Chapter 3

Types of Heat Exchangers

Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter students will:
• Know the various ways in which heat exchangers are classified
• Have a knowledge of the structure and characteristics of available heat exchanger
types
• Have an understanding of the relative merits of different heat exchanger types
for particular applications.

3.1 Classification of Heat Exchangers

Heat exchangers are described in a number of ways, according to their geometry
and their application. Fig. 3.1a-f illustrates the classifications that will be used in this
module, however this is not exclusive. Other designations are used in particular
industries and standards are relevant to some applications. One important
distinction that is not included in Figure 3.1 is that between fired and unfired heat
exchangers. In this module we shall focus mainly on unfired heat exchangers although
much of the analysis is applicable to fired units, except in the region of the
combustion chamber.

The classifications included in Fig. 3.1 are:

a) Classification by Heat Transfer Process
b) Classification by Surface Area Density
c) Classification by Number of Fluid Streams
d) Classification by Flow Arrangement
e) Classification by Heat Transfer Mechanisms
f) Classification by Application and Industry
g) Classification by Construction
Classification by Heat Transfer Process
Heat may be transferred between two fluids by direct contact, in which case the fluids
are permitted to mix. Examples of this arrangement include open cooling towers,
many driers and direct contact feed heaters. In this module we shall be dealing

3.1
principally with indirect contact heat exchangers in which the two fluid streams are
separated by an impermeable wall through which heat is transferred. An alternative
arrangement of indirect heat exchanger incorporates a solid storage element which
is alternately heated and cooled by the hot and cold process streams, respectively.

Heat Transfer Process

Direct Contact type Indirect Contact type

Direct Transfer Storage Fluidised Bed

Figure 3.1a Classification by Heat Transfer Process

Classification by Surface Area Density

Heat exchangers with a high ratio of heat transfer area to volume (and, by
implication, small flow passages) are known as compact heat exchangers (CHEs). An
arbitrary, but generally accepted boundary between compact and non-compact
classifications is of the order of 300m2/m3, although some authors suggest values of
200m2/m3 or 700m2/m3 are more appropriate figures. The spectrum of area densities
found in heat exchangers is found in figure 3.2 An area density of 300m2/m3
corresponds to a flow passage hydraulic diameter of 10mm.

Surface Area Density

Compact Non-Compact
> 300m2/m3 2
<300m /m3

Figure 3.1b Classification by Surface Area Density

3.2
 Figure 3.2 Overview of compact heat transfer surfaces

Classification by Number of Fluid Streams

The majority of heat exchangers have two fluid streams - the hot and the cold
stream. Electric heaters and heat sinks involve heat transfer from a solid to one fluid.
In the process industries it is common for heat transfer to take place between a
number of fluid streams within a single unit.

Number of Fluid Streams

One Two n, n>2

Figure 3.1c Classification by Number of Fluid Streams

Classification by Flow Arrangement

The three simplest flow arrangements are illustrated in Fig. 3.3. These are described
as parallel or co-current flow (both fluids flowing in the same direction); counter or
countercurrent flow (the fluids flowing in opposite directions); and cross-flow (the fluids
flowing at right angles). Multipass arrangements involve a combination of parallel and
counter flow in parts of the heat exchanger and may include an element of

3.3
crossflow. The flow arrangement has a quantitative effect on the performance of a
heat exchanger. This is discussed in more detail in Section 5.

Flow A rrangement

Single Pass M ultipass

Parallel Flow C ounter-flow C ross-flow

C o-current Flow C ountercurrent Flow

Figure 3.1d Classification by Flow Arrangement

Figure 3.3 Flow configerations through heat exchangers

3.4
Classification by Heat Transfer Mechanisms
The three convective heat transfer mechanisms occurring within heat exchangers are
single-phase convection, boiling and condensation. In some circumstances radiation
plays a significant part in the heat transfer.

Heat Transfer Mechanisms

Single phase convection Single phase convection Condensing fluid to Condensing fluid to
both fluids to boiling fluid boiling fluid single phase convection

Electric Heating Convective and radiative

to fluid heat transfer

Figure 3.1e Classification by Heat Transfer Mechanisms

Classification by Application and Industry

Many descriptive terms are applied to heat exchangers based upon their application
or function. Heat exchangers performing similar duties may be referred to by
different names depending upon the application and the custom of the relevant
industry. These descriptions may be misleading - for example no evaporation occurs
in the typical domestic hot water boiler.

Application/industry

Boiler, Evaporator Condenser Oil cooler, air-cooled heat Radiator

exchanger, “radiator”, etc

Reboiler
Heat sink

Figure 3.f Classification by Application and Industry

Classification by Construction
The classification of heat exchangers by construction type is in many ways the most
important of the classifications described here. When a heat exchanger is specified

3.5
 for a particular duty the one of the first tasks of the designer is to identify suitable
construction types. These are described in Section 3.2

Construction

Tubular Plate Extended Surface Regenerative Proprietary

Spiral Lamella

Rotary Fixed Matrix

Gasketed Plate Brazed Plate Welded Plate
Embossed Plate Specialist
PCHE Materials
Tube-Fin SPFHE Graphite, Teflon,
Double Pipe Shell-and-Tube Spiral Tube Plate-Fin
Heat Pipe Glass etc.
etc. etc

Figure 3.1g Classification by Construction

3.2 Heat Exchanger Construction Types

3.2.1 Tubular Heat Exchangers

Tubular heat exchanges comprise an outer tube - the shell - and one or more tubes -
the tubes- within the shell. One fluid flows within the shell and the other in the
tubes. Heat exchangers with relatively few tubes (typically less than 12) inside the
shell, and with no baffles to guide the shell side fluid are referred to as double-pipe
heat exchangers. Those with considerably more tubes and baffles to guide the shell
side fluid are known as shell-and-tube heat exchangers. The shell-and-tube heat
exchanger is the mainstay of the process industry and is widely used elsewhere- for
example in power plant condensers and refrigeration plant. Although new types of
heat exchanger are making some inroads into the traditional markets of the shell-
and-tube type, it is still the standard against which others compete.

The Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchanger

As stated above, the shell-and-tube heat exchanger comprises a number of tubes
housed within a shell with their axes parallel to that of the shell. This arrangement is
extremely flexible and can be arranged to give a wide range of flow configurations. A
simplified diagram of a shell-and tube unit with one shell side pass and two tube side

3.6
passes is illustrated in Figure 3.4. Some variations and a system for the nomenclature
used for shell-and-tube units is given in Figure 3.5.

Figure 3.4 Shell-and Tube Heat Exchanger

3.7
 Figure 3.5 Types of shell and tube heat exchangers

The tubes provide the heat transfer surface in a shell-and-tube heat exchanger, since
one fluid flows through the tubes while the shell side fluid flows over the tubes. The
tubes may be plain or may have low fins on either or both the internal and external
surface to increase the effective heat transfer area and, in some cases, to enhance
the heat transfer coefficient which can be achieved. The tubes are held in tubesheets,
generally one at each end, the exception being the U tube design. The tubesheet is a
round metal plate, drilled to locate the tubes. The tubes are expanded in the holes in
the tubesheet to form a mechanical seal, additionally, brazing or welding may be
employed to increase the strength and integrity of the tube to tubesheet joint.
The shell is either rolled from plate and welded along its seam, or, for sizes up to
about 0.6m diameter, cut from standard pipe. Flanged nozzles, normally made from

3.8
standard pipe are welded into holes in the shell to provide inlets and outlets for the
shell side fluids. Flanges are welded to each end of the shell to attach channels or
bonnets (particularly in the case of U tube exchangers the bonnet may be welded
directly to the shell at one end). An array of transverse baffles in the shell provides
support for the tubes and guides the flow back and forth across the tube bundle.
This serves to improve the heat transfer at the expense of some additional pressure
drop. In the case of multi-pass shell side flow longitudinal baffles are included in the
shell.

Figure 3.6a Plate baffles types, modified from Mueller (1973)

(Taken from Fundementals of Heat Exchangers Design by Shah and
Sekulic, John Wiley & Sons, 2003)

Although the shell-and-tube heat exchanger has been the most popular design of
process heat exchanger since the advent of the process industry, research and
development relating to heat transfer, manufacturing methods and materials means
that improved designs are evolving. Two-phase (boiling and condensing) units can
benefit from the use of micro-finned and treated surfaces. Conventional baffle

3.9
arrangements are illustrated in Figure 3.6(a) while relatively recent developments are
rod baffles (Figure 3.6(b)) and Helical Baffles (Figure 3.6(c)). The use of twisted tubes
(Figure 3.6(d)) eliminates the need for baffles entirely.

Figure 3.6b - (a) Four rod baffles held by skid bars (no tubes shown); (b)
tube in a rod baffle exchanger supported by four rods; (c) square layout of
tubes with rods; (d) triangular layout of tubes with rods (Shah, 1981)
(Taken from Fundementals of Heat Exchangers Design by Shah and Sekulic, John
Wiley & Sons, 2003)

3.10
 Figure 3.6c Helical baffles shell-and-tube exchanger: (a) single helix; (b)
double helix (Courtesay of ABB Lamus Heat Transfer, Bloomfield, NJ.)
Taken from Fundementals of Heat Exchangers Design by Shah and Sekulic, John
Wiley & Sons, 2003)

Figure 3.6d Twisted tube bundle for a shell-and-tube exchanger (courtesay

of Brown Fintube Company, Houston, TX
(Taken from Fundementals of Heat Exchangers Design by Shah and Sekulic, John Wiley
& Sons, 2003)

The tube side fluid enters and leaves through nozzles welded to the tube side
channel. This channel may incorporate one or more pass dividers to give the
requisite number of tube side passes.

Other important construction components that are found in most shell-and-tube

heat exchangers include tie-rods, sealing strips, spacers and gaskets. The design of
shell-and-tube heat exchangers will be covered in more detail in section 6.

3.11
 The Double-Pipe Heat Exchanger
The double-pipe heat exchanger in its simplest form comprises two concentric
tubes, one fluid flows in the inner tube while the other fluid flows in the annulus
between the inner and outer tubes. This is shown schematically in figure 3.7
Frequently, double-pipe heat exchangers are arranged as "U" tubes so that,
irrespective of the overall length of the heat exchanger the fluid inlet and outlet
connections are located relatively close to each other, thus minimising pipe runs.
Units with multiple internal tubes, but having the same general structure and with no
baffles are also referred to as double-pipe heat exchangers. Fig. 3.8 illustrates
arrangements of double-pipe heat exchangers.

Shell side fluid

in

Tube side fluid Tube side fluid

out in

Shell side fluid

out

Figure 3.7 Double Pipe Heat Exchanger Schematic

Figure 3.8b Multi-tube double-pipe heat exchanger

3.12
While the tubular heat exchanger may be regarded as the workhorse of the heat
exchanger world, at least in the process industries, there are an increasing number
of alternatives which the innovative engineer should consider. Most of these are
classed as compact heat exchangers and some are described in the later sections of
this chapter. Compact heat exchangers (CHEs) are not a new technology although
innovative designs are continuously being produced to suit market requirements.
Compact heat exchangers are characterised by high heat transfer surface-area to
volume ratios (typically 200 to 300 m2 per m3, or more) and high heat transfer
coefficients compared to other exchanger types. Such designs are more efficient in
terms of heat transfer although fouling and pressure are important design
considerations and compact heat exchangers are not suitable for all applications. The
students needs only to look at an air conditioiner, a radiator or modern central heating
'boiler' to see that compact design of heat exchangers are literally in everyday use.

3.13
3.2.2 Plate Heat Exchangers

As the name suggests, the fluids in a plate heat exchanger (PHE) are separated by
thin plates, rather than tubes. The plates are unfinned, but are usually corrugated,
the corrugations being important in that they give the plates structural rigidity and
they induce turbulence thus enhancing the heat transfer. There are several variants
of PHE. and this type of heat exchanger presents the greatest challenge to the shell-
and-tube type. A number of arrangements are discussed below.

Plate and Frame (Gasketed Plate) Heat Exchanger

The plate and frame or gasketed plate heat exchanger was one of the first compact
exchangers to be used in the UK process industries, being described in patents
dating from the late 19th century. However the design was first exploited in 1923
for use for the food and drinks processing, particularly in the dairy industry. It is
currently second to the shell and tube heat exchanger in terms of market share.

