The Islam-West Conflict: A Historical Study

Monday, 24 September 2012 04:36 Alamgir Hussain

The current conflict between Islam and the West from human rights issues in
Muslim countries, to anti-Western violence by radical Muslims, to their campaigns against liberal lifestyle
and ethos and for instituting Sharia law in Western countries should be seen not as separate from the
historical Islam-West conflicts. Theologically, Islam was born to create a global Islamic state governed by
laws of the uran and Sunnah, i.e. Sharia. !ut most Muslims understand that the age-old campaign for the
imposition of Sharia law through violent means in the West is unrealistic under current circumstances.
"owever, current demographic trends suggest that Muslims would become resulting from high birthrates
and their increasing influ# from overpopulated Muslim countries amidst decline in the native population
the dominant religious group in many Western countries by the middle of this century.$%&' The current ratio
of Muslim to non-Muslim birthrate is ()* in +urope,$%-' Muslims constitute only *./ of the population in
0rance, but (./ of the youths under the age of 1. are Muslims.$%%'2ewis predicted in 1..& that 3Current
trends show Europe will have a Moslem majority by the end of the 21
st
century at the latest Europe will be
part of the Arabic West, of the Mahreb!4$%5'
With the Muslim population growing in leaps and bounds, the campaign for instituting Sharia laws, and,
therefore, Islamic governance in Western countries will, in all li6elihood, intensify over the coming decades.
Whether or not would this campaign succeed remains to be seen. If it does, Islam will overcome its long-
standing hurdle to Islami7e the globe resolutely held bac6 by the West for so many centuries.
Introduction
With Mar#ist-8ommunist regimes4 collapse ending the 8old War, 0rancis 0u6uyama argued in *9:9 that
liberal democracy may signal the end-point of man6ind4s ideological evolution and the final form of
governance, which would eventually be adopted globally.$*' 0u6uyama4s thesis had two seminal
assumptions)
;a< Triumph of civili7ed liberal democracy globally
;b< +mergence of a nonconflictual world civili7ation
Samuel "untington4s Civili"ational Clash thesis, proposed in *99(, challenged both assumptions of
0u6uyama. =egarding the triumph of civili7ed liberal democracy globally, "untington emphasi7ed that 3#aw
and order4, 3the first prere$uisite of Civili"ation,4 were evaporating or under threat everywhere 8hina,
>apan and the ?nited States included. @lobally, 3Civili"ation seems in many respects to be yieldin to
barbarism a lobal %ar& Ae possibly descendin on humanity,4 he wrote.$1' Apposed to 0u6uyama4s
proposed emergence of a nonconflictual world civili7ation, "untington emphasi7ed that conflicts in the world
were not over. "owever, future conflicts would li6ely be fought along civili7ational fault-lines over cultural or
religious differences, not along national lines over ideological ;political< or economic reasons. 3 'he clash of
civili"ations will dominate lobal politics! 'he fault lines between civili"ations will be the battle lines of the
future,4 he predicted.$('
Identifying seven to eight maBor civili7ations, namely Indian, 8hinese, Csian, Islamic, Western etc.,
"untington emphasi7ed that, instead of converging towards universal liberalism globally, human
consciousness within these civili7ations is increasingly parochiali7ing) people are becoming increasingly
conscious of their cultural, religious or civili7ational values. "untington4s thesis gets a significant space for
Islamic resurgence, simply because religious resurgence amongst Muslims in recent decades much
outweighs the reBuvenation of civili7ational consciousness amongst other peoples. Islam has (loody
(orders, Muslims are involved in maBority of the world4s conflicts, says "untington, which is rather evident.
3'he overwhelmin majority of fault line conflicts, however, have ta&en place alon the boundary loppin
across Eurasia and Africa that separates Muslims from non)Muslims,4 he writes, adding, 3wherever one
loo&s alon the perimeter of *slam, Muslims have problems livin peaceably with their neihbors!4$&'
Clthough "untington analy7es how different civili7ations would li6ely interplay in reshaping the world-order in
the emerging era, his analysis regarding Islam has become a bone of contention. 8ritics have attac6ed his
whole thesis as a forced construction of an inevitable IslamDWest conflict, none#istent in reality.
"untington4s Clash of Civili"ations, argues =obinson, is based on 3the old Western polemic aainst *slam,
Western fears of *slam, and a stron dose of +rientalism4. =obinson emphasi7es that 3there is a lon history
of the Muslim and the Christian civili"ations drawin on each other, and bein enriched by each other, and
this is a process which, whatever the rhetoric, still continues!4$-' With 8ommunism brought down, many
critics have argued that the inherently hegemonic and militaristic West needed a new enemy) "untington4s
thesis was an effort to invent one. It set out 3to identify ,new sources- of international conflicts in the post)
Cold War world!4$%' Said moc6ingly called "untington4s thesis 'he Clash of *norance, concluding) 33'he
Clash of Civili"ations. thesis is a immic& li&e /'he War of the Worlds,. better for reinforcin defensive self)
pride than for critical understandin of the bewilderin interdependence of our time!4$5'
Cfter the September ** ;1..*< attac6s in the ?.S., the international media was abu77 with "untington4s
thesis) his supporters saw his prophesy being fulfilled, while his opponents intensified their attac6s on him
for deliberately creating a paradigm that may fuel a fateful conflict between Islam and the West. "is more
avowed conspiratorial critics suggested that, prompted by "untington4s thesis, the ?.S. administration itself
committed the 9E** attac6s for advancing its hegemonic interests) the occupation of Cfghanistan and IraF,
for e#ample. An "untington4s dilemma, Cyaan "irsi Cli concludes) 30oretellin the future can be fun for
astroloists, prophets and crystal)ball a"ers! 0or academics, it is not! *f you et it riht, you will be damned
li&e 1amuel 2untinton! *f you et it wron, you will be called a certified idiot!4$:'
To former ?.S. Gresident 8linton4s assertion that the West has no problems with Islam, "untington retorted)
The relations between Islam and 8hristianity, both orthodo# and Western, have often have been stormy.
+ach has been the other4s Ather. The twentieth century conflict between 2iberal Hemocracy and Mar#ist-
2eninism is only a fleeting and superficial historical phenomenon compared to the continuing and deeply
conflictual relations between Islam and 8hristianity.$9'
C historical investigation, however, proves "untington right. Islam, Bust two decades after its birth, came in
conflict with the 8hristian West, and it has remained so e#cept for rare brief respites. Who can deny the
e#istence of the 8rusades or the +uropean colonial occupation of Islamic countriesI Still, numerous
scholars and critics have trashed the idea of 8ivili7ation 8lash, especially one between Islam and the West.
8hristian +urope, not Islam, they argue, has been historically intolerant to non-8hristians) >ews in +urope
and Muslims in Spain. An the contrary, 8hristians, >ews and even "eathens found tolerance, peace and
prosperity in the Muslim land. It is the 8hristian West that captured much of the Muslim and non-Muslim
lands in the abhorrent colonial era. Islam could, therefore, pose no threat to the West.
In this study, the historical conflict between Islam and the West will be investigated aiming to understand
what factors fueled it, and how its legacy affects the present Islam-West relations.
Islamic doctrine and the birth of Islam-West conflict
Islam was founded by the Grophet Muhammad in the Crabian Geninsula during the last 1( years of his life
;%*.D%(1 8+<. While founding Islam, he had directed 5.D*.. raids and wars. These wars were inspired,
even directed, by verses of the uran, the Islamic holy boo6, which Muslims believe, contains @od4s words
in immutable forms for guiding human6ind. "aving captured the Crabian Geninsula, Muhammad organi7ed
two campaigns against the 8hristians of Muta and Tabu6 in Syria, a part of !y7antiumthe world4s most
powerful empire. The commands of Islamic @od ;Cllah< contained in uranic verses are binding on Muslims
for all time, whilst the Grophet Muhammad4s actions and deeds constitute ideal templates for them to do
li6ewise. Therefore, after Muhammad4s death, his successors continued the tempo of his conFuests. Within
two decades, Muslims overran the world4s second-mightiest empire, Gersia, and captured the pri7ed territory
from !y7antium. Islamic depredations of Western +urope began in %-1, e#actly two decades after
Muhammad4s death when Muslims occupied Spain in 5**, establishing Islamic rule lasting some 5:. years.
+urope sustained numerous Muslim attac6s until the last decade of the seventeenth century.
