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LosAlarnos
NATIONAL LABORATORY
Ndi owdMxmtory p(blicdio~rpolicies.
LA-12724-7
1lW.+;.$
UC-7(M)
1ss11((1: F1l vl l my 1994
LosAlamos
NPTI ON AL
Laborat ory
. . .
Los Alamos. New Mexico 87545
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. htroducti ou . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1Moti vati on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 The Computati onal Model i ng Task
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Earl y Work and i ts Li mi tati ons . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4Needed Addi ti ons/Enhancements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........8
2. Deri vati on of Model Equati ons . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1 Bragi nski i Col l i si onal Two-Fl ui d Model . . . . . . . . . . ................11
2.2 Transformati on to Center-of-Mass Equati ons/Hal l MHD .........14
2.3 El i mi nati on of Fi ni te-Larmor-Radi us Terms/Standard MHD .......24
2.4Addi ti onal Detai l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.5 Dense Z-Pi nch Pl asma Parameters
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
3. MHD Si mul ati on of HDZP-I and HDZP-11
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.1 Detai l ed Basi c I vfHDModel of Experi ments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
3.2 Resul ts of Basi c MHD Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4. Hal l MHD Si mul ati ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
4.1 Hal l Ml I D Computati onal Model i ng Task
. . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.2 Expl i ci t Hal l and Di amagneti c Pressure Ter ms .... ....... ........ ..59
4.3 Adaptati on of I mpl i ci t (ADI ) Al gori thm for Hal l Ter m .............62
4.4 Di amagneti c Pressure and El ectron Work Ter ms ......... ........72
4.5 El ectron Current Energy Convecti on: Donor-Cel l ..................76
4.6 Hal l MHD Resul ts on Z-Pi nches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5. Two Promi si ng Rel ated Fbsi on Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.1 Deuteri um Shel l tmci Pl asma-on-Wi re I mpl osi ons . . . . . . . . . .......84
50~Imp]o~iOn of Ho]]ow Deuteri um Cyl i nders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .,..85
5.3 Pl asma-On-Wi re I mpl osi ons
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
6. Concl udi ng Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
6.1 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........93
6.2 Deuteri um-Fi ber Pi nches: RI ture Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... .....94
6.3 Other Hal l MHD Appl i cati ons
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.4Potenti al of Shel l and Pl asma-on-Wi re I mpl osi ons . . ...... .......98
6.5 Acknowl edgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Appendi x A: Val i di ty of Fl ui d Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Appendi x B: I magi ng of the Pl asma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Appendi x C: Physi cs of Hal l and Associ ated Ter ms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .106
Appendi x D: Some Detai l s of Numeri cs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11(?
Fi gures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
vi
MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMI C SI MULATI ON OF SOLI D-
DEUTERI UM. I NI TI ATED Z-PI NCH EXPERI MENTS
by
Peter ~ogdon Sheehey
ABSTRACT
Sol i d-deuteri urn-i ni ti atedZ-pi nch experi ments are numeri cal l y si mul ated us-
i ng a twedi mensi onal resi sti ve magnetohydrodynami c model , whi ch i ncl udes
many i mportant experi mental detai l s, such as udd-start i ni ti al condi ti ons,
thermal conducti on, radi ati ve energy l oss, actual di scharge current vs. ti me,
and gri ds of sufhci ent si ze and resol uti on to al l ow real i sti c devel opment of the
pl asma. The al ternati ng-di recti on-i mpl i ci t numeri cal techni que used meets the
substanti al demands presented by such a computati onal task. Si mul ati ons of
fi ber-i ni ti ated experi ments show that when the fi ber becomes ful l y i oni zed (at a
ti me dependi ng on current ramp and fi ber thi ckness), rapi dl y devel opi ng m=O
i nstabi l i ti es, whi ch ori gi nated i n the coronal pl asma generated from the abl ati ng
fi ber, dri ve i ntense non-uni form heati ng and rapi d expansi on of the pl asma col -
umn. The possi bi l i ty that i ncl usi on of addi ti onal physi cal effects woul d i mprove
stabi l i ty i s expl ored. Fi ni te-Larmor-radi us-ordered Hal l and di amagneti c pres-
sure ter ms i n the magneti c fi el d evol uti on equati on, correspondi ng energy equa-
ti on ter ms, and separate i on and el ectron energy equati ons are i ncl uded; these
do not change the basi c resul ts. Model di agnosti cs, such as shadowgrams and
i nterferograrns, generated from si mul ati on resul ts, are i n good agreement wi th
experi ment. Two al ternati ve experi mental approaches are expl ored: hi gh-current
magneti c i mpl osi on of hol l ow cyl i ndri cal deuteri um shel l s, and pl asma-on-wi re
(POW) i mpl csi on of l ow-densi ty p!asma onto a central deuteri um fi ber. By mi n-
i mi zi ng i nstabi l i ty probl ems, these techni ques may al l ow attai nment of hi gher
temperatures and densi ti es than possi bl e wi th bare fi ber-i ni ti ated Z-pi nches.
Condi ti ons for si gni fi cant D-D or D-T fusi on neutron producti on may be re-
al i zabl e wi th these i mpl osi on-based approaches.
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Moti vati on
The confi nement of pl asma by the pi nch effect, i n whi ch a uni di recti onal
(z) current generates a sel f-constri cti ng azi muthal magneti c fi el d, was one of
the earl i est i nvesti gated routes by whi ch i t was hoped to reach and sustai n condi -
ti ons of temperature and densi ty suffi ci ent for control l ed thermonucl ear fusi on.
Theoreti cal anal ysi s of the stabi l i ty of such a confi ned pl asma, based on the
i deal magnetohydrodynarni c model , seemed to agree wi th earl y experi mental
observati ons of gas-i ni ti ated Z-pi nches: rapi d devel opment of sausage and/or
ki nk i nstabi l i ti es di srupted the di scharges, l ong before desi red temperatures
and densi ti es coul d be reached. Efforts to stabi l i ze such pi nches by empl oy-
i ng addi ti onal , more el aborate magneti c fi el ds have l ed to present-day magneti c
confi nement confi gurati ons, such as the tokamak; however, the si mpl i ci ty and
rel ati vel y l ow cost of the Z-pi nch have been l ost wi th such el aborati on.
Advances i n technol ogy have l ed to the possi bi l i ty of obtai ni ng condi ti ons
qui te di fferent from those obtai ned i n the earl y experi ments. Thi s has l ed to a
new round of hi gh densi ty, fast-current-ri se Z-pi nch experi ments. I n one such
approach, a very fast ri si ng el ectri cal current (peak reached i n 0(100 nsec)) i s
di scharged through an i ni ti al l y sol i d deuteri um fi ber2-4. Some di scharges of
thi s type appeared to show %nornal ous stabi l i ty: absence or greatl y del ayed
onset of vi si bl e i nstabi l i ty devel opment. I f thi s al l eged stabi l i ty were to hol d
as current i s scal ed up to the Pease-Bragi nski i l evel (the theoreti cal l i mi t for
a Z-pi nch di scharge, at whi ch ohmi c heati ng i s bal anced by Bremsstrahl ung
radi ati on codi ng
S-T), the Z-pi nch coul d be the basi s for a compact md rel ati vel y
i nexpensi ve fusi on reactor8-10.
1
Such dense Z-pi nches empl oy modern hi gh-vol tage pul sed power technol ogy,
capabl e of produci ng current ramps approachi ng the Hai nes-Harnmel curve
9$11*12, whi ch i n a constant radi us pl asma col umn bal ances ohmi c heati ng, Brems-
strahl ung cool i ng, and temperature/current i ncrease, up to the steady-state
Pease-Bragi nski i current (roughl y 1.4 MA for deuteri um)s-. Deuteri um fi ber
experi ments, wi th current peaks up to about hal f the Pease-Bragi nski i current,
reported very l ong-l i ved, compact pl asmas showi ng l i ttl e i ndi cati on of di srupti on
by m=O sausage
2-4 b=ed on visible radi ati on
or m=l ki nk i nstabi l i ti es ,
emi ssi on and shadowgram i mages. Second-generati on machi nes13-15 desi gned
to reach the Pease-Bragi nski i current, however, have to date shown stronger i n-
di cati on of expansi on and m=O i nstabi l i ty growth, i n
hal f the Pe~e-Bragi nski i current (700-900 kA) 13~*4.
Can i t be expected that the apparent stabi l i ty
di scharges at greater than
seen i n l o-w-current dense
Z-pi nches wi l l be retai ned as current i s scal ed up? Anal yti c stabi l i ty thtmry i s
i nsuffi ci ent to answer thi s questi on, u the experi mental pl asmas produced move
through a range of non-i deal condi ti ons (a functi on of temperatures, densi ti es,
etc., varyi ng i n ti me and space) more compl i cated than any stabi l i ty cal cul ati on
can handl e. I f a computati onal model of the experi ment can be constructed i n
enough detai l to accuratel y depi ct exi sti ng experi ments, i t can ai d i n anal ysi ng
and understandi ng such experi ments, and may further serve as a starti ng poi nt
for the predi cti on of the rcsu]ts of future experi ments. That i s the goal of thi s
thesi s. I t wi l l be seen as thi s model i s assembl ed, that the si mpl i ci ty of the
Z-pi nch i s a rel ati ve concept; i ncl usi on of sti ci ent capabi l i ty and detai l to accu-
ratel y model such an experi ment i s sti l l a very demandi ng computati onal task.
2
1.2The Computati onal Model i nr Task
The dense Z-pi nch i s fai rl y uni que among fusi on experi mental pl asmas, i n
that for a si gni fi cant fracti on of i ts l i feti me, i t meets the cl assi cal (col l i si onal -
i ty) requi rements for descri pti on as a magnetohydrodynami c (MHD) fl ui d (see
Appendi x A). Ther efor e, a detai l ed MHD fl ui d si mul ati on can be expected to
reasonabl y wel l descri be the behavi or of such a system. Fur ther mor e, the consi s-
tent (but so far unexpl ai nedl G)observati on that three-di mensi onal (3-d) behavi or
(e.g., growth of m=l ki nk i nstabi l i ti es) i s vi rtual l y absent i n such experi ments
(di agnosti c i mages are hi ghl y symmetri c about the axi s, unti l qui te l ate i n the
d;sch=ge)Q-A,l s,l A,]?
encourages confi dence i n the resul ts of si mul ati on i n onl y
two di mensi ons. Thi s i s fortunate, because the i ncl usi on of vi tal experi mental
detai l s di scussed bel ow woul d at present make ful l 3-d si mul ati on prohi bi ti vel y
expensi ve.
Li near i deal MHD stabi l i ty theory for a Z-pi nch pl asma i n general predi cts
i nstabi l i ty to sausage (m=O) and ki nk (m=l ) modes18. However, the growth
rate of such i nstabi l i ti es i s dependent on radi al pressure profi l es of the pl asma;
i ndeed, Kadomtsev profi l es exi st whi ch are m=O stabl e18. Li near stabi l i ty
resul ts for a number of non-i deal fl ui d regi mes (such as resi sti ve MHD) have
been devel oped
Jg-soo An}, actu~ experi ment i s l i kel y to move through several of
these regi mes, as densi ty, temperature, etc., vary duri ng the di scharge; nonl i near
effects, as wel l , are l i kel y to be encountered.
Ther efor e, i t i s hi ghl y desi rabl e to si mul ate such experi ments starti ng from
ti me zero (zero current, frozen fi ber) i f possi bl e, i n order for real i sti c pl asma
profi l es to form and devel op l i nearl y/nonl i nearl y, as they wi l l . Energy ter ms
such as thermal conducti on, Joul e heati ng and radi ati on are cl earl y goi ng to
3
be i mportant. And the pl asma surface must be free to devel op as i f, as i n
the experi ment, i n vacuum, wi thout the i nfl uence of an unreal i sti cal l y confi ni ng
boundary or an i nsuffi ci entl y resol ved gri d.
Hence one needs a two-di mensi onal resi sti ve MHD code wi th cl assi cal (Bra-
gi nski i 3]) heat conducti on, ohmi c heati ng and radi ati on cool i ng ter ms i n the en-
ergy equati on, and the capabi l i ty to deal wi th huge densi ty and temperature
gradi ents (e.g., sol i d deuteri um vs. hot pl asma vs. vacuum), as wel l as po-
tenti al l y rapi dl y changi ng rel evant l ength and ti me scal es, wi thout runni ng i nto
prohi bi ti ve numeri cal ti mestep restri cti ons. Thi s suggests that an i mpl i ci t al go-
ri thm, wi th some capabi l i ty to adjust ti me and space step-si zes as the probl em
devel ops, wi l l be desi rabl e. Gi ven that such a code can be found or devi sed, i t
shoul d be possi bl e to si mul ate such experi ments i n a very di rect manner. One
may then compare the si mul ati on resul ts di rectl y to experi ment, by generati ng
from the resul ts predi cti ons of what di agnosti cs used i n the experi ments woul d
show. I f agreement of si mul ati on and experi ment i s good, one may begi n to
use the computati onal tool devel oped to i nterpret experi mental resul ts, and to
eval uate new experi mental concepts wi th some coxi fi dence.
1.3Earl v Work and i ts Li mi tati ons
The fi rst efforts by thi s author to cornputati onal l y eval uate the anoma-
10USstabi l i ty of fi ber Z-pi nches empl oyed a 3-d resi sti ve MHD code devel oped
by Schnack and Nebe123~30~32. Thi s code had been devel oped to model the rel -
ati vel y i deal (non-resi sti ve, non-radi ati ve, non-thermal l y-conducti ve) magneto
hydrodynami cs of such control l ed fusi on research devi ces as the reversed fi el d
pi nch, approxi mati ng the toroi dal confi gurati on of such machi nes by cyl i ndri cal
(r, 9, z) geometry wi th peri odi c axi al boundary condi ti ons. Detai l s of transport-
4

resi sti vi ty, vi scosi ty, heat conducti on-were not i mpl emented to fol l ow cl assi cal
(Bragi nski i ) MHD; however, resi sti vi ty, as expressed by the Lundqui st number
(S= ~~~.,~~,~ ~:,,~,~~/r~l fv,. ~r~n~i ft an i ndex of the i deal i ty of the pl asma),
and a scal ar (vV2t~ arti fi ci al vi scosi ty (both essenti al to thi s code for numeri -
cal stabi l i zati on purposes), were parameters whi ch one coul d vary to approach
expected cl assi cal transport properti es of a gi ven experi ment, such as the fi ber
Z-pi nch, The al gori thm was pseudospectrai (goi ng between Fouri er and normal
space representati ons when each are of greatest uti l i ty) i n the z and @di recti ons,
and fi ni te-di fference i n the r di recti on, wi th a semi -i mpl i ci t ti me advance.
I n order to run even a porti on of the hi gh-gradi ent (sol i d/vacuum) dense
Z-pi nch probl em wi th thi s code, i t was found necessary to restri ct the model
to i ncompressi bl e, resi sti ve MHD: magneti c fi el d and fl ui d vel oci ty evol uti on
from resi sti ve MHD, wi th an adi abati c pressure (energy) equati on. Resi sti vi ty
and Lundqui st number were set to val ues of a pl asma of near-sol i d densi ty,
at temperatures bel i eved to be reacned i n the experi ments (eV to keV), and
the arti fi ci al vi scosi ty was set to the correspondi ng cl assi cal (Bragi nski i q033)
vi scosi ty (i n effect, assumi ng that the i ni ti al condi ti on frozen fi ber has evol ved
to such pl asma condi ti ons). The surroundi ng vacuum was si mul ated by an area
of very hi gh (l OG ti mes pl asma) resi sti vi ty and pressure 10-2 ti mes tne peak
pressure of the pl asma. Then vari ous radi i Z-pi nch pressure/fi el d equi l i bri um
profi l es (for a Z-pi nch, radi al pressul e/fi el d profl es sati sfyi ng Vp(r) = J=(r) x
BO(r)) wi th smal l perturbati ons were ti me-advanced, to measure the growth rate
of m=O and m=l i nstabi l i ti es. Even wi th thi s restri cted model and the effi ci ent
semi -i mpl i ci t al gori thm of the Codel i t was cl ear that run ti me was goi ng to be
a probl em; however, i t was possi bl e to survey the l i near stabi l i ty of a range of
5
pl asma profi l es and temperatures.
The basi c resul ts were unchanged even after thi s author i mpl emented a more
sophi sti cated expl i ci t ful l (fi ve-coeffi ci ent) Bragi nski i vi scous stress tensor34,and
i ncl uded an ohmi c heati ng ter m. They were that at l ow temperature/Lund-
qui st number (i .e., bel ow S- 100), resi sti ve fi el d di ffusi on coul d act to very
much reduce i nstabi l i ty growth rates (both m=O and m=l ). Thi s coul d be part
of the expl anati on for the observed anomal ous stabi l i ty, i f exi sti ng experi ments
actual l y remai ned i n thi s regi me. Thi s resi sti ve stabi l i zati on effect was more pre
nounced for fi el d/current profi l es concentrated at the pl asma edge, whi ch from
an i deal MHD standpoi nt woul d have been expected to be maxi mal l y unstabl e*s.
An i deal -MHD-stabl e Kadomtsev profi l e was al so tested, and di d exhi bi t the
theoreti cal l y predi cted stabi l i ty; such a profi l e has cen~er-peakecipressure and
current densi ty profi l es, qui te the opposi te extreme from the edge-peaked, re-
si sti vel y stabi l i zed current profi l es. At temperatures i n the range of 5 keV, the
vi scous tem~swere al so observed to exert a strong stabi l i zi ng el ;ect, but thi s i s of
doubtful physi cal si gni fi cance, because such a pl asma l oses i ts col l i si onal i ty (an
assumpti on on whi ch the Bragi nski i vi scosi ti es were cal cul ated; di scussed further
i n Chapter 2 and Appendi x A) above about 1 keV.
These resul ts were i n agreementwi th other anal yti c and computati onal work
goi ng on at the ti me
19-27, but ]&e these Other i nvesti gati ons, rather begged the
questi on of dense Z-pi nch stabi l i ty. Yes, vari ous i ni ti al profi l es and non-i deal ef-
fects wi l l make a di fference on stabi l i ty, but i nto whi ch profi l es and effect regi mes
do the experi mental pl asmas actual l y enter? As menti oned above, one cl earl y
desi res to be abl e to evol ve pl asma profi l es as they do i n the experi ments, from
fi ber to hot pl asma, and al l ow l i near and noni i near devel opment i n a surroud

