
=
+
=

e
D
x
e D
D
x
x
x
2
2
2
1
11 7
11 7
1
121 49
sin
sin

( ) =
+
e D
x 2
11 7
1
121 49
sinx (replacing

by )
2
D
2
1

( )
( ). cos 7 sin 11
170
1
sin 7 11
170
1
2
2
x x e
x D e
x
x
=
=

Therefore, the general solution is
170 / ) cos 7 sin 11 (
2 2
x x e Be Ae y
x x x
+ + =

.

We now fix the arbitrary constants A and B by using the given data . 0 ) 0 ( ' , 1 ) 0 ( = = y y

1 170 / 7 1 ) 0 ( = + = B A y . ----(i)

Now, , so that 170 / ) cos 3 sin 29 ( 2 ) ( '
2 2
x x e e B Ae x y
x x x
+ =


0 170 / 3 2 0 ) 0 ( ' = = B A y . -----(ii)

Solving (i) and (ii) simultaneously for A and B, we obtain 17 / 18 , 170 / 357 = = B A .
Hence, the particular solution is
( ) } cos 7 sin 11 { 180 357
170
1
2 2
x x e e e y
x x x
+ =

.

Forcing Function Consisting of Several Functions

When the forcing function consists of several terms, the P.I. is given by the sum of
the P.I.s of each term. Thus,
) (x f
)] ( [
) (
1
)] ( [
) (
1
)] ( [
) (
1
)] ( ) ( ) ( [
) (
1
x r
D L
x q
D L
x p
D L
x r x q x p
D L
+ + = + + .

Example 21

Evaluate ] 2 sin [
2 3
1
3 3 2
2
x e x e
D D
x x
+
+ +

.

Letting ] 2 sin [
2 3
1
3 3 2
2
x e x e
D D
y
x x
P
+
+ +
=

, we have
3 2 1
y y y y
P
+ + = , where

) cos 7 sin 11 (
170
1
] sin [
2 3
1
2 2
2
1
x x e x e
D D
y
x x
=
+ +
= ,

x x
e e
D D
y
3 3
2
2
2
1
] [
2 3
1

=
+ +
= ,

4
45
2
21
2
2
9
3 3
2
3
] 2 [
2 3
1
+ =
+ +
= x x x x
D D
y .

Hence,
4
45
2
21
2
9
2
1
) cos 7 sin 11 (
170
1
2 3 3 2
+ + =

x x x e x x e y
x x
P
.








SPECIAL CASES

of
ax
ke
D L ) (
1
1. Evaluation when 0 ) ( = a L
In this case we can proceed in two ways. One is to use the Shift theorem, the other is to
use Case 6 in the table.
Example 22

Lets find the P.I. for the equation
x
e y y y
2
5 2 ' 3 ' '

= + + .
x
x
P
e
D D
e
D D
y
2
2
2
5
) 1 )( 2 (
1
5
2 3
1

+ +
=
+ +
=

Clearly, the denominator is zero when we replace D by 2 . We therefore proceed as
by in the factor
follows.
Replace D only. We then have 2 ) 1 ( + D
x
P
e
D
y
2
5
) 1 )( 2 (
1
=

+
------ (#)
Now we use the Shift Theorem with . So the D is shifted to . Thus ) 2 ( D 5 ) ( = x
. 5
) 5 (
) 5 (
1
5
) 1 ]( 2 ) 2 [(
1
2
2
2
2x
x
x
x
P
xe
x e
D
e
D

=
=
=
+
[Recall means Integrate]
Hence the P.I. is .
lternatively, we can use Result 6 in the table to Eqn. (#) above, where
e y

=
D / 1
x
xe
2
5

A 1 = r . This


yields again
x
P
xe y
2
5

= .

2. Evaluation of ) cos(
) (
1
2
b ax k
D L
+ and ) sin(
) (
1
2
b ax k
D L
+ when 0 ) (
2
= a L
We use Result 7 in the table.