In this conte#t, it is critical to understand the Grophet Muhammad4s doctrine of war that had inspired and
enabled Muslims to easily overrun often much stronger oppositions over great parts of the world, and
enabled them to own half of the 6now world.
The Islamic doctrine of war) The Grophet Muhammad, born in Mecca in Crabia c. -5., grew up as an idol-
worshipping Gagan li6e his compatriots. Ct the age of 1-, after marrying a wealthy 8hristianity-influenced
woman, JhadiBa, and associating with her devout 8hristian cousin, Muhammad stopped worshipping idols.
"e allegedly obtained prophethood from @od for preaching Islam in %*.. Cllah, his @od, was the same
8hristian or >ewish @od, who had allegedly sent *1&,... prophets, Muhammad being the last. Islam, claims
Cllah, is "is final perfected religion chosen as "is favor to all human6ind $uran -)('$*.' and it must be
proclaimed over all other creeds $uran &:)1:'. It was chosen as the sole religionabrogating the restfor
all man6ind.
The Grophet Muhammad tried to preach his religion persuasively in his hometown, Mecca, for *( years with
very little success. "is messages were hostile and insulting to e#isting religion and customs) he called
himself and his followers the righteous, and those, who ignored his messages, were wic6ed, liars, wrong-
doers and inventors of falsehood, he consigned them to eternal hellfire $uran -%)&*D&%, *5)1., *%)*.&D-'.
The Meccans generally ignored his message, he never faced violence from them. "aving failed in Mecca he
relocated in %11 to Medinaabout 1-. miles Korth of Meccawhere his creed becoming popular. Medina
was inhabited by two religious communities) Gagans and >ews, the latter wealthier and more influential.
$**' The Gagans Boined his creed in large numbers, while the >ews mostly reBected it. Cllah revealed many
verses e#horting the >ews ;also 8hristians< to accept Muhammad4s new creed $uran 1)(.D(:, 1&.D1%*',
but failed to impress them.
Muhammad4s community now strengthened and secured, Cllah changed his strategy for ma6ing Islam to
prevail over all religions. "e then revealed the doctrine of 3>ihad4 or 3holy war4 against non-Muslims, who
reBect his faith. 30iht in the cause of Allah those who fiht you4 $uran 1)*9.'. Cllah now commands
Muslims) /slay them wherever ye catch them, and turn them out from where they have turned you out3 for
tumult and oppression are worse than slauhter4$*1' $uran 1)*9*' and 3fiht them on until there is no
more tumult or oppression, and there prevail justice and faith in Allah4 $uran 1)*9('. Cllah repeats) 3fiht
them on until there is no more tumult or oppression, and there prevail justice and faith in Allah altoether
and everywhere4 $uran :)(9'.
Muhammad4s followers were unwilling to engage in this @od-sanctioned violence against otherwise innocent
people to which Cllah revealed another verse to ma6e fighting binding on Muslims even if they disli6ed it
$uran 1)1*%'. Still some peace-loving converts had hesitated about fighting, fearing bloodbaths, Cllah
admonished them as diseased and faint-hearted $uran &5)1.'.
This way Cllah gave Muslims the divine right to attac6 non-Muslims. "e
sanctioned) 3some ye slew and ye made captive some! And 2e 4Allah5
caused you to inherit their land and their houses and their wealth4 $uran
(()1%D15'. In other words, Cllah commands Muslims to 6ill some ;normally
the adults< and enslave the rest ;the women and children< of non-Muslim
communities, and ma6es their lands and properties divinely sanctioned
booty for Muslims. Clternatively, Cllah sanctioned the banishment of non-
Muslims enabling Muslims to acFuire their homes, properties and lands)
3Allah had decreed banishment for them because they resisted Allah and
2is Messener4 $uran -9)(D&'. Cllah sanctioned that Muslims can 6eep the women, captured in such
holy wars, as se#-slaves ;concubines<) 3+ 6rophet7 1urely We 4Allah5 have made lawful to you your wives
4and5 those whom Allah has iven to you as prisoners of war4 $uran (()-.'.
The Islamic doctrine of global imperialism: Islam is a complete pac6age of divine guidance for governing
the spiritual, social and political aspects of human life and society. 34*slam5 is an all)embracin system, a
complete code of life, bearin on and includin every phase of human activity and every aspect of human
conduct!4$*(' Through violent holy wars, Cllah wants to establish Islamic rule, governed by the Islamic holy
laws ;Sharia<, over all peoples. Cllah owns the heaven and earth $uran 1&)&1, (&)*' and holds absolute
authority over them $uran -5)-, %5)*'. "e would ma6e Muslims the inheritors of the earth $uran %)*%-',
and help them triumph over it $uran 1&)--'. In order to reali7e "is dream, as Muslims wage holy war, Cllah
will assist them in the fightingthereby, helping them capture the lands of non-Muslims bit by bit $uran
1*)&&, *()&*'.
In summary, Cllah outlines in the uran a blueprint for establishing a religio-political imperial state over the
entire globe through >ihad. To inherit the earth, Cllah commands, Muslims must 6ill the Golytheists wherever
they are found, and enslave their women and children for converting to Islam, thereby capturing their lands
for establishing Islamic rule $uran 9)-'. 0or acFuiring the lands controlled by monotheistic >ews and
8hristians, Muslims must fight them, Cllah commands, until they feel subdued and subBugated to Muslim rule
and pay special ta#es $uran 9)19'. Cllah4s desired global triumph of Islam will, thus, be completed.
With these unrestrained @odly sanctions of aggressive violence for establishing a global Islamic state, the
Grophet Muhammad started attac6ing and plundering the non-Muslim communities of Medina and Crabia. In
%1&, he attac6ed and e#iled the >ewish tribe of !anu ainuFa from Medina, ta6ing possession of their
homes, lands and properties.$*&' Ke#t year, the same fate was visited the >ewish tribe of !anu Kadir.
$*-' !anu urai7a, the last >ewish tribe of Medina, was attac6ed in %15. Their adult males%.. to 9.. of
themwere slaughtered, and their women and children were enslaved.$*%'Medina, which had given
Muhammad refuge a few years earlier, was thus denuded of non-Muslims.
Medina became the first seat of Muslim power. 0rom here, the Islamic imperial state was to e#pand in all
directions. Jhaybara >ewish stronghold, some **- 6ilometers Korth of Medinawas overrun in %19.
Mecca, the heart of Islam and Muhammad4s birthplace, was overrun in %(.. Muhammad4s biographies by
pious Muslim historians list 5.D*.. raids and wars directed by him, personally commanding 15 of them. In
his attac6s, he e#iled entire tribes or slaughtered the men, and enslaved the women and childrenthe
enslaved generally had to embrace Islam. Muhammad brought entire Crabia under the feet of Islam during
his nine-year campaign of conFuests.
In %1:, Muhammad, still Fuite wea6 militarily, dared sending emissaries to the world4s most powerful rulers
the Jing of Gersia and +mperor "eraclius of !y7antiumdemanding that they submit to Islam, and accept
Muhammad as their master, or face conseFuences.$*5' Those rulersto their own perilignored his
threatening letters as the e#uberance of a madman. Grophet Muhammad himself dared leading a (.,...-
strong army in Actober %(. to the !y7antine border in Syria, but returned without going on the offensive.
$*:' "is successors carried forward his >ihad campaigns for reali7ing @od4s dream of establishing a global
Islamic 6ingdom. Within two decades, Muslims overran the mighty Gersian +mpire, and captured the 2evant
and +gyptthe crown territories of !y7antium. 8entral Csia was anne#ed within the seventh century, Korth
Cfrica was conFuered in %9:, Korthwest India in 5*1D*-, 8entral and Korth India by the early thirteenth
century, and South India in the late si#teenth century. Similar conFuests were underta6en in other fronts.
Islamic campaigns against Western +urope and the ensuing conflicts are discussed in following sections.
The clash between Islam and the West
Conflicts in the Mediterranean Islands and Sicily (6521!1"# Muslims brought Grophet Muhammad4s
campaign of holy war to the far-off shores of Western +urope e#actly two decades after his death. The
Mediterranean island of Sicily suffered the first >ihad raid involving pillage and plunder in %-1, which was
repeated in %%9, 5.(, 51:, 519, 5(., 5(*, 5((, 5(&, 5&. and 5-1. Muslims also attac6ed other
Mediterranean islands Sardinia, Ischia, 8orsica and 2ampedusa, then under the !y7antine control. They
devastated Ischia and 2ampedusa in :*(, attac6ed Sardinia and 8orsica in the same year and 8rete in :1&.
