Waste Management Challenges in

Sustainable Development of Islands.

Agamuthu Pariatamby and Nagendran Periaiah

CONTACT

Agamuthu P.
Institute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia
Tel: 603 7967 6756
Fax: 603 79674178
e-mail: agamuthu@um.edu.my

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

As urbanization continues to take place, waste management is becoming the major
environmental problem around the world. One of the most vulnerable eco-systems that
need attention in this respect is the island. The rapid increase in the density of human
population in previously virgin lands for the purpose of leisure and tourism is making the
collection, treatment and disposal of waste an insurmountable problem. Present day
environmental concerns demand more: along with being safe, waste management must
also follow the principles of sustainable development. This paper presents and discusses
the current waste management practices and challenges in four tourist islands in Malaysia,
namely Redang, Tioman, Pangkor and Langkawi. The study consists of public survey,
discussions with local authority staff involved in waste management, discussions with
Government officials, review of documents and actual field research. Islands in Malaysia
are generating approximately 400 metric tons of solid waste per day. Approximately 60%
of the waste are collected and disposed off in non-sanitary landfills. The remaining 35 %
were illegally burned/ dumped while 5 % were dumped into ocean. Increasing trends in
waste generation were observed in the Islands. Different socio-economic development and
the degree of urbanization influenced waste generation rates in the islands. Langkawi
(urban island) has the highest waste generation and better waste management in place.
Meanwhile, Redang (rural island) generates less waste and showed poor waste
management practices. Approximately 100% of landfills in Malaysian islands operate as
mere open-dumps that lack proper lining system and without leachate treatment facilities.
The landfills will be filled by 2015 if current trends of waste generation and handling
continue. Alternative landfill sites are not available. Therefore there is limitation on landfill
disposal in islands. As an alternative, incinerators have been used as disposal method.
Island waste has equally 42.5 % compostable and 42.5 % recyclables in the waste stream,
composting can be incorporated at all the landfills together with an integrated system of
recycling. Studies indicate that if MSW is separated at source and treated in an integrated
approach, almost 85 % of the waste can be diverted from the landfill. Other treatment
options such as recovery, recycling, reuse (3Rs) have been successfully practiced in some
urban islands. However the effort for 3Rs is driven by government incentives or
regulations. Overall waste management in Malaysian Islands is still in an infant stage and
challenges encountered were aesthetically displeasing sites, inefficient waste collection/
transportation, improper waste disposal method, marine pollution and lack of public
awareness. An integrated approach to solid waste management can deliver both
environmental and economic sustainability to these islands.
INTRODUCTION

Waste generation is a global issue where waste is generated by daily human activities in
all economic sectors and it is generally an un-avoidable by-product. Solid waste
generation in Malaysia has increased more than 91% over the past 10 years, due, in
particular, to the rapid development of urban areas (Agamuthu and Fauziah, 2006).
Currently Malaysia produced approximately 30,000 metric tons of waste everyday or 1.3
kg/person/day (Agamuthu et al. 2009). The waste consists of domestic and industrial
refuse. Waste management resulting out of rapid urbanization has become a serious
concern for government departments, pollution control agencies, regulatory bodies and
also public.

Proper waste management is very crucial to prevent further environmental destruction and
to promote sustainable development. Sustainable development is a pattern of resource
use that aims to meet human needs while preserving the environment so that these needs
can be met not only in the present, but also for future generations. The 3.6 % annual
increase in solid waste generation required appropriate facilities and technologies which
are unfortunately not available to match the requirement for sustainable waste
management (Agamuthu and Fauziah, 2007). Sanitary landfills are only 3% of the total
existing disposal sites in the country while the remaining are non-sanitary landfills
(Fauziah, 2009). This makes the management of waste in Malaysia a more delicate matter
to tackle and constrain to establish a sustainable waste management system.

