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Aims of wastewater treatment

Protect ecological health of the receiving environment


Disposal is often via fresh and marine ecosystems
Remove material which exerts a oxygen demand through
biological and chemical process
Prevent the receiving environment turning anoxic
Prevent Eutrophication
o Increase in N and P in ecosystems stimulates the
growth of primary producers like algae
o N and P are termed growth limiting according to the
Redfield Ratio
o Dark respiration (form of respiration in plants where
carbon dioxide is released without the aid of sunlight)
causes oxygen sag at night
o Impact on ecology as the conditions favours the
primary producers (algae) and the competition will lead
to a decrease in diversity
o Algae on the surface will restrict light penetration
changing the light climate of the water. Impacts benthic
aquatic plants that require lights for photosynthesis
o Epiphyte and biofilm grow over the aquatic plants
create a shade and restrict photosynthesis
o Loss of aquatic plants due to the anoxic conditions
leads to mineralization release of bound nutrients
from sediment causing more algae growth
Protect public health of humans that comes into contact with effluent
Exposure through ocean fallout/recreational waters
Water reclamation (recycle water)
Avoid spread of waterborne diseases
Chemicals found in wastewater can have detrimental impacts to human health
o Originate from industrial chemicals (heavy metal, pesticides), household
chemicals (detergent, pesticides), excreted by people (disposing unused drugs),
formed during wastewater treatment (disinfection by-products)
o Present chronic health risk long term exposure to small doses can have a
cumulative effect, e.g.
Endocrine disruption compounds (EDCs)
May result in disruptive endocrine activities such as modulating the effects of
hormones that control sexual development and reproduction
Xenoestrogens (synthetic or natural chemicals that imitates estrogen)
Found in personal care products (cosmetics), industrial chemicals and
insecticides
Recycle and Recover the valuable components of wastewater
Water (water reclamation)
Energy recovery (Methane production for power generation)
o Focus convert WWTP into net energy producers
Nutrient recovery phosphorous required by all life forms for growth however
a limited resource


Wastewater treatment process
Preliminary Treatment
Targets the removal of gross pollutants
o Size distribution 1 100mm
Disposed via land fill
Screening
o Rotating screen belts, screw screens
Grit Chambers
o Velocity of the incoming sewage is adjust to allow the
settlement of gross pollutants
o Circular/vortex chambers creates circular flow pattern
causing grit to settle while lighter organic material in
suspension for treatment down stream
o Aerated girt chamber creates air flow in a circular manner
Secondary Treatment
Targets constituents that exert an oxygen demand and eutrophication
(BOD/COD and N/P)
Converts nutrient into:
o Biomass that can be separated from water by sedimentation, filtration, etc
assimilation of N and P into living biomass
o Environmentally benign inorganic substances biological oxidation and
reduction
Achieved using biological reactors
o Highly engineered, artificial systems creating favourable environments to
concentrate specific organisms and enhance their degradation capabilities
o Process utilize the natural degrading capabilities of microorganisms

Primary treatment
Physical treatment aimed at removing the solids using
sedimentation tank
~ 30% removal of BOD and organic N
Results in 2 waste streams
o Water (primary effluent) high in nutrient (N and P)
o Sludge high in organic carbon
Classification of microorganism
Carbon source
o Heterotrophic respiration of organic carbon (sugars, alcohols, organic
acids)
o Autotrophic fix inorganic carbon
o Mixtrophic Both carbon source
Energy source
o Chemotrophic energy from chemical reaction
Chemoautotroph energy from oxidation of inorganic molecules
Chemoheterotroph energy from respiration of organic molecules
o Fermentation energy from converting carbohydrates
o Phototrophic energy from sunlight
Oxygen requirement
o Aerobic dissolved oxygen
o Anaerobic bonded oxygen in the form of NO
3
or NO
2

o Anaerobic (e.g. fermentation)