The most common variant of the plate and frame heat exchanger consists of a
number of pressed, corrugated metal plates compressed together into a frame.
These plates are provided with gaskets, partly to seal the spaces between adjacent
plates and partly to distribute the media between the flow channels. Early designs
used gunmetal plates, but these were soon superceded by stainless steel, now the
most common plate material.

Plate and frame heat exchangers first found widespread used in the food and dairy
industries, where the ability to access plate surfaces for cleaning is imperative. As the
materials of construction, in particular the gasket materials, developed the operating
range and applicability of the units increased.

3.14
 Figure 3.9 - Exploded View of a ‘Food Style’ Plate and Frame Heat Exchanger
(Courtesy of APV)

Figure 3.9 shows an exploded view of a typical plate and frame heat exchanger
design. There are numerous suppliers of plate and frame heat exchangers. While all
manufacturers follow the same basic construction method, the differences in
performance claimed tend to be associated with the patterns on the plates that form
the flow channels, and the choice of gasket materials. Newer designs can
accommodate features such as grossly unequal flow rates on each side of the plate.

3.15
 Figure 3.10 Plate Design Arrangement
(Coutesy of SWEP International)

The heat transfer surface consists of a number of thin corrugated plates pressed out
of a high grade metal. The pressed pattern on each plate surface induces turbulence
and minimises stagnant areas and fouling. Unlike shell and tube heat exchangers,
which can be custom-built to meet almost any capacity and operating conditions, the
plates for plate and frame heat exchangers are mass-produced using expensive dies
and presses. Therefore, all plate and frame heat exchangers are made with a limited
range of plate designs and sizes. However, as can be seen from figure 3.10, even with
this limited range a manufacturer can produce wider range of channel properties, L.

Figure 3.10(a) and (b) illustrates the gasketing arrangement around the ports of a
gasketed plate. It is worth noting that the gaskets are arranged to avoid interstream
leakage. Any leakage from the main body of the gasket is directly to the outside of
the heat exchanger, while leakage from the region of the transfer port is into a
vented area. This feature, together with the ease of disassembly for cleaning, make
the Gasketed Plate Heat Exchanger attractive when handling foodstuffs. The plates

3.16
are ordered so that the required flow arrangements are achieved. Single pass
arrangements are shown in figure 3.11 (a) and (b) and a double pass arrangement is
shown in figure 3.11(c).

Figure 3.10(a) – Close-up View of a

Heat Exchanger Plate (Courtesy of APV)

Figure 3.10(b) Details of typical gasket arrangement for PHE

(taken from Saunders-Heat Exchangers)

3.17
Figure 3.11 (a) Schematic Representation of
Flow Paths (single pass)

Figure 3.11 (b) Most common flow

arrangements in Plate and Frame
Heat Exchangers

Figure 3.11(c) Examples of

flow arrangements in PHEs

3.18
 The plate pack is clamped together in a frame suspended from a carrying bar.
Gaskets are fitted to seal the plate channels and interfaces. The frame consists of a
fixed frame plate at one end and a moveable pressure plate at the other. The
moveable plate facilitates access for cleaning or exchanging the heat transfer
surfaces. A feature of this type of heat exchanger is the ability to add or remove
surface area as necessary. If, as shown in figure 3.11(a), the inlet and outlet ports (or
nozzles) are all in the fixed plate this allows dismantling for cleaning, maintenance or
for the addition or removal of plates without disturbing the pipework connections.

The operating limits of gasketed plate and frame heat exchangers vary from
manufacturer to manufacturer and is largely governed by the gasket material used.
Typically, the operating temperature range is from -35oC to +200oC. Design
pressures up to 30 bar can be tolerated, with test pressures to 40 bar. Higher
temperatures can be tolerated if asbestos gaskets are acceptable.

Typical gasket materials are listed below, together with their approximate maximum
operating temperature:
• Neoprene 110oC
• Nitrile rubber 135oC
• Butyl rubber 150oC
• EPDM. 150oC
• Viton. 175oC
• Asbestos Fibre 260oC

Heat transfer areas range from 0.02 m2 to 4.45 m2 (per plate). Flow rates of up to
3,500 m3/hour can be accommodated in standard units, rising to 5,000 m3/hour with
a double port entry. Approach temperatures as low as 1oC are feasible with plate
and frame heat exchangers.

The surface pattern on the plates tends to induce good mixing and turbulence, and in
general this type of heat exchanger has a low propensity for fouling. Fouling
resistances of typically 25% of those for shell and tube heat exchangers have been
measured by the Heat Transfer Research Incorporated (HTRI) in the USA.

3.19
 Gasketed plate and frame heat exchangers have a large range of applications typically
classified in terms of the nature of the streams to be heated/cooled as follows:
• Liquid-liquid.
• Condensing vapour - liquid.
• Liquid - evaporating liquid

Plate heat exchangers are rarely used in applications involving single-phase

gases.
Gasketed units may be used in refrigeration and heat pump plants and, as stated
earlier are extensively used in the processing of food and drinks, where the ease of
plate cleaning and re-gasketting are important. In the chemicals sector, a substantial
list of heating and cooling applications includes cooling isoparaffin, sulphuric acid, salt
solutions, hexane and kerosene. Heating glycerine and condensing ethanol are other
routine uses. The offshore chemical industry is also a large user in the UK. There are
potential applications for plate heat exchangers on most chemical plants.

Brazed Plate Heat Exchanger

The brazed plate heat exchanger, as shown in section in fig (see Figure 3.12)
comprises a pack of pressed plates brazed together, thus completely eliminating the
use of gaskets. The frame can also be omitted.

Figure 3.12 – Section Through a Brazed Plate Heat Exchanger

(Courtesy of Alfa Laval Thermal Division)

3.20
Brazed plate heat exchangers tend to be offered by the principal suppliers of the
plate and frame type and tend to be directed at niche markets such as refrigeration,
where they have largely displaced shell-and-tube exchangers. Brazed PFEs are
available with heat transfer capabilities up to 600 kW, depending on the supplier.

The brazed and gasketed PFE share many features, but obviously the brazed unit
cannot be disassembled for cleaning or addition of plates. However, the corrugated
plates induce a highly turbulent flow such that the scouring action of the turbulence
reduces surface deposits in the heat exchanger.

