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Relative Pronouns

Relative Pronouns:
Who, Whom, Whose, Which, Where, When, Why.
Who: For humans as subject. Meaning in Indonesian is "Yang"
Whom: For humans as object. Meaning in Indonesian is "Yang"
Which: For non-humans as subject or object. Meaning in Indonesian
is "Yang"
Whose: For possesion. Meaning in Indonesian is "Yang .... nya"

Explanations for Who, Whom, Which, and Whose;
Who
That is the lady who asked me the way to the station yesterday. (Itu
adalah wanita yang bertanya kepadaku jalan ke arah stasiun kemarin).
Here, Who=Yang is for human (the lady), and is followed by
asked=bertanya. It means Who=Yang is a subject(who-the lady-
asked. the lady=suject, asked=predicate.
Whom
I know the man whom you met at the hall lastnight. (Saya kenal laki-
laki yang kamu jumpai di aula tadi malam). Here, whom=yang is for
human(the man), and is followed by you met. from you met, the
subject is you. so, whom must be object.
Which
That is the computer which father bought yesterday. (Itu adalah
komputer yang di beli ayah kemarin).Yang=which is for non
human(the computer).
Whose
The boy whose bike was stolen last week is still very sad now. (Anak
laki-laki yang sepedanya di curi minggu lalu masih sangat sedih
sekarang). here, whose= yang...nya, in this sentence whose
bike=yang sepeda nya. it shows possession.
Where, When, and Why:
Where is a relative pronoun used to show place.
This city is where I was born. Here, where is used as a reference for
(Sebagai acuan untuk) this city.
When is a relative pronoun used to show time.
I do not renenber the day when I visited her place. Here, when is used
as a reference for the day.
Why is a relative pronoun used to explain a reason

Auxiliary verb

Definition: Auxiliary verbs are used together with a main verb to give grammatical
information and therefore add extra meaning to a sentence, which is not given by the main verb.
Be, Do and Have are auxiliary verbs, they are irregular verbs and can be used as main verbs.
Modal verbs are also auxiliary verbs, but will be treated separately, these are can, could, may,
might, must, shall, should,will, and would.
To be: Be is the most common verb in the English language. It can be used as an auxiliary and a main verb. It is used a lot
in its other forms.
Present tense form Past tense form
am/is/are was/were

Uses:

Am/Is/Are:
Question Positive Statement Negative Statement
Singular
Am I? I am (I'm) I am not (I'm not)
Are you? You are (You're) You are not (You're not/You aren't)
Is he/she/it? He/she/it is (He's/She's/It's)
He/she/it is not (He/she/it isn't//
He/she/it's not)
Plural
Are we? We are (We're) We are not (We aren't/We're not)
Are you? You are (You're) You are not (You aren't/You're not)
Are they? They are (They're) They are not (They aren't/They're not)

Examples:

Am/Are Is
Question - ? "Am I disturbing you?" "Is this your coat"
Positive Answer - Yes "Yes you are." "Yes it is"
Negative Answer - No "No you're not." "No it isn't"
Note: The auxiliary verb 'be' can be followed either by the -ed form or by the -ing form.
To do: The verb do is one of the most common verbs in English. It can be used as an auxiliary and a main verb. It is often
used in questions.
Uses:

Do / Does
Question Positive Statement (spoken) Negative Statement (spoken)
Singular
Do I? I do I do not (I don't)
Do you? You do You do not (You don't)
Does he/she/it? He/she/it does He/she/it does not (He/she/it doesn't)
Plural
Do we? We do We do not (We don't)
Do you? You do You do not (You don't)
Do they? They do They do not (They don't)


Example
s:

Note: The
auxiliary
verb 'do'
is always
followed by the base form (infinitiv.
To have: Have is one of the most common verbs in the English language. Have is used in a variety of ways.

Uses:

Have/Has
Question Positive Statement (spoken) Negative Statement (spoken)
Singular
Have I? I have (I've) I have not (I haven't/I've not)
Have you? You have (You've) You have not (You haven't/You've not)
Has he/she/it? He/she/it has (He/she/it 's) He/she/it has not (He/she/it hasn't)
Plural
Have we? We have (We've) We have not (We haven't/We've not)
Have you? You have (You've) You have not (You haven't/You've not)
Have they? They have (They've) They have not (They haven't/They've not)

Have is often used to indicate possession (I have) or (I have got).

Examples:

Have Have got
Question - ? "Do you have a car?" or "Have you a car?" "Have you got a car?"
Positive Answer - Yes "Yes I have a car." "Yes I've got a car."

Do Does
Question - ? "Do you always take the bus to work?" "Does she ever do her homework on time?"
Positive Answer - Yes "Yes I do." "Yes she does."
Negative Answer - No "No I don't." "No she doesn't."
Negative Answer - No "No I don't have a car." "No I haven't got a car."


Have is also used to indicate necessity (I have to) or (I have got to).

Have to Have got to
Question - ? "Do you have to leave early?" "Have you got to leave early?"
Positive Answer - Yes "Yes I have to." or "Yes I do" "Yes I've got to."
Negative Answer - No "No I don't have to." "No I haven't got to."

Have is used to show an action.
Question - ? "Have you washed your face?"
Positive Answer - Yes " Yes I have."
Negative Answer - No " No I haven't."

Note: When showing an action the auxiliary verb 'have' is always followed by the past participle form.


Sentences


Sentence atau kalimat adalah sekumpulan kata yang mempunyai makna yang
dapat dipahami maknanya dan memiliki sedikitnya Subjek dan Predikat.

