CHAPTER 1

SIGLE-PHASE TRASFORMER

1.0 DEFIITIO OF TRASFORMER
1.1 COSTRUCTIO
1.2 PRICIPLE OF OPERATIO
1.3 FARADAYS LAW AD LEZS LAW
1.3.1 FARADAYS LAW
1.3.2 LENZS LAW
1.4 EMF EQUATIO
1.5 TRASFORMER EQUIVALET CIRCUIT MODEL
1.5.1 IDEAL TRANSFORMER
1.5.2 PRACTICAL TRANSFORMER
1.5.3 IMPEDANCE TRANSFER
1.5.4 EXACT EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
1.5.5 APPROXIMATE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
1.6 PHASOR DIAGRAMS
1.7 TRASFORMER TESTS
1.7.1 OPEN CIRCUIT TEST
1.7.2 SHORT CIRCUIT TEST
1.8 TYPES OF LOSSES
1.9 VOLTAGE REGULATIO
1.10 EFFICIECY AD MAXIMUM EFFICIECY









1.0 DEFIITIO OF TRASFORMER

A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to
another through a shared magnetic field. A changing current in the first circuit
(the primary) creates a changing magnetic field; in turn, this magnetic field
induces a voltage in the second circuit (the secondary).
It can raise (step-up) or lower (step-down) the voltage in a circuit but with a
corresponding decrease or increase in current

1.1 COSTRUCTIO

A transformer is a static machine. Although it is not an energy conversion device, it is
indispensable in many energy conversion systems. It is a simple device, having two or
more electric circuits coupled by a common magnetic circuit.

A transformer essentially consists of two or more windings coupled by a mutual magnetic
field. Ferromagnetic cores are used to provide tight magnetic coupling and high flux
densities. Such transformers are known as iron core transformers. They are invariably
used in high-power applications. Air core transformers have poor magnetic coupling and
are sometimes used in low-power electronic circuits.

Two types of core constructions are normally used, as shown in Fig. 1.0. In the core type
(Fig. 1.0a), the windings are wound around two legs of a magnetic core of rectangular
shape. In the shell type (Fig. 1.0b), the windings are wound around the center leg of a
three-legged magnetic core. To reduce core losses, the magnetic core is formed of a stack
of thin laminations.

L-shaped laminations are used for core-type construction and E-shaped laminations are
used for shell-type construction. To avoid a continuous air gap (which would require a
large exciting current), laminations are stacked alternately as shown in Fig. l.0c and
Fig. 1.0d.

Fig. 1.0: Transformer core construction. (a) Core-type (b) Shell-type (c) L-shaped lamination
(d) E-shaped lamination

A schematic representation of a two-winding transformer is shown in Fig. 1.1. The two
vertical bars are used to signify tight magnetic coupling between the windings. One
winding is connected to an ac supply and is referred to as the primary winding. The other
winding is connected to an electrical load and is referred to as the secondary winding.

The winding with the higher number of turns will have a high voltage and is called the
high-voltage (HV) or high-tension (HT) winding. The winding with the lower number of
turns is called the low-voltage (LV) or low-tension (LT) winding. To achieve tighter
magnetic coupling between the windings, they may be formed of coils placed one on top
of another (Fig. l.0a) or side by side (Fig. l.0b) in a pancake coil formation where
primary and secondary coils are interleaved. Where the coils are placed one on top of
another, the low-voltage winding is placed nearer the core and the high-voltage winding
on top.


Fig. 1.1: Schematic representation of a two-winding transformer

Transformers have widespread use. Their primary function is to change voltage level. A
transformer is a device for converting electric energy at one voltage level to electric
energy at another voltage level through the action of a magnetic field. It plays an
extremely important role in modern life by making possible the economical long distance
transmission of electric power.


1.2 PRICIPLE OF OPERATIO

When a voltage is applied to the primary of a transformer, a flux is produced in the core
as given by Faradays law. The changing flux in the core then induced a voltage in the
secondary winding of the transformer. Because transformer cores have very high
permeability, the net magnetomotive force required in the core to produce its flux is very
small. Since the net magnetomotive force is very small, the primary circuits
magnetomotive force must be approximately equal and opposite to the secondary
circuits magnetomotive force. This fact yields the transformer current ratio.

The transformer is based on two principles:
First, that an electric current can produce a magnetic field (electromagnetism)
and,
Second, that a changing magnetic field within a coil of wire induces a voltage
across the ends of the coil (electromagnetic induction).

