POWDER TECHNOLOGY COURSE PROJECT

AN INTRODUCTION TO
CATALYST SYNTHESIS
TECHNIQUES
WITH AN EMPHASIS ON PEM FUEL CELL
CATALYSTS
Supervisor: Dr. Rezvanpour
Student: Ali Hashemi

Catalyst Synthesis Techniques
Particle Size and Shape Control
Physical Characterization of Electrocatalysts
Catalyst Contamination in PEM Fuel Cells

Fuel cell
is an electrochemical device that continuously and
directly converts the chemical energy of externally
supplied fuel and oxidant to electrical energy
Five most common technologies are:
Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEM fuel cells
or PEMFCs)
Alkaline fuel cells (AFCs)
Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFCs)
Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) and
Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs)

Basic Reactions
Anode Reaction
H
2
2H
+
+2e
Cathode Reaction
1/2O
2
+2H
+
+2eH
2
O

Catalysis Synthesis Methods

Low-temperature Chemical
Precipitation
Supported and unsupported catalysts
can be made via addition of a reducing agent to a
platinum-salt solution
Bimetallic catalysts
can be made by the co-precipitation of a solution of
two metal precursor salts

To avoid chloride contamination
One route is to use carbonyl precursors that decompose
at low temperatures
Colloidal
Same as chemical precipitation except
It involves the added benefit of a capping agent
that allows for size control of the catalysts and
prevents agglomeration of the catalyst particles
The experimental procedure is as simple as
combining the metal source, a reducing agent, and a
capping agent together and mixing
Sol-gel(Chemical Solution Deposition)
Fabrication of materials (typically a metal oxide)
starting from a chemical solution (or sol) that acts as
the precursor for an integrated network (or gel) of
either discrete particles or network polymers
which undergo various forms of hydrolysis and
polycondensation reactions.
The precursor sol can be either deposited on a
substrate to form a film (e.g., by dip coating or spin
coating), cast into a suitable container with the
desired shape (e.g., to obtain monolithic ceramics,
glasses, fibers, membranes, aerogels), or used to
synthesize powders (e.g., microspheres, nanospheres)

Sol-Gel Technologies and Their
Products
In acid-catalyzed sols, the
interparticle forces have
sufficient strength to cause
considerable aggregation
and/or flocculation prior to
their growth.
In base-catalyzed sols, the
particles may grow to
sufficient size to become
colloids, which are affected
both by sedimentation and
forces of gravity
Incorporation of metallic nanocatalysts:
Adding prefabricated particles into the sol-gel
mixture
Addition of metal salts during gel formation or after
the mesoporous structure has formed
A significant drawback!
catalytic nanoparticles may be buried within the
structure rather than near the pores
Sol-Gel Process:
1. Formation of a liquid solution of suspended
particles (a sol)
2. Aging
to allow fine-tuning of the gel properties
3. Drying
to remove the solvent from the gel
4. Calcification
to permanently change the physical and chemical
properties of the solid

Impregnation
High-surface-area carbon black can be
impregnated with catalyst precursors by mixing the
two in an aqueous solution

Following the impregnation step, a reduction step is
required to reduce the catalyst precursor to its
metallic state
The most common platinum precursors used for
impregnation are chloride salts
To avoid chlorine poisoning
Metal sulfite salts, metal carbonyl complexes, and
metal nitrate salts have been used instead
Metal carbonyl complexes :
can easily be made by direct oxidation of the metal
chloride salt with carbon monoxide
An external reducing agent is not required, as nanoparticles
can then be formed by thermal decomposition of the metal
carbonyl complexes
Microemulsions
Schematic of a reversed micelle formed using Na+-AOT as
surfactant ion
Microemulsions are clear, stable, isotropic liquid
mixtures of oil, water and surfactant, frequently in
combination with a cosurfactant.
The aqueous phase may contain salt(s) and/or other
ingredients, and the "oil" may actually be a complex
mixture of different hydrocarbons and olefins.
In order to obtain the catalyst nanoparticles,
Metal salt is reduced by adding a reducing agent into the
microemulsion system
Another approach is to
Mix the microemulsion system that contains a reducing agent
with a microemulsion system that contains the metal salt