Unsur-unsur Kalimat

a. Subject

Subjek adalah seseorang atau sesuatu yang menjadi bahan pembicaraan.

Contoh:
Jack has called the police. (Jack = Subject)
The novel is on the table. (The novel = Subject)

Yang dapat menjadi subject kalimat adalah:



A. Simple Subject, yang dapat dibentuk oleh:

a) Nouns (Kata Benda)
Birds are fowl.
Indonesia has the largest amount of Moslem in the world.

b) Pronouns (Kata Ganti)
He cut my hair yesterday.
They had discussed the matter before the chairman left.

c) Adjectives as Nouns (Kata Sifat Yang Berfungsi Sebagai Kata Benda)

The poor needs helping.
The unemployed are hopeless.

d) Infinitives as Nouns (Infinitif yang berfungsi sebagai kata benda)
To pass the exam is first priority.
To say is easy but to do is difficult.

e) Participles as Nouns (Participle yang berfungsi sebagai kata benda)
Swimming is my hobby.
Smoking is really bad for your health.

B. Compound Subject

Compound Subject terdiri dari 2 atau lebih yang menjadi satu kesatuan makna.
The plane leaves at 7.
His brother's father-in-law passed away two days ago.

Pada saat suatu kalimat tidak memiliki subjek, maka IT dan THERE berfungsi
sebagai subject kalimatnya. Pada saat kita berbicara "panas sekali hari ini",
maka kita akan menyatakannya dengan "It is very hot today".
It is Sunday today.
There is a good show today.

b. Predicate

Predicate adalah kata yang menerangkan keadaan subject kalimat. Dalam Bahasa
Inggris, jika suatu kalimat tidak memiliki Predicate kata kerja, maka posisi kata
kerjanya harus digantikan dengan auxiliary (kata kerja Bantu).

a. Contoh Kalimat Verbal (Kalimat yang predikatnya adalah kata kerja)
Mr. Henry teaches us English.
The dog slept under a tree.

b. Contoh Kalimat Non-Verbal (kalimat yang predikatnya bukan kata kerja)

Kalimat Non-Verbal ini terdiri dari:

a) Nominal Sentence (Kalimat yang predikatnya kata benda)
She is a teacher.
My parents are doctors.

b) Adjectival Sentence (Kalimat yang predikatnya kata sifat)
The boy is sick.
Alex and Ed are diligent.

c) Adverbial Sentence (Kalimat yang predikatnya adalah kata keterangan)
The coffee is too hot to drink.
She is usually at home on Sundays.

d) Prepositional Sentence (Kalimat yang predikatnya adalah kata depan)
My mother is at home today.
The book is on the table.
c. Object
Object (Penderita) adalah kata yang menjadi sasaran apa yang dilakukan oleh
subject. Namun, tidak semua kata kerja memiliki objek. Hanya kata kerja transitif
saja yang membutuhkan objek. Sedangkan kata kerja intransitif tidak
membutuhkan objek, seperti menangis, mendidih, berjalan, dll.

Kadangkala sebuah kalimat memiliki 2 object. Perhatikan contoh kalimat berikut
ini:
Andy gives me a book.
- Me = Objek tak langsung (Indirect Object)
- A book = Objek langsung (Direct Object)

Untuk menandai yang mana objek langsung maupun tidak langsung cukuplah
mudah. Kita harus tahu object dari predicate kalimat itu apa? Maka itulah objek
langsungnya.
Andy memberikan apa? Sebuah Buku

Maka, a book adalah direct object. Kalimat tersebut dapat juga dibentuk dengan:
Andy gives a book to me.

Untuk lebih jelasnya, marilah perhatikan pembahasan mengenai Direct dan
Indirect object berikut ini:

A. Direct Object

Direct Object adalah penderita langsung dari suatu tindakan di dalam satu kalimat.
Contohnya, He hits the ball. Namun kita harus berhati-hati untuk membedakan
antara Direct Object dengan Object Complement.

Perhatikan contoh berikut ini:
They named their daughter Elizabeth.

Dalam kalimat ini, "daughter" adalah Direct Object dan "Elizabeth" adalah
Object Complement, yang menggambarkan atau memberikan penjelasan dari
direct object-nya.

B. Indirect Object

Indirect Object mengindentifikasikan untuk siapa tindakan tersebut dilakukan.
Direct dan Indirect Object dapat berupa orang, tempat, atau sesuatu yang berbeda.

Perhatikan kembali contoh berikut ini untuk membedakan antara direct dan
indirect object. Yang bercetak tebal adalah Direct Object dan yang bercetak
miring adalah Indirect Object.
The teacher gives his students A's.
Grandfather left Melissa all his money.

Indirect Object dapat digunakan dalam beberapa cara seperti berikut ini:
Lend me some money (Lend some money to me)
Make me a cup of coffee (Make a cup of coffee for me)

Pola-pola Untuk Menempatkan Direct dan Indirect Object.

Pola A
I give him an apple

Pola B
I give an apple to him.

Pola C
I bought a car for her. (= I bought her a car)

Kata Kerja yang digunakan untuk Pola A dan B adalah:
Write, read, show, teach, tell, sell, send, leng, bring, take, pass, give

Kata Kerja yang digunakan untuk Pola A dan C adalah:
Buy, get, make, find, do, bake, cash, save

Kata Kerja yang digunakan untuk Pola A saja adalah:
Ask, cost, charge, wish.