Example 23

To find the P.I of the equation x y y 2 cos 3 4 ' ' = + , we proceed as follows:

x x
x
x
x
D
y
P
2 sin
2 sin
) 2 ( 2
3
2 cos 3
4
1
4
3
2
=
=
+
=
[Using Result 7 with 0 , 2 , 3 = = = b a k ]


Activity 3

Solve the following differential equations:
(i) ; 7 2 5 ' 6 ' '
3
= + +
x
e y y y
(ii) ; 18 ) 0 ( ' , 1 ) 0 ( , 54 9 ' '
3
= = = y y e y y
x
(iii) ; x y y cosh 2 ' ' ' =
(iv) ;
x
e y y
2
8 ' 4 ' '

=
(v) ; x y y 2 sin ' ' = +
(vi) ; x y y y 4 sin 100 6 ' 5 ' ' = +
(vii) x x y y y sin 16 cos 48 25 ' 8 ' ' = + + ;
(viii) ; x x y y y 20 cos 40 20 sin 401 ' 2 ' ' + = + +
(ix) ; 0 ) 0 ( ' , 0 ) 0 ( , ' '
3
= = = + y y x y y
(x) ; x e y y
x
2 sin ' 2 ' '

= +
(xi) ;
2
48 76 44 2 ' ' ' x x y y y =
(xii) ; 18 54 9 ' 6 ' ' + = + x y y y
(xiii) 1 ) 0 ( ' , 2 ) 0 ( , cos 4 ' ' = = = + y y x y y .
8.6 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have studied how to solve homogeneous linear second-order ordinary
differential equations and inhomogeneous equations by finding the complementary
functions and particular integrals using D-operators.

8.7 ANSWERS TO ACTIVITIES

Activity 1

(i) ; x y = 5
(ii) ; 1 2 + = x y
(iii) ; 1 + = x y
(iv) ; 2 / ) 5 ( x y =
(v) B Ax x x y + + =
2 3
6
5
;
(vi) B Ax x x x y + + + + =
2
2 sinh 2 cosh 3 ;
(vii)
3
2
1
2
2
1
2 x x x e y
x
+ =

;
(viii) ; 2 / ) 7 11 (
3
x x x y + =
Activity 2

(i) ;
x x
Be Ae y
2
+ =
(ii) ;
x
xe y
2
=
(iii) ; ) sin cos ( x B x A e y
x
+ =
(iv) ;
x x
Be Ae y
3 2
+ =
(v) ) 4 (
5
5
1
x
e y + = ; (vi) ;
2 / x x
Be Ae y + =
(vii) ) 4 / 5 sin 4 / 5 cos (
4 /
x B x A e y
x
+ = ;
(viii) ;
5 / 6x
Be A y

+ =
(ix) ; x e y
x
sin
2
=
(x)
kx
e Bx A y

+ = ) ( .
Activity 3

(i)
5
7
3
16
1
5
+ + =
x x x
e Be Ae y ;
(ii) ;
x x
e e x y
3 3
2 ) 9 1 (

+ =
(iii)
x x
e x C e x B A y

+ + + + = ) ( ) (
2
1
2
1
;
(iv)
x x
e B Ae y
2
3
2
4
+ + = ;
(v) x x B x A y 2 sin sin cos
3
1
+ = ;
(vi) ; x x Be Ae y
x x
4 sin 2 4 cos 4
3 2
+ + =
(vii) ; x x B x A e y
x
cos 2 ) 3 sin 3 cos (
4
+ + =

(viii) ; x x B x A e y
x
20 sin ) 20 sin 20 cos ( + + =

(ix) ; x x x y sin 6 6
3
+ =
(x) x e Be A y
x x
2 sin
5
1
2
+ = ;
(xi) ; 5 14 24
2 2
+ + + =

x x Be Ae y
x x
(xii) ; 6 6 ) (
3
+ + + = x e Bx A y
x
(xiii) . x x x y sin ) 1 2 ( cos 2 + =