The early Muslim incursions ;%-1D5-1< on Sicily failed to gain a foothold for Islam. The Islamic conFuest of
Sicily started in real earnest when an Cghlabid Muslim army from Tunis landed in Ma7ara del Lallo in :15.
This started a long series of battles) Galermo fell in :(*, Gantelleria in :(-, and Messina in :&(. 8efalM and
+nna resisted Muslim assaults for many years before being overrun, and ra7ed to the ground in :-: and
:-9, respectively. Syracuse succumbed to Muslim assaults in :5:, and its whole populationincluding
those ta6en refuge in churcheswere massacred.$*9' 8atania fell in 9.. and Taormina in 9.1. Sicily came
under Muslim control completely in about 9*-. Galermo, renamed al-Madinah, became the new Islamic
capital of the +mirate of Sicily, and Crabic replaced @ree6 as the national language. C Korman conFuest of
Muslim Sicily, started in *.%*, led to eventual e#pulsion of Muslims in *.9*.
Spain and $rance# In 5**, Musa ibn Kusair, the Muslim governor of Korth Cfrica and his @eneral, TariF,
crossed the Mediterranean Sea to attac6 Spain. The reigning Lisigoth Jing =odrigo was defeated followed
by mass slaughter and enslavement, plunder and pillage, the churches and synagogues were destroyed,
and often replaced by mosFues. The whirlwind march of Muslim conFuest moved northward) Toledo,
!arcelona, and @irona were easily captured. !y 5*%, most of Iberia, e#cept a few northern tracts, was under
the Muslim control.$1.'
Meanwhile, 8aliph al-Walid called Musa bac6 to Hamascus. "e marched bac6 in a =omanesFue procession
with the 8aliph4s one-fifth share of the spoils) caravans of un-dreamt of wealth and slaves, including (.,...
virgins captured from the Lisigothic families alone.$1*'
The Muslim army crossed the mountainous borderline of the Gyrenees into the 0ran6ish territory. The
Lisigothic Jingdom of Septimania $2anguedoc' in Southern 0rance Fuic6ly succumbed ;51.<. Muslims
marched on, and attac6ed Toulouse in 51*, suffering severe reverses by an CFuitanian-0ran6 confederate
force led by Hu6e +udo of CFuitaine. Cn allegedly (5-,...-strong Islamic army was thoroughly destroyed.
$11' Clthough the figure is undoubtedly hyperbolic, it was, nonetheless, one of the worst military defeats in
Muslim history.
The Muslim army, dedicated to holy wars in the cause of their @od, could hardly be restrained. In 51-, their
raids reached Cutun in the 0ran6ish territory. C %.,...-strong Muslim army marched on penetrating deep
into 0rance, and defeated Hu6e +udo at CFuitaine. Muslims sac6ed CFuitaine, and burned down !ordeau#.
They defeated Hu6e +udo again near Cgen with +udo fleeing northward. Cs they engaged in plundering,
pillaging and burning the towns and churches, 8harles Martel Boined +udo, and too6 up position between
Goitiers and Tours. Cs the 0ran6ish army stood immobile li6e awall of ice, the Muslim army made repeated
small-scale charges only to be beaten bac6 every time. They tried all tric6ery to dislodge the 0ran6ish line,
which, despite suffering heavily, stood its ground for one whole autumn. Muslims launched the final charge
on the first day of the Islamic holy month of =amadan ;5(1 8+<. In order to rally the sagging morale of his
increasingly disheartened fighters, Muslim commander Cbd al-=ahman, the governor of Cl-Cndalus $Iberia',
led the charge himself, and perished, which led to retreat of Muslims overnight. (alat ech shuada the
road of the martyr of the faith had ended on this front.
0rom Spain, Muslims continued, albeit unsuccessfully, their incursions on the 0rench borders for another
two centuries.$1(' "ad they succeeded in this battle, there was no one to stop them in +urope, +urope
would be Islamic today.$1&' +dward @ibbon remar6ed tellingly) 3perhaps the interpretation of the 8uran
would now be tauht in the schools of +9ford and her pulpit miht demonstrate to a circumcised people the
sanctity and truth of the revelation of Mahomet!4$1-'
Cn indigenous Spanish revolt against Muslim occupiers, called :econ$uista, began in 5*: lasting nearly
eight centuries, and the Muslim colonists were completely dislodged from power in *&91.
So%thern Italy:$1%' The Muslim warriors, chec6ed at the border of 0rance on the Iberian front, also made
strenuous efforts to penetrate into +urope through the Mediterranean Italian 8oast. The invaders devastated
the coastal town of 8entumcellae $8ivitavecchia' in :*( and again in :19. "ereafter, Islamic incursions into
mainland Italy came from Sicily, where Muslims had established a colony.$15'In :&., the Crabs made an
incursion deep into Italy and devastated the monastery of Subiaco. In :&., they conFuered the coastal
towns off !enevento, 8arolingian +mperor 2udovico II succeeded in ousting them in :5*.
In :&-, the Crabs penetrated deep inland capturing 8apo Miseno ;Kaples< and Gon7a near =ome, ma6ing it
their base for attac6ing =ome. In :&%, they ransac6ed !rindisi, and conFuered Taranto near the Southwest
tip of Italy, !y7antine +mperor !asil I succeeded in freeing Taranto in ::..
An 1: Cugust :&%, a Muslim fleet arrived at the mouth of river Tiber, and sailed to attac6 =ome. Meanwhile,
a Muslim army from 8ivitavecchia and another from Gortus and Astia marched on-land to Boin the
e#pedition. They failed to penetrate the enclosing walls around =ome, solidly defended by the =omans. The
Crabs vandali7ed and plundered the churches of St. Geter and St. Gaul. The Sa#ons, 2ongobards, 0risians
and 0ran6s staunchly defended St. Geter, perishing to the last man. The invaders destroyed all the churches
of the district of Suburb. Gope 2eo IL, forced to flee =ome briefly, appealed for help from the neighboring
6ingdoms. =esponding to his plea, MarFuis @uy of Spoleto counterattac6ed and defeated the Crabs. While
fleeing partly towards 8ivitavecchia and partly towards 0ondi, the Crabs indulged in ruin and devastation of
the country. Ct @aeta, the 2ongobard army clashed with them again. @uy of Spoleto found himself in serious
difficulties, but the !y7antine troops of 8esarius from Kaples arrived in time to rescue him. This attac6
prompted the Gope to underta6e the construction of the 8ivitas 2eonina in :&: to protect the Latican "ill.
In :&:, Muslim invaders attac6ed and sac6ed Cncona on the western coast of Italy. The ne#t year, a huge
Muslim naval fleet set off to attac6 =ome, and met the Italian naval fleet at the mouth of river Tiber near
Astia. In the confrontation, the Crabs were routed.
In :-%, the Crabs attac6ed and destroyed the 8athedral of 8anosa in Guglia. They assaulted and occupied
Cscoli in :%*, slaughtered the children, and carried away the inhabitants as captives. In :51, they attac6ed
and besieged Salerno for si# months, before being freed by +mperor 2udovicus II.
In :5%, they entered the =oman territory again, and attac6ed 2atium and ?mbria, slaughtering the
inhabitants, enslaving them and sac6ing the villages, before marching towards =ome, they turned the
=oman country into an unhealthy desert. Gope >ohn LIII ;:51D::1< defeated the Crabs at 8irceo, and freed
%.. enslaved 8hristians from *: Muslim vessels. "e attempted to e#pel the Crabs after the depredations,
but with little help from +uropean 6ings forthcoming, he failed and was forced to pay tribute. Muslims
continued their devastation of 2atium both on the coast and inland. Subiaco was destroyed for a second
time.
Muslim invaders continued consolidating their conFuest of the =oman country) they went on to capture Tivoli
$Saracinesco', Sabina $8iciliano', Karni, Kepi, Arte, Tiburtino countries, Sacco valley, Tuscia and Crgentario
Mountain. Their depredations continued through the ::.s and :9.s. !y this time, Muslims had plans to
establish an +mirate in Southern Italy. In 9*%, MarFuis Cdalbertus of Tusca, MarFuis Clbericus of Spoleto,
Grince 2andulf of 8apua and !enevento, Grince @aimar of Salerno, the du6es of @aeta and Kaples and
!y7antine +mperor 8onstantine entered into an anti-Crab alliance, with Gope >ohn N personally heading the
land troops. The Crabs were totally defeated, and mainland Italy was freed from the invaders, although Sicily
remained under the Muslim control until *.9*. 2ater on, Muslims attac6ed Lenice ;Italy< in the *&1.s, albeit
from another front.