Kata Kerja yang digunakan untuk Pola B saja adalah:
Explain, announce, describe, introduce, mention, prove, repeat, say, speak, report

Kata kerja yang digunakan untuk Pola C saja adalah:
Open, answer, close, change, pronounce, prescribe

(Ketika dipakai dengan for, berarti artinya sama dengan "untuk kepentingan")

Kata Kerja Untuk Semua Pola

Sing
Kata kerja yang tidak dapat digunakan untuk semua pola (Kata Kerja
Intransitive)
Eat, sleep, boil, etc.

d. Complement

Complement (pelengkap) adalah kata yang melengkapi maksud dari kata kerja
(predikat) dalam suatu kalimat.

Dalam Bahasa Inggris, complement dibagi menjadi 2 bagian, yaitu:
Subjective Complement, yaitu kata yang melengkapi subjek dari sebuah
kalimat.
Objective Complement, yaitu kata yang melengkapi objek dari sebuah
kalimat.

Kata-kata umum yang dapat dinyatakan sebagai Complement adalah:
Adjectives
Nouns
Prepositions with Object
Adverbs

Complement sangat diperlukan oleh:

a. Transitive Verbs (Kata Kerja yang membutuhkan objek) read, write, make,
invite, dll.
The news makes me upset. (upset = Objective Complement)
The King appointed Pak Belalang his Royal Astrologer. (his Royal
Astrologer = Objective Complement)
They voted me chairman. (chairman = Objective Complement)

b. Intransitive Verbs (Kata Kerja yang tidak membutuhkan objek) seperti boil,
walk, sleep, dll.
He grew happier gradually (happier = Subjective Complement)
They came here yesterday. (here = Subjective Complement)
You look beautiful. (beautiful = Subjective Complement)

c.Linking Verbs
She is a nurse (a nurse = Subjective Complement)
The game is now over (now = Subjective Complement)
The coffee is too hot to drink. (too = Subjective Complement)


e. Adjunct

Adjunct adalah kata yang menerangkan tentang object atau subject kalimat.
Adjuct ini biasanya terdiri dari keterangan tambahan seperti keterangan waktu,
tempat, dll.
I usually drink a cup of coffee in the morning.
She came here yesterday.
I go to school by bus.
___________________________________

2. Klasifikasi Kalimat

A. Berdasarkan penggunaannya, kalimat terbagi atas:

A.1 Declarative Sentence,
yaitu kalimat berita/pernyataan, positif maupun
negatif, benar maupun bohong.
We are happy.
She is not at home today

A.2 Interrogative Sentence, yaitu Kalimat Tanya.

Kalimat Tanya terbagi lagi atas:

A.2.1 Yes/No Question,
yaitu pertanyaan yang jawabannya ya atau tidak.
Is John a doctor?
Can you swim well?
Has she called the police?

A.2.2 Wh-Question
mengajak pembicara untuk mengetahui lebih jauh tentang sebuah topic
pembicaraan.
What is your name?
Where do you live?
Which one is your book?

Perhatikan contoh sederhana berikut ini:

Susie invites Alex to her party tonight.
Who invites Alex to her party tonight?
What does Susie do to Alex to her party tonight?
Whom does Susie invite to her party tonight?
Where does Susie invite Alex tonight?
When does Susie invite Alex to her party?

Perhatikan kelima contoh kalimat diatas!. Bahwa kita tidak menggunakan do,
does, atau did setelah who. Sedangkan do, does, did dipakai untuk selainnya.

A.2.3 Embedded Question
adalah pertanyaan yang ada di dalam suatu pernyataan lain. Contoh pertanyaan
seperti dalam Bahasa Indonesia adalah "saya tidak tahu apakah dia mau pergi atau
tidak."

Ada 2 cara untuk membentuk Embedded Question, yaitu:
Jika di dalam suatu pernyataan terdapat kalimat Tanya (8W 1 H), maka
gunakan langsung kata Tanya tersebut.
Jika tidak terdapat kata Tanya, maka gunakan "whether"
untukmenggantikan kata "apakah".

Catatan:

Susunan kalimat setelah kata Tanya "whether" dalam Embedded Question harus
kembali ke dalam susunan normal ( S + V + dll) dan tidak ada tanda tanya di akhir
kalimat.

Contoh:

"Saya tidak tahu dimana Alex tinggal"
I do not know where Alex lives. (benar)
I do not know where does Alex live. (salah)
I do not know where Alex lives ? (salah)
I do not know where does Alex live? (salah)

"Ibu saya ingin tahu apakah kalian akan pergi besok."
My mother wonders whether you will go tomorrow. (benar)
My mother wonders will you go tomorrow. (salah)

A.3 Imperative Sentence, yaitu Kalimat perintah yang mencakup kalimat
permohonan, do'a dan sebagainya.

Bentuk kalimat ini subjek kalimatnya adalah "you", namun dalam penulisan dan
pengucapan selalu tidak disebutkan. Kemudian kata "please" biasanya
ditambahkan di awal atau akhir kalimat. Namun kalau "please" diletakkan di akhir
kalimat, maka didahului oleh "koma". Selain itu, di akhir kalimat selalu
ditambahkan "tanda seru" jika "please" ada di awal kalimat dan "tanda Tanya"
jika "please" ada di akhir kalimat.

1. Positive Imperative

a) Diawali dengan kata kerja
Open the door, please?
Please pass me the sugar!