Brazed plate heat exchangers consist of a number of pressed stainless steel plates
joined together by brazing. Typically a very high content copper braze is used, and
the brazing process is carried out under vacuum. Capillary forces collect the brazing
material at the contact points between the plates. The braze seals the periphery of
the plates, and the internal herringbone contact points are also brazed, thus
permitting higher allowable working pressures than would be found in gasketed
units.

Stainless steel is usually used as the plate material, temperature limitations are
therefore dependent upon the braze properties. Copper brazed units are available
for temperatures up to 225oC and a maximum operating pressure of 30 bar, but
copper braze may produce an incompatibility with some working media. Nickel
brazed units are available for temperatures up to 400oC and maximum operating
pressures of 16 bar.

The brazed plate unit is aimed at the refrigeration/heat pump market for evaporators
and condensers (water-cooled), but it is also suitable for process water heating, heat
recovery and district heating systems. Brazed plate heat exchangers can also be used
as desuperheaters, subcoolers, economisers and oil coolers. The introduction of
nickel brazed units has allowed brazed units to be used within the process industries,
for duties such as de-mineralised water cooling and solvent condensing.

3.21
Typically, a brazed plate heat exchanger is about 20-30% of the weight of a shell and
tube heat exchanger for the same duty.

For example, a brazed plate heat exchanger, used as a water-cooled refrigerant

condenser with a duty of 70 kW, had a weight of 20 kg. Its height and width were
522 mm and 115 mm respectively. A conventional shell and tube condenser of the
same duty would be 2,250 mm long, have a diameter of 200 mm, and weigh 130 kg.

Welded Plate Heat Exchangers

Welded plate heat exchangers, or more correctly partially welded plate heat
exchangers combine advantages of gasketed plate and brazed plate units. Externally,
partially welded plate heat exchangers (also referred to as twin plate heat
exchangers) resemble fully-gasketed plate and frame units. However, the difference is
the plate pack has alternating welded channels and gasketed channels as in the
arrangement illustrated in figure 3.13. The advantage of welding the plate pairs is
that, except for a small gasket around the ports, other materials are eliminated and
corrosion and the consequence of gasked degradation is reduced.

Figure 3.13 – Flow Diagram of the LR4 APV Baker Laser-Welded Plate Heat Exchanger
(Courtesy of APV)

The overall construction is similar to that of the gasketed plate and frame heat
exchanger (described above), with one important exception: each plate pair is
welded together, normally using laser welding. Porthole gaskets fabricated from
highly resistant elastomer or non-elastomer materials, are attached to the ports in
the welded pair using a glueless method. Plate construction materials are as for the

3.22
gasketed plate and frame heat exchanger. The plate material is normally selected for
its resistance to corrosion.

The operating limits are similar to those for the gasketed plate and frame type, but
with the added protection from leaks afforded by the partially welded construction.
Potential applications are also as for the gasketed plate and frame heat exchanger,
but extended to include more aggressive media. The units may be disassembled and
plate pairs added or the external surface of the pairs mechanically cleaned. The
internal surfaces must be chemically cleaned.

Partially welded plate heat exchangers are used for the evaporation and
condensation of refrigerants such as ammonia and hydrochlorofluorocarbons
(HCFCs), and for chemical and general process duties involving aggressive liquids.

3.2.3 Plate-Fin Heat Exchangers

Plate-fin heat exchangers (PFEs) were developed some 50 years ago for use in the
cryogenics industry. They are now used widely in aircraft and defence applications
and their use in process applications, especially offshore is steadily increasing.

Brazed PFEs

Fin
Fluid
Fluid
'A'
'B'

Plat

Figure 3.14 Brazed PFEs

3.23
A brazed PFE comprises a series of metal sheets pressed, and sometimes cut, to
form fins. Each sheet of fins is then sandwiched between parting plates with bars
down each side and then the assembly is vacuum or salt brazed together to form the
core of the heat exchanger. The fins act as both secondary heat transfer surfaces and
as structural members. Headers are brazed onto the cores. At entry and exit to the
core the fins are designed to ensure even flow distribution, and, particularly in
smaller units, a significant part of the core may be used for flow distribution rather
than heat transfer. The general arrangement of a plate fin heat exchanger is shown
schematically in figure 3.14 and 3.15. An assembled unit is shown in figure 3.16, the
size of this unit serves to illustrate that compact does not necessarily mean small -
compact heat exchangers designed for high thermal duties may well be very large in
absolute terms, but small compared with a shell-and tube unit for the same duty. For
example, a plate-fin heat exchanger with 6 fins/cm provides approximately 1,300 m2
of surface per m3 of volume. This heat exchanger would be approximately 10% of the
volume of an equivalent shell and tube heat exchanger with 19 mm tubes.

3.24
Figure 3.15 Core Structure of a Brazed Aluminium Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger
(Courtesy of Chart Marston Limited)

Figure 3.16 – Aluminium Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger

(Courtesy of Chart Marston Limited)

3.25
 (a) Plain Fins

(b) Perforated Fins

(c) Offset-Strip Fins

(d) Serrated Fins

Figure 3.17 Typical Fins for Plate-Fin Heat Exchangers

A range of fin types and dimensions are available the most common types are: plain,
serrated (or offset strip), louvred and perforated, these are illustrated in figure 3.17
Plain fins may be pressed in a herringbone or wavy pattern, resulting in a tortuous
flow path for the fluid and increased heat transfer. The choice of fin type and
dimension depends upon the nature of the fluid stream and the allowable pressure
drop. Some guidelines are presented in Table 3.1. It should be remembered that the
fins may be chosen to suit the characteristics of each fluid stream - there is no
requirement to use the same type or size of fin for each side of the heat exchanger.

3.26
 Fin Type Application Relative ∆p Relative
Heat
Transfer

Plain General Lowest Lowest

Perforated Boiling streams Low Low
Herringbone Gas streams with low allowable P, High High
High pressure streams Gas streams
for hydrocarbon and natural gas
applications
Serrated Gas streams in air separation Highest Highest
applications General
Table 3.1 – Brazed Plate-Fin Types

The maximum operating temperature of a plate-fin heat exchanger is a function of its

construction materials. Aluminium brazed plate-fin heat exchangers can be used from
cryogenic temperatures (-270oC) up to 200oC, depending on the pipe and header
alloys. Stainless steel plate-fin heat exchangers are able to operate at up to 650oC,
while titanium units can tolerate temperatures approaching 550oC.