&ttoman attac's on (%rope form the )y*antine front# Ct the time of Islam4s birth, !y7antium ;+astern
=oman +mpire< had bridged tracts of +urope with West Csia and Korth Cfrica. Muslim invaders captured
>erusalem, !ethlehem, Ka7areth, Tiberias, 8ana, Tyre, Sidon, Hamascus, 8aesarea and +gypt from
!y7antium Fuite early in bloody battles. They made naval attac6s on 8onstantinople, the !y7antine capital,
first in %5&, then in %55D5: and 5*5D*:, suffering severe reverses in each case.
In :(:, Cmorium ;Cnatolia< was captured and devastated, yielding so large a number of slaves that 8aliph
al-Mutasim sold them in batches of five or ten, while Sultan Clp Crslan devastated Crmenia ;also @eorgia< in
*.%&) those not enslaved were slaughtered.$1:' The biggest Muslim blow to !y7antium yet came in *.5*
when Sultan Clp Crslan defeated the !y7antine army at Man7i6ert ;Crmenia< bringing the Muslim army
ominously close for a land-attac6 on 8onstantinople. !y the mid-fourteenth century, the !y7antine +mpire
on the east was mostly captured e#cept the tiny !osporus or Istanbul Strait. This enabled the Attoman army
to cross over to +urope via Thrace, east of 8onstantinople, in the *(-.s. In the *(%.s, Islamic invaders
sei7ed Cdrianople $now +dirne' and Ghilippopolis $Glovdiv'. Cdrianople became a royal residence in *(%% to
facilitate the Attoman conFuest of +urope.$19'
In the early *(5.s, @eneral Murad started ma6ing incursions deeper into +urope. "aving himself become
the Sultan in *(:(, Murad intensified his campaigns, capturing the !ulgarian capital Sofia and the city of KiO
in *(:-. Clthough the Serbs inflicted a crushing defeat on the Attomans in *(:5 in the battle of Glocni6, they
marched anew deep into +urope two years later ;*(:9<. They defeated a Serbian-!ulgarian coalition army
at the battlefield of Josovo GolBe. Murad Fuic6ly advanced into !ulgaria, and captured the cities of HrPma,
JavPla and Seres ;SerrPi<, but the Sultan was 6illed by valiant Serb warrior, MiloO Abilic. "aving lost the
capital Josovo, the ;erusalem of the 1erbian Empire, the !al6an was lost to the Muslim invaders.
Sultan Murad4s successor !eya7id I ordered mass-slaughter of all captives to avenge his father4s death,
earning him the title of <ildirim, the 2ightning !olt. "e went on to capture most of !ulgaria and northern
@reece in *(:9D9-, and laid a long-lasting siege on 8onstantinople in *(9*D9:. Ct the *(9% battle of
Kicopolis, his forces met the Lenetian-"ungarian army, reinforced by 0ran6ish 6nights, and led by 6ing
Sigismund of "ungary. In a deceptive ploy of feigning negotiations, the Attomans tric6ed the !ulgarians and
0ran6ish 6nights into laying down their weapons, and then slaughtered them mercilessly, winning the battle.
In the *&*.s, the Attomans moved their capital to Cdrianople on the +uropean side of 8onstantinople for
reinforcing conFuest and control in +urope. Sultan Mehmed invaded Clbania and the !y7antine-controlled
areas in Southern @reece. 0ollowing Mehmed4s death in *&1*, his son Sultan Murad II laid a siege on
8onstantinople for a couple of months in *&1(, e#tracting additional tributes from !y7antium.
In *&1(, Sultan Murad II initiated >ihad against Lenice by attac6ing Saloni6a ;Thessaloni6i<, and 6illing
several Lenetian soldiers. In response, Lenice declared war against the Attomans. Sultan Murad swiftly
sent his forces to sei7e Saloni6a, while Lenetian reinforcements arrived, leading to a battle situation. The
Attomans, again in a deceptive ploy of negotiating peace, sent a delegation to the gate. The delegation,
comprising of deadly >anissary soldiersseeing an opportunitysuddenly fell upon the unprepared
Lenetian guards stationed outside, slaying them swiftly before forces inside could react, and then set the
wooden gate on fire using naphtha balls. Ance the gate collapsed, the Attoman forces charged on, forcing
the Lenetians flee to their ships. Cs the Tur6s began plundering the city, the Lenetian fleet started
bombarding it, forcing them to flee. Kew Lenetian reinforcements arrived to rescue the city. In *&(., a large
Attoman fleet again made a surprise attac6 on Saloni6a. ?nable to withstand sustained Attoman attac6s,
desperate Lenetians surrendered Saloni6a and the surrounding lands in *&(1.
In *&&*, the "oly =oman +mpire, Goland and Clbania made an alliance, and inflicted a number of
humiliating defeats on the Attomans in *&&(D&&. The Attomans soon recovered, and defeated the
"ungarians in the second battle of Josovo in *&&:, they went on to invade Serbia, and attac6 8entral
Clbania. In *&-., they attac6ed Clbania again.
?nder the ne#t Sultan, Mehmed II ;r. *&-*D:*< 6nown as 0atih, the 8onFueror the Attomans inflicted
the final blow on 8onstantinople. Cfter a three-month siege, it was overrun on May 19, *&-(. The Sultan
allowed his soldiers to plunder and slaughter for three days, which they were entitled to. The 8hristian
;@ree6< population were mercilessly slaughtered, nearly four-fifths of the city was burned down. The
magnificent 8athedrals were reduced to rubble with some converted to mosFues, the !asilica of "agia
Sophia was converted into a mosFue in *&%1. "aving defied repeated Muslim attac6s for 5:. years,
8onstantinople the long-coveted capital of the +astern =oman +mpire and eastern centre of 8hristianity
finally fell into the Muslim hands.$(.'
With 8onstantinople fallen, Attoman assaults on +urope gained a new momentum. They attac6ed Serbia in
*&-&, Kovi !rod and Jrusevac $Clacahisar' in *&--, while Moldavia agreed to pay tributes. In *&-%, the
Attomans attac6ed !elgrade, and defeated Serbia in *&-9. In *&%., they captured the Huchy of Cthens and
much of the Morea, while they captured the last !y7antine state of Trebi7ond ;Trab7on< in *&%*, and
conFuered the @enoese holdings in the Cegean Sea. In *&%(, they anne#ed !osnia, conFuered
"er7egovina in *&%- while the 8rimean Jhanates were reduced to Attoman su7erainty in *&5-. In *&5%, the
Attomans waged campaigns against "ungary and Wallachia, ma6ing Wallachia a vassal state. In *&55D5:,
they raided Italy and captured the Lenetian forts in Clbania. In *&:., they landed at Atranto in Southern
Italy, and laid the first Attoman siege on =hodes in *&:.D:*. In *&95, the Attomans made the final
subBugation of Clbania, conFuered Montenegro in *&99, and battled with Lenice in *&99D*-.1. Moldavia
was made a vassal state in *-*1.
In *-19, the Attoman Tur6s stunned +urope by laying a siege on Lienna, the capital of the "oly =oman
+mpire ;Custro-"ungarian +mpire<, and the gateway into @ermany ;Grussia<, Swit7erland, 0rance and Italy.
Gope Innocentius NI appealed for a Boint +uropean resistance to which Spain, Gortugal, Goland and various
8atholic princes of @ermany responded. Cs the Attomans moved close to Lienna, a @erman volunteer-force
consisting of teenagers to septuagenarians, led by seventy-year-old Ki6las @raf Salm heroically beat
bac6 the invaders.