Perbedaan antara "please" di awal kalimat dengan di akhir kalimat adalah sebagai
berikut:
"Please" di awal kalimat berarti perintah, dan
"Please" di akhir kalimat berarti sebuah permintaan.

b) Diawali dengan selain kata kerja
Be careful, please?
Please be patient!

2. Negative Imperative (Larangan)

a) Diawali dengan kata kerja
Please don't spit on the floor!
Don't smoke here, please?

b) Diawali dengan selain kata kerja
Don't be lazy!
Don't be late!

A.4 Exclamatory Sentence, yaitu Kalimat yang menyatakan seruan, terkejut,
marah dll yang bersifat spontan.

Setidaknya ada 3 pola untuk membentuk kalimat seru ini, yaitu:
What + Noun (phrase) + Subject + Verb (untuk Nouns jamak dan tidak
dapat dihitung)
What a + Noun (phrase) (untuk Nouns tunggal dan dapat dihitung)
How + Adjectives/Adverbs (phrase) + Subject + verb
Contoh:
What beautiful cars you have!
What a lovely girl she is
How beautiful you are!

Exclamatory sentence dapat juga berupa ungkapan-ungkapan kata seru
(interjection, yang akan dijelaskan di belakang)

Contoh:
God heaven!
May god bless you!
Thank God!

B. Berdasarkan Struktur kalimatnya, kalimat terbagi atas:

a) Simple Sentence (Kalimat Sederhana)

Yaitu kalimat yang memiliki 1 gagasan atau ide bicara saja. Artinya kalimat yang
hanya terdiri dari 1 kata kerja utama saja.

Contoh:
A teacher teaches in front of the class.
The students listen their teacher carefully.
We can't make him come early.
b) Compound Sentence (Kalimat Majemuk)

Yaitu kalimat yang terdiri dari 2 ide pembicaraan yang disatukan oleh kata
sambung (Conjunctions). Kalimat ini terdiri dari induk kalimat dan anak kalimat.
Anak kalimat dimulai dengan kata sambung seperti and, but, because, when,
while, for, since, dll.

Contoh:
Anne is diligent but her sister isn't.
I will buy a car if my mother gives me the money today.
She can pass the exam because she studies hard.

Kalimat yang bercetak miring di atas adalah anak kalimat. Anak kalimat adalah
apabila kalimat tersebut berdiri sendiri (tanpa induk kalimatnya), kalimat tersebut
tidak dapat dimengerti maksudnya. (but her sister isn't = tetapi kakaknya tidak).
Pada kalimat tersebut, kita tidak mengerti begitu saja maksudnya tanpa induk
kalimatnya.


c) Complex Sentence (Kalimat Sempurna)

Yaitu kalimat yang hampir sama dengan kalimat majemuk, namun bisa terdiri dari
lebih dari 1 anak kalimat dan dihubungkan dengan kata penghubung (Relative
Pronouns) seperti who, whom, whose, that, dan which.

Contoh:
The man who cuts my hair is my uncle.
I am waiting for the boy whom you are talking about.
The house of which door is brown is mine.

d) Compound-complex Sentence (Kalimat majemuk sempurna)

Yaitu kalimat yang merupakan gabungan dan kombinasi dari kedua kalimat di
atas, yaitu kalimat yang terdiri dari 1 atau lebih induk kalimat dan 1 atau lebih
anak kalimat.

Contoh:
I have just phoned Ted who had told you that he would come to your
house tomorrow and asked him to bring his wife along.
Jack whose mother teaches you English wants to come to my house today
although I have told him that I will not be at home today because I have
had an appointment with anybody.
Even though I have studied hard every day, but I can't pass the exam
which is given to me.



English Grammar
Countable / Uncountable Nouns
A noun can be countable or uncountable. Countable nouns can be "counted", they
have a singular and plural form .
For example:
A book, two books, three books .....
An apple, two apples, three apples ....
Uncountable nouns (also called mass nouns or noncount nouns) cannot be
counted, they are not seperate objects. This means you cannot make them plural
by adding -s, because they only have a singular form. It also means that they do
not take a/an or a number in front of them.
For example:
Water
Work
Information
Coffee
Sand
Countable
(use a/an or a number in front of
countable nouns)
Uncountable
(there is no a/an or number with
uncountable nouns)
An Apple / 1 Apple Rice
I eat an apple every day.
I eat rice every day. (not I eat a rice
every day.)
Add (s) to make a countable noun
plural
There is no plural form for an
uncountable noun
Apples rice
I eat an apple every day. Apples are
good for you.
I eat rice every day. Rice is good for
you.
A computer= Computers are fun.
To make uncountable nouns countable
add a counting word, such as a unit of
measurement, or the general word
piece. We use the form "a ....... of ......."
An elephant=Elephants are large. Rice=a grain of rice
Water=a glass of water
Rain=a drop of rain
Music=a piece of music
You can use some and any with
countable nouns.
Some dogs can be dangerous.
I don't use any computers at work.
You can use some and any with
uncountable nouns.
I usually drink some wine with my
meal.
I don't usually drink any water with my
wine.
You only use many and few with
plural countable nouns.
So many elephants have been hunted
that they are an endangered species.
There are few elephants in England.
You only use much and little with
uncountable nouns.
I don't usually drink much coffee.
Little wine is undrinkable though.
You can use a lot of and no with
plural countable nouns.
No computers were bought last week.
A lot of computers were reported
broken the week before.
You can use a lot of and no with
uncountable nouns.
A lot of wine is drunk in France.
No wine is drunk in Iran.
Making uncountable nouns countable
You can make most uncountable noun countable by putting a countable
expression in front of the noun.
For example:-
A piece of information.
2 glasses of water.
10 litres of coffee.
Three grains of sand.
A pane of glass.
Sources of confusion with countable and uncountable nouns
The notion of countable and uncountable can be confusing.
Some nouns can be countable or uncountable depending on their meaning.
Usually a noun is uncountable when used in a general, abstract meaning (when
you don't think of it as a separate object) and countable when used in a particular
meaning (when you can think of it as a separate object).
For example:-
glass - A glass of water. (Countable) | A window made of glass. (Uncountable)
Some supposedly uncountable nouns can behave like countable nouns if we think
of them as being in containers, or one of several types.
This is because 'containers' and 'types' can be counted.
Believe it or not each of these sentences is correct:-
Doctors recommend limiting consumption to two coffees a day.
(Here coffees refers to the number of cups of coffee)
You could write; "Doctors recommend limiting consumption to two cups of coffee
a day."
The coffees I prefer are Arabica and Brazilian.
(Here coffees refers to different types of coffee)
You could write; "The types of coffee I prefer are Arabica and Brazilian."