Aluminium brazed units can operate at up to 120 bar, depending on the physical size
and the maximum operating temperature. Stainless steel plate-fin heat exchangers
are currently limited to 50 bar, with developments expected that will extend the
capability to 90 bar. Higher pressures can be tolerated by using a diffusion-bonded
structure.

The size of a plate-fin heat exchanger is a function of the procedure used to

assemble the core and is limited by the size of oven used for the brazing process. In
the case of aluminium vacuum-brazed units, modules of 6.25 m x 2.4 m x 1.2 m are
available.

3.27
 If considering use of a brazed aluminium plate-fin exchanger, the engineer should
ensure that:
• All fluids must be clean and dry. Filtration must be used to remove particulate
matter over 0.3mm.
• Fluids must be non-corrosive to aluminium. Water is suitable if it is a closed loop
and contains corrosion inhibitors.
• Fluids must be in the temperature range –270 to +200 o C.
• The maximum design pressure is less than 120 bar.

The temperature and material compatibility criteria are obviously eased if stainless
steel or titanium is used, but unless chemical cleaning is possible, the requirement for
a clean fluid must be met.

Acceptance by the process industries has been slower, largely because the most
common material of construction, aluminium, is a poor structural material under
cyclic loads and at moderate temperatures. The structural integrity of conventional
plate-fin heat exchangers is further compromised in typical process applications by
the presence of braze material and the heightened susceptibility to corrosion at the
brazed joints. Stainless steel and titanium are both difficult to work, and combined
with their inherent cost, make PHEs made with these materials expensive and the
problem of the brazed joints remains. Proprietary designs overcome this, as
described below.

Diffusion Bonded Plate Heat Exchangers

A recent development is the Rolls Laval super-plastic formed diffusion bonded heat
exchanger (SPF/DB) made entirely of titanium. Rolls Laval near Wolverhampton, UK,
is a joint venture involving Rolls Royce and Alfa-Laval, one of the world's leading heat
exchanger manufacturers. As with the Printed Circuit Heat Exchanger, described in
section 3.2.5, development of the SPF/DB heat exchanger required adoption of
technologies which were first used in other fields: in this case the expertise of Rolls
Royce in the manufacture of high integrity aero-engine components. Rolls Royce
recognised that the techniques used to make hollow gas turbine blades, were ideally
suited to the construction of quality heat exchangers.

3.28
Certain metals, including titanium, exhibit superplasticity. Superplasticity is the ability
of a material to sustain large strains without the onset of tensile instability or
necking. Exploitation of this phenomenon permits the generation of complex shapes
to close tolerance without the use of formers. Furthermore, the techniques of
diffusion bonding, as described earlier in this article, and super-plastic forming had
been used in the company for volume production of components to the highest
quality standards.

The steps involved in the manufacture of the Rolls Laval heat exchanger are as
follows. Each element of the heat exchanger comprises three sheets of titanium: two
parting sheets separated by the secondary heat transfer surface. Titanium sheets of
the required thickness and surface finish are cleaned to a high standard to ensure
that no surface contamination is present which might inhibit grain growth during the
diffusion bonding process. A bond inhibitor is then deposited on the internal surfaces
of the parting sheet in a pattern corresponding to the ultimate layout of the passages
of the heat exchanger, effectively masking these areas and thus preventing bonding.
The resulting sandwich is heated under external pressure so that diffusion bonding
occurs. The next stage of the manufacture involves opening the flow channels in the
plate assembly using superplastic forming. During the forming the assembly is placed
in a closed die and heated to around 900°C. Gas is injected at a controlled high
pressure into the sandwich forcing the parting plates to separate and the central
sheet to stretch between them, thus forming the tins. The die is then closed under
external pressure to flatten or "iron" the element, removing any irregularities in its
external shape. A number of elements are diffusion bonded together to form the
heat exchanger core. Addition of appropriate inlet and outlet ports and welding of
the nozzles completes the unit. The steps in the manufacturing process are
illustrated in figure 3.18 and figure 3.19 shows completed elements after super
plastic forming.

3.29
Figure 3.18 Manufacturing the Core of a Diffusion-Bonded Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger
(Courtesy of Rolls Laval Heat Exchangers Ltd)

Figure 3.19 Example Elements of Diffusion Bonded Plate-Fin Heat Exchangers

(Courtesy of Rolls Laval Heat Exchangers Ltd)

3.30
The first three of these units to go into service are employed on an unmanned gas
production platform cooling wet natural gas after compression. Costing £300,000
each and weighing over 4.5 tonnes, these heat exchangers are neither cheap nor
small, but they are a tenth of the volume and less than a quarter of the weight of an
equivalent shell-and-tube exchanger, as represented in figure 3.20 The savings in
expensive titanium and valuable offshore space are substantial. A further five units
have now been installed offshore and sixteen exchangers are being manufactured for
new platforms. Although the titanium units currently available are particularly suited
for sea water cooling offshore it is intended that the range of materials offered will
be extended making the technology attractive in many other processing
environments.

Since this module was prepared manufacture of the Rolls-Laval SPF/DB heat
exchanger has ceased. Its description remains in the notes as an example of
application of different manufacturing techniques to heat exchanger manufacture.
Despite the technical promise of this particular unit, it was not a commercial
success.

3.31
 Figure 3.20 Size difference for Gas Cooling Heat Exchanger on
a North Sea Platform (Courtesy of Rolls Laval Heat Exchangers Ltd)

3.2.4 Spiral Heat Exchangers

The classic design of a spiral heat exchanger is simple; the basic spiral element is
constructed of two metal strips rolled around a central core forming two concentric
spiral channels. Normally these channels are alternately welded, ensuring that the
hot and cold fluids cannot intermix. The heat exchanger can be optimised for the
process concerned by using different channel widths. Channel width is normally in
the range 5 to 30 millimetres. Plate width along the exchanger axis may be up to 2
m, as can the exchanger diameter, giving heat transfer areas up to 600m2 per unit.
Figure 3.21(a) (b) and (c) show spiral heat exchangers with different flow
arrangements.