!y the *%
th
century, e#tensive Attoman conFuest had reduced Western +urope into a heavily truncated and
cornered 8hristian landmass, desperately resisting an inescapable Attoman ta6eover. Meanwhile the
Safavid dynasty of Shiite Islam rose in Gersia ;*-.1D*5(%<. Liewed as heretics by the Sunni Attomans
and vice versa, a sustained internecine confrontation between the two leading Muslim powers ensued. The
Attomans engaged the Safavids in bitter wars in *-*&D*%, *-1%D--, *-55D9., *%.1D*1, *%*%D*:, *%1(D(:
and *5.-D*-. This brought much sought respites to beleaguered +urope. !usbecF, the ambassador of the
"oly =oman +mpire to Istanbul ;*--&D%1<, resonated with this desperate sentiment in remar6ing that it was
the threat from Gersia to the Tur6ish +mpire that saved +urope from imminent Attoman conFuest.$(*'
While distracted by Safavid Gersia in West Csia, the Attomans engaged the "absburg rulers in "ungary in
*-1:D((, in the Mediterranean in *-(1D&%, and again in "ungary in *-(5D&& and *--*D%1. =enewed
Attoman assaults in the Mediterranean ;*--*D:*< led to the famous (attle of #epanto;@reece, *-5*<, in
which the Tur6s suffered their first maBor defeat in +urope. This victory sent out waves of Boy across +urope,
while the Tur6ish archive rather nonchalantly mentioned) 33'he fleet of the divinely uided Empire met the
fleet of the wretched infidels and the will of Allah turned the other way!44$(1'
The Attomans engaged "ungary again in *-%1 and Goland in *%*&D1*. In *%&-D5., they engaged the
Lenetians, while they attac6ed Transylvania in *%-5D%1 and Goland again in *%5*D5%. The stage for the
final battle to decide the end-point of Attoman incursions into +urope had arrived. 8ontrol over Serbia,
8roatia, =omania, !ulgaria and "ungary consolidated, the Attomans attac6ed Lienna again in *%:( in their
final sally to overrun +urope. An *& >uly *%:(, a *&.,...-strong Attoman force laid a two-month siege on
Lienna. Cs Lienna was about to collapse, Custro-@erman and Golish contingents came to the rescue. >an
Sobies6i, the Golish warrior Jing, leading his (.,...-strong army, showed brilliant commandership, brea6ing
the Tur6ish siege on September *1. The invaders lost some *-,... fighters, while Western allies lost &,...
lives. The Tur6s, nonetheless, returned with a massive :.,... white slaves,$((' a coveted commodity in the
Muslim world.
Muslims at some point ruled the whole of Spain, Gortugal, "ungary, Qugoslavia, Clbania, @reece, !ulgaria
and =omania. They ruled parts of 0rance, @ermany, Swit7erland, Italy, Custria, Goland, 87echoslova6ia and
the Soviet ?nion. The second Attoman retreat from Lienna, whilst saving +urope, also decisively proved
+urope4s military supremacy over their Muslim opponents. The fortune of Islam-+urope confrontation had
dramatically changed in +urope4s favor. The Attoman rulers were progressively e#pelled eventually from all
parts of Western +urope. They continued ruling some !al6an regions until the early 1.
th
century, which
ended in the *9*.s. Moreover, starting in mid-*:
th
century, !ritain, "olland, 0rance and Italy ;Gortugal and
Spain to lesser e#tents< eventually captured most of the Islamic lands by the early 1.
th
century.$(&' Anly
Cfghanistan and Saudi Crabia of little economic or strategic importance plus Iran and the Attoman
Tur6ey, remained outside the +uropean control. When +uropean powers eventually withdrew from their
formerly Muslim-ruled colonies, countries dominated by Muslims came under Muslim control. +lsewhere
they lost political powers to non-Muslim indigenous maBorities ;i.e. India< often through democratic
processes.
Crusades: European counterattack against Jihad
The 8rusades ;*.9%D*19*< launched by 8hristian +urope to ta6e control of >erusalem, the birth place of
>esus 8hrist and the 8hristian "oly 2and is the most condemned chapter in the collective +uropean
history. The 8rusades, the 8hristian "oly War, were in reality a counterattac6 against Islamic "oly War
;>ihad<, waged aggressively some &5. years earlier. Grophet Muhammad had himself sent an e#pedition
against the 8hristians of Muta in Syria, while he himself led another holy war e#pedition against the
!y7antine border in Syria, bringing a number of small 8hristian principalities under the Muslim control. An
his death-bed ;%(1<, he had instructed his followers to e#pel the >ews and 8hristians from Crabia, $(-' which
was completed by %&&.$(%' Two years after his death, Muslims captured Galestine ;%(&<, and >erusalem in
%(: from !y7antine control. Sophronius, the 8hristian patriarch of >erusalem ;%(&D%(:<, who surrendered
the city to Muslim invaders, saw them as 33godless barbarians44 who 33burnt churches, destroyed monasteries,
profaned crosses, and horribly blasphemed against 8hrist and the church44. The devastation was so
e#tensive that, the ne#t year, 3thousands died as a result of famine and plague conseFuent to the destruction
and pillage.4$(5'
8aliph Amar ;r. %(&D%&&< allowed the >ews and 8hristians to live as 3dhimmi $protected' subBects4 in
>erusalem under the sufferance of many humiliating disabilities, and payment of discriminatory ta#es $ji"yah'
as outlined in the canonical Islamic ordnance, the 6act of +mar. Cccording to the Gact, the life
of dhimmis was out of the pale of law if they refused to do anything Muslims demanded, said anything
unfitting about Grophet Muhammad, his religion and the uran, committed fornication with or married
Muslim women, robbed Muslims, turned Muslims away from Islam, or helped Muslims4 enemies or spies.
They had to wear "unnar $cloth-belt' clearly visible above their clothes ;to distinguish themselves from
Muslims<, and use peculiar saddles and manners of riding, and ma6e their&alansuwas $cap' different from
those of Muslims. They could not ta6e the crest of the road, nor the chief seat in assemblies when Muslims
were present. They could not display the cross, nor build a church or place of assembly for prayers, nor beat
the =a&us $church bell', nor say >esus was the son of @od.$(:' The 8hristians and >ews of >erusalem lived
under these degrading terms and economic e#ploitations for centuries, although not all Muslim rulers
imposed these rules strictly.
The rather belated 8rusades to free >erusalem were galvani7ed by a series of preceding events. 8hristians,
including from +urope, were reFuired to pay e#orbitant fees to visit their holy places in >erusalem. In 9&(,
Muslims destroyed the churches of =amleh, 8aesarea and Cscalon, 0atimid 8aliph Mui77 burned part of the
8hurch of "oly Sephulchre in 9%9, the patriarch of >erusalem was burned alive in 95- on spying charges. In
*..9, 8aliph "a6im unleashed violent persecution of 8hristians and >ews, stopped pilgrimage to the "oly
2and, and destroyed the 8hurch of "oly Sephulchre, rebuilt by !y7antine +mperor 8onstantine LIII.$(9'
Meanwhile, the Millenarian 8hristians in +urope, anticipating the impending end of the world a millennium
after >esus, floc6ed to the "oly 2and in large numbers for e#periencing a blessed death. These pilgrims
were harassed and maltreated by Muslims in >erusalem. They returned with humiliation and anger, and
spread their stories of sufferings in +urope. 2ater on, when the famous 0rench pilgrim and 7ealot, Geter the
"ermit ;d. ***-<, tried to visit the "oly 2and, he was prevented and tortured by Muslims. =eturning home,
he went about telling his humiliating tales agitating a campaign for freeing >erusalem. "is revivalist
campaign mobili7ed crusading sentiments across +urope creating a sense of 8hristendom united against
Muslims ;Islamdom<.$&.'
Meanwhile, the defeat of the !y7antine emperor in Man7i6ert ;Crmenia< in *.5* had brought Islamic
incursions close to 8onstantinople. In *.5%, the SelBu6 Tur6s captured >erusalem from the 0atimid rulers of
+gypt, and committed atrocious cruelties on the inhabitants arousing indignation in +urope. With the
!y7antine emperor defeated, the persecuted 8hristians of >erusalem could now appeal only to +urope for
their protection.$&*' 0earful of impending Tur6 encroachments on 8onstantinople, !y7antine +mperor Cle#is,
foregoing his pride and rivalry with the Gope, also appealed to +urope for assisting their eastern brothers
and sisters.$&1'
Cll these factors were converging together when the Kormans, blessed by the Gope, had Bust evicted
Muslims from Sicily ;**9*<. Gope ?rban II, e#cited by all these factors, too6 up the cause of freeing the "oly
2and from Muslims. In *.9-, he delivered an unprecedented, emotive and high-pitched, speech in Southern
0rance for freeing >erusalem, reciting 3tales of Moslem atrocity4 and 3distributed crosses4.$&(' Clso desirous
of uniting the +astern and Western 8hurches, Gope ?rban urged the bic6ering 8hristian rulers of +urope to
unite on a 3Truce of @od4. In an enthusiastic response, an armed cavalry force of *-,... consisting of
-,... 6nights and the rest infantry were soon marching eastward wearing large red crosses. Meanwhile,
Geter the "ermit had led an enthusiastic peasant-force through +urope ahead of the 6nights, the so-called
Geoples4 8rusade.