Transformer is only converting from AC signal into AC signal.
The primary is connected to source of alternating (AC) voltage
By changing the current in the primary coil, one changes the strength of its
magnetic field; since the secondary coil is wrapped around the same magnetic field,
which it produces mutually-induced e.m.f (electromotive force)

If the secondary coil is closed, a current flows in it and so a voltage is induced across
the secondary terminal. Therefore, electrical energy is transferred from primary to
the secondary terminal.

Example

Refer to Fig. 1.2

Fig. 1.2: Example of transformer structure
When the switch is closed:
Current in primary coil increases
Creates increasing magnetic field in primary coil
Induces current in secondary coil
Lamp lights up

When current in primary coil becomes steady:
No more changes in the magnetic field in primary coil
No more current induced in secondary coil
Lamp goes off



When switch is opened:
Current in primary coil decreases to zero
Creates decreasing magnetic field in primary coil
Induces current in opposite direction in secondary coil
Lamp lights up again


1.3 FARADAYS LAW AD LEZS LAW


1.3.1 FARADAYS LAW
Faradays law states that if a flux passes through a turn of a coil of wire, a voltage will be
induced in the turn of wire that is directly proportional to the rate of change in the flux
with respect to time. In equation form,
dt
d
e
ind

= (1.0)
where
ind
e is the voltage induced in the turn of the coil and is the flux passing through
the turn. If a coil has turns and if the same flux passes through all of them, then the
voltage induced across the whole coil is given by

dt
d
e
ind

= (1.1)
where:
ind
e = voltage induced in the coil
= number of turns of wire in coil
= flux passing through coil


1.3.2 LEZS LAW

The minus sign in the Faradays Law equations (Eqn. 1.1) above is an expression of
Lenzs law. Lenzs law states that the direction of the voltage build up in the coil is such
that if the coil ends were short circuited, it would produce current that would cause a flux
opposing the original flux change. Since the induced voltage opposes the change that
causes it, a minus sign is included in Eqn. 1.1. To understand this concept clearly,
examine Fig. 1.3. If the flux shown in the figure is increasing in strength, then the voltage
built up in the coil will tend to establish a flux that will oppose the increase.

Fig.1.3: The meaning of Lenzs law: (a) A coil enclosing an increasing magnetic flux;
(b) Determining the resulting voltage polarity.

A current flowing as shown in Fig. 1.3(b) would produce a flux opposing the increase, so
the voltage on the coil must be built up with the polarity required to drive that current
through the external circuit. Therefore, the voltage must be built up with the polarity
shown in the figure. Since the polarity of the resulting voltage can be determined from
physical considerations, the minus sign in Eqn. 1.0 and Eqn. 1.1 is often left out.
There is one major difficulty involved in using Eqn. 1.1 in practical problems. That
equation assumes that exactly the same flux is present in each turn of the coil.
Unfortunately, the flux leaking out of the core into the surrounding air prevents this from
being true. If the windings are tightly coupled, so that the vast majority of the flux
passing through one turn of the coil does indeed pass through all of them, then Eqn. 1.1
will give valid answers. But if leakage is quite high or if extreme accuracy is required, a
different expression that does not make that assumption will be needed. The magnitude of
the voltage in the i th turn of the coil is always given by

( )
dt
d
e
i
ind

= . (1.2)

If there are turns in the coil of wire, the total voltage on the coil is

=
=

1 i
1 ind
e e

( )

=
=

1 i
i
dt
d

=

=

1 i
i
dt
d
.. (1.3)

The term in parentheses in Eqn. 1.3 is called the flux linkage of the coil, and
Faradays law can be rewritten in terms of flux linkage as
dt
d
e
ind

= (1.4)
where

=
=

1 i
i
. (1.5)
The units of flux linkage are weber-turns.

Faradays law is the fundamental property of magnetic fields involved in transformer
operation. The effect of Lenzs law in transformers is to predict the polarity of the
voltages induced in transformer windings.
Faradays law also explains the eddy current losses. A time-changing flux induces
voltage within a ferromagnetic core in just the same manner as it would in a wire
wrapped around that core. These voltages cause swirls of current to flow within the core.
It is the shape of these currents that gives rise to the name eddy currents. These eddy
currents are flowing in a resistive material (the iron of the core), so energy is dissipated
by them. The lost energy goes into heating the iron core.