i ng vacuum. The 3-d code, l i ke other computati onal and anal yti cal tool s i n use
at the ti me, coul d suggest possi bl e stabi l i zi ng mechani sms; i t cl earl y coul d not
make the key connecti on between the pl ethora of theoreti cal possi bi l i ti es, and
experi mental real i ty.
Li ndemuth, McCal l , and Nebel began the effort to do a computer experi -
ment whi ch corresponded, as much as feasi bl e, to the actual l aboratory Z-pi nch
experi ments, fi rst i n one di mensi on and then i n two, usi ng a code devel oped
-38 This code (about Which mi l ch more wi l l be sti d l ater, be-
by Li ndemuth35 .
cause i t i s the starti ng poi nt for the bul k of the work reported here) coul d sol ve
the equati ons of compressi bl e, resi sti ve MHD wi th an energy equati on i ncl udi ng
cl assi cal heat conducti on, ohmi c heati ng, and radi ati ve cool i ng, uti l i zi ng a semi -
empi ri cal equati on of state and materi al pl opcrty data base (SESAME39) whi ch
can be expected to reasonabl :- %l l ow the state of deuteri um from sol i d to hot
pl asma.
yt W= Possi b]e wi th thi s code to run one-di mensi onal (radi al ) si mu~ati ons35
of the l ow-current (< 600kA) Los Al arnos and NRL fi ber Z-pi nch experi ments up
to ti mes (~ 200 nsec) wel l past the di scharge current peak, and twmdi mefi si onal
(rtz) runs36~37 up to about hal f the current peak. The resul ts showed some agree-
ment wi th experi ment, such as vi si bl e radi ati on emi ssi on (compared to streak
photographs), but suggested some controversi al features: current was carri ed
l argel ~ i n a coronal pl asma abl ated from the fi ber surface, of densi ty several
orders of magni tude bel ow sol i d densi ty, whi l e some non-i oni zed core fi ber coul d
persi st for a si gni fi cant fracti on of the di scharge ti me (i n Los Al amos HDZP-1,
30 to 100 nsec out of a 125-nsec current peak di scharge); thi s coronal pl asma
tended to show very earl y i nstabi l i ty devel opment, i n seemi ng contradi cti on to
the anomal ous stabi l i ty observati ons. Several probl ems woul d have to be over-
come i n order to address thi s controversy wi th a more defi ni ti ve, two-di mensi onal
computati onal model ,
1.4J4eeded Addi ti ons/Enhancements
Li ndemuths code had features and capabi l i ti es vi tal to performi ng a real i sti c
si mul ati on of a probl em such as the fi ber-i ni ti ated Z-pi nch. The basi c magne-
tohydrodynami c model i ncl uded i mportant detai l s, and the i mpl i ci t al gori thm
was robust enough to deal wi th the huge temperature and densi ty gradi ents i n-
vol ved, at a reasonabl e though not i nsi gni fi cant cost i n computer ti me. However,
when thi s author began col l aborati on wi th Li ndemuth on the probl em of dense
Z-pi nch si mul ati on, there were a number of probl ems to be sol ved before t-wi n
di mensi on si mul ati ons of the l ow current experi ments coul d be extended to
l arger fracti ons of the di scharge ti mes (e.g., at l east to the current peak), much
l ess before hi gh-current pl anned experi ments coul d be eval uated.
Fi rst, very fi ne radi al zoni ng i n the vi ci ni ty of the fi ber i s requi red to resol ve
the ear!y stages of fi ber abl ati on, but i n 2-d runs, as current i ncresses, the
pl asma corona expands to many ti mes the ori gi nal fi ber radi us and devel ops
i nstabi l i ty, maki ng fi ne zoni ng desi rabl e at l arger radi i . When current nears hal f
the di scharge peak i n an HDZP-I si mul ati on, a si gni fi cant amount of pl asma and
current densi ty has reached the computati onal radi al wal l , at a radi us of about
a mi l l i meter. Mass coul d be al l owed to l eave through the wal l , preventi ng an
unreal i sti c mass bui l dup or bounce-back, but the fi el d and current profi l es are
l i mi ted to thi s radi us; hence the fkeedevel opment of i nstabi l i ty and expansi on i n
.
a vacuum-l i ke envi ronment i s l ost. Fi xed gri ds of much greater than ami l l i meter
woul d be prohi bi ti vel y expensi ve i n 2-d.
Second, resol uti on of the controversy about earl y onset of i nstabi l i ty requi res
cl ose exami nati on of experi mental data, I deal l y, gi ven detai l s of experi mental !
di agnosti cs, gener~ti on of correspondi ng di agnosti cs from si mul ati on data woul d
al l ow di rect compari son,
Thi rd, as temperi .~ures i ncrease and densi ti es drop, the c.i teri on for the
si ngl e-temperature MHD model (see Appendi x A) approaches the poi nt where
i ons and el ectrons cannot be consi dered i n equi l i bri um, even though the col l i -
si onal fl ui d model may sti l l hol d. Thi s poi nt may wel l be reached i n hi gh-current
fi ber Z-pi nch di scharges, as wel l as l ate i n l ow-current experi ments. Hence a
tw~temperature model i s desi rabl e.
Fourth, i deal MHD fl ui d theory orders out the Hal l (~ x ~/(nce) ) and
di amagneti c pressure ter ms i n Ohms Law, and accompanyi ng energy equati on
ter ms, on the basi s of a smal l rati o of Larrnor radi us to pl asma scal e l ength 40.
That thi s rati o may not be smal l i n a Z-pi nch, wi th i ts fi el d nul l on axi s, i s wel l
knoml g,fl .; ~
so, the fi ber Z-pi nch wi l l have areas of parti al i oni zati on, and a
l ow-densi ty corona, i n
potenti al l y i mportant
such experi ments.
whi ch the Hal l term may become i mportant. I t i s then
to i ncl ude such ter ms i n a computati onal eval uati on of
How these probl ems have been sol ved, and the -ppl i cati on of the resul ti ng
computati onal tool to the eval uati on of exi sti ng and proposed sol i d-deuteri um-
i ni ti ated Z-pi nch experi ments, are the subjects of the rest of thi s report. The
fi rst step i n thi s, i n Chapter 2, i s a deri vati on of the equati ons actual l y sol ved
i n the model used her e, from the general l y acceptc~ Bragi nski i two-fl ui d pl asma
transport equati ons31. I n Chapter 3, the adaptati on of the basi c MHD code
to model dense Z-pi nch experi ments i s descri bed, al ong wi th the resul ts of that
I
9
model i ng. Addi ti on of che Hal l and associ ated ter ms to the code, and the re-
sul ts for the dense Z-pi nch, are descri bed i n Chapter 4. The appl i cati on of the
computati onal tool devel oped to the eval uati on of some promi si ng vari ati ons to
the fi ber-i ni ti ated Z-pi nch i s the subject of Chapter 5. Fi nal l y, the concl usi ons
of thi s work are summari zed i n Chapter 6, and some di recti ons for future work
are di scussed.
I
10

CHAPTER 2: DERI VATI ON OF MODEL EQUATI ONS

2,1 Brwzi nski i Col l i si onal TwmFhl i d Model
The detai l ed tw~fl ui d equati ons of pl asma transport deri ve.t by S. I . Bra-
..31 from the Lmdau ki neti c eqUfitiOn42
gi nsl m i n the 1950s aw sti l l the most
wi del y accepted formul ati on of the cl =si cal pl =ma.transport thecry. R. Bal escu,
i n hi s recent comprehensi ve book I hnsDort Pr ocesses i n Pl *~mas43,expresses
hi s admi rati on for, and onl y l i mi ted di sagreements wi th, the 13ragi nski i work.
Bragi nski i s equati ons for a ful l y i oni zed pl asma consi sti ng of el ectrons and a
si ngl e i on speci es of charge Ze are (rewri tten here i n Systeme I nternati onal -
meter , ki l ogram, second-uni ts, and as vector equati ons):
(2.1.1)
(2.1.2)
(2.1.3)
(2.1.4)
(2.1.5)
(2.1.6)
3 aTe
~ + (tie V) T) + p. v . v; + v . Z + (II. : v;. ) Q. = o
-n~(
2
L (J 6
where subscri pts e or i refer to el ectron or i on speci es, e i s the magni tude of charge
of an el ectron, n i s parti cl e (number) densi ty, F i s vel oci ty, E i s magneti c fi el d,~
11
i s el ectri c fi el d, p i s pressure, T i s temperature, I I i s the stress tensor (mi nus, as
i n Bragi nski i , the i sotropi c pressure part), ~ i s the momentum transferred from
i ons to el ectrons by col l i si ons, ~ i s heat fl ux, QC i s heat generated i n el ectrons
due to col l i si ons wi th i ons, and Qi i s heat generated i n i ons due to col l i si ons
wi th el ectrons. El ectri c and magneti c fi el ds are governed by Maxwel l s equati ons.
These equati ons are for a ful l y i oni zed pl asma; tl i e si mul ati ons reported here al so
deal wi th the parti al l y i oni zed case. How thi s i s accommodated for these, and
for the deri ved si ngl e-fl ui d MHD equati ons whi ch the computer code empl oyed
actual l y sol ves, i s di scussed i n secti on 2.4, bel ow.
I t shoul d be noted that Bragi nski i deri ves hi s equati ons and transport co-
effi ci ents usi ng the assumpti on of a col l i si onal pl asma404s~4,as di scussed here
i n Appendi x A. He al l udes to the hi ghl y magneti zed regi me i n whi ch fl ui d-
I i ke equati ons hol d for moti ons perpendi cul ar to the magneti c fi el d, and suppl i es
transport coeffi ci ents for both hi ghl y magneti zed (~cuciotron~cottiaion >> 1) and ar-
bi trary wCr condi ti ons. The equati ons and transport coeffi ci ents gi ven, however,
&-e for a col l i si onal pl asma; the di sti ncti on between thi s and the hi ghl y magne-
ti zed col l i si onl ess MHD regi me i s wel l di scussed i n Frei dberg40. I n Appendi x
A i t i s argued that the experi ments model ed here (and the correspondi ng si m-
ul ati ons) take pl ace substanti al l y i n the col l i si onal pl asma regi me, unl i ke many
control l ed fusi on experi ments (at whi ch one can marvel that MHD predi cti ons
work so wel l , or scoff that MHD ul ti matel y fai l s ta work for such experi ments).
I n general , the code devel oped here wi l l run outsi de the col l i si onal regi me,.and
some care has been taken that i n thi s case non-physi cal resul ts wi l l be avoi ded
(for i nstance, by empl oyi ng a cutoff densi ty bel ow whi ch hi ghl y resi sti ve, l ow
densi ty vacuum pl asma regi ons do not undergo ohmi c heati ng). However, thi s
author i s wary of maki ng cl ai ms about MLD si mul ati on resul ts for col l i si onl ess
pl asmas. The modi fi cati on of thi s code to gi ve ful l y consi stent physi cal resul ts
i n the bcol l i si onl essMHD regi me i s a worthy subject for further research, but
beyond the scope of thi s thesi s.
The ful l Bragi nski i two-fl ui d equati ons are sti l l a hi ghl y nonl i near (parti c-
ul arl y i n the transport coeffi ci ents), strongl y coupl ed set of equati ons, i nvol vi ng
a ver}. wi de rar ;e of l ength and ti me scal es. They i ncl ude the moti on of the
-rer~l ow-i nerti a ei ectron fl ui d, as wel l as what i s more commonl y consi dered the
pl asma fl ui d moti on, that of the i on fl ui d (properl y i n a one-fl ui d model , as shal l
be devel oped her e, fl ui d moti on i s that of the center of mass of i ons and el ectrons;
i n general , because of the much greater mass of the i ons, they domi nate the fl ui d
moti on).
Fr om a computati onal perspecti ve, these equati ons present a formi dabl e
chal l enge. Even i f one assumes that i n a gi ven probl em to be computati onal l y
model ed, the equati ons wi l l act rel ati vel y l i nearl y (so that pri mari l y l i near nu-
meri cal anal ysi s resul ts mi ght hol d), one i s faced wi th two choi ces, nei ther of
whi ch i s l i kel y to be ful l y sati sfactory. An expl i ci t computati onal al gori thm wi l l
requi re excessi vel y smal l ti mesteps i n order to sati sfy Courant-Fki edri chs-Lewy
(CFL) numeri cal stabi l i ty restri cti ons ((vCOn~)cC~i v~ At/Az) < 1) 45 due to the
very hi gh speeds of i nformati on propagati on by the el ectron pl asma fl ui d; thi s
i s carri ed by el ectron pl asma waves, whi ch transport i nformati on at essenti al l y
the el ectron thermal speed46. I mpl i ci t al gori thms are theoreti cal l y (for l i near
equati ons) numeri cal l y stabl e for any ti mestep, but i f one chooses very l arge
ti mesteps, the accuracy of the sol uti ons sfi ers, parti cul arl y i f i mportant phe-
nomena are occurri ng at the el ectron fl ui d ti me scal e. Thi s author i s not aware
13
of an} computati onal i mpl ementati on of the compl ete two-fl ui d Bragi nski i equa-
ti ons i l i more than one di mensi on. Mul ti -di mensi onal parti cl e and ki neti c theory
codes do exi st, whi ch shoul d dupl i cate al l the physi cs contai ned i n Bragi nski i s
equ(.. . s L~hi chare deri ved from such model s) and then some, but they too
must face the computati onal di ffi cul ti es menti oned above.
2.2 Th.nsformati on to Center-of-Mass Eauati ons j Hal l hfHD
The model equati ons used her e, i n si mul ati ng the dense Z-pi nch, sol ve for
magneti c fi el d, pl asmc. speci fi c i nternal energy (ei ther total or separate i on and
el ectron energi es), total mass densi ty, and center-of-mass pl asma \el oci ty. By
sol ti ng for total mass densi ty and center-of-mass vel oci ty and usi ng quasi neu-
t.ral i ty,the need to resol ve the ful l Bragi nski i model s el ectron fl ui d moti ons i s
avoi ded, al though i t wi l l be seen that the Hal l and associ ated ter ms do bri ng
some el ectron fl ui d effects i nto the model (i n effect, preservi ng a di sti ncti on
between el ectron moti on and center-of-mass pl asma moti on; see Appendi x C).
Thei r i ntroducti on bri ngs a correspondi ng pri ce i n requi red temporai resol uti on.
I t i s i nstructi ve to go through the deri vati on of the model equati ons from the ful l
Bragi nski i equati ons, to hi ghl i ght the numerous assumpti ons that must be made
to obtai n a model wi th whi ch twedi mensi onal si mul ati ons of these experi ments
can be carri ed out. At the end of thi s chapter, the pl asma parameters for the
dense Z-pi nch, whi ch justi fy such assumpti ons, wi l l be worked out.
Defi ne the (total ) mass densi ty, p = ni mi + neme, and the center-of-mass
vel oci ty, t7= (ni mi ti i + n,mci 7.)/(ni mi + neme). Before goi ng further, a cxm-
si derabl e si mpl i fi cati on of the al gebra can be gai ned by i nvoki ng the assumpti on
of quasi neutral i ty, that i s, ni = ne. Thi s assumpti on expl oi ts the fact that the
energy requi red to produce an ap~reci abl e separati on of the i ons from the el ec-
trons i s so l arge (much l arger than the thermal energy, for re~l uns l arger than
a Debye l ength47, AD = (cOkTC/(ne2))*; much l arger than the magneti c energy,
for regi ons larger than AD/~*) that no si gni fi cant devi ati on of ni from n. oc-
curs on scal es greater than JD: l n~ nt I /(n: or ne) <<1. By awmrni ngel ectrons
move qui ckl y (i .e. i nstantaneousl y) to take up thei r neutral i zi ng posi ti ons,
the i nerti a of el ectrons i s i gnored (thi s wi l l be returned to i n the Ohms Law
deri ~ati on); hence ti me and l ength scal es deal t wi th i n the model must be much
l onger than those i nvol vi ng el ectron i nerti a, speci fi cal l y the characteri sti c ti mes
and l engths of the el ectron cycl otron frequency (UC~= eB/m~) and the el ectron
pl asma frequency (wPe = (ne2/(tome))*). The effect of thi s on the model i s
to remo~ePoi ssons equati on, COv . ~ = e(ni - n,), from the set of equations,
requi ri ng that ~ be obtai ned by other means; i t does not i mpl y that
everywhere or that Y7 ~ =
0, onl y that COv oJ?/e(ni or n.) <148.
humber d nsi !i es ~i cx nc wi l l thus henceforth be wri tten si mpl y n
E=o
(except
i n the Hal l and associ ated ter ms, for reasons whi ch shal l be di scussed l ater).
Now mass densi ty i s si mpl i fi ed to p = n(mi + mc), and center-of-mass vel oci ty
to i 7= (mi ;i +mct7c)/(mi + m,). Mul ti pl yi ng the Bragi nski i el ectron conti nui ty
equati on by me and the i on conti nui ty equati on by mi , addi ng the two equati ons,
and appl yi ng the defi ni ti ons of mass densi ty and center-of-mass vel oci ty gi ves the
total mass conti nui ty equati on:
(2.2.1)
the fi rst of the model equati ons.
I f one drops the el ectron i nerti a ter m,
(2.2.2) mene(
~ + (iL V) Fe)
15
from the Bragi nski i el ectron momentum equati on and sol ves for ~, an Ohms
Law expressi on for the el ectri c fi el d can be deri ved:
(2.2.3) E=
~;e (- v - v + -
The el ectron vi scous stress tensor I I ,, even more so
x z
i ts di vergence, v I I c~i s
4g0S0The l e~ng-order ter ms (for huge WCT,these
a compl i cated seri es of ter ms .
are the di agonal ter ms I I C,jj) are proporti onal to Bragi nski i s el ectron vi scosi ty
coeffi ci ent qo, and to the di vergence of the el ectron vel oci ty so:
(2.2.4)
where vf~c refers to the el ectron thermal spmd, the paral l el marks refer to the
di recti on paral l el to the magneti c fi el d, and a i s a rel evant scal e ]ength, typi cal l y
i n thi s probl em the effecti ve radi us of the pl asma col umn. Then the rati o of
v I I e to Vpe i s:
.rl . (+)nez-er.e( Q&)
1 pq-----