There began the infamous 8rusades) the harrowing battles between 8ross and the 8rescent, between the
8hristian West and the Islamic +ast a clash between two inimical civili7ations. The 8rusades were poorly
planned and armed, and often disunited, military campaigns primarily meant for recapturing the "oly 2and.
The 8rusaders also focused on recapturing the former 8hristian lands of West Csia and Korth Cfrica
occupied by Muslims. This inaugurated a series of eight campaigns from 8hristian +urope to Muslim West
Csia, beginning in *.9-. In the first campaign, three great 8rusader contingents, marching separately from
0rance, converged on a 8onstantinople rende7vous before marching forward. They went on to restore some
territories to !y7antine su7erainty, and also established four 2atin 6ingdoms in West Csia) *< +dessa in
Crmenia ;*.9:<, 1< Cntioch, the cradle of the first organi7ed church ;*.9:<, (< >erusalem, incorporating
territories from !eirut to the =ed Sea ;*.99<, and &< Tripoli ;**.9<. These were the first and the last
acFuisitions by the 8rusaders.$&&'
Thereafter, Muslim power improved, while disunity amongst the 8rusader Jingdoms wea6ened their
position. The first Muslim counterattac6 against the 8rusaders fell upon +dessa in **&&. In **:5, the famed
Sultan Saladin inflicted the decisive blow upon the 8rusaders. Saladin devised a trap that the legendary and
revered 'rue Cross, allegedly disappeared from >erusalem after its capture by Gersia in %*1, was in his
possession. Cware of the reverence 8hristians held for it, and the effort they would ma6e to acFuire it,
Saladin challenged the 8rusaders that if their @od really willed, they would be able to recapture it from his
hands. If so, he promised) 3* shall return to the faith of Christ4.
Saladin chose "attin, two days4 Bourney from >erusalem, as the place of confrontation amidst a searing
Middle +astern summer. "e had sanded up all the water-wells along the way, and destroyed the Maronite
8hristian villages that could have supplied the 8rusaders with water and supplies. 0alling into Saladin4s trap,
the 8rusaders left their fortified position in >erusalem and Cntioch, marching across the hot and dry desert of
Korthern Israel towards 2a6e Tiberias. They reached "attin, e#hausted and burning with thirst. Meanwhile,
the Muslim army had hidden itself, nowhere to be seen. Thin6ing that it was a false call, the thirsty
8rusaders left their vantage position, and rushed towards the 2a6e. Cs they started gulping water, Muslims
came out of their hidings, and subBected the unprepared 8rusaders 3to an incessant shower of arrows the
li&e of which they had never e9perienced! +f the 2>,>>> &nihts and footmen, only a few remained alive
throuh apostasy or capture4.$&-' "aving destroyed the main 8rusader army, Saladin marched on and
captured >erusalem, where all 8rusaders were put to death, and the 8hristian population was captives, and
sold into slavery.
This loss of the "oly 2and shoc6ed +urope, rousing a renewed 8rusading 7eal. C series of new 8rusades
were underta6en in **:9D91, *1.1D.&, *1*1 and *1*5D1*, and a few more thereafter, but all failed. In the
**:9D91 8rusade, the three mightiest sovereigns of +urope Ghillip Cugustus ;0rance<, 0rederic6
!arbarosa ;@ermany< and =ichard the 2ion-"eart ;+ngland< Bointly marched to recapture >erusalem
again. Spectacular battles with brilliant military valour on both sides were fought particularly at Ccre ;C66a<,
but the military genius of Saladin won. The strategic and strongest 8rusader garrison at Cntioch fell to
Muslims in *1%:, all the *-,... fighters captured therein were slaughtered, and some *..,... 8hristians
enslaved and sold.$&%' Ccre, the last city of some military importance held by the 8rusaders, fell in *19*.
The 8rusaders had been e#terminated from West Csia.
The brutalities committed by either side in the course of the 8rusades were harrowing, with the 8rusaders
probably outdoing their opponents to a good e#tent. They enacted every cruelty Muslims had inflicted upon
8hristians over the previous five centuries, but with a greater intensity. Worse still to modern conscience
was the 8hildren4s 8rusade of *1*1, in which thousands of children from +urope marched to the "oly 2and.
Most of them died of hunger and disease, the rest were enslaved and sold by Muslims.
The 8rusaders, especially in their first campaign, also committed unspea6able cruelties against >ewish
communities that they came across along their Bourney. Cccording to Grof @erard Sloyan, 3 'he Muslims
were the ,infidel- tarets in the attempted recapture of the holy places in 6alestine! 2owever, the pillae and
slauhter committed by Christian mobs aainst ;ews on the way liner lon in ;ewish memory!4$&5' The first
8rusaders 6illed nearly *.,... >ews during the first si# months alone.$&:'
Konetheless, barbaric cruelties were committed by both sides in the course of the 8rusades, each side
suffering millions of deaths. There were 3savae barbarities on both sides! (oth were uilty of rapine and
plunder and the wholesale massacre of civilian populations, includin women and children,4 writes Wal6er.
$&9'
The colonial era
The 8rusades, although failed, held bac6 Muslim incursions into +urope for more than two centuries. "aving
driven out the 8rusaders, the Attoman Tur6s renewed their religio-imperial e#pansion into +urope, and they
were poised to overrun Western +urope in the si#teenth century, if not for the intra-Muslim Attoman-Safavid
conflicts. Meanwhile, :enaissance had begun in +urope bringing new vitality and e#cellence in science and
technology. When the Attomans were repulsed from Lienna in *%:(, +urope4s military supremacy over her
age-old dreaded eastern enemy had been decidedly established. Muslims were gradually driven out of
Western +urope, while =ussia rolled them bac6 from 8entral Csia. The Attomans tried to master Western
warfare technology but failed. "aving suffered humiliating defeats one after another, Tur6ey, the long-
standing terror of +urope, had become the 3sic& man of Europe..$-.'
The subseFuent industrial revolution in +urope, and the discovery and mastery of sea-routes, brought
+uropean merchants to the Muslim world, beginning in early si#teenth century. This commercial interest
later turned into imperial ambition. The !ritish +ast India 8ompany, which had come to India as merchants
in *%.., ousted the Muslim governor of !engal in *5-5, and obtained the ta#-collecting authority in *5%-. It
eventually too6 political control of most of India by *:-.. The Gortuguese had similarly ousted Muslim rulers
from the Malay Geninsula in *-**, later replaced by the Hutch and !ritish. The Spaniards stopped the
advancing Muslims in Southern Ghilippines in *-%-. 0rance, !ritain and Italy captured Muslim-ruled lands in
Cfrica. In the course of the 0irst World War, !ritain and 0rance occupied the Tur6ish lands, namely Syria
and Galestine, while the !al6an territories gained independence in *9*.s.
When Western imperialists namely !ritain, 0rance, "olland and Italy e#tended their colonial rule, there
was much change in +urope) following the +nlightenment, secularism had ta6en hold, replacing theocracy in
political systems. The +uropean colonists, e#cept the Gortuguese and Spaniards, came mainly for
commercial interests, they had very little interest in proselyti7ation, although missionaries also came with
them. The +uropean colonists tried to seculari7e the Islamic polity in occupied Muslim lands, which often
had large non-Muslim populations groaning under the yo6e of cruel Islamic laws ;i.e. Sharia<.