One of the susceptible communities that need urgent attention in sustainable development
is the small tourist island. Very small settlements have historically required little or no
waste management. When small islands become hub for tourist activities the entire
scenario change. The human activities start producing more waste as the economy
generators try to constantly meet the demands of the tourists so as to attract them in larger
numbers. This change often comes about so gradually that it is hardly noticed until the
numbers of tourists have grown past the carrying capacity of the natural resources on the
island.

Figure 1: Location of Langkawi, Redang, Tioman and Pangkor Islands
This paper presents and discuss current waste management practices and challenges in
four tourist islands in Malaysia, namely Redang, Tioman, Pangkor and Langkawi. Pangkor
and Langkawi Islands located at west coast of peninsular Malaysia. Both islands have high
population, very well developed, and have better solid waste management system in
place. While Redang and Tioman Islands located at east coast of peninsular Malaysia.
Compared to Pangkor and Langkawi, Islands in east coast has less population and low
development. Locations of these Islands in Malaysia are shown in Figure 1. The findings
are aimed to provide vital information on waste management to local decision makers
(planners and administrators) in small tourist islands. It would help them in determining
appropriate practices that could be employed to alleviate the problem of waste
management and so as to promote sustainable development of islands.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Waste quantities estimation
Waste quantities generated at each residential area in the selected islands and all the
operating resorts were estimated by manual weighing and by information provided by local
authority and resort operators.

Sample collection and segregation
Total 63 samples (as discarded) were collected randomly and segregated everyday for
seven continuous days (Monday Sunday) at all the selected islands. Each sample
weighed a minimum of 200 kg. Sampling of solid waste at site conducted by employing the
mixing, coning and quartering method described in the ASTM D 5231 (1992). This test
method describes procedures for measuring the composition of unprocessed solid waste
by employing manual sorting. The samples were then sorted into 12 categories (food,
wood, paper, yard, plastic, glass, diapers, metal, textile, batteries/hazards, rubber/leather
and others).

Survey and interviews
Government authorities, waste management contractors and resident representive were
interviewed in one-to-one basis. Waste collection procedure, current recycling practices,
disposal methods, and potential environmental impact were observed and monitored. Total
250 questionnaires with 50 questions each were distributed to obtain residents feedback
on Island waste management (i.e. waste collection efficiency, recycling practices, public
opinion, attitude towards waste problems and awareness). The structured questionnaire
was developed interactively over time. The final changes to the questionnaire were made
on the basis of observations and results of pre-testing the final draft questionnaire. The
questionnaire was prepared based on Likert Scale to obtain simplified feedback from the
respondent. The Likert Scale involves the use of intensity questions/ statements to
measure the strength of the respondents opinion on a topic or issue. Generally,
respondents were provided with several statement options (e.g. strongly disagree,
disagree, agree and strongly agree) which they may choose from in order to rate their
responses. The responses were analysed by using frequency analysis and severity index.
The answers to questions were displayed on a 0 to 4 point scale. The severity index (SI)
was calculated based on the Eq. (1) (Hasnain et al., 2005).

Where a
i
is the index of a class; constant expressing the weight given to the class; xi
is the frequency of response; i =0, 1, 2, 3, 4 and described as below: x
0
, x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
are
(1)
the frequencies of response corresponding to a
0
=0, a
1
=1, a
2
=2, a
3
=3, a
4
=4,
respectively.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Solid Waste Generation
Increasing trends in waste generation were observed in all islands. Islands in Malaysia are
generating approximately 400 metric tons of solid waste per day. Table 1 summarized
population and solid waste generation data in Redang, Pangkor, Tioman and Langkawi.
The waste generation rate in these islands was found to be in the range of 0.5 1.1
kg/person/day. This is within the Malaysian common waste generation rate from 0.5 - 1.5
kg/person/day. Kuala Lumpur has the highest generation rate of 1.5 kg/person/day
(Agamuthu et al., 2009). Langkawi (urban island) recorded highest per capita generation
rate of 1.1 kg/person/day and followed by Tioman and Redang with 0.87 kg/person/day
and 0.86 kg/person/day respectively. Results shows that Tioman and Redang having
similar waste generation data. Both islands are located at east coast of peninsular
Malaysia and both are less developed islands in a rural area. For a close comparison with
an urban island community, the per capita generation rate of Penang Island is estimated at
1.3 kg/person/day (UNDP, 2008) and for Singapore (urban and developed island) is 3.4
kg/person/day (Renbi and Mardina, 2002). As for the rural island such Sri Lanka, it has
waste generation rate of 0.34 kg/person/day (UNEP, 2001). Result shows that islands with
different socio-economic development and the degree of urbanization influence waste
generation rates. The finding is also similar to a study conducted by Troschinetz and
Mihelcic (2009)