Degradation of Organic substance
Heterotrophic process
Most of the organic substance (BOD, COD or TOC) are
biologically degradable
Biological degradation (respiration) results in
o Growth of microorganisms
o Oxygen consumption
Aerobic (dissolved oxygen)
Anoxic (NO
3
or NO
2
)
End products
o Carbon dioxide (when NO
3
and N
2
are reduced)
o Water
o Synthesis of biomass (new cell growth)
Nitrification
Two steps process
o Oxidation of ammonia to nitrite using ammonia oxidising bacteria such as
Nitrosomans (aerobic condition)
NH
4
+O
2
NO
2
-
+ H
2
O
o Oxidation of nitrite to nitrate using nitrite oxidising bacteria such as Nitrobacter spp
(aerobic condition)
NO
2
-
+ O
2
NO
3
-

Autotrophic process as AOB and NOB fix CO
2
into biomass using energy yielded from
their chemical reactions
Slow growing
Requirements
o Aerobic : DO (4.5mh per 1 mg of NH
4
)
o pH > 6 (optimal between 7.3 8)
o Temperature > 5 (optimal between 25-30
0
C
o Inorganic carbon (CO
2
or CaCO
3
)
o Low BOD concentrations in high BOD concentration, conditions will promote the
growth of heterotrophic organisms and dominate the slow growing AOB and NOB
Denitrification
Returns nitrogen to atmosphere by reducing nitrate to
nitrogen gas
NO
3
-
NO
2
-
NO + N
2
O N
2

Performed by a diverse range of Heterotrophic bacteria
that have nitrate reductase, Nitrite reductase, N
2
O
reductase
Anoxic conditions bacteria require NO
3
as a
substitute electron acceptor
Requirements
o Anaerobic conditions inhibited by oxygen
however require NO
3
and/or NO
2

o Electron donor organic carbon source
(BOD/COD)

ANAMMOX (deammonifcation)
NH
4
is oxidised to N
2
under anaerobic conditions using NO
2
as the electron acceptor
Three steps
o Reduction of nitrite to nitric oxide by nitrite reductase
o Condensation of ammonium and nitric oxide to form hydrazine (N
2
H
4
) by a
hydrazine synthase
o Oxidation of hydrazine into dinitrogen gas by a hydrazine oxidoreductase
Autotrophic process
Very slow growing
Requirements
o NH
4
to NO
2
ratio is 1 : 1
o Anoxic and Mesophilic conditions
o Alkaline solution
o Low BOD

Phosphorous removal
All bacteria contain ~1-2% of P in their biomass while others
accumulate larger quantities of P (5-7%)
Fermentation of BOD/COD produce volatile fatty acid (VFA)
Anaerobic conditions required to assimilate VFA into carbon storage
Aerobic conditions are then required for the internal/stored carbon
source to be oxidized providing energy to grow and form/store
polyphosphate
BNR reactors
Suspended growth
Biological floc exists in
suspension via aeration and
mixing
Complex consortia of
microorganisms
Filamentous bacteria play an
important role in floc formation
Biomass / water separated by
sedimentation

Attached growth
Biofilm system
Biological slime attached to a
surface
Group of microbes that adhere
together other on a surface
Embedded within a self-
produced matrix of
extracellular polymeric
substances (EPS) Glue
The Bathing Medium
Biofilms depend on bathing medium (sewage) for supply of nutrients
Transportation is termed mass transport or mass flux
o Diffusion rate determined by the concentration gradient
o Attached to a surface means they benefit from convection
Bulk movement / flow
Shear force
Thickness of the biofilm is related to the flow rate of the bathing
medium
Shear stress caused by viscosity & turbulence on the biofilm causes
detachment (sloughing)
Biofilms
Variations in pH, oxygen and nutrient availability, it creates a wide
range of ecological niches
The distribution of species within the community are not spatially
uniform
o This is because the aerobic bacteria takes up the O
2

reducing the O
2
and creates an anaerobic conditions for the
anaerobic bacteria, resulting in the stratification of aerobes
and anaerobes
o This also results in the stratification of slow (aerobes) and
fast (anaerobes) growing microbes and gradient of nutrients
Results in highly diverse ecosystems which can perform more
functions