3.32
 Figure 3.21 (a) Type 1 - Spiral Flow-Spiral
Flow Heat Exchanger
(Courtesy of Alfa Laval Thermal Division)

Figure Type 3.21(b) - Cross Flow-Spiral

Flow Heat Exchanger
(Courtesy of Alfa Laval Thermal Division)

Figure 3.21(c) Type 3 - Combination Cross-

Flow and Spiral Flow-Spiral Flow
(Courtesy of Alfa Laval Thermal Division)

The spiral heat exchanger can be tailor-made to perform in a wide variety of duties
in all metals that can be cold-formed and welded, such as carbon steel, stainless steel
and titanium. High-grade alloys are routinely used for excellent resistance to
corrosion and erosion. In some cases double spacing may be used, produced by

3.33
 simultaneously winding four strips to form two channels for each fluid. These double
channel systems are used when there is a large flowrate or small pressure drop, but
should not be used for fouling media or media containing solids. Spiral heat
exchangers tend to be self-cleaning. The smooth and curved channels result in a
lower fouling tendency with difficult fluids. Each fluid has only one channel and any
localised fouling will result in a reduction in the channel cross sectional area causing a
velocity increase to scour the fouling layer.

The use of spiral heat exchangers is not limited to liquid-liquid services. Variations to
the basic design give exchangers that are suitable for liquid-vapour or liquid-gas
services.

The flow configurations illustrated in figure 3.21 may be summarised:

• Type 1 – Media in full counter-current flow (Fig 3.21(a)).

The hot fluid enters at the centre of the unit and flows from the inside outward. The
cold fluid enters at the periphery and flows towards the centre.
• Type 2 – One medium in cross flow whilst the other is in spiral flow. (Fig
3.21(b))
The medium in crossflow passes through the open channels of the spiral usually in a
vertical direction. The service fluid spiral flows through the other channel, welded
shut, with side wall inlet and central outlet fed through the side wall.
This design can be used as either a condenser or vaporiser.
• Type 3 – Combination design. (Fig 3.21(c))
A gas or vapour mixture to liquid exchanger combines the above two designs; the
hot stream enters at the top and flows tangentially through the exchanger exiting at
the side.

Typically, the maximum design temperature is 400oC set by the limits of the gasket
material. Special designs without gaskets can operate with temperatures up to
850oC. Maximum design pressure is usually 15 bar, with pressures up to 30 bar
attainable with special designs.

3.34
 The design is ideal for fluids prone to fouling, or polluted with particles as a result of
the relatively large channel width. Hence, it is ideal for use in the food industry
(sauces, slush and slurry) as well as in brewing and wine making.

Spiral heat exchangers have many applications in the chemical industry including TiCl4
cooling, PVC slurry duties, oleum processing and heat recovery from many
industrial effluents. Spiral heat exchangers also provide temperature control of
sewage sludge digesters and have uses in other public and industrial waste plants.
Counter flow spiral heat exchangers have perfect counter-current flow paths that
permit the best possible overlap of exit temperatures. As such, they can maximise
the heat recovery on large-scale cogeneration projects although they may be more
expensive than plate designs. Spiral exchangers can be mounted directly onto the
head of distillation columns acting in a condensing or reflux role. Specific advantages
are ease of installation, low pressure drop and large flow cross-section.
Consequently, there are many condensing applications in all process industries
particularly for condensing under vacuum.

Spiral designs have a number of advantages compared to shell and tube heat
exchangers:

• Optimum flow conditions on both sides of the exchanger.

• An even velocity distribution, with no dead-spots.
• An even temperature distribution, with no hot or cold-spots.
• More thermally efficient with higher heat transfer coefficients.
• Copes with exit temperature overlap, or crossover, whereas shell and tube units
require multi-shells in series to handle temperature crossover.
• Small hold up times and volumes.
• Removal of one cover exposes the total surface area of one channel providing easy
inspection cleaning and maintenance.

For the same duty, a spiral heat exchanger heat transfer area would be 90m2
compared to 60m2 for a plate and frame design or 125m2 for a shell and tube design.
The physical size comparison is shown in figure 3.22.

3.35
 Figure 3.22 Heat Exchanger Size Comparison for Plate,
Spiral, and Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers
(Courtesy of GEA Process Technology)

3.2.5 Printed Circuit Heat Exchangers (PCHEs)

Printed circuit heat exchangers (PCHEs) are highly compact, corrosion resistant heat
exchangers capable of operating at pressures of several hundred atmospheres and
temperatures ranging from cryogenic to several hundred degrees Celsius. Developed
and produced by Heatric in the late 1980s, the PCHE provided a compact alternative
to the shell-and-tube heat exchanger for many applications where the latters
dominance was unquestioned. The printed circuit heat exchanger design offers a
unique combination of innovative manufacturing technology and potential breadth of
application. In common with some other compact heat exchangers, it is potentially
more than just a compact plate heat exchanger; the structure has applications in a
variety of other unit operations, including reactors, mass transfer and mixers.

3.36
 Figure 2.23 Fluid Flow Paths on a Typical
Printed Circuit Heat Exchanger Etched Plate
(Courtesy of Heatric Ltd)

Printed circuit heat exchangers are constructed from flat alloy plates with fluid flow
passages photo-chemically machined (etched) into them. This process is similar to
manufacturing electronic printed circuit boards, and gives rise to the name of the
exchangers. An example of a plate showing a 'herringbone' pattern of flow paths is
shown in figure 2.23.

Heatric originally developed printed circuit heat exchangers in Australia, where this
type of heat exchanger first became commercially available for refrigeration and
process applications in 1985. In 1990, Heatric moved to the UK and has supplied
printed circuit exchangers into the offshore and process sectors, both in the UK and
overseas.

The standard manufacturing process involves chemically milling (etching) the fluid
flow passages into the plates. This allows enormous flexibility in thermal/hydraulic
design, as complex new plate patterns require only minimal re-tooling costs. This
plate/channel forming technique can produce a wide range of flow path sizes, the
channels varying typically from 0.5 to 2.0 mm in depth. Stacks of etched plates,
carrying flow passage designs tailored for each fluid, are diffusion bonded together to
form a compact, strong, all-metal heat exchanger core. A cross-section through a
typical core sample is shown in Figure 3.24. No gaskets or brazing materials are

3.37
required for the assembly. Diffusion bonding allows the plates to be joined so that
the bond acquires the same strength as the parent metal. The thermal capacity of
large heat exchangers is achieved by welding together diffusion bonded blocks to
form the complete heat exchanger core. Finally, fluid headers and nozzles are welded
to the cores, in order to direct the fluids to the appropriate sets of passages. Figure
3.25 shows a completed heat exchanger unit. Materials of construction include
stainless steel (SS 300 series) and titanium as standard, with nickel and nickel alloys
also being commonly used. A copper variant is being developed.