What Is An Adjective?
An adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun by describing, identifying, or
quantifying words. An adjective usually precedes the noun or the pronoun which
it modifies.
In the following examples, the highlighted words are adjectives:
The truck-shaped balloon floated over the treetops.
Mrs. Morrison papered her kitchen walls with hideous wall paper.
The small boat foundered on the wine dark sea.
The coal mines are dark and dank.
Many stores have already begun to play irritating Christmas music.
A battered music box sat on the mahogany sideboard.
The back room was filled with large, yellow rain boots.
An adjective can be modified by an adverb, or by a phrase or clause functioning
as an adverb. In the sentence
My husband knits intricately patterned mittens.
for example, the adverb "intricately" modifies the adjective "patterned."
Some nouns, many pronouns, and many participle phrases can also act
asadjectives. In the sentence
Eleanor listened to the muffled sounds of the radio hidden under her pillow.
for example, both highlighted adjectives are past participles.
Grammarians also consider articles ("the," "a," "an") to be adjectives.

Possessive Adjectives
A possessive adjective ("my," "your," "his," "her," "its," "our," "their") is similar
or identical to a possessive pronoun; however, it is used as an adjective and
modifies a noun or a noun phrase, as in the following sentences:
I can't complete my assignment because I don't have the textbook.
In this sentence, the possessive adjective "my" modifies "assignment" and the
noun phrase "my assignment" functions as an object. Note that the possessive
pronoun form "mine" is not used to modify a noun or noun phrase.
What is your phone number.
Here the possessive adjective "your" is used to modify the noun phrase "phone
number"; the entire noun phrase "your phone number" is a subject complement.
Note that the possessive pronoun form "yours" is not used to modify a noun or a
noun phrase.
The bakery sold his favourite type of bread.
In this example, the possessive adjective "his" modifies the noun phrase "favourite
type of bread" and the entire noun phrase "his favourite type of bread" is the direct
object of the verb "sold."
After many years, she returned to her homeland.
Here the possessive adjective "her" modifies the noun "homeland" and the noun
phrase "her homeland" is the object of the preposition "to." Note also that the
form "hers" is not used to modify nouns or noun phrases.
We have lost our way in this wood.
In this sentence, the possessive adjective "our" modifies "way" and the noun
phrase "our way" is the direct object of the compound verb "have lost". Note that
the possessive pronoun form "ours" is not used to modify nouns or noun phrases.
In many fairy tales, children are neglected by their parents.
Here the possessive adjective "their" modifies "parents" and the noun phrase
"their parents" is the object of the preposition "by." Note that the possessive
pronoun form "theirs" is not used to modify nouns or noun phrases.
The cat chased its ball down the stairs and into the backyard.
In this sentence, the possessive adjective "its" modifies "ball" and the noun phrase
"its ball" is the object of the verb "chased." Note that "its" is the possessive
adjective and "it's" is a contraction for "it is."

Demonstrative Adjectives
The demonstrative adjectives "this," "these," "that," "those," and "what" are
identical to the demonstrative pronouns, but are used as adjectives to modify
nouns or noun phrases, as in the following sentences:
When the librarian tripped over that cord, she dropped a pile of books.
In this sentence, the demonstrative adjective "that" modifies the noun "cord" and
the noun phrase "that cord" is the object of the preposition "over."
This apartment needs to be fumigated.
Here "this" modifies "apartment" and the noun phrase "this apartment" is the
subject of the sentence.
Even though my friend preferred those plates, I bought these.
In the subordinate clause, "those" modifies "plates" and the noun phrase "those
plates" is the object of the verb "preferred." In the independent clause, "these" is
the direct object of the verb "bought."
Note that the relationship between a demonstrative adjective and a demonstrative
pronoun is similar to the relationship between a possessive adjective and a
possessive pronoun, or to that between a interrogative adjective and an
interrogative pronoun.

Interrogative Adjectives
An interrogative adjective ("which" or "what") is like an interrogative pronoun,
except that it modifies a noun or noun phrase rather than standing on its own (see
also demonstrative adjectives and possessive adjectives):
Which plants should be watered twice a week?
Like other adjectives, "which" can be used to modify a noun or a noun phrase. In
this example, "which" modifies "plants" and the noun phrase "which plants" is the
subject of the compound verb "should be watered":
What book are you reading?
In this sentence, "what" modifies "book" and the noun phrase "what book" is the
direct object of the compound verb "are reading."