Islamic Burists have traditionally divided the world into two domains) %ar al)*slam ;"ouse of Islam< and%ar al)
2arb ;"ouse of war<. %ar al)*slam is the domains under Muslim rule, while %ar al)2arb is a territory under
non-Muslim rule, against which Muslims must declare open-ended war ;i.e. >ihad<, until it has been brought
under the Muslim control. The non-Islamic colonial rule in Muslim lands, therefore, caused strong revulsions
amongst Muslims. To Cllah, non-Muslim rule is tyranny and oppression. "e commands Muslims even to
migrate from such lands to Muslim-ruled ones $uran &)95D*..'. Cs a result, >ihad, which had inspired
Muslims to underta6e conFuests to most parts of the 6nown world, again became handy for them to inspire
the Muslim masses to drive out the +uropean colonists. While +uropean powers found it relatively easy to
deal with their non-Muslim subBects, Muslims waged the dreaded >ihad against colonial rulers causing
serious problems for them. >ihad e#cites the pious on a suicidal mission, because it opens to them, they
believe, the opportunity for martyrdom, which lands them directly in the Islamic Garadise $uran 9)***',
which is the sole aim of their earthly life. Therefore, a small number of dedicated >ihadis can cause great
damage and destruction to their opponents. Crmed Muslim resistance against colonial Western powers
namely the revolts of Hipa Kegara ;*:1-D(.< and CtBeh-war ;*:5(D*9.&< in Indonesia, the Mahdist
movement against the !ritish and Italians in Somalia ;*:99D*91.<, the nineteenth-century Islamic resistance
against the !ritish in India ;including the 1epoy Mutiny, *:-5<, the Clgerian resistance against the 0rench,
the nineteenth-century ?rabi resistance against the !ritish in +gypt, the Sanusi resistance in 2ibya against
the Italians, the Mahdist resistance led by Muhammad Chmad ;d. *::-< in the Sudan, the Attoman >ihad
declarations against the Western powers ;*9*&<, the Muslim resistance to !ritish colonialism in Galestine
were all instigated and fought under the banner of >ihad.$-*'
Discussions
+dward Said laments the fact that Islam was believed in +urope to 3be demonic reliion of apostasy,
blasphemy and obscurity4 and 3a fearless and warli&e creed4 set about destroying 8hristianity during most of
the Middle Cges and the early part of =enaissance.$-1' This is indeed true, but Said ignores the fact that this
Western disdain of Islam was mutual, not a one-way thing. In truth, Islam was born believing that 8hristianity
is an erroneous religion. 3;ust as Christianity lon viewed *slam as a heretical movement stemmin from
their own faith, Muslims see Christianity as an earlier and faulty version of *slam,4 notes Gipes.$-(' To
Muslims, argues 2ewis, 3Christianity was an abroated reliion, which its followers absurdly insisted on
retainin instead of acceptin ?od.s final words @i!e!, *slamA!4$-&'3Muslims saw Western Europe as a cold
and inhospitable reion, inhabited by barbarians,4$--' while, 3Europe was seen 4by Muslims5 in the same
liht as the remoter lands of AfricaBan outer dar&ness of barbarism from which there was nothin to learn
and little even to be imported e9cept slaves and raw materials!4$-%'
If history is to be the Budge in conBunction with the fundamental creed of Islam, medieval +urope was correct
in viewing Islam as 3a fearless and warli&e creed4. 8oncerning the +uropean claim that Islam was a heretical
8hristian creed, Muhammad, indeed, founded Islam by absorbing the current religious and cultural ideas,
thoughts, and practices of the Crab society, borrowing most heavily from 8hristianity. 3Muhammad &new
*slam was not a new reliion and the revelations contained in the Coran merely confirmed already e9istin
scriptures of the ;ews, Christians and others4, notes Ibn WarraF.$-5' The Islamic world, li6ewise, was also
somewhat correct in seeing Western +urope as a land of barbarians, because the Muslim holy warriors,
bursting out of Crabia, had captured the world4s greatest civili7ationsGersia, 2evant, +gypt, Korth Cfrica,
India and parts of 8hinaacFuiring their wealth, intellectual treasures and brains. This enabled them
become the world4s richest and intellectually advanced civili7ation. Muslims also acFuired the brilliant
intellectual treasures of ancient @reece, which, following the trail of Cle#ander4s conFuest, had also moved
eastwards to +gypt and the 2evant. Ct the same time, +urope was sun6 in dar6ness and semi-barbarism,
caused by 8hristian obscurantism, as well as the battering and conFuest of Western +urope by the so-called
barbarian tribes of Korth +urope the @oths ;Lisigoths, Astrogoths<, Landals, Li6ings and Kormans etc.
from the fifth century.
?ndeniably, there was a fierce sustained clash between Islam and the 8hristian West. Islam was born to
wage this conflict not only against 8hristendom, but also against all peoples of the world. Cnd 3 Europe had
been threatened or attac&ed in its front, rear and soft belly @by MuslimsA,4 writes "itti.$-:' In this conflict of
Islam against the rest, Western +urope stood out as the most obstinate, even dreaded, opponent.
3Europe was by far the most important infidel enemy! the reat ;ihad per e9cellence, the major battlefields
of the 2ouse of *slam and the 2ouse of War, was in Europe,4 writes 2ewis.$-9'Muslims captured non-Muslim
lands in Korth Cfrica, West and 8entral Csia, the Middle +ast, and the Indian Subcontinent ma6ing them
their eternal colonies or abode. !ut in +urope, they faced the strongest resistance, they were uprooted from
Spain, Gortugal, Italy, @reece, "ungary, 0rance, @ermany, and so on. +urope also struc6 bac6 as the
dreaded 8rusaders, and again as the colonial masters.
The early Islam-West conflict, the 8rescent against the 8ross or >ihad against the 8rusades, had changed
to >ihad against secular-liberalism in the colonial era. +conomic e#ploitations aside, the +uropean colonists
succeeded in seculari7ing the polity in Islamic countries to a significant e#tent. Sharia, hitherto unFuestioned
governing laws in Islamic lands, was mostly dismantled e#cept in family matters. The heavily oppressed,
degraded and e#ploited non-Muslim subBects were liberated, and made eFual citi7ens, widespread slavery
and slave-concubinage were largely abolished. Western ideas of liberalism, secularism, feminism,
democracy, socialism and social eFuality etc., diametrically opposed to Sharia law, also came to the Muslim
world, heavily influencing the Muslim elite. Jemal Ctatur6 in Tur6ey and the Shahs in Iran instituted liberal
secularism dismantling Sharia, gave non-Muslims eFual rights and liberated women.
Whilst these transformations were ta6ing place amongst educated Muslim elites and rulers, Wahhabism a
militantly puritanical Islamic movement, born in Saudi Crabia in the *:
th
century was spreading amongst
Muslims globally. It called for purifying the religious, social and political orders of Muslim societies to
conform to the holy uran and prophetic traditions. Cfter the West evacuated, the relatively secular ruling
elites in Muslim countries came under increasing pressure from this movement, forcing them to increasingly
de-seculari7e and re-Islami7e the polity. Since the spi6e in oil-price in the *95.s, Saudi Crabia has invested
tens of billions of dollars to promote the puritanical Wahhabi Islam amongst Muslims globally, including in
the West. Iran and 2ibya, amongst others, have also invested heavily to promote Islamic revivalism.$%.'
Whatever seculari7ation the colonial West had left behind in their former Muslim colonies is being wiped out,
while Muslim immigrants in the West, visibly more receptive of puritanical Islam, are trying to undermine
secular-liberal values and way of life in their adopted homelands. Cll maBor Islamic organi7ations in the West
from the Muslim Council of (ritain to the Council for American *slam :elations ;8CI=, ?SC< see6 to
institute Sharia laws. Amar Chmed, 8hairman of 8CI=, hoped the uran to 3be the hihest authority in
America, and *slam the only accepted reliion on earth4.$%*'Cccording to a recent poll, some &./ of Muslims
in !ritain support the introduction of Sharia and (5/ oppose it. Some ((/ support the creation of a
worldwide Muslim caliphate with only 1-/ opposed to the idea.$%1' The !ritish government recently
conceded to ma6ing the rulings of a Sharia 8ourt legal in civil and some criminal matters ;domestic
violence<.$%(' Sharia 8ourts for Muslims, operational in 8anada since *99*, were abolished in 1..% after a
vigorous campaign by human rights activists.
0reedom of e#pression, homose#uality and coeducation etc. amongst many other things, not compatible
with the Sharia or Islam, are already being strained or attac6ed by Muslims in many Western countries.
While mainstream Muslims push for the introduction of Sharia laws through nonviolent means, the age-old
violent confrontation is being revived and intensified by al-aeda and li6e-minded radical Islamic groups in
recent decades. Hespite the difference in modus operandi, both the militant and the Sharia-loving nonviolent
Muslims have the same end goal) the rule of Sharia globally.
Conclusion
The current conflict between Islam and the West from human rights issues in Muslim countries, to anti-
Western violence by radical Muslims, to their campaigns against liberal lifestyle and ethos and for instituting
Sharia law in Western countries should be seen not as separate from the historical Islam-West conflicts.