Figure 3.24 Section of a Typical Printed Circuit Heat Exchanger Core

(Courtesy of Heatric Ltd)

3.38
 Figure 3.25 Gas Dew Point Control Printed Circuit Heat Exchanger
(Courtesy of Heatric Ltd)

Mechanical design is flexible; etching patterns can be adjusted to provide high

pressure containment where required. Due to its construction, the printed circuit
heat exchanger is able to withstand substantial pressures. Pressures as high as 200
bar are routine, with values in the range 300 - 500 bar being possible. The limitation
usually being imposed by the headers, rather than by the core itself.

The all welded construction is compatible with very high temperature operation, and
the use of austenitic steel allows cryogenic operation. Operating temperature ranges
from -200oC to +900oC, the upper limits depending on the metal selected and the
pressure duty.

Passages are typically of the order of 2 mm semi-circular cross-section (i.e. 2 mm

across and 1 mm deep) for reasonably clean applications, although there is no
absolute limit on passage size.

Primary heat transfer surface densities, expressed in terms of effective heat transfer
area per unit volume, can be up to 2500m2/m3 This is higher than primary surface
density which can be achieved in gasketed plate exchangers, and an order of
magnitude higher than normal primary surface densities in shell and tube exchangers.

3.39
Printed circuit heat exchangers are all welded so there is no braze material
employed in construction, and no gaskets are required. Hence the potential for
leakage and fluid compatibility difficulties are reduced and the high level of
constructional integrity renders the designs well suited to critical high pressure
applications, such as gas compression cooling exchangers on offshore platforms.

The thermal design of printed circuit heat exchangers is subject to very few
constraints. Fluids may be liquid, gas or two-phase, multi-stream and multi-pass
configurations can be assembled and flow arrangements can be truly counter-
current, co-current or cross-flow, or a combination of these, at any required
pressure drop. Where required high heat exchange effectiveness (over 98%) can be
achieved through very close temperature approaches in counter-flow. To simplify
control, or to further maximise energy efficiency, more than two fluids can exchange
heat in a single core.

PCHEs may be designed for heat loads ranging from a few watts to many megawatts,
in exchangers weighing from a few kilograms to several tonnes. Flow induced
vibration, an important source of failure in shell and tube exchangers, is absent (as
are the tubes!) from printed circuit heat exchangers.

Concern may be expressed regarding fouling and blockage of the small channels,
however often a simple strainer upstream of the unit will remove outsize particles,
while the corrosion resistant materials of construction for printed circuit heat
exchangers, the high wall shear stresses, and the absence of dead spots assist in
resisting fouling deposition.

Detailed thermal design of printed circuit heat exchangers is supported by

proprietary design software developed by the manufacturer that allows infinite
geometric variation to passage arrangements during design optimisation. Variations
to passage geometry have negligible production cost impact since the only tooling
required for each variation is a photographic transparency for the photo-chemical
machining process. Counterflow and crossflow arrangements (or a combination) can
be accommodated. Pressure drops can be specified, however as with all heat

3.40
 exchangers, lower allowable pressure drops will result in lower heat transfer
coefficients and hence larger exchangers.

Printed circuit heat exchangers extend the benefits of compact heat exchangers into
applications where pressure, temperature or corrosion prevents the use of
conventional plate or plat-fin heat exchangers. The printed circuit heat exchanger
can handle gases, liquids and two-phase flows. Heatric cites four main application
areas, as listed below:

• Fuels processing:
- Gas processing e.g. compressor cooling, liquids recovery.
- Dehydration.
- Synthetic fuels production e.g. methanol.
- Reactor feed/effluent exchange.
• Chemical processing:
- Acids e.g. nitric, phosphoric.
- Alkalis e.g. caustic soda, caustic potash.
- Fertilisers e.g. ammonia, urea.
- Petrochemicals e.g. ethylene, ethylene oxide, propylene.
- Pharmaceuticals.
- Plastics e.g. formaldehyde, phenol.
• Power and energy:
- Feedwater heating.
- Geothermal generation.
- Chemical heat pumps.
• Refrigeration:
- Chillers and condensers.
- Cascade condensers.
- Absorption cycles.

Figure 3.26 illustrates the size difference between a comparable printed circuit heat
exchanger and stack of three series shell and tube units used for gas dew point
control. The duty is 2,350 kW across a 4oC LMTD. The printed circuit heat

3.41
exchanger illustrated in Figure 3.21 has 600m2 of surface and a design pressure of
124 bar. Its weight is 15 tonnes, compared to 105 tonnes for equivalent shell and
tube heat exchangers. Printed circuit heat exchanger cores are typically 5 to 10
times smaller than shell and tube exchangers tube bundles of equivalent
performance.

Figure 3.26 Comparison of Printed Circuit Heat Exchanger and Shell and Tube Heat
Exchangers of Equivalent Capacity (Courtesy of Heatric Ltd)

3.2.6 Plate and Shell Heat Exchanger

The plate and shell heat exchanger combines many of the merits of shell and tube
with plate heat exchangers, while externally resembling the former in some respects.
Plate and shell heat exchangers feature an outer shell enclosing circular plates
welded into pairs. The cooling medium flows on the shell side between the pairs of
plates. As a plate is more thermally efficient than a tube, this can achieve a
significantly higher level of heat transfer.

The construction of a plate and shell heat exchanger involves welding together, in
pairs, circular plates of a similar surface form and material to those of plate and
frame heat exchangers. The plates are then located inside a shell, as shown in Figure

3.42
3.27. A ‘closed’ model has a welded shell or an ‘open’ model has a removable end
flange to facilitate shell-side cleaning.