Indefinite Adjectives
An indefinite adjective is similar to an indefinite pronoun, except that it modifies
a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase, as in the following sentences:
Many people believe that corporations are under-taxed.
The indefinite adjective "many" modifies the noun "people" and the noun phrase
"many people" is the subject of the sentence.
I will send you any mail that arrives after you have moved to Sudbury.
The indefinite adjective "any" modifies the noun "mail" and the noun phrase "any
mail" is the direct object of the compound verb "will send."
They found a few goldfish floating belly up in the swan pound.
In this example the indefinite adjective modifies the noun "goldfish" and the noun
phrase is the direct object of the verb "found":
The title of Kelly's favourite game is "All dogs go to heaven."
Here the indefinite pronoun "all" modifies "dogs" and the full title is a subject
complement.


Verbs

Verbs (kata kerja) adalah kata yang menunjukkan nama perbuatan yang dilakukan
oleh subyek, namun mungkin juga untuk menunjukkan keadaan. Verbs biasanya
menjadi Predikat dari suatu kalimat.

Contoh:
Henry comes from London.
My brother studies in America.
She is very beautiful.
They are diligent.

Macam-macam Kata Kerja

1. Finite Verb (Kata Kerja Biasa)

Ciri-ciri Kata Kerja Jenis ini adalah sebagai berikut:
Bila dipakai dalam kalimat tanya dan negative perlu memakai kata kerja
bantu do, does atau did.
Bentuknya dapat berubah-ubah oleh tense.
Biasanya mempunyai bentuk-bentuk:
Infinitive
Present Participle
Gerund
Past Tense
Present Tense
Past Participle
Contoh:
Ms. Anne reads a novel. (Infinitive)
Ms. Anne is reading a novel. (Present Participle)
Does Ms. Anne read a novel?
Ms. Anne read a novel. (Past Tense)
Ms. Anne has read a novel. (Past Participle)

2. Auxiliary Verbs (Kata Kerja Bantu)

Yaitu kata kerja yang digunakan bersama-sama dengan kata kerja lain untuk
menyatakan tindakan atau keadaan, atau berfungsi untuk melengkapi fungsi
gramatikal.



Kata Kerja Auxiliary adalah:
Is, am, are
Was, were
Do, does, did
Has, have, had
Can, could
May, might
Will, would
Shall, should
Must
Ought to
Had better
Need, Dare (Dapat juga berfungsi sebagai Kata Kerja Biasa)
2. Linking Verbs (Kata Kerja Penghubung)

Yaitu kata kerja yang berfungsi menghubungkan antara subject dengan
complement-nya. Kata yang dihubungkan dengan subject tersebut dinamakan
subject complement. Jika kata Kerja Penghubung tersebut kita gantikan
dengan be (am, is, are, was, dll.), maka maknanya tidak berubah.

Linking Verbs yang umum adalah:
be (am, is, are, was, dll.)
look
stay
appear
become
remain
taste
feel
seem
smell
grow
sound


Contoh:
The actress is beautiful.
Alex looks serious. (= Alex is serious).
The cakes smell delicious (=the cakes are delicious).

4. Transitive Verbs (Kata Kerja Yang Membutuhkan Objek)

Yaitu kata kerja yang memerlukan object untuk menyempurnakan arti kalimat
atau melengkapi makna kalimat.
Kata kerja Transitive diantaranya adalah: Drink, watch, read, fill, open, close, dll

Contoh:
He watches the film. (Kalimat ini tidak akan lengkap, jika "the film" kita
hilangkan. Orang lain akan bertanya-tanya - menonton apa?, maka watch
(menonton) membutuhkan object agar makna kalimat tersebut dapat
dipahami).
The man cuts the tree.


5. Intransitive Verbs (Kata Kerja Yang Tidak Membutuhkan Objek)

Yaitu adalah kata kerja yang tidak memerlukan obyek, karena sudah dapat
dipahami dengan sempurna makna kalimat tersebut.

Kata-kata kerja yang termasuk Intransitive verbs diantaranya adalah: Shine, come,
sit, boil, sleep, fall, cry, dll.
Contoh:
The baby cries.
My mother is sleeping.
The water boils.
Catatan:
Ada juga beberapa kata kerja yang dapat berfungsi sebagai transitive
maupun intransitive verbs.
Contoh:
He drops his bottles. (transitif)
The rain drops from the sky. (intransitif)
The contestants still misunderstood then. (transitif)
The contestants still misunderstood. (intransitif)
They grow the rubber trees. (transitif)
Rice grows in the fertile soil. (intransitif)
Ada beberapa verb intransitive yang memakai Objective Noun yang mempunyai
satu kesatuan makna dengan kata kerjanya. Objeknya disebut Cognate Object.

Contoh:
He played the fool. (Dia bermain gila-gilaan).
He laughs a hard laugh. (Dia tertawa lebar).
He slept a sound sleep. (Dia tidur nyenyak).
He died a miserable death. (Dia mati melarat).
Ada beberapa verb transitive dan intransitive walaupun sudah mempunyai object
tetapi artinya belum sempuma sebelum ditambah kata-kata lain.

Kata Kerja jenis ini diantaranya adalah: make, name, call, find, declare, suppose,
consider, bring, give, appoint, seen, hear, dll.