Table 1: Population and waste generation rate in the four islands
Redang Tioman Pangkor Langkawi
Size (km
2
) 10.87 131 8 478.5
Population 1,400 3,400 26,000 79,000
Waste generated
(metric ton/ day)
2.7 6.95 13 85
Waste generation rate
(kg per person per day)
0.86 0.87 0.48 1.08

Waste Composition
The average waste composition results for Malaysian Islands indicates that food waste as
the main waste component with 32 %, followed by paper and plastic with composition of
21 % and 14 % respectively (Figure 2). The standard deviation calculated among 63
samples segregated shows only a minor deviation in food/ organic waste. This shows that
food composition in the island waste stream is quite similar and it is also comparable with
other islands such as Singapore (Renbi and Mardina, 2002) and Green Island, Taiwan
(EPA Taiwan, 2002).

The waste composition results indicate that combustible contents are the main waste
component with around 87 % in all islands, followed by compostable and recyclables with
almost equal composition around 42.5 %. High amount of recyclables in the island waste
are due to the effect of tourism at the island during weekends. Tourists tend to use and
generate high amount of packaging waste like styrofoam food containers, mineral bottles,
magazines, carton boxes and shopping bags. Most of these items are recyclables. Waste
composition data indicate that if both compostable and recyclable fraction were
successfully separated at source and treated in integrated approach, almost 85 % of the
waste can be diverted from the landfill.


Figure 2: Waste composition in Malaysian Islands

Collection and Transportation
Islands generally have at least two trips of waste collection per day, except at Redang
Island where the wastes are collected only once daily at alternate locations. The waste
collection in Islands has been contracted out to a private firm. Collection area covered
almost 80% of the population and about 20 60 % of waste is not collected. Pangkor,
Tioman and Langkawi Islands have better infrastructure and most of the residential areas
and resorts can be accessed via normal road. Therefore, waste collection/ transportation
were carried out by using compactors and lorries. As for Redang and few locations in
Tioman Island, due to rocky hills and limited access roads, waste collections were carried
using boats.

Figure 3: Overfilled garbage transportation boat

Plastic
14%
Diapers
5%
Textile
3%
Wood
4%
Glass
5%
Food/Organic
31%
Others
1%
Yard
11%
Hazards
0%
Metal
2%
Rubber/
Leather 3%
Paper
21%
Food/Organic
Paper
Plastic
Diapers
Textile
Rubber/Leather
Wood
Yard
Glass
Metal
Hazards
Others
All the waste transferred from Redang to the mainland is disrupted from November till
J anuary annually as it is the monsoon season and the sea is rough during the season.
During peak season, due to dramatic increases in waste generation, the boat used to
transport waste is overfilled with garbage bags and it is quite common for a few bags to
drop into the ocean (Figure 3). Survey showed that the public is quite neutral with the
present waste collection service and they agree that current waste collection frequency is
satisfactory with severity index of 48.3 % and 61.0 %. Redang shows the lowest
percentage of 45.0 %, which is due to its complicated waste collection system (e.g. by
boat). Besides that, public are demanding for more waste bins to be provided in Redang
(SI =30 %).