Attached growth system Trickling filters
Components
Infiltrating water (primary effluent) percolates over highly permeable
support media, high in surface area
Height is typically 1.5-5 m tall
Media supports a community of microorganisms
Passive aeration of infiltration water
Media bed (highly permeable)
o Rock bed
SA of 50-90m
2
, Void of 50-60%
Good BOD removal
Small void percentage leads to ponding creating anaerobic dead
zones, results in poor nitrification
Ponding eventually causes odours and files
o Plastic media
Corrugated high surface area (up to 240 m
2
)
Uniformed 95% void space, prevents clogging
Promotes a high aerobic environment good nitrification
Underdrains and ventilation ports collect water to take away from m
media and also allow air to enter and aerate the system
Design criteria
Based on loading
o Flow per surface area per day
o Organic loading
o Nitrogen loading
BOD removal
o High flow rate high BOD load = poor nitrification
o Because fast growing heterotroph outcompete slow growing
nitrifiers for oxygen and space
Nitrification
o Low flow rate low BOD load = good nitrification
o Plastic media to improve oxygen transfer into the biofilm
o Nitrification can occur only once BOD has exhausted

Set up of trickling filter
Singular tank mainly for BOD removal
o Recycle to return nitrified effluent (high in NO
3
) to the top of the
filter
o Utilize BOD in the influent to drive denitrifcation
o Occurs within anaerobic micro-environments within the biofilm
Operate in series
o First tank meant for BOD removal
Second tank meant for nitrification (exposed to low con. of BOD)
Advantages
Easy and robust process to
operate
Stable operation
No aeration system required
No sludge return
Low energy consumption as the
rotating arm is hydraulically
driven by the water coming out
from the nozzle
Disadvantages
No simultaneous
phosphorus removal
Difficult to achieve total N
removal
Risk of clogging and odour
problems with rock media
Grazing snails consume and
dominate biomass
Temperature problems in
cold climate cause the bed to
ice up
Large physical footprint

Suspended growth reactor activated sludge
Clarifier sludge (biomass) separation using a big sedimentation tank
Operational parameters of clarifier
Mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS) crude estimates of biomass
concentrations within the reactor
o Adjust according to season as the rate of reaction depends on
temperature
Winter colder reaction falls
Sludge retention time / Sludge age
o Calculated by dividing the total amount of solids in the system by the
rate of loss
o Controlled by sludge waste rate (WAS)
Waste more young sludge
Waste less older sludge
o Controls the microbial population in the activated sludge
Old sludge age encourage the slow-growing nitrifiers to
grow as it need at least 8 days old sludge to have
nitrifiers
Sludge loading
o Food to microorganism ration (F/M)
Dissolved oxygen concentration has to be maintained to achieve
BOD removal
Recycle/return rates
Settleability measure how well the biomass settles
o Poor settling sludge (bulking sludge) caused by filamentous
bacteria
o Results in high effluent SS concentration which impacts the
environment or downstream treatment process
o Washout of biomass reduces sludge age
Sludge Volume Index (SVI) =



Denitrifcation process (issues)
Nitrate is produced during nitrification and denitrification needs to
follow to reduce the NO
3
to N
2
.
As denitrification is heterotrophic process, it requires an organic carbon
source, however during nitrification, the organic substrate (BOD)
required for denitrification is concerted
Problem can be solved by :
o Dosing of external carbon source
Post Denitrification
o Special reactor layout
Modified Lutzack Ettinger (MLE)
Simultaneous Nitrification Denitrification

MLE
Pros
Small reactor
volume
Make use of the
incoming BOD
Cons
High process
control, high
variability =
complicated
Common for bigger
plants (large
footprints)
Increased pumping
Simultaneous Nitrification
Denitrification
Pros
Stable, easy operation,
very good effluent
quality
Common for smaller
plants or very low
effluent targets
Cons
More reactor volume,
more expensive during
construction

Post
Denitrification
Pros
Very good
effluent
quality, no
internal
recirculation
Cons
External
carbon source
= high
operational
cost