The amount of energy lost to eddy currents is proportional to the size of the paths they
follow within the core. For this reason, it is customary to break up any ferromagnetic core
that may be subject to alternating fluxes into many small strips, or laminations, and to
build the core up out of these strips. An insulating oxide or resin is used between the
strips, so that the current paths for eddy currents are limited to very small areas. Because
the insulating layers are extremely thin, this action reduces eddy current losses with very
little effect on the cores magnetic properties. Actual eddy current losses are proportional
to the square of the lamination thickness, so there is a strong incentive to make the
laminations as thin as economically possible.

Example
Figure below shows a coil of wire wrapped around an iron core. If the flux in the core is
given by the equation
t 377 sin 05 . 0 = Wb
If there are 100 turns on the core, what voltage is produced at the terminals of the coil?
Of what polarity is the voltage during the time when flux is increasing in the reference
direction shown in the figure? Assume that all the magnetic flux stays within the core
(i.e., assume that the flux leakage is zero).

Solution
The direction of the voltage while the flux is increasing in the reference direction must be
positive to negative, as shown in figure. The magnitude of the voltage is given by
dt
d
e
ind

=
( ) ( ) t 377 sin 05 . 0
dt
d
turns 100 =
t 377 cos 1885 = @ ( )V 90 t 377 sin 1885 +
1.4 EMF EQUATIO

Let
1
= No. of turns in primary

2
= No. of turns in secondary
m
= Maximum flux in core in Webers
= A * B
m

f = Frequency of AC input in Hz


The flux increases from its zero value to maximum value from in one quarter of the cycle
i.e. in 1/4 f second


Rate of change of flux =
f 4 / 1
m

Unit: wb/s or volt

Average e.m.f/ turns =
m
f 4

If flux ( )
m
varies sinusoidally, then:

R.M.S value/turn = * 11 . 1 average value
=
m
f 4 * 11 . 1
=
m
f 44 . 4 volts
E.M.F induced in primary = (r.m.s / turn) * (No. of primary turns)
=
1 m
f 44 . 4
=
1 m
A fB 44 . 4 (a)

E.M.F induced in secondary = (r.m.s / turn) * (No. of secondary turns)
=
2 m
f 44 . 4
=
2 m
A fB 44 . 4 (b)


From (a) and (b):
m
1
1
f 44 . 4

E
=
m
2
2
f 44 . 4

E
=

E.M.F per turns is same in both windings

From equation (a) and (b), we get:
a

E
E
2
1
2
1
= = Where a = voltage transformation ratio

If a <1, then the transformer is called step- up transformer
If a >1, then the transformer is called step- down transformer







1.5 TRASFORMER EQUIVALET CIRCUIT MODEL


1.5.1 IDEAL TRASFORMER






Fig. 1.4: Basic Transformer Fig. 1.5: Ideal Transformer Equivalent Circuit

Consider a transformer with two windings, a primary winding of
1
turns and a
secondary winding of
2
turns, as shown schematically in Fig.1.6. In a schematic
diagram it is a common practice to show the two windings in the two legs of the core,
although in an actual transformer the windings are interleaved. Let us consider an ideal
transformer that has the following properties:


Fig. 1.6(a): Ideal transformer
1. The winding resistances are negligible.
2. All fluxes are confined to the core and link both windings; that is, no leakage
fluxes are present. Core losses are assumed to be negligible.
3. Permeability of the core is infinite (i.e. ). Therefore, the exciting current
required to establish flux in the core is negligible; that is, the net mmf required to
establish a flux in the core is zero.

s s
p p
E V
E V
=
=
When the primary winding is connected to a time-varying voltage
1
v , a time-varying flux
is established in the core. A voltage
1
e will be induced in the winding and will equal
the applied voltage if resistance of the winding is neglected:

dt
d
e v
1 1 1

= = ..... (1.6)
The core flux also links the secondary winding and induces a voltage
2
e , which is the
same as the terminal voltage
2
v :

dt
d
e v
2 2 2

= = .... (1.7)


From Eqn. 1.6 and Eqn. 1.7,
a

v
v
2
1
2
1
= = .. (1.8)
where a is the turns ratio.
Eqn. 1.8 indicates that the voltages in the windings of an ideal transformer are directly
proportional to the turns of the windings.