Landfill
As for disposal methods, majority of the islands depending on landfill located in the island
except for Redang, the waste being transported and disposed in mainland. Survey shows
that every year almost 40,000 metric tons of wastes are disposed at landfill in the Islands.
Overall, approximately 60% of the waste are collected and disposed off in non-sanitary
landfills. The remaining 35 % were illegally burned/ dumped while 5 % were dumped into
ocean. Current waste management practice in Malaysian Islands is presented in Table 2.
Approximately 100% of landfills in Malaysian islands operate as mere open-dumps that
lack proper lining system and without leachate treatment facilities. There is only a layer of
natural lining, clay as prevention of leakage of leachate to the water table beneath the
landfill and no cell system is currently being practiced at the site. No proper treatment or
drainage is allocated to the leachate and the trench often swells during the monsoon
season. All the landfill in the island had waste-related aesthetic problem, leachate
contamination and landfill gas/ odor problems. There is apparent evidence that, in the
island, waste collection is not effective and disposal method such as landfill are not done
in the appropriate way which subsequently gives negative effects to the environment. The
landfills will be filled by 2015 if current trends of waste generation and handling continue.
Alternative landfill sites are not available. Therefore there is limitation on landfill disposal in
islands. As an alternative, incinerators have been used as disposal method.

Table 2: Waste management practice in Malaysian Islands (metric tons/ month)
Waste Management Langkawi Pangkor Tioman Redang
Composting 10 1 2 1
Recycling 120 31 15 2
Open burning/ dumping 816 50 79 35
Landfill/ Incinerator 1604 308 112 45
Total Waste 2550 390 209 83

Incineration
Even tough incineration technology has been implemented in year 1998 at certain tourist
islands namely Langkawi, Pangkor and Tioman, where 6 mini-incinerators with a capacity
of 3 to 20 ton/day with an overall cost of RM 17 million (US 4.6 million) (Latifah et al.,
2009). Only one unit of 3 ton capacity incinerator is currently being utilized in Tioman
Island. Another 10 ton capacity incinerator is used occasionally to burn some government
classified documents in Langkawi. The remaining four units of incinerator are no longer
functioning. This is due to the design of the incinerator, which is not suitable for Malaysian
waste; high moisture content. The only incinerator working in Tioman Island also needs a
lot of diesel to sustain the combustion, which is proven not economically feasible. However
literature showed that, almost 214 000 metric tones of waste/ month was generated
Singapore and 90% of waste are successfully incinerated (Renbi and Mardina, 2002). The
moisture content and calorific value of Malaysian and Singapore waste are almost similar.
Therefore the failures of incinerator in Malaysian Islands are mainly due to wrong design
and non-availability of pre-treatment of waste prior to incineration. Pre-treatment of waste
are crucial especially if the waste has lower calorific value and high moisture content
(Niessen, 1995).

Composting and Recycling
Composting and recycling has been practiced in major resorts in Redang, Tioman,
Pangkor and Langkawi Island. Tioman recorded high composting rate which is about 1.1
% from total waste generated. In term of volume of compost generated, Langkawi lead the
list with approximately 10 tons/ month. As for the recycling, the highest recycling rate of
7.9 % was recorded in Pangkor Island. High amount of recyclables contributed by tourism
industry found to be the driven force for recycling activities. Some resorts separate the
waste into several categories namely plastic, cardboards and papers, aluminium cans and
food waste. The recyclables are collected and sold at mainland. It is estimated about 1 - 2
metric tons of waste (1.2 2.4 %) are being recycled by resort operators every month.
Overall, the recycling and composting rate is still far behind compared to Malaysian
Governments target of 22 % and 8% respectively by 2020 (Agamuthu et al., 2009). In
order to achieve the target, a significant waste-stream diversion, a material volume
reduction through large-scale, integrated and well-executed programs for recycling and
composting are required. A diversion of 42 % and 54% has been observed in Pacific
Island Guam (Green Island Alliance, 2005) and Singapore (D. Zhang et al., 2010)
respectively.