a
i f el ectron col l i si onal i ty hol ds, as establ i shed i n Appendi x A. Exactl y the same
argument hol ds for the rati o of v . I I i to VPi (al though the i on vi scosi ty effects
are a factor of (mi /mC)* l arger than the el ectron), i f the subscri pts e for el ectron
quanti ti es are repl aced wi th z for i on quanti ti es; thi s resul t wi l l be uti l i zed bel ow
i n the deri vati on of the center-of-mass momentum equati on.
The above argument somewhat gl osses over the compl exi ty of the stress
tensor and i ts di vergence: i t i s concei vabl e that v o ti , v I I , and vp wi l l have
di fferent scal e l engths; and the non-paral l el vi scosi ty coeffi ci ents ql through q4
can be of the same order as q. when wCr # 1 49J51(at the end of thi s chapter i t
16
wi l l be seen that the pl asmas model ed here are not general l y hi ghl y magneti zed).
There i s good reason to pl ace the i ncl usi on of these ter ms on a l ower pri ori ty than
other ter ms (such as the Hal l and associ ated tern. ) whi ch have been i ncl uded i n
the present work. Our own earl y computati onal resul ts wi th the Nebel /Schnack
code23 suggest that vi scosi ty (a ful l fi ve-coeffi ci ent stress tensor, or porti ons of
such) does not have a strong stabi l i zi ng effect unti l temperatures are i n the sev-
eral keV range, temperatures so hi gh that the col l i si onal i ty-dependent Bragi nski i
coeffi ci ents are not appl i cabl e to the probl em under consi derati on. Paral l el com-
putati onal work by Gl asser23~30 agrees wi th thi s resul t. Fur ther mom, an attempt
to reconci l e earl i er theoreti cal and computati onal resul ts25~2G, whi ch suggested
that vi scoresi sti ve (due to resi sti vi ty and vi scosi ty) effects coul d account for
the cl ai med anomal ous stabi l i ty of the experi ments model ed her e, concl uded
vi scoresi sti ve effects are i nadequate to account for these observati ons29. Hence
one i s not confi dent of seei ng much of a payoff i n return for the si gni fi cant amount
of work i nvol ved i n addi ng ~ oI I to a code, parti cul arl y i f one mai ntai ns energy
consi stency by addi ng vi scous heati ng, (~ : @), to the energy equati on as wel l .
Bowers and Hai nes52and others have devel oped fl ui d equati ons for a col l i -
si onl ess, xaagneti zed pl asma whi ch i ncl ude fi ni te-Larmor-radi us (FLR) ordered
vi scous stress ter ms, rel ated to the Bragi nski i gyrovi scous non-di agonal stress
ter ms (hi s q3 and q43353). Hai nes has projected2254 that the nomi nal l y 2-MA
fi ber-pi nch machi ne MAGPI E, recentl y compl eted at I mperi al Col l ege, may
take a Z-pi nch i nto the regi me where these are i mportant, unl i ke the (l argel y
col l i si onal ) experi ments model ed her e. Si mul ati ng such a pl asma woul d then cal l
for a consi stent col l i si onl ess MHD model , whi ch among i ts FLR effects shoul d
i ncl ude such vi scous stress ter ms, as wel l as the Hal l and associ ated ter ms whi ch
17
..
are i ncl uded i n the present c.ol l i si onal ,fi rti te-Larmor-radi usHal l MHD model .
I t has been argued that for hi gh WC?,the Bragi nski i gyrovi scous stress ter ms
33,s3become i ndependent Ofcollisionti me. However, i t wi l l be sen that when
typi cal i on and el ectron WC7Sarc computed for the experi ments model ed her e,
the l arge UC~assumpti on necessary to consi der these gyrovi scous stress ter ms i n-
dependent of col l i si ons i s not sati sfi ed, so i t i s consi stent for these to be i gnored,
as l ong as col l i si onal i ty hol ds.
~, the change i n momentum of el ectrons due to el ectron-i on col l i si ons, can
reasonabl y be rel ated co the rel ati ve vel oci ty of the two speci es, ti e ti i , whi ch
i s proporti onal to the current densi tyss~ss:
(2.2.6) Y= TLat?G:
I n the case of a pl asma wi thout a
between ~ and ~i s a scal ar, and
(2.2.7)
ncei7c= ne(tiave).
magneti c fi el d, the constant of proporti onal i ty
can be wri tten so that
whe~eq i s the el ectri cal re.si sti vi ty of the pl asma. I n the case, such as deal t
wi th i n thi s paper, of a pl asma wi th a magneti c fi el d, the rel ati onshi p between
~ aad ~ i s a tensor rel ati onshi p, wi th a resi sti vi ty (or i ts i nverse, a conducti v-
i ty) tensor. Thi s i s because the magneti c fi el d i ntroduces an ani sotropy i nto the
pl asma: parti cl e moti on paral l el to the fi el d wi l l be unafected, because of the
nature of the Lor entz ti o x ~ force (and i n fact the paral l el resi sti vi ty wi l l be
i denti cal to the unmagneti zed one), but parti cl e moti on perpendi cul ar to ~ i s
.
i nfl uenced by 1?and must be deal t wi tl ~separatel y, resul ti ng i n di fferent resi sti v-
i ty coeffi ci ents. Due to the symmetry of the prCJ.JkI1157, there can be onl y three
18

i ndependent coeffi ci ents: resi sti vi ti es paral l el and perpendi cul ar to the fi el d, and
a non-di agonal effecti ve resi sti vi ty, rel ati ng current i n one di recti on to el ectri c
fi el d i n another di recti on. Thi s non-di agonal effecti ve resi sti vi ty i n fact l eads to
the Hal l effect, whi ch has al ready bem. i ncorporated (i .e., separated out from R)
i n the Bragi nski i transport equati ori s, and wi l l be poi nted out shortl y.
Bragi nski i 5a and otherss
fects (Nernst and Etti nghausen
The orderi ng of these effects i s
al so di scuss noi l -di agonal thermoel ectri c ef-
effects) whi ch axe due to i on-el ectron col l i si ons.
not si mpl e. As W gets much l arger than one,
a l /(wC~) dependence emer ges (as i n al l the non-di agonal transport coeffi ci ents,
i ncl udi ng the above-menti oned gyrovi scous coeffi ci ents; i n the gyrovi scous case,
an addi ti onal r factor can cancel out the col l i si on ti me dependence). These
~hcrmoel ectri c effects are al so dependent upon el ectron densi ty, the gradi ent of
temperature, and ~ x ~. Chi ttenden and Hai nes59i n a recent paper state that
these effects cannot be i gnored when el ectron and i on temperatures are suffi -
ci entl y decoupl ed. They have not been i mpl emented i n the present model ; some
i mpl i cati ons of the Chi ttenden/Hai nes work wi l l be di scussed l ater. Repl aci ng
the (l /(n, e))~ term i n the Ohms Law wi th the twcdi agonal components of the
resi sti vi ty tensor (addi ti onal l y droppi ng the v 11~term) &hengi ves
(2.2.8)
Usi ng the defi ni t~onsgi ven above of current densi ty 7(2.2.6) and center-of-mass
vel oci ty ti (above 2.2.1), and usi ng ne = ni = n, one can sol ve for Ce and ti i i n
ter ms of i 7and ~. Here we use
(2.2.9)
19

where the mC/mi factor for a deuteri um pl ~ma (approxi matel y 1 over 3698) can
be dropped wi th very l i ttl e effect, to gi ve an Ohms Law:
(2.2.10)
Thi s i s the Hal l MHD Ohms Law, where speci fi cal l y (l /nc)~x ~ i s known as
the Hal l ter m.
Nei ther ~ nor ~ i s sol ved as a separate vari abl e i n the model used her e.
Fua&Ys Law cm be used tO transformthe above ohms L~w i nto an equati on
for the ti me evol uti on of magneti c fi el d, removi ng l ?:
.
(Z.z.lq g = -v -v X(-+(fx ii- v + - m
e-
Fi nal l y, the usual l ow-frequency assumpti on of magnetohydrodynarni cs ne-
gl ects the di spl acement current i n the ful l Amperes Law, i .e.,
(2.2.12)
- J+ (v x =
/
=0
Thi s requi res that el ectromagneti c di sturbances of i nterest have phase vel oci ti es
(such as the Al fven speed, VA= B/(pop)*) much l ess than the speed of l i ght, as
must be the thermal speeds. Note that the restri cted geometry empl oyed i n the
4
model (di scussed i n secti on 2.4), that 13(r,z) 1 pl ane of computati on, r emoves
many possi bl e waves (such as i on cycl otron waves)from the probl em. Then usi ng
~= (v x z)/p,
Thi s i s the Hal l MHD equati on for advanci ng the magneti c fi el d.
The two Bragi nski i Jnomentumequati ons must be added to obtai n a center-
of-mass momentum equati on. The two vi scous stress di vergences are dropped,
20
fol l owi ng the above argument that thei r respecti ve pressure gradi ents wi l l domi -
.
nate. The forces due to Z cancel out under charge neutral i ty, that i s, Zni = ne
(the quasi neutral deuteri um pl asma general l y di scussed here has Z = 1 and
hence ni = n.). Now fi rst i n the ti i .,, x ~ expressi ons, substi tute for ti e (as
4
above, 2.2.9) i n ter ms of i 7and J, and for i 7i by the correspondi ng expressi on:
(2.2.14)
(where wri ti ng the second expressi on wi l l be seen to be hel pful i n orderi ng ter ms,
shortl y). A number of ter ms cancel out, l eavi ng:
d;,
a<:
(2.2.15) m,n.(= + (tic V);c) + mlnl(~ +
-(1 + ~)~x 5 =
ml
At thi s poi nt, substi tuti ng 17c(ti , J>and Ei (ti l ~) i n the i nerti al (convecti ve deri va-
ti ve) expressi ons, further cancel l ati on, and repl aci ng (mi + m)n with p gives:
(2.2.16)
a(pq
~ + ~(fi V)fl + ZV (@) + v(~i + Pe) ~ x ~+
+(tcrms proportional to m,) = O.
Droppi ng the el ectron-mass-order ter ms, wri ti ng ~i n ter ms of ~, and use of a
tensor i denti tyso gi ves:
(2.2.17)
Thi s i s the model momentum equati on; usi ng the dyadi c tensor pi 7ti formhas
been found hel pful i n codi ng the equati on i n a conservati ve forrn61.
One can mul ti pl y the Bragi nski i conti nui ty equati ons (2.1.1, 2.1.2) by ~kTm
and add them (because these sti l l equal O) to the fi rst ter ms of the respecti ve
21

Bragi nski i energy equati ons (2.1.5, 2.1.6), to obtai n energy equati on ter ms i n
conservati ve form:
where subscri pts o refer to el ectron or i on speci es. The code used here sol ves for
the speci fi c i nternal energy cm(energy per uni t mass); energy per uni t vol ume,
whi ch i n Bragi nski i (i deal gas) i s ~nokTO, i s i n these ter ms p~o. Then the fi rst
ter ms i n the Bragi nski i energy equati ons can be wri tten
(2.2.19)
The heat fl uxes qa, anal ogousl y to the di scussi on of the resi sti vi ty tensor,
have paral l el (to ~), perpendi cul ar, and off-di agonal components. Heat fl uxes
coupl ed to the previ ousl y menti oned (and negl ected) off-di agonal thermoel ectri c
effects (Nernst/Etti nghausen effects), and di agonal thermoel ectri c heat fl uxes
(Bal escu di scusses thermoel ectri c coeffi ci ents, rel ati ng 1?and beat fl uxs2), are
not i ncl uded i n the present model . Thi s l eaves the more fami l i ar Fouri ers Law-
type heat conducti on, agai n spl i t i nto components paral l el and perpendi cul ar to
1%
(2.2.20)
it=
011 WI To + &YA VA To
where Xas are prescri bed by Bragi nski i G3(the formul as used are gi ven i n secti on
3.1).
Of course i f vi scous stress i s negl ected, as di scussed above, the vi scous heat-
i ng ter ms (I I . : Vti a) al so drop out. Col l i si onal heat source ter ms, Qo, fol -
b i ~ e l energy equi l i brati on term Qei
l ow Bragi nskn .
22
( 3mcnc(Tc ~ : n the i nverse T , dependence, characteri s-
ti c of the el ectron-km col l i si on ti me ~ci5), whi l e the el ectron heat source al so
i ncl udes ohmi c heati ng, ql lJ112+ q~JA2, but does not i ncl ude any thermoel ect-
ri c heati ng. Thi s l ea~esonl y the compressi onal work ter ms, pa v G V., and
the repl acement of ~i and ti e by thei r expressi ons i n ter ms of 0 and ~. After
rearrangi ng, the energy equati ons (2.1.5, 2.1.6) become:
(2.2.21) ~
.
+ v (%%)+ v ( (:)Pte) + Pev ~+Pev (nee fl)+
(2.2.22)
where Q~i i s the el ectron-i on energy
trons to i ons), ~= (v x ~ and
ti onal to mc/[mi + me) have been dropped,
equi l i brati on term (energy l ost from el ec-
the two ter ms i n the i on equati on propor-
(2.2.23)
These are the Hal l MHD (tw-temperature) energy equati ons.
I f one makes the further assumpti on of temperature equi l i brati on (Ti = T,,
Pi =
p~yEj = t~yp =
pi + p~, ~ = ~: + K ~d c = ~i + Ce)~d dds the two
energy equati ons, the total energy equati on i s:
23

The above devel oped equati ons for the ti me dcvcl opmcnt of mass (2.2.1),
momentum (2.2.17), energy (2.2.21 and 2.2.22, or si l l gl e-tex~l ~]crat~l rc 2.2.24),
and magneti c fi el d (2.2.13) consti tute the Hal l MHD model used here i n si m-
ul ati on of dense Z-pi nches (the geometri c restri cti on, that D(r,z) L pl ane of
computati on, di scussed i n secti on 2.4, el i mi nates the paral l el resi sti vi ty and par-
al l el heat conducti on terms). The equati ons are val i d subject to the numerous
assumpti ons menti oned. These assumpti ons wi l l be summari zed and exami ned
for the dense Z-pi nch at the end of thi s chapter, Quotes are used i n thi s paper
around H,al l MHD to di sti ngui sh thi s model from the Hal l MHD, deal t wi th
by numerous authmsl g@67 , whi ch i ncl udes onl y the magneti c or el ectri c fi el d
Hal l ter m, ~x ~/(nCe). The other ter ms (di amagneti c pressure ari d associ ated
energy equati on terms) i ncl uded here shal l be shown i n the next secti on to have
the same orderi ng as the Hal l ter m.
2.3 El i mi nati on of Fi ni te-Larmor-Radi us Terms/Standard MHD
The equati ons deri ved i n secti on 2.2 represent a rel ati vel y standard si ngl e-
fl ui d MHD model , wi th the fol l owi ng excepti ons. I deal MHD drops the resi sti ve
fi el d di ffusi on and ohmi c heati ng ter ms. Many MHD si mul ati ons usc a si mpl er
energy equati on, i sothermal or adi abati c,.because the Bragi nski i heat conducti on
coeffi ci ents, whi ch can be drasti cal l y di fferent paral l el and perpendi cul ar to the
magneti c fi el d, can present numeri cal di ffi cul ti es. These di ffi cul ti es are geometri -
cal l y avoi ded i n the si mul ati ons done her e, as wi l l be poi nted out i n secti on 2.4.
When the Hal l term i s i ncl uded i n the magneti c fi el d evol uti on, thi s i s general l y
termed Hal l MHD. Someti mes the di amagneti c pressureterm (Vpe/(nee)) i s al so
i ncl uded, but i t wi l l be shown shortl y that unl ess the p v ) energy
equati on term i s al so i ncl uded, total (thermal pl us magneti c) energy wi l l not be
24
conserved. The el ectron-current energy convecti on term v (pt, (~/(nCe)) ) i s
rarel y i ncl uded, al though Hai nes68Gghas done some theoreti cal work wi th i t,
notabl y a cal cul ati on of tol erabl e energy end-l osses for a fusi on Z-pi nch. I n
thi s thesi s, the Hal l , di amagneti c pressure, and the two just-menti oned energy
equati on ter ms are referred to as Hal l and associ ated ter ms. I t wi l l be shown
that these al l have a si rni !ar, fi ni te-Larmor-radi us orderi ng; hence a consi stent
fi ni te-hrmor-radi us model shoul d i ncl ude them al l .
Some vector al gebra wi l l i l l ustrate the ~bove-menti oned probl em of conser-
vati on of total energy when the Hal l and di amagneti c pressureter ms are i ncl uded.
These terms effect on the ti me deri vati ve of magneti c energy, l ?2/(2po), i s pr~
porti onal to E (0~/&), hence to ~ (v x J ?H),where EH i s the el ectri c fi el d
due to the Hal l and di amagneti c pressure ter ms. A vector i denti ty gi ves
(2.3.1)
E (V x f = v ( X @ + ~H s(v X E
The fi rst ter m, a di vergence, i s al ready i n conservati ve form for an equati on
gi vi ng the ti me devel opment of magneti c energy; that i s to say, i f one spati al l y
i ntegrates the di vergence i n order to obtai n the change i n magneti c energy ~(l ?2 )
i n ti me t%, by Gausss theor em that i ntegra! wi l l be the sum of the fl uxes of
~H x ~ across the surface of the vol ume i ntegrated. The second term becomes
(2.3.2)
i s added to the thermal energy equati on, I f the equati on for magneti c energy
one shoul d sti l l have conservati on of total energy, but thi s term i s cl earl y not i n
conservati ve form. However, i f the p v r ) term has been i ncl uded i n
the thermal energy equati on, i t can be added to the offendi ng magneti c energy
25

ter m, to obtai n the desi red conservati ve form:

(2.3.3)
The v a 7 B ter ms are both i n the momentum equati on and shoul d
be comparabl e; i n fact, for an i sotropi c equi l i bri um wi th V = O, these ter ms
shoul d be equal (hence the pressure bal ance expremi on ~BscI = l ?Pso2/(2po) ).
Ther efor e, the rati o of the di amagneti c pressure term to the ti x 6 term i n the
Ohms Law expressi on (2,2.10), shoul d be si mi l ar to the rati o of the Hal l term to
i 7x@. A characteri sti cfl ui d speed to use i n such scal i ng i s the i on thermal speed1
vc~i = (kTi /mi )~; one mi ght prefer the Al fven speed VA= B/(pop)$, but under
pressure bal ance p = nkT = B2/2po, thi s scal es the same way (i n secti on 2.5
wi l l be seen that these quanti ti es are si mi l ar for the dense Z-pi nch). Then for a
pl asma near temperature equi l i bri um (Ti * T,):
(2.3.4)
I V P e
I vx q -
where r~i = Vthi /~ci = T?ZIVi~/(d?) i s
$nekTc/n~e rL1
(kTi/mi)~B - ~
the i on Larmor radi us.
Usi ng si mi l ar scal i ng, that J * vp/B and that ~(pc)/& goes as nkTvthi/a
(agai n for a near-temperature-equi l i bri um, Ti - T., and quasi neutral , n; - ne,
pl asma), the xati os of the el ectron work term p. V(~/(n.e)) and the el ectron
current energy convecti on term v ( p+(-~/(nee)) ), to the ti me deri vati ve of
thermal energy ~(p~)/~, are al so shown proporti onal to i on Larmor radi us over
scal e l ength:
(2.3.5)
I V (~~e(-~l (nee)) )!
~ ~nekTe(nkT/aB)/nee r~;
w
*
lt?(pe)/al nkTvthi /a a
(2.3.6)
IPcV (-~/(n,e) )!
nekTe~(nkT/aB)/nee rL~
li?(p6)/al -
w
nkTv:hi /a a
26
Hence i f (r~, /a) << 1 i n the pl asma to be model ed, these ter ms can be
i gnored. Thi s reduces our model equati ons to a rel ati vel y standard one-fl ui d
resi sti ve hfHD, wi th perhaps a more detai l ed energy equat.i o.l (i ncl udi ng heat
conducti on) than i s often used. I t wi l i be seen that for the dense Z-pi nch,
(r~,/u) cs 1 i s not necessari l y a good assumpti on. Thi s has moti vated our
efforts to add the Hal l and associ ated ter ms to the computati onal model . How-
ever, si mul ati on of dense Z-pi nches wi th the standard MHD model presented i n
the next chapter, sti l l shows remarkabl y good agreement to experi ment.
2.4Addi ti onal Detai l s
There are a number of addi ti oni d detai l s concerni ng the model used here
whi ch shoul d be noted. Fi rst, as menti oned i n Chapter 1, i s the geoi netri -
cal si mpl i fi cati on to cyl i ndri cal symmetry, The computati onal model i s two
di mensi onal , sol vi ng for mass densi ty, radi al and axi al vel oci ti es, speci fi c i n-
ternal ener~ (or separate i on and el ectron energi es), and azi muthal magneti c
fi el d, as functi ons of radi us r and axi al l ocati on z onl y; i .e., azi muthal symme-
try i s assumed. Experi mental evi dence that thi s i s a good assumpti on, at l east
for a si gni fi cant porti on of the experi ments, has al ready been noted 2-413~1417.
Because quanti ti es are computed onl y i n the pl ane perpendi cul ar to ~, ter ms
proporti onal to paral l el rcsi sti vi ty (paral l el fi el d di ffusi on and ohmi c heati ng)
and paral l el heat conducti vi ty are not needed; hence the scal es of resi sti vi ty
and heat conducti vi ty wi th whi ch the numeri cs must deal , depend onl y on the
perpendi cul ar val ues.
The Bragi nski i transport equati ons, and the si ngl e-fl ui d model s deri ved
above, assume a ful l y i oni zed pl asma. The i ntent of the si mul ati ons done here
i s to fol l ow these experi ments al l the way from %ol d-start, that i s, the sol i d,
27
neutral deuteri urn fi ber, up to the hot, ful l y i oni zed pl asma state. To al l ow
thi s wi th a Bragi nski i -l i ke set of equati ons woul d requi re addi ti onal equati ons
for the densi ty, momentum, and energy of the thi rd, neutral fl ui d speci es. A
means of rel ati ng the neutral and pl asma densi ti es, such as the Saha equati cm72,
woul d he necessary (thi s woul d be refl ected i n source terms i n the conti nui ty
equati ons), as woul d be other ter ms coupl i ng the neutral and pl asma equati ons.
Detai l s of transport (e.g. resi sti vi ty), whi ch were cal cul ated by Bragi nski i for a
ful l y i oni zed pl asma, woul d nmd to be re-exmni ned for the neutral -domi nated
case.
To al l ow col d-start si mul ati ons wi th the deri ved, si ngl e-fl ui d model equa-
ti ons, an assumpti on i s made that neutral atoms wi l l move as the i ons do:
ti n = i 7i , i .e., no i on-neutral sl i p, Center-of-mass vel oci ty U i s then redefi ned
as G = (n(m, + m.)tl n + ni m~17~ + n.mcC,)/(nn(ml + m,) + nimi + neme),
andtotal mass densi ty p = nn(m: + me) + ni mi + %mc. When C, ari d tl i i n
ter ms of the redefi ned U (wi th S = i 7,) and ~are i ncorporated i nto the deri ved
equati ons, the resul ts are very l i ttl e di fi erent from the ori gi nal deri vati on; ter ms
proporti onal to m,/(mi + me), whi ch were dropped, are sti l l smal l quanti ti es,
proporti onal to n The meani ngs of pc (or, i n a twmtemperature model ,
~~i )and p (or pi ; al so ?i ) have changed: these are now quanti ti es i ncl udi ng energy
and pressuredue to neutral parti cl es. Appropri ate val ues for these quanti ti es are
obtai ned from equati on(s) of state (rel ati ng speci fi c i nternal energy, densi ty, and
temperature), pressure(s), resi sti vi ty, and average i oni zati on l evel , contai ned i n
a semi -empi ri cal data base, the Los Al arnos SESAME tabl es3g, whi ch provi de
the best avai l abl e (to my knowl edge) val ues for such quanti ti es over the wi de
range of temperatures and densi ti es covered. The SESAME energi es and pres-
28
sur es i ncl ude the effects of energy goi ng i nto phase changes and i oni zati on, whi ch
a si mpl e i deal gas model does not; i t i s remarkabl e, however, how cl osel y these
quanti ti es fol l ow the i deal gas val ues from OK up to the ful l y i oni zed pl asma
state. MI i D runs were done usi ng i deal gas temperatures and pressures, and
very l i ttl e di fference coul d be seen from those done wi th SESAME val ues.
I n the Hal l h4HD model used her e, correct val ues of p t a n w
i n condi ti ons of parti al i oni zati on can be substanti al l y l ess than total pressure,
ener~, or number densi ty val ues, have bmn i ncorporated. Thi s i s done by
obtai ni ng the average i oni zati on fracti on zb as a functi on of mass densi ty and
temperature from the SESAhl E tabl e, then computi ng nt = zb ~/(mi + m,),
Ce= c zb/(1 + Zb), and pc = p z6/(1 + zb).
Bragi nski i s transport equati ons do not i ncl ude an energy l oss term for ra-
di ati ~.eeffects. The Z-pi nches model ed here were desi gned to reach uml i ti ons
where radi ati ve cool i ng i s very si gni fi cant i n the energy bal ance. An energy l oss
term i s i ncorporated i n the energy equati on (el ectron energy equati on, i n the
two-temperature case) to account for thi s. The val ues are al so obtai ned from
SESAhfE tabl es39, and i ncl ude l i ne and Bremsstrahl ung radi ati on.
2.5Dense Z-Pi nch Pl asma Parameters
I n Appendi x A, the case i s made that the dense Z-pi nch experi ments mod-
el ed here exi st for si gni fi cant ti mes i n the col l i si onal regi me i n whi ch Bragi nski i s
transport equati ons are val i d. To go horn those equati ons to the si ngl e-fl ui d
equati ons actual l y used i n the si mul ati ons (ss i s done i n thi s chapter), a number
of addi ti onal assumpti ons have been poi nted out. Quasi neutral i ty and the drop-
pi ng of the el ectron i nerti a requi re that pl asma scal e l engths be greater than the
Debye i ength, and that ti me scal es be greater than el ectron cycl otron or el ectron
29
pl asma osci l l ati on ti mes. Further, the l ow-frequency assumpti on (droppi ng
of di spl acement current) requi res that characteri sti c speeds of i mportant di stur-
bances, such as the Al fven speed or i on thermal speed, be much I CSSthan the
speed of l i ght. I f the standard MHD equati ons are to hol d, the i or Tarmor ra-
di us shoul d be much l ess than pl asma scal e l engths; otherwi se, the Hal l MHD
model shoul d be used.
The scal e l ength a used here i s typi cal l y the radi us of the pl asma col umn,
whi ch can vary from tens of mi crons to several mi l l i meters or mor e. For a gi ven
radi us, other pl asma quanti ti es can be esti mated. For i nstance, the smal l radi i oc-
cur general l y very earl y i n the di scharge, when temperatures and fi el ds/currents
are rel ati vel y l ow; l arger radi i occur when the pl asma has expanded, and may
correspond tc l ower densi ti es. Thus one needs to compute the desi red pl asma
parameters for a range of pl asma condi ti ons. For gi ven parameters functi onal
dependenci ~~, i t may be possi bl e to compute worst-case val ues, that i s, the
combi nati on of condi ti ons (temperature, densi ty, etc.) whi ch can occur i n the
pl asma, whi ch wi l l gi ve the parameter val ue cl osest to vi ol ati ng an assumpti on.
The Debye l ength73, AD = (c~He/ne2)* = 7.4(Tcv/nt~-s)* m, wi l l be
l argest at hi gh temperature and l ow densi ty. The hi ghest temperature at whi ch
the fl ui d model for these si mul ati ons can general l y be taken seri ousl y i s about
1000 eV, and the l owest densi ty i s about 10-4 sol i d, or 0(1016 cm-3). Thi s gi ves
a }D of about 2 x 10-7 m., much l ess than the smal l est radi us, about 10-5 m.
Characteri sti c ti mes for compari son to the el ectron cycl otron or pl asma os-
ci l l ati on ti mes, can be deri ved by di vi di ng characteri sti cspeeds-thermal speed or
Al fven speed-i nto the scal e l ength a. The worst-case thermal speeds, of cour se,
occur for the el ectron fl ui d at the hi ghest temperatures; 1000 eV cm-responds to
30
a vth. s 2 x 107 m/see. Di vi di xi O
thi s i nto the smal l est scal e l ength, z 2 x 1O-s
m, the characteri sti c ti me i s about 10-12 sec. Thi s compares to a sl owest pl asma
osci l l ati on ti me (for the smal l est densi ty, 1018cm-3), of I /uPe * 10-13 see; the
compari son for hi gher derl si ti es or sl ower i on moti on wi l l be much more favor-
abl e. The i on thermal speed for 1000 eV i s about 3 x 105 m/see. Xfone assumes
pressure bal ance (p = 132/2po) to obtai n fi el d and densi ty vaI ues wi th whi ch to
compute an Al fven speed (l ?/(pop)*), i t wi l l be of the same order as i on thermal
speed. Worst-case Al fven speeds, for fi el ds of20 megagauss at densi ti es of 1018
cm-3 (p* 10-2 kg/m3) sti l l are of the order 10m/see. Hence these i on moti on
ti mes wi l l be l arger than the el ectron pl asma osci l l ati on ti me (and i on moti ons
wi l l be sl ower). These i on speeds are general l y much l ess than the speed of l i ght,
sati sfyi ng the l ow-frequency assumpti on.
The el ectron cycl otron ti me l /wC. = m for a 20 megagauss fi el d i s
0(10-15) see, and the el ectron hrrnor radi us for such a fi el d at 100U eV i s
0(10-8) m. These are wel l bel ow the characteri sti c scal e ti mes and l engths of
the pl asma model ed. Of cour se, i n a Z-pi nch the fi el d goes to Oat r=O, so the
cycl otron ti mes and Larmor radi i become l arge (Z-pi nch parti cl e orbi ts i n the
vi ci ni ty of the ori gi n are actuai l y of more compl exi ty than a si mpl e Larmor
radi us orbi t, as poi nted out by Hai nes70). Hence the zereel ectron-i nerti a re-
qui rement, that ei ectron cycl otron ti mes and l engths be much l ess than pl asma
scal e ti mes and l engths, may be questi onabl e near the ori gi n, al though thi s area
i s surrounded by a pl asma whi ch does sati sfy thi s assumpti on. The pl asmas
model ed here do remai n col l i si onal near the ori gi n, where the densi ty rernak
rel ati vel y hi gh (for a near-sol i d densi ty pl asma at 1000 eV, the mean free path
i s 0(10-4 cm)), unti l very deep i nstabi l i ty devel opment sets i n (col l i si onal i ty i s
31
further di scussed i n Appendi x A).
I on Larmor radi i , even for the condi ti ons (20 megagauss, 1000 eV) whi ch
sati sfi ed the smal l ~roradi us assumpti on for el ectrons, me rel ati vel y l arge: on
the order of mi crons, approach& the i ni ti al fi ber/pl asma col umn radi us (as
smal l as 15p). The above-menti oned worseni ng of thi s rati o as the ori gi n i s ap-
proached, i s thus much more seri ous, where r L;/a i s concerned. Hence i ncl usi on
of the rLi /tl ordered ter ms, as done i n the Hal l MHD model her e, i s i mportant.
Tj ;Ji (i dh)i ti J,,l l ti (!f (-())],i i )l ;!T:I ;)rcm-rti ,-}?:dto To; /r~o ) Me cal cul ated
here for two extreme condi ti ons: 1) core pl asma: 1 J eV, sol i d densi ty (~
5 x 1022cm-3, i n whi ch case ret z 10-16 see, ~d ri i * 10-14 see; 2) coronal
pl asma: 1000 eV, densi ty 5 x 1018cm-3, i n whi ch case r ,, z 10-10 see, and
TI I ~ 10-8
sec. Hence Teeval ues may range from 10-10 to 10-16 see, whi l e ~i i
val ues range from 10- 8 to 10-14 sec. Above, an el ectron cycl otron frequency of
1O1ssee-l was cal cul ated; for the same, 20-megagauss fi el d, the i on cycl otron
frequency wi l l be 0(101] see-l ). Hence wCC7,tval ues may range from 10-1 to
105, ~d~Ci ~81 val ues from10-3 to 103. I t i s thus not safe to assumewara >>1, to
justi fy the use of some si mpl i fi ed transpcrt coeffi ci ents or a col l i si onl ess MHD
model , requi ri ng UO~O>>1.
Al though i t i s here i ndi cated that the Hal l MHD model i s of greater
val i di ty than the basi c MHD (negl i gi bl e Larmor radi us) model . the resul ts of
si mul ati on usi ng the basi c MHD model wi l l be presentedfi rst. I t wi l l be seen that,
even wi th the basi c MHD model , rei wonabl y good agreement wi th experi ment
has been obtai ned.
32
CHAPTER 3: MHD MODELING OF HDZP-I AND HDZP-11
3.1Detai l ed Basi c MHD Model of EXD~meri ts
The pri mary experi ments model ed here were performed on the Los Al amos
Hi gh Densi ty Z-Pi nch (HDZP) machi nes HDZP-13S~and -114 14. These machi nes
empl oyed Marx bank generators wi th water-i nsul ated pul se-formi ng networks
to appl y maxi mum vol tages of 600 kV (HDZP-1) and 2 MV (HDZP-11) to the
deutenum fi ber l oads; thi s woul d bri ng current roughl y l i nearl y i n ti me to peaks
of 2 0 kA at 125 nsec (HDZP-1) and 800 kA (to date; desi gn maxi mum 1.2
MA) at 100 nsec (HDZP-11). frozen deuteri um fi ber l oads were typi cal l y 30pm
i n di ameter by 5 cm l ong. Di agnosti cs i ncl uded X-ray pi nhol e photography and
fi l tered PI N di odes, neutron counti ng wi th wi ous techni ques and ti me hi story,
el ectri cal di agnosti cs, and hi ghl y ti me-resol ved (better than 0.2 nsec) opti cal
i magi ng (shadowgrams and i nterferograms; see Appendi x B).
The computati ons reported here represent an extensi on of Li ndemuths
MHRDR (Magnet~HydroRadi ati ve-Dynami cs-R..esearch) code 38. MHRDR
uses a ti me- and space-centered al ternati ng-di recti on-i mpl i ci t (ADI ) numeri cal
method whi ch avoi ds spl i tti ng of the equati ons: al l quanti ti es are sol ved i n
vector equati ons, whi ch i ncl ude representati on of al l ter ms i n the equati ous at
every step of the sol uti on procedure. Newton-Raphson-l i ke i terati on i s em-
pl oyed to deal wi th nonl i near quanti ti es, i .e., nonl i near ter ms are approxi mated
by the fi rst two ter ms i n a Tayl or seri es, then the resul ti ng l i near i mpl i ci t probl em
(sol uti on of a bl ock tri -di agonal matri x) i s i terated to convergence. The model
appl i ed to the dense Z-pi nch probl em i n thi s chapter i s basi c (negl i gi bl e rL~)
MHD, the tw-di mensi onal ( equati ons of magnetohydrodynami cs i ncl udi ng
thermal conducti on, radi ati ve energy l oss, and resi sti ve di ffusi on (as devel oped i n
33
Chapter 2: equati ons 2.2.1,2.2.17,2.2.24, and 2.2.13, droppi ng the -Hal l MHD
ter ms noted i n secti on 2.3, and wi th the addi ti onal detai l s notsd i n secti on 2.4):
(3.1.1)
ap
~ + v (pq = o
(3.1.2)
(3.1.4)
W
-
+v x (+x B + : v x17) =o
where p i s mass densi ty, F i s vel oci ty, ~ i s magneti c fi el d, J(= v x ~/po) i s
el ectri cal current der i ty, ~i s speci fi c i nternal energy, p i s pressure, T i s tem-
perature, Qr.~ i s the radi ati ve energy l oss, q i s the el ectri cal resi sti vi ty, and X4
i s the (perpendi cul ar) thermal conducti vi ty. When a two-temperature model i s
used, tl i e si ngl e energy equati on above i s repl aced by i on and el ectron energy
equati ons (from 2.2.2!. and 2.2.22, agai n as modi fi ed i n secti ons 2.3 and
(3.1.5)
a(pee)
~ + v - (PZG) + P, v oZ v o(fi l , v T.) VJ =+
+Qr.ti + Qei = o
(3.1.6)
6(~ti)
~ +v (Ptiti)-1pi v Z- v ( v ~ Qei = O
2.4):
where Ce, p To, and KAOrefer to the appropri ate i on or el ectron quanti ti es,
and QCi i s the el ectron-i on energy equi l i brati on ter m.
34
The basi c al ternati ng-di recti on-i mpl i ci t sol uti on al gori thm i s as fol l ows38
(porti ons of Reference 38, whi ch descri bes thi s i n much greater detai l , are repr~
duced i n Appendi x D), The component forms of the equati ons to be sol ved (such
as shown i n Appendi x D) contai n ter ms whi ch are exactl y spati al l y i ntegrabl e
i n one di recti on (i .e., i n conservati ve form), representi ng fl uxes of mass, mo-
mentum, etc., and ter ms whi ch are not so i ntegrabl e, whi ch Li ndemuth refers to
as forces. Spati al i ntegrati on of these ter ms i s done at a gi ven fi ni te-di fference
cel l ; one then has expressi ons for the fl uxes, at the i nterfaces between cel l s, and
approxi mates the force ter ms, by taki ng the average of such ter ms at the two
i nterfaces of a cel l . Each fl ux and force term at a gi ven cel l i nterface i s then wri t-
ten i n fi ni te-di fference form, i .e., i n ter ms of the cel l and nei ghbori ng cel l val ues
of the quanti ti es to be sol ved. The key to the al ternati ng-di recti on-i mpl i ci t al -
gori thm i s that the fi ni te-di fference equati ons whi ch resul t at thi s poi nt, are the
sum of ter ms dependi ng on qm.nti ty val ues and thei r spati al deri vati ves i n one
di recti on, and ter ms dependi ng on quanti ti es and deri vati ves i n the other di rec-
ti on. Thi s i s because none of the equati ons to be sol ved contai ns mi xed spati al
deri vati ves (the presence of m;xed deri vati ves i n the Hal l term thus presented a
major probl em, the sol uti on of whi ch i s descri bed i n Chapter 4).
One can then treat the ter ms dependent on quanti ti es and deri vati ves i n
one di recti on i mpl i ci tl y (on thi s step l eavi ng the other di recti on ter ms expl i ci t),
and the resul ti ng matri x to be sal ved (after l i neari zati on) i s not the huge matri x
whi ch a ful l tw~di mensi onal i mpl i ci t sol uti on woul d requi re, but onl y a much
more tractabl e bl ock tri -di agonal one-di mensi onal i mpl i ci t matri x, because the
unknown quanti ti es are onl y al ong a si ngl e l i ne i n the i mpl i ci t di recti on. On
the next step, the al ternate di recti on i s treated i mpl i ci tl y. I n MHRDR, whi ch i s
35
ti me-centered (i n a Dougl as-Gunn senseys), the fi rst step i ncl udes i mpl i ci t and
expl i ci t fl ux and force ter ms i n one di recti on, pl us expl i ci t ter ms (whi ch have just
been sol ved for i n the previ ousl y compl eted ful l step, i ncorporati ng i mpl i ci t and
expl i ci t contri buti ons) i n the other di recti on; the second step i ncl udes i mpl i ci t
and expl i ci t ter ms i n the second di recti on, pl us the just-computed i mpl i ci t ter ms
and expl i ci t ter ms i n the fi rst di recti on. Both steps i ncl ude a representati on
of al l ter ms i n the equati ons (i n both di recti ons) at once. Hence, each step
resul ts i n sol uti on val ues whi ch are enti rel y consi stent wi th the compl ete set of
parti al di fferenti al equati ons, i n contr~t to the resul ts of operator spl i tti ng,
where each i ntermedi ate val ue i s actual l y i nconsi stent. I n MHD, where physi cal
pr ocesses compete, the MHRDR method shoul d i n pri nci pl e al l ow the use of
l arger ti mesteps than spl i tti ng methods.
The program proceeds usi ng essenti al l y a Newton-Raphson i terati ve l i n-
eari zati on method74, At each cel l i nterface on a gi ven l i ne, the i mpl i ci t fl uxes
and forces are approxi mated by cal cul ati ng the expl i ci t fl uxes and forces and the
expl i ci t deri vati ves of those fl uxes and forces wi th respect to the quanti ti es to
be sol ved (e.g., ~, p etc.). These numbers become el ements i n the bl ock tri -
di agonal matri x to be sol ved for the i mpl i ci t quanti ti es. When al l the el ements
have been cal cul ated for a gi ven l i ne, the i mpl i ci t matri x i s sol ved by forward-
7 u t ~ W&WS have not converged to a preset
backward substi tuti on .
degrtx (for each quanti ty, typi cal l y 10-5 ti mes i ts l argest val ue), they are used
as expl i ci t val ues wi th whi ch to compose a new matri x, the sol uti on of whi ch
i s i terated unti l convergence for that l i ne i s reached (up to a l i mi ted number of
i terati ons; i f convergence i s sti l l not reached, the ti mestep wi l l be cut). When al l
the l i nes i n one di recti on have been sol ved i n thi s way, the i mpl i ci t and expl i ci t
36
fl ux val ues are stored (because they wi l l be used i n the secoud step), and the
i mpl i ci t sol ve procedure i s repeated for al l the l i nes i n the second di recti on. The
sol uti on val ues of thi s second step are the fi nal val ues for the sol ved quanti ti es
at the new ti me.
By careful di fferenci ng of the equati ons, the code has uncommon conser-
vati on properti es
TTOThe spati ~ di fferenci ng (i n the l i mi t At -+ 0) not onl Y
conserves mass, momentum, energy, and magneti c fl ux, but al so mai ntai ns sub-
conservati on properti es, that parti al sums of component energi es (thermal , ki -
neti c, magneti c), such as the sum of ki neti c and magneti c energi es, are conserved
where appropri ate (i .e., each pai r of correspondi ng ter ms i ndi vi dual l y mai ntai ns
energy conservati on). I n general , the ti me- and space-centered al gori thm i s sec-
ond order accurate i n At and Ax.
MHRDR empl oys an arti fi ci al vi scosi ty i n the vi ci ni ty of strong shocks
(l arge vel oci ty gradi ents) i n order to more accuratel y depi ct the physi cs i n such
areas (gi ve the correct i ncrease i n entropy when a shock traverses the pl asma, i r-
reversi bl y converti ng i on ki neti c energy to i on thermal energy). Li ndemuth77-79
strongl y argues that arti fi ci al i s a mi snomer her e, because the numeri cal re-
sul ts wi !l be farther from physi cal l y correct wi thout i t. The functi onal form of
the arti fi ci al vi scosi ty i s such that i t i s very l ocal i zed to the l arge vel oci ty gra-
di ent regi ons. I ntri nsi c to the use of such arti fi ci al vi scosi ty i s a shock heati ng
ter m, i ncl uded i n the energy equati on (i on energy equati on i n a tw-temperature
model , because of the mass dependence of vi scous effects) for consi stency.
For certai n types of 1i nearequati ons80, the ti me- and space-centered al ter-
nati ng-di recti on-i mpl i ci t al gori thm empl oyed i n MHRDR i s uncondi ti onal l y nu-
meri cal l y stabl e, i .e. there i s no l i mi t on the si ze of the ti mestep al l owabl e.
37