Let us now connect a load (by closing the switch in Fig. 1.6(a)) to the secondary winding.
A current
2
i will flow in the secondary winding, and the secondary winding will provide
an mmf
2 2
i for the core. This will immediately make a primary winding current
1
i flow
so that a counter mmf
1 1
i can oppose
2 2
i . Otherwise
2 2
i would make the core flux
change drastically and the balance between
1
v and
1
e would be disturbed. Note that in
Fig. 1.6 that the current directions are shown such that their mmfs oppose each other.
Because the net mmf required to establish a flux in the ideal core is zero,
=
2 2 1 1
i i net mmf 0 =

2 2 1 1
i i = ... (1.9)
a
1

i
i
1
2
2
1
= = .... (1.10)
The currents in the windings are inversely proportional to the turns of the windings. Also
note that if more current is drawn by the load, more current will flow from the supply. It
is this mmf-balancing requirement (Eqn. 1.9) that makes the primary know of the
presence of current in the secondary.
From Eqn. 1.8 and Eqn. 1.10

2 2 1 1
i v i v = (1.11)
That is, the instantaneous power input to the transformer equals the instantaneous power
output from the transformer. This is expected, because all power losses are neglected in
an ideal transformer. Note that although there is no physical connection between load and
supply, as soon as power is consumed by the load, the same power is drawn from the
supply. The transformer, therefore, provides a physical isolation between load and supply
while maintaining electrical continuity.
If the supply voltage
1
v is sinusoidal, then Eqn. 1.8, 1.10, and 1.11 can be written in
terms of rms values:
a

V
V
2
1
2
1
= =
a
1

I
I
1
2
2
1
= =

2 2 1 1
I V I V = . (1.12)












1.5.2 PRACTICAL TRASFORMER


Fig. 1.6(b): Equivalent circuit of practical transformer
p
V = Primary terminal voltage (input)
s
V = Secondary terminal voltage (output)
s p
R , R = Leakage resistance on the primary and secondary respectively
s p
X , X = Leakage reactance on the primary and secondary respectively
c
R = Core resistance
m
X = Magnetizing reactance
p
I = Primary current
s
I = Secondary current
p
= Primary winding turns
s
= Secondary winding turns









1.5.3 IMPEDACE TRASFER
Consider the case of a sinusoidal applied voltage and secondary impedance
2
Z , as shown
in Fig. 1.7a.

Fig. 1.7: Impedance transfer across an ideal transformer.
2
2
2
I
V
Z =
The input impedance is
2
2 2
2
2
1
1
1
I
V
a
a / I
aV
I
V
Z = = =
2
2
Z a =
So
2 2
2
1
' Z Z a Z = =

Impedance
2
Z connected in the secondary will appear as impedance
2
' Z looking from
the primary. The circuit in Fig. 8a is therefore equivalent to the circuit in Fig. 1.7b.
Impedance can be transferred from secondary to primary if its value is multiplied by the
square of the turns ratio. Impedance from the primary side can also be transferred to the
secondary side, and in that case its value has to be divided by the square of the turns
ratio:
1 2 1
Z
a
1
' Z =

This impedance transfer is very useful because it eliminates a coupled circuit in an
electrical circuit and thereby simplifies the circuit.


1.5.4 EXACT EQUIVALET CIRCUIT


Fig. 1.8: The model of the real transformer
The figure above shows the accurate model of the transformer but it is quite
difficult to analyze practical circuits containing transformers
Thus the equivalent circuit normally has converted to the equivalent circuit at a
single voltage level.
Therefore, the equivalent circuit must be referred either to its primary side or to
its secondary side in problem solutions.



Fig. 1.9: Exact equivalent circuit (referred to the primary side)


Fig. 1.10: Exact equivalent circuit (referred to the secondary side)


1.5.5 APPROXIMATE EQUIVALET CIRCUIT


Fig. 1.11: The model of the real transformer

The excitation branch has a very small current compared to the load current of the
transformers.
Moreover, it is so small that under normal circumstances it causes a completely
negligible voltage drop in
p
R and
p
X . Thus, it can be simplified into approximate
equivalent circuits.



Fig. 1.12: Approximate equivalent circuit (referred to the primary side)




Fig. 1.13: Approximate equivalent circuit (referred to the secondary side)

1.6 PHASOR DIAGRAMS

It is easy to determine the effect of the impedances and the current phase on the
transformer voltage regulation by drawing the phasor diagram.

s
V is assumed to he at an angle of 0 and all other voltages and currents are
compared to that references.
A transformer phasor diagram is presented by applying Kirchhoffs \/voltage the
transformer equivalent circuit and an equation will be as follows.