Contoh:
I will make you happy.
I appoint him to be my assistant.
Ada juga kata kerja yang mempunyai pola sebagai berikut:
Kata Kerja + Preposition + Object
Kata Kerja + Preposition + Kata Kerja-ing
Contoh:
We talked about the problem.
She felt sorry for coming late.
Kata-kata kerja untuk pola kedua diantaranya adalah: succeed in, think about/of,
dream of, dream about, approve of, look forward to, insist on, decide against,
angry with, sorry for, thanks for, dll.

Ada juga Kata Kerja tertentu yang mempunyai pola sebagai berikut:
Kata Kerja + Object + Preposition + Kata Kerja-ing
Contoh:
They accused me of telling lies.
Do you suspect the man of being a spy?
I congratulated Bob on passing the exam.
What prevented him from coming to the party?
I thanked her for being so helpful.
6. Regular & Irregular Verbs

Regular Verb adalah kata kerja yang dapat berubah-ubah sesuai dengan bentuk
tense; dan perubahan bentuk kata kerja itu secara teratur.

Contoh perubahan Kata Kerja jenis ini adalah:
Call - called - called
Admit - admitted - admitted
Submit - submitted - submitted
Invite - invited - invited
Irregular Verb adalah kata kerja yang mempunyai fungsi sama dengan regular
verb, tetapi perubahan bentuk kata kerja ini secara tidak teratur.

Contoh perubahan kata kerja jenis ini adalah:
Read - Read - Read
Come - came - come
Begin - began - begun
Sleep - slept - slept

Adverbs
Definition
Adverbs are words that modify
a verb (He drove slowly. How did he drive?)
an adjective (He drove a very fast car. How fast was his car?)
another adverb (She moved quite slowly down the aisle. How slowly did she
move?)
As we will see, adverbs often tell when, where, why, or under what conditions
something happens or happened. Adverbs frequently end in -ly; however, many
words and phrases not ending in -ly serve an adverbial function and an -ly ending
is not a guarantee that a word is an adverb. The words lovely, lonely, motherly,
friendly, neighborly, for instance, are adjectives:
That lovely woman lives in a friendly neighborhood.
If a group of words containing a subject and verb acts as an adverb (modifying the verb
of a sentence), it is called an Adverb Clause:
When this class is over, we're going to the movies.
When a group of words not containing a subject and verb acts as an adverb, it is
called an adverbial phrase. Prepositional phrases frequently have adverbial
functions (telling place and time, modifying the verb):
He went to the movies.
She works on holidays.
They lived in Canada during the war.
And Infinitive phrases can act as adverbs (usually telling why):
She hurried to the mainland to see her brother.
The senator ran to catch the bus.
But there are other kinds of adverbial phrases:
He calls his mother as often as possible.
Adverbs can modify adjectives, but an adjective cannot
modify an adverb. Thus we would say that "the students
showed a really wonderful attitude" and that "the students
showed a wonderfully casual attitude" and that "my professor is really tall, but not
"He ran real fast."
Like adjectives, adverbs can have comparative and superlative forms to show
degree.
Walk faster if you want to keep up with me.
The student who reads fastest will finish first.
We often use more and most, less and least to show degree with adverbs:
With sneakers on, she could move more quickly among the patients.
The flowers were the most beautifully arranged creations I've ever seen.
She worked less confidently after her accident.
That was the least skillfully done performance I've seen in years.
The as as construction can be used to create adverbs that express sameness or
equality: "He can't run as fast as his sister."
A handful of adverbs have two forms, one that ends in -ly and one that doesn't. In
certain cases, the two forms have different meanings:
He arrived late.
Lately, he couldn't seem to be on time for anything.
In most cases, however, the form without the -ly ending should be reserved for
casual situations:
She certainly drives slow in that old Buick of hers.
.
He did wrong by her.
He spoke sharp, quick, and to the point.
Adverbs often function as intensifiers, conveying a greater or lesser emphasis to
something. Intensifiers are said to have three different functions: they can
emphasize, amplify, or downtone. Here are some examples:
Emphasizers:
o I really don't believe him.
o He literally wrecked his mother's car.
o She simply ignored me.
o They're going to be late, for sure.
Amplifiers:
o The teacher completely rejected her proposal.
o I absolutely refuse to attend any more faculty meetings.
o They heartily endorsed the new restaurant.
o I so wanted to go with them.
o We know this city well.
Downtoners:
o I kind of like this college.
o Joe sort of felt betrayed by his sister.
o His mother mildly disapproved his actions.
o We can improve on this to some extent.
o The boss almost quit after that.
o The school was all but ruined by the storm.
Adverbs (as well as adjectives) in their various degrees can be accompanied by
premodifiers:
She runs very fast.
We're going to run out of material all the faster