For the nonl i near equati ons whi ch are bei ng sol ved her e, thi s i s probabl y not
tr ee; one i s hard put, i n advance to know what ti mestep wi l l be desi rabl e to
resol ve i mportant detai l s of a gi ven probl em, even i f such a ti mestep i s numeri -
cal l y stabl e. MHRDR uses an adapti ve ti mestep: a starti ng ti mestep and mi n-
i mum/mtui mum al l owabl e ti mesteps are set, then, as the si mul ati on proceeds,
the ti mestep goes up or down, dependi ng on a number of condi ti ons. I f quan-
ti ti es are not changi ng much, the ti mestep wi l l go up unti l the l argest change
i n any quanti ty reaches a preset val ue, often a percentage such as 30% of the
gi ven quanti ty; ti mesteps wi l l be cut i f changes exc=d thi s val ue, i f non-physi cal
resul ts such as negati ve temperatures or densi ti es are encountered, or i f the i t-
erati ons are not convergi ng. I n thi s way, i t i s possi bl e to rel ati vel y effi ci entl y
fol l ow a probl em, such as the fi ber-i ni ti ated Z-pi nch, wi th ti mesteps whi ch re-
sol ve i nteresti ng physi cal phenomena as they devel op.
The magnetohydrodynami c model used requi res for compl eteness the spe-
ci fi c i nternal energy, the pressure, thq thermal conducti vi ty, the average i oni za-
ti on l evel , the radi ati ve energy l oss, and the el ectri cal resi sti vi ty as functi ons of
the densi ty and temperature. To obtai n the equati on of state (speci fi c energy
and pressure), the i oni zati on l evel , the radi ati ve energy l oss, and the resi sti vi ty,
the Los Al amos SESAME39 tabul ated atomi c data base computer l i brary i s used.
SES.4ME Pl ancki an opaci ty i s empl oyed for the radi ati ve energy l oss ter m, ap-
propri ate for on opti cal l y thi n condi ti on (wr.~ > UP,), whi ch fi ber pi nches such ~
HDZP-I and -I I can be shown to mai ntai n for temperatures and densi ti es typi cal
of such di scharges,
Thermal conducti vi ty fol l ows the (arbi trary UC~)Bragi n-
ski i formal i sm63, as does el ectron-i on energy equi l i brati on. Hence the thermal
38
conducti vi ti es are:
(3.1.7)
(3.1.8)
Si ngl e-temperature X4 i s the sum of these. The el ectron-i on energy equi l i brati on
term64 i s
(3.1.9).
Actual experi mental current vs.
ti me val ues provi de the boundary con-
di ti on for magneti c fi el d at the outer radi al wal l : Amperes Law prescri bes
~e(~wl u) =
pOI/(27rrW.li). The code empl oys a method by whi ch fi el d and
pl asma can real i sti cal l y pi nch i nward from a radi al wal l , i f equati ons and bound-
ary condi ti ons so di ctate, and l ater expand back to the wal l i n a consi stent
fashi onal (at earl y stages of the si mul ati on, fi el d very rapi dl y di ffuses across the
l ow-densi ty vacuum regi on to the current-carryi ng surface of the fi ber). Mass
i s al l owed to l eave through the outer radi al wal l , i f i t i s movi ng i n that di recti on;
thi s prevents an unreal i sti c bui l d-up or bounce-back of mass at the outer ra-
di us, whi ch i s i ntended to si mul ate the surroundi ng vacuum. When i t was i ound
that si gni fi cant current and pl asma densi ty needed to be resol ved i n the vi ci ni ty
of the outer radi us, a means was found to expand the gri d to treat thi s appropri -
atel y; thi s i s descri bed bel ow. The axi al boundary condi ti ons are usual l y taken
to be el ectri cal l y conducti ng and heat i nsul ati ng, gi vi ng mi rror condi ti ons at
these boundari es for fi el d and energy; axi al wal l s are i ntended to be sol i d, as are
the real el ectrodes, hence &r~61 = O. Hai nes has done some theoreti cal work
39
predi cti ng that end l osses of energy from such a pi nch wi l l not be si gni fi cant
over the typi cal 0(100 nsec) di scharge ti me, and a si ngl e si mul ati on run wi th
zerwtemperature axi al boundari es agreed wi th thi s resul t.
Col d-start i ni ti al condi ti ons are a sol i d, cryogeni c dcutcri um fi ber (densi ty
88 kg/m3, whi ch i s hal f that of sol i d deuteri um, to account for observed voi ds
and other non-uni formi ti es i n the fi ber; temperature 0.001 eV; radi us 15 pm; 2Y0
random densi ty fl uctuati ons provi de perturbati ons for i nstabi l i ty growth) sur-
rounded to about twi ce the fi ber radi us by a l ow densi ty, warm hal o pl asma
(e.g., densi ty 0.088 kg/m3, wi th no perturbati ons; temperature 1 eV), whi ch
provi des an i ni ti al current conducti on path. Computed resul ts are i nsensi ti ve to
the detai l s of thi s hal o pl asma after a short-l i ved (<10 nsec) transi ent, because of
the smal l mass i nvol ved rel ati ve to the fi ber-generated pl asma. The surroundi ng
vacuum i s si mul ated by a col d, very l ow densi ty regi on (e.g., densi ty 107 kg/m3,
temperature 0.025 eV) of total mass l ess than 1%of the fi ber, extendi ng out to a
zero-temperature, el ectri cal l y i nsul ati ng wal l . To avoi d unreal i sti cohmi c heati ng
of the hi ghl y resi sti ve vacuum regi on, a cutoff densi ty i s used, bel ow whi ch
ohmi c heati ng i s turned off. Because the bul k of the pl asma i n such di scharges
may go from hi gh, near-sol i d densi ti es to expanded, much l ower densi ti es, thi s
author i mpl emented a vari abl e cutoff densi ty, whi ch adjusts i tsel f, wi thi n pro-
grammed l i mi ts, so that (typi cal l y) 99% of the pl asma (presumabl y the bul k of
the fi ber-generated pl asma) remai ns above cutoff at al l ti mes. The resul ts from
runs wi th both fi xed cutoff densi ti es, and these adapti vel y varyi ng cutoff densi -
ti es, showed no si gni fi cant di fferences (typi cal cutoff densi ti es are from 10*8 to
1016cm-s).
The earl y fi ber-abl ati on stage of the di scharge necessi tates rel ati vel y fi ne ra-
40
di al gri d spaci ng, but thi s stage can be fol l owed by an expl osi ve expansi on of the
heated pl asma. Because of thi s, Li ndemuths i ni ti al two-di mensi onal si mul ati ons
coul d onl y be run to about hal f the HDZP-I current peak before runni ng out of
gri d: si gni fi cant current and pl asma densi ty needed to be resol ved outsi de the
ori gi nal , maxi mum aRordabl e radi al gri d. To overcome thi s probl em, thi s author
expl ored the use of an exi sti ng capabi l i ty i n the code, al l owi ng pre-progmmmed
radi al gri d expansi on. Thi s was found to be i mpracti cal , because one doesnt
know i n advance when and how fast the gri d shoul d be expanded. I t was neces-
sary to i mpl ement an adapti ve system, capabl e of expandi ng or contracti ng the
gri d (wi thi n programmed l i mi ts) to fol l ow an expandi ng or contracti ng phwma.
The radi al gri d i s checked at each ti mestep, and adjusted so that the outer
boundary i s al ways at l east 150% of the radi us wi thi n whi ch 95% of the total
axi al current i s contai ned. Provi si on for thi s gri d moti on i s wri tten i nto the
general i zed Eul eri an (movi ng-orthogonal -gri d) di fference equati ons, avoi di ng
the compl i cati ons of the Lagrangi an approach: i .e., fi ni te-di fference equati ons
are wri tten and sol ved for quanti ti es, such as vel oci ty, reI ati ve to a known (pre-
programmed, or now, adapti vel y set) gri d vel oci ty.
To al l ow di rect compari son of si mul ati on resul ts wi th experi mental data,
thi s author wrote an addi ti on to the codes graphi cal post-processor to generate
shadowgrams and i nterferograms, as col l ected on the experi ments, from si mul a-
ti on resul ts (thi s i s done by traci ng a gri d of rays through the si mul ated pl asma;
see Appendi x B). A dynami cal l y devel opi ng i nstabi l i ty may be overboked i n
a pl asma i magi ng di agnosti c whi ch l acks temporal resol uti on (vi sual and X-
ray i mages requi re rather l ong exposure ti mes rel ati ve to the nanosecond-scal e
dynami cs of such pi nches). I t has been possi bl e to produce very hi ghl y ti me-
41
resol ved (better than 0.2 nsec) experi mental shadowgrams and i nterferograms.
Hence these present experi mental data of pri mary i nterest for compari son wi th
the si mul ati ons.
I n the si mul ati ons reported her e, radi al gri ds of 80 to 100 poi nts, more fi nel y
spaced near the axi s (zones smal l er thi m 2 p) to better resol ve the fi ber/pki sma
col umn, cover a radi us as smal l as 1 mi l l i meter, but ul ti matel y as l arge as several
centi meters, i f rapi d expansi on i s fol l owed, I t woul d be desi rabl e to cover the
ful l 5 centi meter axi al l ength of the experi mental chamber wi th many hundreds
of gri d poi nts, to resol ve the smal l est and l argest i nstabi l i ty scal es possi bl e, but
thi s i s prohi bi ti vel y expensi ve at present. I t has been possi bl e to cover axi al sec-
ti ons as l arge as 2 centi meters, and as smal l as 0.25 mi l l i meters, wi th uni forml y
spaced axi al gri ds of 31 (someti mes 62) poi nts. These are respecti vel y capabl e
of resol vi ng the l argest (X-ray beads) and smal l est (shadowgram spi cul es-
fi ne spi kes radi ati ng outward from the mai n axi al col umn at earl y ti mes i n the
di scharge) features observed i n any of the experi ments. Al though the smal l est,
most fi nel y resol ved gri ds do show fi ne-scal e i nstabi l i ty growth starti ng earl i er
than the l arger gri ds, these fi ne-scal e i nstabi l i ti es are not ul ti matel y the most
unstabl e or fastest expandi ng di sturbances, because as heati ng and expansi on
take pl ace, shorter wavel engths saturate, and l arger-scal e i nstabi l i ti es tend to
domi nate the system. Mi d-si ze gri ds, coveri ng about 2 mi l l i meters axi al l y, show
the most rapi d i nstabi l i ty growth ai l 1expansi on; l arger gri ds show a del ay before
the l arger modes they can resol ve begi n to devel op. Hence the ti mi ng of i nsta-
bi l i ty devel opment and expansi on may vary by as much as 20 nsec (i n 100-nsec
current-peak di scharges) or di fferent gri d si zes. Thi s i s comparabl e to experi -
mental ti mi ng uncertai nti es (e.g., the rei ati on between dri vi ng vol tage, current,
4
anddi agnosti c i mages i n ti me).
Wi th these i mprovements l mpl ernented,i t has been possi bl e to run si mul a-
ti ons to about 120 nsec for HDZP-1, near i ts 200-250 kA current peak, and to 44
nsec (about 300 kA) for HDZP-H (al so as hi gh as 430 kA for an as yet not exper-
i mental l y real i zed 1.2 MA-peak shot on HDZP-11). At tbese poi nts, not onl y i s i t
numeri cal l y di ffi cul t and expensi ve to deal wi th the very rapi dl y expandi ng and
hi ghl y i rregul arl y devel opi ng pl asma, but l arge parts of the pl asma have reached
temperatures and densi ti es where the val i di ty of the fl ui d model i s very much
i n doubt; thi s wi l l be di scussed further bel ow. Extendi ng the si mul ati on beyond
these poi nts, then, i s as much a matter of fi ndi ng an appropri ate physi cal model ,
as i t i s a matter of numeri cal ~ti chni que.
A potenti al l y i mportant l i mi tati on of these computati ons i s geometri c:
quanti ti es vary onl y as functi ons of r and z, and onl y the azi muthal magneti c
fi el d and vel oci ty components perpendi cul ar to the fi el d (V.,VZ) are computed,
al ong wi th scal ar mass densi ty and i nternal energy. Wi thi n the fl ui d model ,
the fi ni te-Larmor-radi us ordered ter ms i n the magneti c fi el d equati on (Hal l term
and di amagneti c pressure), the vi scous stress tensor, and accompanyi ng ter ms
i n the energy equati on, are i gnored as wel l . Up to the poi nt where the fl ui d
descri pti on and cl assi cal transport break down, compari son of the resul ts of such
a si mul ati on wi th experi ment can suggest whether or not any of the aspects l eft
out, geometri c or otherwi se, were essenti al to the behavi or of the system.
3.2 Resul ts of Basi c MHD Model a2-84
An account of the l ow-current experi ment HDZP-I descri bed pl asma
col umns free from vi si bl e i nstabi l i ti es for typi cal l y 80 nsec i nto the current
di scharge, at whi ch ti me the (m=O] i nstabi l i ty growth ti mes woul d be expected
43
to be S1 nsec...m=l modes are not observed.3 Fastest growth ti mes for i deal
m=O (and m=l ) i nstabi l i ti es18are on the order of the Al fven ti me 7A = a/uA,
where a i a scal e l ength of the pl asma, and VA i s the Al fven speed. Typi cal
Al fven speeds and scal e l engths of these pl asmas (di scussed i n secti on 2.5) do
i ndeed correspond to Al fven ti mes on the order of 1 nsec, i f not smal l er. Pl asma
col umns al so appeared to be rel ati vel y compact (radi us s 200pm), based on
shadowgraxnimages (Figs. la, 2a; note that these are el ectroni cal l y col l ected
i mages of fi ner resol uti on than the ori gi nal photographi c shadowgrams on whi ch
the above comments were based; see Appendix B), whi ch were empl oyed to pro-
vi de wel l ti me-resol ved i mages wi thout the compl ex temperature dependence of
passi ve radi ati on emi ssi on. A si mi l ar experi ment at the Naval Research Lab-
oratory (about whi ch more wi l l be sai d l ater) al so appeared to exhi bi t such
compactness and rel a i ve stabi l i ty, on the basi s of vi si bl e and X-ray emi ssi on
i magi ng ~~fthe pl asma.
The tw~di mensi onal (2-d) basi c MHD si mul ati ons of HDZP-i di scharges
show si gni fi cant expansi on and m=O i nstabi l i ty devel opment (Fi gs. I c, I d) before
the fi ber has become ful l y i oni zed, whi ch occurs i n the si mul ati ons at 30 to 50
nsec. Model shadowgrarns generated from si mul ati on of Hl l ZP-I reasonabl y
agree, i n si ze and i nstabi l i ty wavel ength, wi th those from experi ment (Fi gs. l a,
l b). The wi dth of the shadowgrarns tends to remai n smal l er than the effecti ve
di ameter of the pl asma col umn, i n ter ms ofmass (Fi g. I c) or current (Fi g. i d).
Thi s i s true because l i ght ray defl ecti on (whi ch creates the shadow) depehds on
densi ty gradi ents, and is greatest near the central core of the plasma column
(particularly while this is still being fed from the ablating fiber), where these
density gradients are the hugest. The lower density, more gently varying outer
44
regi ons of the pl asma col umn do not provi de enough ray defl ecti on to cause
obvi ous shadows, even though a si gni fi cant fracti on of the mass or current may
resi de there. Si gni fi cant i nstabi l i ty devel opment i n these outer regi ons (Fi gs,
I c, l d) onl y shows up as sl i ght vari ati ons i n the shadowgrams (Fi g. l b). After
the fi ber i s compl etel y i oni zed, the si mul ati on-generated shadowgrams expand
and become more i rregul ar, even di sappeari ng at some poi nts al ong the axi s,
agai n i n agreement wi th experi mental resul ts (Fi gs. 2a, 2b, al so l a, ri ght-hand
i mage, 3a, 3b). Thi s may be i nterpreted as evi dence of ful l devel opment of the
i nstabi l i ty, to the extent that l i ne densi ty (total number of parti cl es 2~:r uni t
axi al l ength, Fi g. 5c) al ong the axi s becomes very i rregul ar (i .e., pl asma col umn
separates i nto di sti nct bl obs, ul ti xxi atel yrefl ected i n formati on of beads i n
X-ray i mages214).
Si mul ati ons and observati ons of the Los Al arnos hi gh-current experi ment
HDZP-11 4114resembl e the hi gher-current, l ater phr~es of HDZP-I di scharges. I n
the si mul ati on of HDZP-11, the hi gher current ful l y i cui :es the (15pm radi us)
fi ber i n 10 to 20 nsec (where 0.75 to 1.2 MA current peaks woul d occur at 100
nsec, al though HDZP-11 si mul ati ons were not run al l the way to current peak).
I nstabi l i ti es devel op rapi dl y, and dri ve i ntense nonuni form heati ng and rapi d
col umn expansi on to radi i on the order of centi meters, wi thi n 50 nsec. Onl y
very earl y i n the experi ment i s there enough densi ty gradi ent to gi ve a useful
shadowgrarn at al l (Fi g. 3a), and thi s wi de and i rregul ar i mage resembl es the l ate
shadowgrams of the l ow-curnmt experi ment HDZP-I (Fi g. 2a). The computed
shadowgram (Fi g. 3b) has many features (wi dth and i nstabi l i ty wavel ength) of
the observed one [Fi g. 3a).
Because l ate ti me shadowgrams were i mpossi bl e to obtai n on HDZP-11, i n-
45