Theologically, Islam was born to create a global Islamic state governed by laws of the uran and Sunnah,
i.e. Sharia. !ut most Muslims understand that the age-old campaign for the imposition of Sharia law through
violent means in the West is unrealistic under current circumstances. "owever, current demographic trends
suggest that Muslims would become resulting from high birthrates and their increasing influ# from
overpopulated Muslim countries amidst decline in the native population the dominant religious group in
many Western countries by the middle of this century.$%&' The current ratio of Muslim to non-Muslim
birthrate is ()* in +urope,$%-' Muslims constitute only *./ of the population in 0rance, but (./ of the
youths under the age of 1. are Muslims.$%%'2ewis predicted in 1..& that 3Current trends show Europe will
have a Moslem majority by the end of the 21
st
century at the latest Europe will be part of the Arabic West,
of the Mahreb!4$%5'
With the Muslim population growing in leaps and bounds, the campaign for instituting Sharia laws, and,
therefore, Islamic governance in Western countries will, in all li6elihood, intensify over the coming decades.
Whether or not would this campaign succeed remains to be seen. If it does, Islam will overcome its long-
standing hurdle to Islami7e the globe resolutely held bac6 by the West for so many centuries.
$*' 0u6uyama 0 ;*9:9< 'he End of 2istoryD, The Kational Interest, Summer, p. &
$1' "untington SG ;*99%< 'he Clash of Civili"ations and the :ema&in of World +rder, Simon R Schuster,
Kew Qor6, p. (1*
$(' "untington SG ;*99(< 'he clash of civili"ationsD 0oreign Cffairs, Kew Qor6, Lol. 51)(, p. 11-1(
$&' "untington ;*99%<, p. 1----%
$-' =obinson 0 ;1...< *slam and Muslim history in 1outh Asia, A#ford ?niversity Gress, Kew Helhi, p. &1
$%' "ossein-Sadeh I ;1..%< 'he 6olitical Economy of E!1! Militarism, Galgrave Macmillan, Kew Qor6, p. *..
$5' Said +W ;1..*< 'he Clash of *norance, The Kation, &
th
Actober
$:' Cli C" ;1..%< 'he +wl and the +strich, 1..%-1..5 @rano Spea6ers Series, Toronto, ** Actober.
$9' "untington ;*99%<, p. 1.9
$*.' uran -)( stands for The uranic, chapter -, verse (. Three most accepted translations of The uran,
intended for Western audience, is found here) http)EEwww.usc.eduEdeptEMSCEFuranE
$**' Maududi CC ;*99(<, 2istorical (ac&round to 1urah Al)2ashr, In 'owards Enderstandin the 8uran,
;Trs. Cnsari SI<, Mar6a7i Ma6taba Islamic Gublishers, Kew Helhi
$*1' This verse is directed against the community of Mecca. The claim that the Meccans had driven Muslims
out is not supported by historical documents. The Grophet4s biographies clearly say his emigration was
willing. It, at best, meant that Meccans4 reBection of his creed made him leave, not forcibly driving him out.
The ultimate purpose of Cllah4s command for holy war was to Tprevail Bustice and faith in Cllah altogether
and everywhereU $uran :)(9'. This means that any non-Islamic religious practice or opposition to Islam is
TinBusticeU or TTumult or oppressionU in the language of Cllah or the uran.
$*(' ?maruddin M ;1..(< 'he Ethical 6hilosophy of Al)?ha""ali, Cdam Gublishers R Histributors, Kew Helhi,
p. (.5
$*&' Ibn IshaF ;1..& imprint< 'he #ife of Muhammad, trans. C @uillaume, A#ford ?niversity Gress, Jarachi,
p. (%(-%&
$*-' Ibid, p. &(5-&(9
$*%' Ibid, p. &%*-5.
$*5' Muir W ;*:9&< 'he #ife of Mahomet, 2ondon ;reprinted by Loice of India, Kew Helhi, *991<, p. (%:-5&
$*:' Ibn IshaF, p. %.1-9
$*9' !ostom, p. &1*-11
$1.' A4Shea S ;1..%< 1ea of 0aithF *slam and Christianity in the Medieval Mediterranean World, Wal6er R
8ompany, Kew Qor6, p. %%-%9
$1*' "itti, GJ ;*9%*< 'he =ear East in 2istoryF A G>>> <ear 1tory, H. Lan Kostrand 8ompany, Kew Qor6, p.
11&-1-,119-(.
$11' A4Shea, p. 5.
$1(' "itti, p. (.:
$1&' Kehru > ;*9:9< ?limpses of World 2istory, A#ford ?niversity Gress, Kew Helhi, p. *&%
$1-' Gipes ;*9:(< *n the 6ath of ?od, !asic !oo6s, Kew Qor6, p. :%
$1%' Most of the information in this section is ta6en from Mediterranean 1eaF 0rom Centumcellae to the
?ariliano, http)EEwww.maat.itElivello1-iEmediterraneo-1-i.htm
$15' "itti, p. (.:
$1:' WarraF, p. 1(*
$19' "itti, p. ((.
$(.' "itti, p. ((*
$(*' 2ewis ;1..1< What Went WronF Western *mpact and Middle Eastern :esponse, Ghoeni#, 2ondon, p.
*.
$(1' 2ewis ;1..1<, p. *1
$((' +rdem Q" ;*99%< 1lavery in the +ttoman Empire and *ts %emise, 1H>>)1I>I, Macmillan, 2ondon, p. (.
$(&' =ussia too6 large parts of 8entral Csian regions, while 8hina, !urma and Thailand also captured lands,
previously conFuered by Muslims
$(-' Ibn IshaF, p. -1-
$(%' 1ahih Al)(u&hari, trans. MM Jhan, Jitab !havan, Kew Helhi, *9:&, p. (.5-: ;This a :-9
th
compilation of
prophetic traditions, consider semi-sacred by Muslims<
$(5' Ibn WarraF ;*99-< Why * m =ot a Muslim, Grometheus !oo6s, Kew Qor6, p. 1*9
$(:' Triton CS ;*95.< 'he Caliphs and 'heir =on)Muslim 1ubjects, 0ran6 8ass R 8o 2td, 2ondon, p. *1-1&
$(9' Wal6er ! ;*99:< 0oundations of Islam, =upa R 8o, Kew Helhi, p. 1&(
$&.' Kehru, p. *5:-59
$&*' Wal6er, p. 1&(
$&1' Kehru, p. *59, "itti, p. (.:
$&(' "itti, p. (.:
$&&' "itti, p. (*.-*1
$&-' "itti, p. (*(
$&%' "itti, p. (*%
$&5' Sloyan @S, Christian 6ersecution of ;ews over the Centuries, ?nites State4s "olocaust Memorial
Museum, http)EEwww.ushmm.orgEresearchEcenterEchurchEpersecutionEpersecution.pdf
$&:' A (rief 2istory of Antisemitism, In 'he 2olocaust 6roject, http)EEwww.humanitas-
international.orgEholocaustEantisem.htm
$&9' Wal6er, p. 1&-
$-.' "itti, p. (&1
$-*' Geters = ;*959< *slam and ColonialismF 'he %octrine of ;ihad in Modern 2istory, Mouton Gublishers,
The "ague, p. (9-*.&, 2ewis, ! ;*99(< *slam and the West, A#ford ?niversity Gress, Kew Qor6, p. (9
$-1' Said +W ;*995<, *slam and the West in Coverin *slamF 2ow the Media and E9perts %etermine 2ow
We 1ee the :est of the World, Lintage, 2ondon, p. -
$-(' Gipes H ;*9:(< p. 55
$-&' 2ewis ;*99(<, p. 5
$--' Gipes ;*9:(<, p. :.
$-%' 2ewis ;1..1<, p. &
$-5' Ibn WarraF, p. (&
$-:' "itti, p. (.:
$-9' 2ewis ;*99(<, p. *.
$%.' Gipes ;*9:(<, p. 195-((*
$%*' 8CI=, Wi6ipedia, http)EEen.wi6ipedia.orgEwi6iE8ouncilVonVCmerican-IslamicV=elations
$%1' @ardham H, Muslim students bac& &illin in the name of *slam, Telegraph ;?J<, 15 >uly 1..:
$%(' Matthew "ic6ley, *slamic sharia courts in (ritain are now Jleally bindinJ, *- September 1..:
$%&' Gipes H ;1..(< Militant *slam Comes to America, W W Korton R 8ompany, Kew Qor6, p. 1(-1-,
Simpson 2 and 0inney K ;1..5< Minority White CitiesD In Annual conference of the (ritish 1ociety for
6opulation 1tudies, September **-*(
$%-' Shabeeb, Kabil, Muslims in ?reater Europe, Islam Anline, .* >uly 1..&
$%%' Stein, Mar6, *t.s the %emoraphy 1tupid, The Spectator, *% Kovember, 1..-
$%5' *slamic EuropeI The Wee6ly Standard, & Actober 1..&
----
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