Other reactors
Attached growth system
Rotating biological contactors
Aeration achieved by rotation of
disc
Biofilm grows on the disc
Pros
Low energy consumption
Stable and easy process
Good for small WWTPs
Cons
Less specific surface than
trickling filter
Eventual odour problems when
it becomes anaerobic
Housing required (cold
conditions)
Suspended growth system
Integrated fixed-film activated
sludge (IFAS)
Moving/suspended bed of
plastic media increase surface
area
Hybird floc and biofilm system
Long biomass retention time and
thus supports slow growing
nitrifiers
Pros
Small physical footprint
Cons
High energy demand as high
aeration rate needed to suspend
the bed
Plastic becomes brittle and
breaks away, blocking the
screens
Suspended growth system
Sequencing batch reactor
Not continuous flow and can
alter sewage concentration
to increase carbon content
Single reactor
o Feed
o React
o Settle
o Decant
Nitrification and
Denitrification occur in 1
reactor time orientated
Pros
Small physical footprint
Suspended growth system
Membrane bioreactor (MBR)
Combination of activated
sludge with membrane
filtration
High concentration of
MLSS is retained
Coarse aeration to limit
membrane fouling
Pros
High removal of pathogens
Good quality effluent,
suitable for reuse
Compact, small footprint
Cons
Periodic backwashing /
chemical cleaning of
membrane to remove
fouling layers increase
maintenance cost
Energy intensive
Attached growth vs Suspended growth
Attached growth
Pros
No aeration (passive aeration by ventilation) reduce cost
Simple design and operation
Cons
Large physical footprint
Poor total N and P removal
Suspended growth
Pros
High nutrient removal
Compact design
Cons
High energy requirement
Process control


Waste stabilisation pond
Operates like a natural system consisting of co-metabolic activity
(anaerobic and aerobic process)
Water column
Algae photosynthesize producing O
2
and it creates aerobic
conditions
Aerobic respiration of organic carbon produces CO
2

Algae uptake of NH
4
and PO
4
through assimilation
Nitrification of NH
4
to get NO
3

Algae uptake of NO
3

Ammonium volatilisation (pH increase during photosynthesis)
Sediment
Bound nutrients (algae dies and settle to the bottom)
Anaerobic respiration (Denitrification of NO
3
to N
2
)
Mineralisation leads to release of NH
4
and PO
4

Nitrification in sediment water interface
Shallow
Light penetration has solar radiation which is a power disinfectant
Critical barrier in water reuse schemes for pathogen removal
Desluge
Pros
Low capital and operation cost
Energy efficient (low greenhouse footprint)
Cons
Low rate compared to the amount of space used
Difficult to separate the algae as it doesnt settle well
Expensive to remove the algae
Classification
Based on organic loading
Primary lagoons
o Deep, dark, anaerobic pot
o Can be covered or uncovered (capture CH
4
)
o Sedimentation and BOD removal
Secondary
o Facultative (anaerobic and aerobic degradation)
o > 1-2 m deep
Tertiary (maturation pond)
o Shallow (<1.5m)
o Polishing of nutrients, solids and pathogen inactivatin
o Aerobic


Sludge Treatment
Aims
Stabilisation
o Reduction of the organic load CO
2
and CH
4

o Prevention of odour disturbance
o Pathogen reduction
o Exhaust organic material to avoid GHG emission during dewater or
storage
Reduction of sludge volume
o Storage space
o Reduction of transport and removal costs
o Separation of the sludge liquor by
Thickening
Dewatering
Sludge Stabilization
Biological processes
o Anaerobic Digestion
Fermentation / Methanogenesis create CH
4

Pychrophilic (low rate) T = 10 20
0
C
Mesophilic (high rate) T = 30 37
0
C
Thermophilic T = ca. 55
0
C
More insulation / heating required
High rate / smaller footprint
Good pathogen ki
o Aerobic digestion
Aerobic respiration of organic carbon create CO
2