terferometri c i magi ng techni ques (see Appendi x B) were then empl oyed. I nter-
fer~)gramsgi ve i mages i ntegrated di rectl y off pl asma densi ty rather than densi ty
gradi ent (as i n shadowgrarns). These i mages, both experi menta114and si mul ated,
show characteri sti c i sl and patterns of l arge ampl i tude m=O modes (Fi gs. 4a,
4b); agai n, a repeat of what i s seen i n l ate l ow-curnmt si mul ati ons (Fi gs. 4c, 4d,
4e). The l i ne densi ty al ong the axi s, deri ved fkom the si mul ati ons, i s i n good
agreement wi th the resul ts from experi mental i nterferograrns(Fi gs. 5a, 5b, 5c).
Experi mental vari ati on i n fi ber si ze, and the use i n si mul ati ons of starti ng fi ber
densi ty one-hal f that of pure sol i d deuteri um (to compensate for possi bl e voi ds
i n the experi mental fi ber), account for the mi nor di fferences between computed
and measured l i ne densi ty.
Theoreti cal and computati onal i nvesti gati on i nto the reported anomal ous
stabi l i ty of the earl y, l ow-current experi ments has concentrated on the con-
necti on between dri vi ng current ramp ti mes and pl asma profi l es2485@, and the
stabi l i ty of such profi l es as modi fi ed by non-i deal effects such as resi sti vi ty19-30.
I n parti cul ar, i t has been found that l ow-temperature pl asma col umns whi ch are
. . . . .
rel ati vel y res]st]ve, wi th Lundqul st number (~r~si sri v~ ~ijfU#i On/~~/f~ ~~~fi ,g~) Up
to about 100, may be m=O stabl e21~23~24~30. The pl asmas for whi ch these re-
sul ts have been deri ved are constant-radi us, uni form (Bennetts) temperature,
and of near-sol i d densi ty (i .e., ful l y i oni zed, and expanded to no more than a
few hundred pm). I n contrast, what i s seen i n earl y (pre-compl ete i oni zati on)
stages of these one- and two-di mensi onal si mul ati ons (e.g., Fi g. 1 of Ref. 35)
i s a l ow-densi ty (e.g., 10
-3 ~solid) c oron~ Pl=ma wi th a temperaturePe* at
the edge that may be consi derabl y hi gher than the Bennett temperature. Such
profi l es resembl e those di scussed by Bobrova, et al , for expl odi ng copper wi re
46
88 ~w den~jty ~d ~gh temperrLtureare factors
and deuteri um fi ber Z-pi nches .
whi ch woul d rai se the effecti ve Lundqui st number of such a pl asma from safe
Lundqui st numbe~ of order 1, beyond the cri ti cal val ues around 100, even dur-
i ng the l ow current, earl y stages of the di scharge. Once i nstabi l i ti es begi n to
grow i n the corona, expansi on of the col umn i s enhanced, l eadi ng to sti l l l ower
densi ti es, l arger radi i , and sti l l hi gher Lundqui st numbers.
The presence of the col d core does wxm to i nhi bi t ful l nonl i near i nstabi l i ty
devel opment, such aa di spl ayed i n Fi gs. 4d and 4e (note the drop i n densi ty i n the
m=O neck regi on, i n contrast to the earl i er densi ty contours, Fi g. I c), whi ch
appears connected wi th the expl osi ve expansi on of hi gher-current di scharges on
HDZP-H. The si mul ati ons show re-connecti on of the outer regi ons of such m=O
l obes, and current jumpi ng across them at progressi vel y i ncreasi ng scal e l engths;
thi s may not onl y di rectl y contri bute to the physi cal expansi on of the col umn,
but may l ead to i nstabi l i ty heati ng89, whi ch further dri ves expansi on (note i n
thi s regard the tw~temperature si mul ati on resul ts di scussed bel ow).
The hi gh temperatures and l ow densi ti es, whi ch may be seen i n the ful l y
devel oped i nstabi l i ty/expansi on stage of the di scharges, are l i kel y to dri ve the
pl asm~out of the one-tempera.ure xegi me (i ons and el ectrons i n energy equi l i b-
ri um), as noted i n Appendi x A. Li ndemuths code has an exi sti ng twmtempera-
ture capabi l i ty, but i t was found i mpossi bl e to run the fi ber Z-pi nch probl em i n
the tw~temperature mode, due to probl ems ei ther wi th the very low tempera-
ture secti ons of the two-temperature SESAME equati on-of-state tabl es, or wi th
the energy equi l i brati on secti on of the code; these probl ems have not yet been
resol ved. However, i t was possi bl e to do two-temperature runs usi ng an i deal gas
equati on of state i n pl ace of the SESAME tabl es (sti l l usi ng SESAME resi sti v-
47
i ty, i oni zati on state, ~nd radi ati on); confi dence i n thi s procedure was bol stcrcci
by the fact that one-temperature i deal gas runs showed l i ttl e overal l di fference
fkom al l -SESAME one-temperature runs. The i on and el ectron energy equati ons
di ffer, i n addi ti on to the use of appropri ate i on or el ectron pressures and thermal
conducti vi ti es, i n that the el ectron equati on has the ohmi c heati ng and radi ati ve
cool i ng ter ms, whi l e the i on equati on has an arti fi ci al vi scosi ty shock heati ng
term (both have compl ementary equi l i brati on terms).
The general i nstabi l i ty/expansi on behavi or was sti l l seen i n these two-tem-
perature runs, but an i nteresti ng detai l emerged i n the heati ng pattern [see Fi g.
6). I n l -d and earl y stages of 2-d runs, ohmi c heati ng of el ectrons was the
pri mary heati ng sour ce, and el ectron temperature thus ei ther l ed or remai ned i n
equi l i bri um wi th i on temperature. However, when i nstabi l i ty devel opment l ed
to extreme and i rregul ar densi ty and vel oci ty gradi ents (such as i n Fi gs. 4d end
4e), shock heati ng of i ons caused the i on temperatures to exceed those of the
el ectrons, by as much as 50 eV for average temperatures (Fi g. 6a), and hundreds
of eV for peak temperatures (Fi g. 6b). Thi s .6tsthe pattern of i nstabi l i ty heati ng
suggested by R. Lovberg8g, whi ch i s under expwi rnental i nvesti gati on by Lovberg
and R. Ri l ey Jr.
Chi ttenden and Hai nes i n a recent paper have stated that the thermoel ec-
tri c Nernst and Etti nghausen effects cannot be i gnored when el ectron and i on
temperatures are suffi ci entl y decoupl ed.sg I n l -d Lagrangi an two-temperatur:
si mul ati ons usi ng Bragi nski i perpendi cul ar resi sti vi ty, they see such decoupl i ng
i n the very l ow densi ty outer edge of the coronal pl asma; thi s regi on carri es
a l ot of current, and hence has l arge ohmi c heati ng of the el ectrons, but they
do not equi l i brate wi th the i ons. The i ons coul d normal l y conduct much of
.
48