Once the nanocatalysts are formed
They can be deposited onto a support
By adding a solvent like tetrahydrofuran (THF) in conjunction
with the support powder to the microemulsion
The solvent destabilizes the microemulsion by competing with
the surfactant to adsorb onto the particles, and in the
destabilized system the particles will adsorb onto the
support.
It is likely that
Formation of catalysts via the microemulsion process
proceeds in two steps:
1. Nucleation of the metal catalyst inside the droplet
2. Aggregation of multiple nuclei via collision and
coalescence of droplets to form the final
nanocatalysts
Electrochemical Deposition
Occurs at the interface of an electronically
conductive substrate and an electrolyte solution
containing the salt of the metal to be deposited
Five stages to electrochemical
deposition of metals
1. Transport of metal ions in solution to the electrode
surface
2. Electron transfer
3. Formation of metal ad-atoms via adsorption
4. Nucleation and growth, two- or three-dimensional,
of metal particles
5. Growth of the three dimensional bulk metal phase
2D or 3D Nuclei Growth?
Binding energy of the metal ad-atom to the
substrate Vs Binding energy of the metal ad-atom
to itself
Spray Pyrolysis
A process in which a thin film is deposited by
spraying a solution on a heated surface, where the
constituents react to form a chemical compound
Spray Pyrolysis Process:
An aqueous solution containing the metal precursor
is atomized into a carrier gas that is passed through
a furnace.

Second, the atomized precursor solution deposits
onto a substrate, where it reacts and forms the final
product

Advantages compared to other metal-forming
techniques
Very easy to dope films or form alloys in any proportion by
manipulating the spray solution
Neither high-purity targets and substrates nor vacuum set-ups are
required
Deposition rates and therefore film thickness can easily be
controlled by controlling the spray parameters
Moderate operation temperatures (100500 C) allow for
deposition on temperature-sensitive substrates
Low energy consumption
Relatively limited environmental impact since aqueous precursor
solutions can be used
The process is scalable, with production rates as high as 1.1 kg/h
Vapor Deposition
Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)
In a typical CVD process, the wafer (substrate) is
exposed to one or more volatile precursors, which react
and/or decompose on the substrate surface to produce
the desired deposit.

Types of chemical vapor deposition
Classified by operating pressure:
Atmospheric pressure CVD
Low-pressure CVD (LPCVD): Reduced pressures tend to
reduce unwanted gas-phase reactions and improve film
uniformity across the wafer
Ultrahigh vacuum CVD (UHVCVD)
Metal alloys can be fabricated by CVD
Using a single-source precursor (that remains coordinated in the
vapor phase) allows for precise control of the ratio of the two
metals
Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD)
A variety of methods to deposit thin films by the
condensation of a vaporized form of the material onto
various surfaces
Four essential components
Vacuum
A source to supply the material, called a target
A substrate on which the film is deposited
An energy supply to transport the material from the source
to the substrate.
High-energy Ball Milling
Is a mechanical alloying
process and a method
of
Grinding and mixing
materials in the absence
or presence of a liquid.









Lead antimony grinding
media with aluminum
powder

Particle Size and Shape Control
Why?

Increase in the ratio of surface atoms to bulk atoms
Activity for many reactions shows a maximum at a
particular particle size
Importance of crystal phases for catalytic reactions
Mechanism for Size Control Using
Colloidal Synthesis Methods
Size range of interest in practical fuel cell catalysis
1 to 5 nm range
In the case of the reduction of O2 (ORR), Pt
particles in the 3.5 to 4 nm size range are believed
to be the most active catalysts, while for bi-metallic
Pt/Ru catalysts the optimal size range appears to
be in the range of 2.5 nm
Pt-sols Made Using Organic Stabilizers

The stabilizer adsorbs on the surface of the Pt nuclei
and prevents them from agglomerating
Control particle size via
Concentration of the metal precursor salts
Stabilizing agent,
Synthesis temperature.