Simultaneous aerobic stabilisation (extended aeration)
Composting
Thermal process
o Incineration
Anaerobic digestion
Complex microbial community
Aim is to break down solid waste through biological degradation
Without O
2
prevented from entering the system through physical
containment
Mesophilic conditions
o Most common form of digestion
o Retention time 2 4 weeks
Production o biogas (CH
4
) which can be used to generate power
Mixing occurs via gas production and mechanical means
o Mechanical mixers
o Pumping
o Gas
Heating to maintain mesophilic tempeartures
o Heat exchange recover heat from cooling power
generators / boiler
o Heat incoming sludge
Simplified microbial pathways
Anaerobic (without oxygen)
Hydrolysis using microbial enzymes
o Breakdown of log chained polymer (carbohydrates, fats,
protein) into monomers (simple sugars, fatty acids, amino
acids)
Fermentation of products from hydrolysis
o Produces alcohols or volatile acid (acetate) + CO
2

Methanogenesis of products from fermentation
o Acetate or CO
2
are converted to CH
4


Sludge co-digestion
Increase biogas production by
o Co-digest wastewater sludge with organic rich industry waste
Use existing mesophilic digesters
Tanker in organic trade waste from industry
o Animal waste
o Fish and seafood production
o Fruit, vegetable, algae
o Oil and fats, carbohydrate and whey
o High in BOD/COD
Waste that would otherwise be discharged into sewer as trade waste and
thus by-pass the sewer network
Combination of good quality gas and efficient turbines can double or
triple power production
Industry waste can provide an energy and income source
Benefits
o Increase energy production
o By-pass sewer network
Waste that would otherwise be discharged into sewer as trade
waste industry saves on permits
Reduce odours, blockages, corrosion of sewer network
By-pass primary and secondary treatment as there is a lower
oxygen demand for the secondary treatment processes
Cheap for industry as it does not need to fund aeration process
in secondary treatment
Also reduce disposal cost
Mechanical Dewatering
Aims
Reduction of sludge volume
Making storage possible
Reduction of disposal costs
Processes
Mechanical processes
o Centrifuge
Natural processes
o Sludge drying beds
Conditioning of sludge prior to mechanical dewatering necessary
Sludge stabilisation lagoons
Essential that bioavailable carbon is exhausted and dried to
minimise CH
4
emissions during storage
Reduce carbon tax
Reduce odours


Water reuse
Risk Analysis of waste reuse schemes
Assessment of the water recycling system
o Identification of source water (stormwater or sewage)
o Intended end-use purpose
o Identify major hazards pathogen of concern
Identify preventative measures
o Selection of barriers critical control points
o Depends on the end-use (opportunity for exposures)
o Exposure Assessment
Operation procedures
o Identify monitoring parameters
o Parameters for the detection of process failres
Validation
o To ensure health-based targets are met
Emphasis on knowing your system
o Identify vulnerabilities and risk of the system which need to be
managed
Index pathogens
Impractical to set human health-based targets for all pathogens
Campylobacter for bacteria
Rotavirus and Adenovirus for viruses
Cryptosporidium for protozoa
Chosen because
o Represent 3 key pathogens groups
o All associated with faecal contamination abundant in
storage
o Good does response data available
Information of the relationship between dose of
these pathogens and likelihood of illness
Data available from investigations of outbreaks or
experimental studies
o Reasonably infective
Health-based targets
Performance targets for treatment process in terms of
o Required log removal value of pathogens via treatment
o On-site controls aimed at reducing exposure
Defined by :
o Concentrations of pathogens in sewage guidelines provide
default values
o Does response data
Relationship between the dose of pathogen and the likelihood of
illness
Tolerable does
o Exposure
Depends on end-use (opportunity for exposure)
Frequency & duration of exposure will influence dose
More likely to be exposed = higher health based target
Validation of health-based targets
Measure log removal value (LRV)
o Demonstrate LRV of individual process units to assess the
contribution of individual process units to pathogen
removal
o Treatment process train as total entity cannot be validated
from influent to effluent
Based on removal of microbial indicators (surrogates)
o Indicators should mimic pathogen behaviour/fate of
pathogen so that
Have same removal mechanisms
Removed by the treatment process equivalent or
lesser extent than the pathogen

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