the heat away, because the i on cross-fi el d thermal conducti vi ty (3,1,8) i s l arger
than that of the el ectrons (3.1.7) by the factor (~i/~~)~. h thi s case, the
l ow el ectron-i on thermal i zati on rate (3.1.9, proporti onal to n~/T}), l eads to a
runaway el ectron temperature si tuati on at the pl asma edge; hi gher temperature
(l ower resi sti vi ty and thermal i zati on) l eads to hi gher currents, more heati ng, etc.
However, i f the Nernst and Etti nghausen effects (whi ch cause a radi al fl ow of
heat and current densi ty) are i ncl uded, the i on and el ectron temperatures stay
much cl oser together, resul ti ng i n B much more uni form current di stri buti on.
Chi ttenden has al so found a si mi l ar effect, causi ng current to be more uni forml y
di stri buted across the pi nch radi us, due to anomal ous (mi croturbul ence gener-
ated) resi sti vi tygo.
I n the two-temperature runs done her e, one does not sewa si gni fi cant de-
coupl i ng of the el ectron and i on temperatures at the edge, as seen i n the Chi t-
tenden/Hai nes paper, for several reasons. There i s a cutoff densi ty i n MHRDR,
bel ow whi ch ohmi c heati ng i s not i ncl uded, i n order to avoi d unreal i sti c heati ng
(and runaway pr ocesses such as descri bed above) i n the l ow-densi ty vacuum
pl asma regi ons. Al though the use of such a cutoff does i ntroduce a somewhat
arbi trary, physi cal l y i nconsi stent el ement i nto the model , the i ntent i s to use i t
onl y i n vacuum areas whi ch do not meet the cri teri a for the fl ui d model , and
whi ch do not have a deci si ve effect on the bul k pl asma dynami cs. Cutoff densi ty
vah~eshave been vari ed over two orders of magni tude wi thout seei ng my si gni f-
i cant di fferences i n the si mul ati on resul ts. Al so, the resi sti vi ty used here i s from
the SESAME tabl es, rather than Bragi nski i . The semi -empi ri cal SESAME re-
si sti vi ty tabl es gi ve val ues for a wi der range of temperatures and densi ti es than
the Bragi nski i ful l y-i oni zed pl asma model ; i n parti cul ar, for condi ti ons where
49
neutral s are domi nant, and for condi ti ons of such l ow densi ty that al most no
current-carri ers are avai l abl e. Hence i t may be that SESAME resi sti vi ty, i n
the l ow-densi ty coronal edge regi ons where the above di scussed phenomena take
pl ace, i s greater than Bragi nski i resi sti vi ty, and so tends to excl ude current from
such regi ons.
I n a one-temperature model , as noted above, ohmi c heati ng at the edge
can be bal anced by (predomi nantl y i on) heat conducti on away from the edge.
Hence not i ncl udi ng the Nernst and Etti nghausen effects i n the one- and tw-
temperature si mul ati ons presented here di d not l ead to the runaway edge current
and heati ng probl em brought up by Chi ttenden am-l Hai nes. There are other
si tuati ons i n whi ch i on and el ectron temperatures may decoupl e, such as the
i nstabi l i ty i on heati ng di scussed above. Shock-heated i ons, i n areas of l ow densi ty
and hi gh temperature, woul d al so have a l ow el ectron-i on thermal i zati on rate.
The possi bi l i ty of Nernst and Etti nghausen effects pl ayi ng an i mportant rol e i n
such si tuati ons makes addi ti on of these effects desi rabl e.
A major di fference between the Los Al amos experi ments and the deuteri um-
fi ber-i ni ti ated experi ments at the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL)2S13i s the
thi ckness of the fi ber: NRL used 40- to 60-pm-radi us fi bers, as opposed to 15-pm
at Los Al arnos. Current ri se rates have al so vari ed among the two Laboratory
experi ments, from about 1 to 10 kA/nsec. A stri ki ng observati on of the earl y
NRL experi ments (current peaks up to 640 kA at 125 nsec) i s that si gni fi cant
expansi on of the or . . .ml l y very compact vi si bl e emi ssi on i mage (taken to i ndi cate
onset of gross i nstabi l i ty) does not occur unti l current peak (dI /dt=O). Thus the
pi nch woul d appear to remai n stabl e as l ong as the current i s ri si ng.n2
The NRL experi ments have not been as comprehensi vel y model ed as the
50
Los Al amos ones, but 2-d si mul ati ons have been carri ed out for 60-pm-radi us
fi ber, 640 kA at 125 nsec NRL di scharges; a si mul ati on was al so done of a
pl anned 40-pm-radi us fi ber on Los Al arnos HDZP-11 wi th current peak 750 kA
at 100 nsec. I n these si mul ati ons, the fi bers di d survi ve consi derabl y l onger
(40-50 nsec for the 40-pm fi ber, as opposed to 10-20 nsec i n the anal ogous,
HDZP-11 15-pm fi ber run; survi val w= l onger than 60 nsec for the 60-pm fi ber).
Onset of drasti c i nstabi l i ty devel opment and expansi on di d not occur unti l the
40-pm fi ber was gone (around 55 nsec, as opposed to 30 nsec for the 15-pm
run). The 60-pm si mul ati on coul d not be run beyond 60 nsec (260 kA), because
porti ons of the coronal pl asma had reached the hi ghl y i rregul arl y devel oped, hi gh
temperature, l ow densi ty (fl ui d model i nval i d) condi ti ons whi ch have ul ti matel y
defeated the numeri cal al gori thm used i n al l these si mul ati ons. At thi s poi nt i n
the 60-pm si mul ati on, a col d (S1 eV) core remai ned, surrounded by a medi um-
hot (*1OO eV) corona of about 10-1 ti mes sol i d densi ty out to about 100 pm
(whi ch coul d be responsi bl e for the vi si bl e radi ati on i mage of about thi s radi us
at thi s ti me), surrounded by a hot (i nto keV range), several orders of magni tude
l ower densi ty, strongl y unstabl y devel opi ng outer corona, Thi s resembl es the
pre-compl ete-i oni zati on coronal pl asma seen at earl i er ti mes i n the 15-pm-fi ber
HDZP-1 and -11runs. I n tw~di mensi omd si mul ati ons, the expansi on and severe
i nstabi l i ty devel opment, whi ch occur shortl y after compl ete fi ber i oni zati on and
are refl ected i n shadowgram and i nterferometri ci magi ng, woul d al so be refl ected
i n a sudden expansi on i n the vi si bl e emi ssi on i mages36. Hence i f i oni zati on
of the fi ber i s compl eted pri or to current peak, one woul d expect the above
dI /dt=O hypothesi sz to be vi ol ated, and vi si bl e expansi on to occur whi l e the
current i s sti l l ri si ng. Such i nstabi l i ti es and expansi on whi l e the current i s ri si ng
51
were reported for the l ater, hi gher current NRL experi ments*3. These l ater
experi ments di d empl oy a current ramp (920 kA peak at 840 nsec) much sl ower
than that of the ori gi nal NRL experi ments, whi ch were consi dered to use an
opti mum current ri se val ue (*4 kA/nsec). The 2-d si mul ati ons of the ori gi nal
NRL experi ments are consi stent wi th the fi bers becomi ng compl etel y i oni zed very
near the ti me of current peak, maki ng i t di ffi cul t to di sti ngui sh betweea whether
the vi si bl e expansi on at thi s ti me i s due to dI /dt=O, or due to compl eted fi ber
i oni zati on. I t woul d be desi rabl e to run a seri es of experi ments on a si ngl e
wel l -di agnosed machi ne, accompani ed by a seri es of si mul ati ons, i n whi ch fi ber
*.hi cknessand current ramp rates were vari ed, so that one coul d cl ari fy the effects
of each, Because at thi s poi nt i n ti me, operati ons have ceased on the Los Al amos
and NRL machi nes, i t i s hoped that such work may be done on the I mperi al
Col l ege hi gh-current fi ber-pi nch machi nes4.
Compari son of si mul ati on and experi mental resul ts on HDZP-I and -I I l eads
to the fol l owi ng i ~~terpretati on.The anomal ous stabi l i ty reported fm the thi n-
fi ber HDZP-I experi ments may have been a mi si nterpretati on based upon l i mi ted
di agnosti cs; stabi l i ty i n any event i s l i mi ted to the earl i er, l ower-current stages
of che di scharge. Even at earl y ti mes, there appears to be i nstabi l i ty devel op-
ment i n the outer corona whi ch i s onl y fai ntl y refl ected i n shadowgram i mages.
Ful l nonl i near i nstabi l i ty devel opment does appear to be hel d back, as l ong as
some porti on of the heat-si nki ng fi ber persi sts. Because of the hi gher currents
encountered earl i er i n HDZP-U di sch:uges, the fi ber becomes compl etel y i oni zed
earl i er, al l owi ng drasti c i nstabi l i ty devel opment to ck~i verapi d expansi on at a
very earl y poi nt. I t appears thi cker fi bers, such as those used i n the NRL exper-
i ments, coc?d del ay the earl y onset of gross i nstabi l i ty and expansi on (al though
52
the si mul ati ons sti l l show M] unstabl e coronal pl asma). However, thi s woul d
al most certai nl y reduce the temperature and may prevent condi ti ons for si gni fi -
cant neutron producti on from bei ng reached; thi s i s a questi on to be settl ed by
further experi ment and computati on.
Once a mmputati onal tool shows the capabi l i ty to gi ve resul ts i n agreement
wi th exi sti ng experi ments (and i n the next chapter, an effort i s made to i ncl ude
ter ms whi ch mi ght enhance thi s agreement), one can wi th cauti on begi n to use i t
to predi ct the outcome of new experi ments. A natural area to expl ore for fi ber-
i ni ti ated di scharges i s the effect of the dri vi ng current ramp. Both theoreti cal
and experi mental i nvesti gati ons have rel ated the current ramp to the resul ti ng
pl asma profi l es, and the connected i ssue of stabi l i ty l g-30~8s~86. One exampl e i s
the H~nes.H~mel Curveg,lI *1Z
, whi ch wi l l theoreti cal l y mai ntai n a constant ra-
di us pl asma col umn whi l e rai si ng the current up to the Pease-Bragi nski i l i mi t,
where ohmi c heati ng i s just bal anced by radi ati ve cool i ng. Of cour se, the actual
experi ments, and the si mul ati ons done her e, start wi th a col d fi ber, not a pl asma
wi th the fi bers di mensi ons. One-di mensi onal si mul ati ons usi ng such a current
ramp di d show roughl y constant radi us behavi or; however, i n 2-d, the charac-
teri sti c expl osi ve i nstabi l i ty/expansi on set i n strongl y by the ti me the current
reached 500 kA. Extremel y fast ri si ng current ramps (as much as 30 kA/nsec)
gave si mi l ar resul ts. Ramps as sl ow as 1 kA/nsec have been tri ed; they al so
show i nstabi l i ty and expansi on. Thi s code was al so used to do a si mul ati on of a
fl at-top current ramp di scharge, i n whi ch current goes to 160 kA i n about 20
nsec (at whi ch poi nt no i nstabi ~i tyor unusual expansi on i s evi dent), then i s hel d
at that val ue. The same expl osi ve i nstabi l i ty/expansi on u seen i n the ri si ng cur-
rent case, sti l l occurred wi thi n 20 nsec of the ti me current was fl at-topped; the
53
pl asma di d then settl e i nto a l ow-densi ty (expanded out to centi meters radi us),
l ess unstabl e confi gura.i on. There i s some i nterest i n usi ng a sl ow-ramped or
fl at-top current ri se fi ber-i ni ti tated Z-pi nch as a means of provi di ng an i ni ti al fi l l
pl asma for a heavy l i ner magneti zed target fusi on i mpl osi ong1~g2.I n thi s case,
the expansi on of the pl asma i s not cri ti cal , because the i ntent i s to re-compress
i t to fusi on condi ti ons, by i mpl odi ng a surrounding l i ner.
The pattern whi ch i s seen repeatedl y i n these fi ber-i ni ti ated pi nch si mu-
l ati ons i s formati on of a l ow-densi ty (orders of magni tude bel ow sol i d) coronal
pl asma, whi ch carri es most of the current; consequentl y, i t heats rapi dl y i nto the
hundreds of eV range. Such a pl asma has a rel ati vel y hi gh Lundqui st number,
wel l beyond the l evel s for whi ch resi sti ve stabi l i zati on has been theoreti cal l y or
computati onal l y predi cted, Accordi ngl y, i t acts l i ke a cl assi cal i deal MHD Z-
pi nch: i t i s an unstabl e pl asma, and when there i s no l onger a l ow-temperature
core to provi de some restrai nt to i nstabi l i ty devel opment, vi ol ent i nstabi l i ty and
expami on resul t. These si mul ati ons have been run far i nto the nonl i near stages
of i nstabi l i ty devel opment (see Fi gs. 4d and 4e), al though pl asma condi ti ons
tend to occur at thi s stage whi ch make doubtful the val i di ty of the fl ui d model .
The onl y nonl i near stabi l i zati on mechani sm seen i s re-connecti on of the outer
pl asma l obes; thi s produces an expanded, l ower densi ty pl asma, whi ch i s not
what one l ooks for i n an ostensi bl y sel f-cofi ni ng, sel f-heati ng fusi on devi ce.
I t has been noted by Ki esg3 and others that the pl asma i ni ti ati on stage
of an i ni ti al l y non-conducti ng fi ber-i nt~pl asrna di scharge may be cruci al to i ts
subsequent devel opment. As di scussed above, i nstabi l i ti es fi rst devel op i n the
l ow-densi ty, earl y coronal pl asma; hi gher densi ty may be stabi l i zi ng here (l ower
Lundqui st number). Some pre-i oni zati on of the fi ber, by a vol tage pre-pul se or
54
radi ati on fl ash, may be desi rabl e to set up current/densi ty profi l es whi ch may
l ead to a stabl e or rel ati vel y stabl e hi gh densi ty Z-pi nch. To thi s end, si mul ati on
parameters of the i ni ti al conducti on (coronal ) pl asma were vari ed, wi thout much
effect. Al though the detai l s of current i ni ti ati on at the begi nni ng of such a di s-
charge are unknown, i t woul d seem that provi di ng an i ni ti td conducti ng corona,
of negl i gi bl e mass compared even to the qui ckl y appeari ng abl ati on-generated
corona, shoul d not have a cruci al effect. 2-d si mul ati ons attempti ng to model
fl ash-i oni zed fi bers have bmn done, i ncl udi ng a 2 eV, hal f-sol i d-densi ty pi nch
whi ch i mmedi atel y starts at 200 kA current, to prevent sudden expansi on; i t too
ul ti matel y showed expl osi ve i nstabi l i ty and expansi on. I nvesti gati on of experi -
mental vari ati ons, such as pl asma i ni ti ati on techni ques, i s conti nui ng. Some hope
for obtai ni ng the desi red mi cron-scal e, hi gh-densi ty pl asma current channel has
recentl y been generated by experi ments uti l i zi ng the pl asma-on-wi re (POW)
techni que94, whi ch wi l l be exami ned i n Chapter 5.
As temperatures ri se and densi ty drops, parti cul arl y i n and around the
narrow m=O necks whi ch devel op i n the si mul ati ons, the appropri ateness of
the fl ui d model breaks down. Thus l ate devel opment of i nstabi l i ti es may wel l be
control l ed by fi ects absent from the model . An i mprovement i n the fl ui d model
woul d come from the i ncl usi on of ter ms usual l y ordered out on the basi s of smal l
Larrnor radi us (whi ch may i ndeed not be smal l i n the case of the Z-pi nch1g~41, as
noted i n Chapter 2 and Appendi x A): the Hal l and di amagneti c pressure ter ms
i n the Ohms Law (magneti c fi el d evol uti on) equati on, and accompanyi ng ter ms
i n the energy equati on.
Anal yti c and numeri cal work on the i nfl uence of the Hal l term gi ves equi l i bri -
55

urn-dependent resul ts (l ower m=0 growth rates for some equi l i bri a, hi gher for
others)l g, so the present si mul ati on works cl ose-to-the-experi ment approach i s
i mportant, to i nsure that real i sti c equi l i bri a are eval uated. That the Hal l term
may have drasti c effects 01 the i mportant scal es of an i nstabi l i ty i s graphi cal l y
i l l ustrated i n a recent paper by Huba, Lyon, and Hassan~G6. The i mpl ementat-
i on of Hal l and associ ated ter ms i n the 2-d code used her e, whi ch requi red a
major adaptati on of the al ternati ng-di recti on-i mpl i ci t al gori thm, i s descri bed i n
the next chapter.
56
C13APTER 4: HALL MHD SI MULATI ONS
4.1 Hal l MHD Comwtati onal Moci el i nr Task
The Hal l MHD model devel oped i n Chapter 2 requi res the addi ti on of four
si mi l arl y ordered ter ms to the standard MHD equati ons. These are the Hal l and
di amagneti c pressureter ms (added to the magneti c fi el d evol uti on equati on), and
the el ectron work and el ectron current energy convecti on ter ms (added to the
energy equati on): w x (~ x ~/(nce) ), v x (Vp~/(nce) ), p. v o(~/(n. e) ), and
V o(Pft (~(n~e)) ). Fr om a practi c~ poi nt of Vi ew, these are four separate
numeri cal model i ng tasks; i ts hard enough to debug and benchmark a si ngl e
new term i n a l arge code, wi thout tryi ng to do four ter ms at once. By doi ng
ter ms one at a ti me, one may i ni ti al l y mi ss compensati ng effects between two
or more ter ms, whi ch the MHRDR code, wi th i ts si mul taneous sol uti on of al l
quanti ti es, i s abl e to expl oi t. I t i s the most practi cal approach, however, to
i mpl ement one term at a ti me, deal wi th the obvi ous probl ems whi ch i t presents,
then go on to the next ter m, and any i nter-rel ati onshi p whi ch then ari se. A
l ook at the al gebra i n secti on 2.3, i n whi ch i t i s shown that i f the di amagneti c
pressure term i s i ncl uded, energy consi stency requi res that the el ectron work
term be i ncl uded, al so reveal s that the Hal l term by i tsel f onl y conservati vel y
re-di stri butes magneti c energy. Hence a natural di vi si on of the task i s u fol l ows:
do the Hal l term fi rst, then the di amagneti c pressure ter m, then the work
ter m, and fi nal l y the el ectron current energy convecti on ter m. XI Ithi s chapter,
devel opment of the addi ti onal te.~s i s reported i n that or der ; then the resul ts of
si mul ati ons of the dense Z-pi nch wi l l be gi ven, i ncl udi ng some of the new ter ms
(physi cal l y i nconsi stent, but potenti al l y i nformati ve
cases), and fi nal l y i ncl udi ng
al l of the new ter ms.
57