Modified Polyol Methods
Polyol Method:
Synthesis of high surface area catalysts in ethylene glycol
Ethylene glycol acts as solvent and reducing agent.
Modified Polyol Method: A straightforward,
inexpensive catalyst synthesis method of low toxicity
Size of the Pt and Ru colloids can be controlled by the
addition of H2O to the synthesis solution.
A large amount of glycolic acid (D) is formed which acts as
a stabilizer for the Pt/Ru colloids

Size Control Using Electrochemical
Methods
May not be as attractive for the preparation of
large-scale catalysts as, for example, chemical
methods.
Advantages:
Stabilizers and/or capping agents are not required
Particle size can be controlled by varying the length
and the amplitude of the potential pulse
Attention!
Progressive Vs Instantaneous Nucleation
Assuming that all the nuclei grow at the same rate,
instantaneous nucleation results in mono-sized particles and
is preferable in fabricating nanocatalysts of a specific size
A shift from progressive to instantaneous nucleation by:
Increasing deposition overpotential
or
Increasing the electrolyte conductivity (using chloride, sulfate,
and perchlorate anions)
Shape Control
Final shape of the nanoparticles is affected by:
Reducing agent
Ratio of capping agent to platinum source
Identity of the capping agent
Extent of particle growth

Physical Characterization of
Electrocatalysts
Analysis of Composition and Phase of Catalyst
X-ray Diffraction (XRD) and Electron Diffraction (ED)
X-ray Fluorescence (XRF), X-ray Emission (XRE), and
Proton-induced X-ray Emission (PIXE)
Measurement of Physical Surface Area
and Electrochemical Active Surface Area

BET Method and Physical Surface Area
Basically uses the surface of adsorbed gas molecules as a
ruler
Electrochemical Hydrogen Adsorption/Desorption
Is based on the formation of a hydrogen monolayer
electrochemically adsorbed on the catalysts surface

Morphology of Catalysts and Their
Active Components
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
Uses a beam of electrons to scan the surface of a sample and build a
three-dimensional image of the specimen
Signals can include:
Secondary electrons (electrons from the sample itself),
Backscattered electrons (beam electrons from the filament
that bounce off the nuclei of atoms in the sample),
X-rays, Light, heat, and even transmitted electrons (beam
electrons that pass through the sample)
Transmission Electron Microscopy(TEM)

Builds an image by way of differential contrast

Those electrons that pass through the sample go on to form
the image, while those that are stopped or deflected by
dense atoms in the specimen are subtracted from the image
TEM images of microwave-synthesized PtRu nanoparticles supported on
different carbon samples: (a) Vulcan XC72 carbon; (b) carbon nanotubes
Electrochemical Methods for Catalyst
Activity Evaluation

Cyclic Voltammetry
Basic Principles
Refers to cycling the potential between chosen low and high
points and recording the current in the potential cycling
region
The highest anodic (or cathodic) current is reached when the
potential reaches a value at which all the reduced (or
oxidized) form of the electrochemically active species at the
electrode surface is consumed
Applications
Features of a Pt Electrode in Acidic Electrolyte
Catalyst Activity Analysis
Catalyst Contamination in PEM Fuel
Cells
Kinetic losses
Poisoning of both anode and cathode catalyst sites or a
decrease in the catalyst activity
Ohmic losses
Increase in the resistance of membrane and ionomer,
caused by alteration of the proton transportation path
Mass transfer losses
Changes in structure and in the ratio between the
hydrophobicity and hydrophilicity of CLs, GDLs, and the
PEM
Anode Catalyst Layer
Contamination
Strategies for mitigating CO Poisoning