KINDS OF ADVERBS
ADVERBS OF TIME
Adverbs of time tell us when an action happened, but also for how long, and how
often.
Examples:
When: today, yesterday, later, now, last year
For how long: all day, not long, for a while, since last year
How often: sometimes, frequently, never, often, yearly
"When" adverbs are usually placed at the end of the sentence:
Goldilocks went to the Bears' house yesterday.
I'm going to tidy my room tomorrow.
This is a "neutral" position, but some "when" adverbs can be put in other
positions to give a different emphasis
Compare:
Later Goldilocks ate some porridge. (the time is more important)
Goldilocks later ate some porridge. (this is more formal, like a policeman's
report)
Goldilocks ate some porridge later. (this is neutral, no particular emphasis)
"For how long" adverbs are usually placed at the end of the sentence:
She stayed in the Bears' house all day.
My mother lived in France for a year.
Notice: 'for' is always followed by an expression of duration:
for three days,
for a week,
for several years,
for two centuries.
'since' is always followed by an expression of a point in time:
since Monday,
since 1997,
since the last war.
"How often" adverbs expressing the frequency of an action are usually placed
before the main verb but after auxiliary verbs (such as be, have, may, must):
I often eat vegetarian food. (before the main verb)
He never drinks milk. (before the main verb)
You must always fasten your seat belt. (after the auxiliary must)
She is never sea-sick.(after the auxiliary is)
I have never forgotten my first kiss. (after the auxiliary have and before
the main verb forgotten)
Some other "how often" adverbs express the exact number of times an action
happens and are usually placed at the end of the sentence:
This magazine is published monthly.
He visits his mother once a week.
When a frequency adverb is placed at the end of a sentence it is much stronger.
Compare:
She regularly visits France.
She visits France regularly.
Adverbs that can be used in these two positions:
frequently,
generally,
normally,
occasionally,
often,
regularly,
sometimes,
usually
'Yet' and 'still'
Yet is used in questions and in negative sentences, and is placed at the end of the
sentence or after not.
Have you finished your work yet? (= a simple request for information) No,
not yet. (= simple negative answer)
They haven't met him yet. (= simple negative statement)
Haven't you finished yet? (= expressing slight surprise)
Still expresses continuity; it is used in positive sentences and questions, and is
placed before the main verb and after auxiliary verbs (such as be, have, might,
will)
I am still hungry.
She is still waiting for you
Are you still here?
Do you still work for the BBC?
ORDER OF ADVERBS OF TIME
If you need to use more than one adverb of time at the end of a sentence, use them
in this order:
1: 'how long'
2: 'how often'
3: 'when' (think of 'low')

Example:
1 + 2 : I work (1) for five hours (2) every day
2 + 3 : The magazine was published (2) weekly (3) last year.
1 + 3 : I was abroad (1) for two months (3) last year.
1 + 2 + 3 : She worked in a hospital (1) for two days (2) every week (3)
last year.
Active / Passive Verb Forms
Sentences can be active or passive. Therefore, tenses also have "active forms" and
"passive forms." You must learn to recognize the difference to successfully speak
English.
Active Form
In active sentences, the thing doing the action is the subject of the sentence and
the thing receiving the action is the object. Most sentences are active.
[Thing doing action] + [verb] + [thing receiving action]
Examples:

Passive Form
In passive sentences, the thing receiving the action is the subject of the sentence
and the thing doing the action is optionally included near the end of the sentence.
You can use the passive form if you think that the thing receiving the action is
more important or should be emphasized. You can also use the passive form if
you do not know who is doing the action or if you do not want to mention who is
doing the action.
[Thing receiving action] + [be] + [past participle of verb] + [by] + [thing doing
action]
Examples:

Active / Passive Overview
Active Passive
Simple Present
Once a week, Tom cleans the
house.
Once a week, the house is cleaned
by Tom.
Present
Continuous
Right now, Sarah is writing the
letter.
Right now, the letter is being
written by Sarah.
Simple Past Sam repaired the car. The car was repaired by Sam.
Past
Continuous
The salesman was helping the
customer when the thief came
into the store.
The customer was being helped
by the salesman when the thief
came into the store.
Present Perfect
Many tourists have visited that
castle.
That castle has been visited by
many tourists.
Present Perfect
Continuous
Recently, John has been doing
the work.
Recently, the work has been
being done by John.
Past Perfect
George had repaired many cars
before he received his
mechanic's license.
Many cars had been repaired by
George before he received his
mechanic's license.
Past Perfect
Continuous
Chef Jones had been preparing
the restaurant's fantastic dinners
for two years before he moved
to Paris.
The restaurant's fantastic dinners
had been being prepared by
Chef Jones for two years before he
moved to Paris.
Simple Future
will
Someone will finish the work
by 5:00 PM.
The work will be finished by 5:00
PM.
Simple Future
be going to
Sally is going to make a
beautiful dinner tonight.
A beautiful dinner is going to be
made by Sally tonight.
Future
Continuous
will
At 8:00 PM tonight, John will
be washing the dishes.
At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes
will be being washed by John.
Future
Continuous
be going to
At 8:00 PM tonight, John is
going to be washing the dishes.
At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes are
going to be being washed by
John.
Future Perfect
will
They will have completed the
project before the deadline.
The project will have been
completed before the deadline.
Future Perfect
be going to
They are going to have
completed the project before
the deadline.
The project is going to have been
completed before the deadline.
Future Perfect
Continuous
will
The famous artist will have
been painting the mural for
over six months by the time it is
finished.
The mural will have been being
painted by the famous artist for
over six months by the time it is
finished.
Future Perfect
Continuous
be going to
The famous artist is going to
have been painting the mural
for over six months by the time
it is finished.
The mural is going to have been
being painted by the famous
artist for over six months by the
time it is finished.
Used to Jerry used to pay the bills.
The bills used to be paid by
Jerry.
Would Always
My mother would always make
the pies.
The pies would always be made
by my mother.
Future in the
Past
Would
I knew John would finish the
work by 5:00 PM.
I knew the work would be
finished by 5:00 PM.
Future in the
Past
Was Going to
I thought Sally was going to
make a beautiful dinner tonight.
I thought a beautiful dinner was
going to be made by Sally
tonight.