Availability of Material Recovery Facilities (MRF) and scavengers plays significant role in
waste recycling activities. Composting has been practiced in major resorts in Redang,
Tioman, Pangkor and Langkawi Island. Survey showed that respondents agreed that they
need more recycling facilities and recycling programme or campaign with severity index of
69.7 % and 75.5 respectively. Among the islands surveyed, Pangkor residents shows
higher recycling practice with severity index of 66.0 % followed by Langkawi and Tioman
with 40 % and 34 % respectively (Figure 4). Redang recorded the lowest with 31.5 %. This
survey feedback finding is further supported by waste management data indicating
Pangkor has the highest waste recycling rate of 7.9 %. Further investigations revealed that
Pangkor has a lot of material recovery facilities compared to other islands. Therefore, it is
evident that material recovery facilities will boost recycling rates in the Island. Other
treatment options such as recovery, recycling, reuse (3Rs) have been successfully
practiced in some urban islands. However the effort for 3Rs is driven by government
incentives or regulations.

31.5
8.0
34.0
5.5
66.0
4.0
40.0
11.8
0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0
Recycling practice
Source separation
Severi ty Index, %
Langkawi
Pangkor
Tioman
Redang

Figure 4: Respondents feedback on waste practice and source separation

Open Burning and Ocean Dumping
As for the waste disposal practices, waste generated by villagers are quite often dumped/
burned at backyard with severity factor between 60 - 84 %. Open dumping is the prevalent
method of final waste disposal, creating considerable environmental and health hazards.
Although there is authority directive to not dump any waste into the ocean, illegal dumping
into ocean is still being practiced by some villagers as 3.5 - 10.5 % of respondents agreed
that sometimes they dump waste into the ocean. It is estimated about 2 metric tons of
waste are being dumped into ocean every month. The highest severity factor recorded for
Redang Island, as waste management in Redang always disrupted by monsoon, open
burning/ ocean dumping is the only left choice for them.

Waste Management Challenges
Analysis on present waste management at Malaysian Island shows that there are few
issues and challenges that need urgent attention (Table 3).

Table 3: Waste Management Challenges in Malaysian Islands
Issues & Challenges
Dumps poorly located at the island
High transportation cost (via boat)
Uncontrolled scavenging
Inadequate budget
Lack of rubbish bin/ container
In efficient waste collection and transportation
Inadequate management and maintenance of equipments
Low public education and awareness of SWM issues
Low waste separation at source
Low reduce, reuse, and recycle waste (3R)
No alternative treatment strategy
Improper disposal method - Illegal burning, dumping & Ocean dumping
Environmental pollution & Safety non compliance
Aesthetic problem
CONCLUSIONS

Current waste management practices, issues and challenges were identified and
documented for Redang, Tioman, Pangkor and Langkawi Islands. The waste generation
rate for typical tourist islands found to be in the range of 0.5 1.1 kg/person/day. The
waste composition results indicate that food waste as the main waste component with 32
%, followed by paper (21 %) and plastic (14%). Islands solid waste contained equally
about 42.5 % of compostable and 42.5 of recyclables materials. Therefore composting can
be incorporated in all the landfills together with an integrated system of recycling. If both
compostable and recyclable fraction were successfully separated at source and treated in
an integrated approach, almost 85 % of the waste can be diverted from the landfill. Island
community also welcome more recycling facilities and require more recycling programmes
or campaign. Material recovery facilities (MRF) are required to boost recycling rates in the
islands. Waste minimization including waste segregation and recycling has been regarded
as an appropriate management option for local decision makers (planners and
administrators) in small islands. Waste management is a crucial, ongoing and significant
public service system that needs to be efficiently delivered to the community to maintain
aesthetic and public health standards. Local authorities must plan and operate the system
in keeping with potential to demonstrate sustainable development through an integrated
waste management approach. A systematic effort is necessary to improve increasing
urbanization and population growth.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author would like to thank the management and staff of Manjung Municipality, Tioman
Development Authority, Kuala Terengganu Municipality and Langkawi Development
Authority for providing the data used to undertake the research outlined in this article.

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