Using CO-tolerant PtRu alloy catalyst
Introducing a small amount of oxidant(for example, air
or oxygen) into the fuel stream
Operating the PEMFC at elevated temperatures (>
120 C)
Impacts of Carbon Dioxide

In situ production of CO from CO2 on the platinum
surface through either
Reverse water-gas shift reaction or
Electrochemical reduction of CO2
A common reformate gas that contains about 25%
CO2 approximately 20100 ppm CO in equilibrium
concentrations
Effect of CO2 concentration on PEM
fuel cell performance
Impacts of Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S)
H2S also strongly adsorbs on the Pt catalyst,
competing for the active sites with hydrogen
adsorption and hydrogen oxidation



Comparison of the effects of CO and
H2S on PEMFC performance
Effect of current density on performance degradation during
exposure to 20 ppm H2S in the H2 stream.
Effect of temperature on cell performance deterioration during
exposure to (a) 10 ppm and (b) 20 ppm H2S/H2 at 0.5 A cm2
Impacts of Ammonium (NH3)
Ammonium (NH3) is present in the hydrogen-rich
fuel stream, either due to
Use of NH3 as the hydrogen carrier
Reforming process involves homogeneous pre-
combustion with air
Fuel itself contains nitrogen-containing species
NH3 in the fuel stream of a PEMFC, even at the level
of a few ppm, can cause significant cell
performance loss
Degradation of cell performance mainly
by increasing membrane conductivity through NH3
reacting with protons in both the bulk membrane and
the ionomer in the catalyst layer

NH3 (gas) NH3(membrane)
NH
3
(membrane) + H
+
NH4
+
Cathode Catalyst Layer
Contamination
SOx Contamination
In the presence of SO
X
pH inside the MEA is decreased
resulting in free acids in the MEA and causing potential
shifts.
SOx can also adsorb on the Pt surface
competing with oxygen adsorption and leading to
performance degradation
Constant-current discharging curve of the PEMFC during running
with 1 ppm SO2/air for 100 hours at 70 C. Current density: 0.5
A cm2
Recoverability of Fuel Cell Performance
After SOx Contamination
After the contamination source is cut off

Setting cell voltage at open circuit voltage (OCV)
Operating the fuel cell with pure air
CV scanning
Pt Alloy and CO-tolerant Catalysts
CO is adsorbed strongly and irreversibly at the active
sites on a pure Pt surface, mostly through Bridge-
Bonding
Poisoning Mechanism
Blocking H2adsorption
CO lowers the reactivity of the remaining uncovered
sites through dipole interactions and electron capture
Pt Alloy and CO-tolerant Catalysts

Alloying Pt with a second element can enhance the
catalytic ability of the primary element
Bifunctional effects
Second component provides one of the necessary reactants
ligand (electronic) effects
Promoter alters the electronic properties of the catalytically
active metal to affect the adsorption /desorption of the
reactants/intermediates/poisons;
Ensemble (morphological) effects
Dilution of the active component, Pt, with the catalytically
inert metal changes the distribution of the active sites,
thereby opening different reaction pathways
Figure 8: CO coverage on various surfaces of alloy electrodes,
under steady H2 oxidation conditions
Supported Pt Catalysts
Carbon Black
Relatively higher stability than unsupported catalysts
In terms of agglomeration
Porosity of carbon black
assures gas diffusion to the active sites
Good electric conductivity of the carbon support
Allows electron transfer from catalytic sites to the conductive
carbon electrodes
Small dimensions of catalyst particles
Maximize the contact area between catalyst and reagents.

Further Supporting Materials
Nanostructured carbon such as carbon nanotubes
Ultra-thin nanostructured (NS) film system
Carbon aerogels and carbon cryogel
The Mere Reference!

Jiujun Zhang, PEM Fuel Cell Electrocatalysts and Catalyst
Layers (Fundamentals and Applications)



Any Questions?


Thank You!