Lagging Power Factor



Fig. 1.14: Lagging power factor


Unity Power Factor



Fig. 1.15: Unity power factor

+ + =
s eq s eq s
p
I jX I R 0 V
a
V
+ + =
s eq s eq s
p
I jX I R 0 V
a
V
+ + = 0 I jX 0 I R 0 V
a
V
s eq s eq s
p
Leading Power Factor



Fig. 1.16: Leading power factor


1.7 TRASFORMER TEST

1.7.1 OPE CIRCUIT TEST

Must be conducted at the rated terminal voltage
The values of
c
R (core resistance) and
m
X (magnetizing reactance) can be
determined by opening the output line at the secondary side of transformer as in
figure below

Fig. 1.17: Open-circuit test





oc oc
oc 1
OC
I V
P
cos

=
C
OC
c
I
V
R =
M
OC
M
I
V
X =
cos I I
OC C
= sin I I
OC M
=
+ + + + =
s eq s eq s
p
I jX I R 0 V
a
V
CHECK

If
oc p
V V = Therefore
c
R and
m
X (Primary side)

Else

oc s
V V = Therefore
c
R and
m
X (Secondary side)


1.7.2 SHORT CIRCUIT TEST

Always conducted at the rated winding current
Current flowing in excitation branch is neglect since the input voltage is so low
during the short-circuit test.
Thus the entire voltage drop in the transformer can be attributed to the series
elements in the circuit:
The determined values of
eq
R (winding resistance) and
eq
X (winding reactance)

Fig. 1.18: Short-circuit test




(Note: minus sign inductance only)





sc sc
SC
SC
I V
P
1
cos

=
sc sc
sc
eq
I
0 V
Z


=
eq eq eq
jX R Z + =
CHECK

If
sc p
I I =
Therefore
p p p eq
jX R Z Z + = =

Else

If
sc s
I I =
Therefore
s s s eq
jX R Z Z + = =


p
rated
p
V
S
I =
s
rated
s
V
S
I =


1.8 TYPES OF LOSSES

Copper ( ) R I
2
Losses : resistive heating losses in the secondary and
primary windings
Eddy current losses : resistive heating losses in the core of the
transformer
Hysteresis losses : a heat loss caused by the magnetic properties of
the armature
Leakage flux : in turn causes losses due to frictional heating in
susceptible cores. Magnetic flux lines produced by
the primary winding that do not link the turns of the
secondary winding








1.9 VOLTAGE REGULATIO

Defined as the difference between the voltage magnitude at the load terminals of the
transformer at full load and at no load in percent of full load voltage.

a) Equivalent circuit referred to primary side


Fig. 1.19(a): Approximate equivalent circuit (referred to primary)

Voltage regulation % 100
V
V V
FL s
FL s L s

=
Since at no load, the voltage regulation can also be expressed as
Voltage regulation
( )
( )
% 100
V
V V
FL s
FL s p

=







( ) p L s
V V =

b) Equivalent circuit referred to secondary side

Fig. 1.19(b): Approximate equivalent circuit (referred to secondary)

Voltage regulation % 100
V
V V
FL s
FL s L s

=
Since at no load, the voltage regulation can also be expressed as
Voltage regulation
( )
( )
% 100
V
V a / V
FL s
FL s p

=













( )
a / V V
p L s
=

1.10 EFFICIECY AD MAXIMUM EFFICIECY

To measure the efficient of the transformer

a) Equivalent circuit referred to primary side

Fig. 1.20(a): Approximate equivalent circuit (referred to primary side)
























% 100 x
P P
P
loss out
out
+
=
% 100 x
P P cos I V
cos I V
core Cu s s
s s
+ +
=

% 100 x
P P n cos I nV
cos I nV
core Cu
2
s s
s s
+ +
=

c
2
p
core
R
V
P =
1 eq
2
p cu
R I P =


b) Equivalent circuit referred to secondary side

Fig. 1.20(b): Approximate equivalent circuit (referred to secondary side)















When maximum efficiency occurs:


cu
c
P
P
n = and 1 cos =

% 100 x
P P
P
loss out
out
+
=
% 100 x
P P n cos I nV
cos I nV
core Cu
2
s s
s s
+ +
=

( )
c
2
p
core
R
a / V
P =
2 eq
2
s cu
R I P =