Figure 2.27 General Arrangement of a Plate and Shell Heat Exchanger

(Courtesy of APV)

Generally the hot fluid is passed through the plate side, while the cooling fluid is
directed on the shell side. The shell side fluid is routed through individual passes via a
baffle plate similar to the shell in the tubular type heat exchanger. Multi-pass
arrangements are possible, flow directors on both the shell and plate side adjust the
flow paths. Current plate and shell heat exchanger models accommodate up to 600
plates in a shell 2.5 m long with a 1 m diameter. Plate and shell heat exchangers are
available with a heat transfer surface area of up to 500m2. Standard plate materials
are Titanium B265, Avesta 254 SMO and AISI 316. The shell can be made of St 35.8
or AISI 316 or other materials, such as Hastelloy or nickel, if necessary.

The maximum operating temperature of a plate and shell heat exchanger is 900oC,
and maximum working pressure is 100 bar. Single units, which can be operated in
parallel for higher throughputs, can currently handle flow rates of 11 litres per
second on the shell side.

Plate and shell heat exchangers can work with aggressive media and acids, which
cannot be handled by conventional gasketed plate heat exchangers. They can also
withstand extreme temperature shocks and pressure shocks due to their rigid and
compact construction. The principal applications for plate and shell heat exchangers
are:

3.43
• Heating including district heating.
• Cooling including cryogenic applications.
• Heat recovery.
• Combined exchanger/reactors vessels.
• Condensation/evaporation.

Data that directly compares the shell and plate unit with a shell and tube heat
exchanger are not available, but shell and plate heat exchangers have been compared
with brazed plate heat exchangers. Like brazed plate heat exchangers, plate and shell
heat exchangers reach very close approach temperatures. Furthermore due to the
flexible layout of flow path configurations, overlapping or crossover of exit
temperature is possible. For heat exchangers of equivalent area and capacity, plate
and shell designs are smaller due to the higher ratio of heat transfer area and specific
volume. It is claimed that the plate and shell heat exchanger will occupy only 20 to
30% of the footprint of equivalent capacity shell and tube types. The maximum
operating pressure of the plate and shell unit will also be higher.

3.2.7 Polymer Heat Exchangers

While most of the heat exchangers used in the process industries are metallic, other
materials are available, and may be used when handling extremely aggressive fluids.
Carbon, for example, is used for sulphuric acid, TEFLON and glass are occasionally
used where extensive corrosion may occur. Ceramic units are available for use at
high temperatures. The application of polymers in process heat exchangers is often
stimulated by the need to protect against corrosion, in other applications the light
weight and low cost of some polymers is advantageous. Polymer heat exchangers
are available for heating, ventilating and air conditioning duties, where pressures are
low and very thin plates may be used, thus mitigating the principle thermal
disadvantage of polymers, i.e. their low thermal conductivity relative to metals.

TEFLON Heat Exchangers

Heat exchangers incorporating TEFLON were first introduced for corrosive or
abrasive applications in chemical plants. As plastics have a relatively low thermal

3.44
conductivity, small-bore tubes with thin wall sections were used. Typically 2.5 mm
o/d tubes were used with a wall thickness of 10% of the outside diameter. TEFLON
heat exchangers are available as shell and tube designs, or as immersion coils.
TEFLON “Q” is a resin development that increases the temperature capability up to
200oC and has approximately twice the thermal conductivity of normal TEFLON. In
addition, this resin is tougher and more abrasion resistant. Tube diameters have
been introduced from 2.5 to 9.5 mm to increase flexibility.

Polymer shell and tube units tend to be single pass, counter-current designs
incorporating flexible tubes of TEFLON FEP or TEFLON “Q” fused at both ends to
form a honeycomb structure. Shell-side baffles promote cross-flow and optimise
thermal efficiency. All surfaces exposed to the process stream are made of TEFLON
to resist fouling and corrosion. The small bore tubes produce a large surface area for
a given volume; for example 1000 tubes of 4.45 mm o/d inside a 10 inch shell gives a
heat transfer area of 275 m 2 /m 3 . Usually the shell is carbon steel although other
shell materials are available. In the case of heat exchange between two corrosive
streams, the shell can be TEFLON lined. Shell diameters range from 76 to 355 mm in
lengths from 0.6 to 7.3 m.

Immersion Coils
Slimline coils are used in medium and large process tanks for heating or cooling
purposes.

Typically 300 tubes of 3 mm diameter give 166 m2/m3 Units are available in lengths
from 1.22 to 4.9 m with surface areas from 3.2 to 23.7 m2.

Process stream temperatures are restricted to less than 200oC

These specialist exchangers are used for corrosive process streams, such as
hydrochloric acid, or for abrasive process streams.

3.45
3.3 Choice of Heat Exchanger Types

The choice of heat exchanger for a particular application depends upon any factors,
some technical, others economic and in many cases, custom and practice. While
enthusiastic heat transfer engineers may favour compact heat exchangers, in many
applications there is considerable inertia resisting change from established (usually
shell-and-tube) technology. This is understandable, the cost of a heat exchanger is
likely to be small (in total perhaps 5-10% of the overall cost of a project), while
failure of a heat exchanger may result in shut down of the plant with massive cost
implications. Against this background, tried and trusted solutions are strong
favourites.

Novel heat exchangers have gained acceptance slowly, often beginning in niche
applications. For example the plate-and-frame heat exchanger has considerable
advantages in the food processing industry and its success in this area has given users
confidence in wider applications. Other compact units have become established in
applications where space and weight are critical, for example, the PCHE is a popular
choice offshore, and its earliest use in the process industries included retrofit
applications where shell-and-tube units had failed and the PCHE's small size made
retrofit relatively easy.

Guidelines given by Saunders are given here as in textbox 1 and a summary of

compact heat exchangers is included as Table 3.2

It can be seen that in many situations a number of heat exchanger types may be
suitable. In these circumstances the specifier should carry out some preliminary
design calculations and assess the options more carefully.

3.46
TextBox 1 - Heat Exchanger Type Selection

3.47
TextBox 1 - Heat Exchanger Type Selection (cont.)

3.48
 Table 3.2 Comparative Summary of Heat Exchangers

3.49
 Table 3.2 Comparative Summary of Heat Exchangers Features (contnued)

3.50
 Summary Points
• Heat exchangers may be classified in various ways.
• The operating conditions and economic factors determine the type of heat
exchanger which is best suited to a particular duty.
• Several different types of heat exchangers maybe suitable for a particular duty,
and some preliminary work may be necessary to determine the most appropriate.

3.51