To the extent possi bl e, i t wi l l be desi rabl e to fol l ow the exi sti ng MHRDR
al gori thm, whi ch has proven sui tabl e to the demands of the fi ber Z-pi nch prob-
l em. However, al l the new ter ms i ntroduce a si gni fi cant compl i cati on: they
i nvol ve cross-deri vati ve quanti ti es. For the l i mi ted-geometry MHD model sol ved
by MHRDR i n Chapter 3, a key feature of the equati ons, whi ch made the
al ternati ng-di recti on-i mpl i ci t approach possi bl e, was that the fl ux of any quan-
ti ty i n a gi ven coordi nate di recti on, depended onl y on quanti ti es and thei r spa-
ti al deri ~ati ves i n that di recti on. Hence the probl em very natural l y spl i ts i nto
one-di mensi onal i mpl i ci t l i nes to be sol ved (sequenti al i mpl i ci t sol ves for both
di recti ons gi ve the fi nal val ues for the new ti me). The curl of the pressure gra-
di ent Vpc, i n the di amagneti c pressure ter m, and the curl or di vergence of the
.
current J i n the other ter ms, coupl e the fl uxes of quanti ti es i n one di recti on to
the cross-deri vati ves (the deri vati ves i n a perpendi cul ar di recti on). Hence, i f an
i mpl i ci t approach i s to be used, some means must be found to deal wi th thi s,
hopeful l y compati bl e wi th the exi sti ng ADI codi ng.
The computati onal physi ci st, searchi ngfor an answer to an i nteresti ngphys-
i cal probl em, may take a more pragmati c approach than a numeri cal anal yst or
mathemati ci an. The el egance of a sol uti on i s of l ess i mportance to the physi ci st
than i ts accuracy, i n the broad sense of the ter m: does the numeri cal techni que
used preserve the essenti al physi cs of the probl em tc be model ed? Of cour se,
advanced numeri cal techni ques may be vi tal to the possi bi l i ty of sol vi ng a phys-
i cal probl em, even wi th todays i mpressi ve computi ng hardware; the present
i nvesti gati on woul d have been i mpossi bl e wi thout the extremel y robust i mpl i ci t
al gori thm empl oyed. However, even though orderi ng of ter ms i n the fl ui d model
suggests the possi bl e i mportance of the Hal l and di amagneti c pressure effects,
58

one coul d not know i n advance that these woul d be si gni fi cant rel ati ve to other
compl ex pr ocesses taki ng pl ace as the pl asma devel ops (such as the di stri buti on
of heat and current densi ty over the abl ati ng fi ber and coronal pl asma). Nor
coul d one know whether or not the new ter ms woul d have an overri di ng efi ect
on numeri cal stabi l i ty (though some 20/20 hi ndsi ght wi l l I atcr be di spl ayed on
thi s matter). Gne mi ght desi re the rel ati ve freedom from ti mestep restri cti ons
(of unknown severi ty) provi ded by i mpl i ci t methods, However, i mpl i ci t methods
tend to be programmi ng i ntensi ve: the addi ti onal codi ng compl exi ty and com-
puti ng ti me requi red di scourage one from starti ng wi th thi s approach. Hence,
the l ogi cal fi rst step i n addi ng these ter ms to the present si mul ati on i s through
expl i ci t addi ti onal fl uxes of magneti c fi el d.
4.2 Exdi ci t Hal l and Di amagneti c Pressure Ter ms
The Hal l and di amagneti c pressure ter ms, as addi ti ons to the l eft-hand si de
of the magneti c fi el d evol uti on (Vx(ohms Law)) equati on 3.1.4, are:
(4.2.1)
These ter ms were spati al l y center-di fferenced i n conservati ve form usi ng the
expl i ci t val ues of (el ectron) densi ty, pressure, and magneti c fi el d. Conserva-
ti ve form means that the component for::]s of the equati ons (such as gi ven i n
Appendi x D) are the sum of al l spati al deri vati ve ter ms. ~o that after an exact
spati al i ntegrati on, they wi l l representfi uxes across a cel l i nterface. No anal yti c
mani pul ati on i s done to the ter ms before di fferenci ng. A center di fference for a
spati al deri vati ve i s a second-order accurate approxi mati on for the deri vati ve:
(4.2.2)
59
where the js are the i ndi ces of the gri d i n the z-di recti on.
These expl i ci t fl uxes of magneti c fi el d (i n the appropri ate di recti on) were
then added to the ti me-centered (i .e., hal f i mpl i ci t and hal f expl i ci t) magneti c
fl uxes i n each di recti on, on each al ternati ng-di recti on step. Fl oor val ues of the
el ectron densi ty were i mpl emented (si mi l ar to the cutoff densi ty val ues menti oned
i n chapter 3, bel ow whi ch ohmi c heati ng i s turned off to prevent unreal i sti c
heati ng of vacuum regi ons), so that very l ow densi ty vacuum regi ons woul d
not show an unreal i sti c Hal l effect. After constant densi ty runs (whi ch for thi s
geometr~ wi l l resul t i n compl ete cancel l ati on of Hal l and di amagneti c pressure
efi ects) were done to establ i sh that thi s di fferenci ng
nul l effect, the same fi ber-i ni ti ated Zpi nch probl ems
chapter were started.
woul d have the expected
descri bed i n the previ ous
These woul d run onl y a few narmseconds before fi ne-scal e perturbati ons i n
the magneti c fi el d woul d begi n to appear at the edge of the sti l l rel ati vel y cool
(e.g. 10 eV) coronal pl asma (Fi g. 7a), l ong before any i nstabi l i ty growth had
been noted i n the MHD runs. Unfortunatel y, thi s was qui ckl y accompa.ui ed by
a breakdown of the numeri cs: the adapti ve ti mestep setti ng routi ne found that
i t coul d not cut the ti mestep enough (wi thi n the pre-set l i mi ts of 1O-g to 10-16
seconds) to keep fi el d at some poi nt from growi ng uncontrol l abl y (see Fi g. 7b).
I f the other ter ms (magneti c convecti on, di ffusi on, and di amagneti c pres-
sure) i n the fi el d evol uti on are negl ected, and the Hal l term (i n r ,z coordi nates)
i s transferred to the ri ght-hand si de, one has the fol l owi ng equati on:
(4.2.3) $ = ~{-~$~f+~;;~- ~~+$~}
epo
e G
Characteri sti c of the Z-pi nch i s a l arge radi al densi ty gradi ent. At poi nts
wi th such l arge &nsi ty gradi ents, the second term i n the above equati on may
60
strongl y excl ude fi el d where the axi al gradi ent of fi el d has one si gn, and gai n fi el d
where the si gn i s opposi te, l eadi ng to the perturbati on growth mm. However,
i f enough fi el d i s excl uded that the si gn of the fi el d at that poi nt zl mnges, the
si gn of the second term al so changes, l eadi ng to a reversal of the pr ocess de-
scri bed. Hence the hol e i n the fi el d shoul d not grow wi thout l i mi t (of cour se,
accompanyi ng changes i n fi el d and densi ty gradi ents can al so fi ect thi s). I t does
appear, however, that the expl i ci t al gori thm mi sses thi s sel f-l i mi ti ng effect (see
Fi g. 7b), and the fi el d hol e tri es to reach l arge negati ve val ues; i n essence, thi s
i s a numeri cal i nstabi l i ty.
Can thi s be si mpl y expl ai ned? Numeri cal stabi l i ty anal ysi s i s most easi l y
done for l i near equati ons. For ncnl i near equati ons such as the above, one may
start by fi ndi ng a l i neari zati on that preserves i mportant features of the probl em,
and then anal yse the l i neari zed equati ons (of cour se, stabi l i ty of the l i near case
does not guarantee stabi l i ty of the nonl i near case, as shal l be seen). Fi rst, azsume
that al l but the second term of the above equati on can be i gnored, and !here
i s a l arge fi xed densi ty gradi ent i n r , but no densi ty gradi ent i n the z-di recti on.
Then l i neari ze about a constant fi el d (l ?e = Bl (r, z,t) + 130):
(4.2.4)
The resul t i s a si mpl e (one-di recti on) convecti on equati on for l ?l i n the z-
di recti on. A constant fi el d i s perhaps not a very good model for the Z-pi nch;
one coul d try a second l i neari zati on, for exampl e, about a fi el d varyi ng onl y i n z
wi th a l arge constant axi al gradi ent (axi al gradi ents coul d be expected to appear
for a number of reasons, such as i f any MHD m=O mode growth were present,
6i
or due to axi al boundary effects). Then where the BOfi el d equal s O,one has:
(4.2.5)
where Be = Be(z) + I ll(r, z,t) wi th constant 8Bo/~z and 8Bo/5z > L1131/i?z:
a si mpl e exponenti al equati on.
Both these l i near equati ons bode i l l for an expl i ci t al gori thm. Numeri cal sta-
bi l i ty for the exponenti al equati on i s subject to stri ct ti mestep l i mi tsgs (whi ch
may become i nsuperabl e due to the nonl i near dependence of the l i neari zed con-
stant k,=P), and the si mpl e convecti on equati on can be shown to be uncondi ti on-
al l y unstabl e for a spati al l y centered (as thi s code i s, al though al so ti me-centered
for al l other terms) expl i ci t al gori thmgG(the reasons for whi ch shal l be much fur-
ther di scussed). At thi s poi nt i t i s apparent that an i mpl i ci t treatment of these
ter ms wi l l probabl y be necessary.
4.3 Adaptati on of I mrdi ci t (Ai )I l Al ~ori thm for Hal l T-
There are good reasons for tryi ng to stay wi thi n the exi sti ng al ternati ng-
di recti on-i mpl i ci t al gori thm, when addi ng new physi cs to the numeri cal code
used her e. Fi rst., i t i s knew.] that thi s parti cul ar code, wi th the modi fi cati ons
descri bed, can handl e the not i nsi gni fi cant (I emands of thi s probl em; a di fferent
approach mi ght have troubl e wi th the stri ng graci i ents,for i nstance, before even
nmni ng i nto the addi ti onal numeri cal demands of the new ter ms. No doubt
rel ated to the demonstrated robustness of the present al gori thm i s an i ntegral
feature of i ts desi gn whi ch, though probabl y not uni que among mul ti -di mensi onal
MHD codes, i s at l east uncommon: there i s no operator spl i tti ng. MHRDRsol ves
for the compl ete vector of ti me-advanced quanti ti es (e.g., densi ty, magneti c fi el d,
vel oci ti es Ur and Vz, and i nternal energi es) si mul taneousl y, al ways i ncl udi ng al l
62
ter ms of a gi ven equati on (e.g. magneti c convecti on and di ffusi on). Al though
onl y one di recti on i s handl ed i mpl i ci tl y on each hal f-step, every (hal f-step) set of
di fference equati ons sol ved i s a compl ete representati on of the di fferenti al equa-
ti ons, i ncl udi ng the effects of i mpl i ci t and expl i ci t fl uxes i n the i mpl i ci t di r~-ti er),
and the previ ous hal f-steps i mpl i ci t and expl i ci t fl uxes i n the other (presentl y
non-i mpl i ci t) di recti on. Thus, a very natural si mul taneous treatment of al l phys-
i cal effects i s mai ntai ned, whi l e any unnatural ti ect of the di recti onal spl i tti ng
(whi ch makes the i mpl i ci t sol ve task a rel ati vel y tractabl e one-di mensi onal C:W)
i s mi ni mi zed. To separatel y sol ve i n some other manner for the Hal l and fi i a-
magneti c pressure effects, and then add them i n, woul d vi ol ate thi s scheme, and
potenti al l y l ose i ts demonstrated robust nature.
The fi ber-i ni ti ated Z-pi nch, and the effect of the Hal l term on i t, are prob-
l ems on whi ch there i s no defi i ti ve theoreti cal , and onl y l i mi ted experi mental ,
knowl edge of the outcome. I n attempti ng to model compl i cated physi cal system?
such as thi s, i t i s extremel y desi rabl e to fi nd one or more test probl ems wi th cl ear-
cut resul ts dependent on the newl y added physi cs, to serve as benchmarks of
the code. I f the computati onal tool gi ves correct physi cal resul ts i n such known
cases, one gai ns confi dence i n i ts appl i cati on when the resul ts are unknown. The
Hal l term i s di ffi cul t i n thi s regard, i n that i t i s an i ntri nsi cal l y two di mensi onal
effect; one cannot fi rst do a si mpl er one-di mensi onal case, and then deal wi th
the more compl ex two di mensi ons. Fortunatel y, computati onal and anal yti c re-
search on Hal l -dri ven magneti c penetrati on i nto hi ghl y cmducti ng pl asmas i nto
whi ch no penetrati on woul d occur wi thout thi s ter m, has yi el ded an excel l ent
test probl em for a Hal l MHD code: Ki ngsepMokhov-Chukbar (KMC) magneti c
penetrati on.
63
Ki ngsep, Mokhov, and Chukbar have shown that the Hal l MHD magneti c
evol uti on equati on becomes a Burgers equati on (a nonl i near equati on, whi ch
can be transformed by substi tuti on i nto a l i near equati on wi th exact anal yti c
w have further devel oped thei r
sci -ci ons) under certai n condi ti ons. Mason, et al
sol uti on i nto a shock-l i ke magneti c penetrati on al ong a densi ty ramped channel
(see Fi g. 8); the resul t r esemb;es the penetrati on of magneti c fi el d i n a pl asma
openi ng swl i ch. The
term can be tvi tten
(4.3.1)
probl em sets up as fol l ows: the fi el d evol uti on by the Hal l
Thi s can be si mpl i fi ed for l ?z(x) and n,(y) to
(4.3.2)
~Bz ~ Bz i?Bz
( )
DBz
x = tly poen. & = UWX
where Uw=(l?./(pOe) )~(1/n.)/@.
Ki ngsep, Mokhov, and Chukbar found shock-l i ke sol uti ons travel i ng to pos-
i ti ve x at speed uw/2 for BZ <0 and dn~/8y >0. Masons densi ty ramp channel
i s a channel i n whi ch ~/~y[l /ng ) i s a known constant val ue (hence UWwi l l be
fi xed), above and bel ow whi ch are constant densi ty regi ons (see Fi g. 8); i n
thi s case the penetrati on occurs onl y al ong the densi ty ramp regi on. Thi s i s
a stri ki ng, nonl i near resul t, and provi des a cl ear (and numeri cal l y chal l engi ng)
test probl em for a Hal l MHD code. I t has been s~ccessful l y model ed wi th Ma-
sons mul ti -fl ui d/hybri d code ANTHEM97 (AhTHEM has not proven sui tabl e
to performi ng the very detai l ed si mul ati on of dense Z-pi nch experi ments such
as performed i v ~e, al though perhaps i t coul d be modi fi ed to do so; i t coul d be
used to do short rum-e.g. *1 nsec-to eval uate the stabi l i ty of l ate-ti me pl asma
profi l es generated by MHRDR).
.
As menti oned above, a major probl em must be overcome before the addi -
ti onal ter ms can be i mpl emented i n the al ternati ng-di recti on-i mpl i ci t al gori thm.
I n the l i mi ted-geometry standard MHD sol ved by MHRDR ori gi nal l y (~(r,z) L
pl ane of computati on), the equati ons are free of mi xed parti al deri vati ves. Thi s
has the effect that the fl ux of any quanti ty i n ori e di recti on depends onl y on the
val ues (and deri vati ves) of al l quanti ti ~ i n that di recti on. Thus, the equati ons
di vi de easi l y for purposes of the al ternati ng-di recti on-i mpl i ci t advance. The Hal J
and associ ated ter ms, however, i ntri nsi cal l y i nvol ve mi xed deri vati ves; thi s l eads
to the unusual property that a gradi ent i n one di recti on dri ves fl uxes of mag-
neti c fi el d (or energy) i n the perpendi cul ar di recti on (a di scussi on of the phyai cs
behi nd thi s i s contai ned i n Appendi x C). I f these cross-deri vati ves must be ful l y
i mpl i ci tl y eval uated to mai ntai n numeri cal stabi l i ty, an ADI approach wi l l nci
sdhce.
However, one csn approxi mate the i mpl i ci t val ue of the cross-deri vati ves by
usi ng a fi rst-order spati i d backward di fference between (i mpl i ci t) quanti ti es on
the l i ne presentl y bei ng sol ved i mpl i ci tl y, and quanti ti es on the adjwxmt, just
i mpl i ci tl y sol ved l i ne. That i s to say, (~~/~y)n+l cx (f~+l f~~~)/Ay, where
k i s the i ndex of the y- (cross-) di recti on gri d, and the pri me on ~~~~ i s to
i ndi cate that thi s i s an i mpl i ci t (ti me n + 1) val ue, but from the previ ousl y
sol ved adjacent l i ne, and i s not bei ng i mpl i ci tl y zxdvedfor on the present l i ne.
Thi r Jrops spati al accuracy froI Dsecond to fi rst or der , and coul d have the re-
sul t that di fferences al l i n one di recti on woul d l ead to a spati al bi asi ng of the
sol uti on. These effects can be mi ti gated by al ternati ng the order of sol uti on of
l i nes between bottom to top (usi ng backward di fferences) and top k bottom
(usi ng forward di fferences), on suc+ng ti mesteps. Because the average of a
65
forward di fference and a backward di fference i s a (second-order accurate) central
di fference, theeffcct ofthi sshoul dbc i n the di recti on of hi gher accuracy.
Usi ng the method just descri bed for treati ng cross-deri vati ves, but i n al l
other respects fol l owi ng the exi sti ng MHRDR space- and ti me-centered di ffer-
enci ng scheme, the Hal l and di amagneti c pressure ter ms were i mpl emented. I f
the Hal l term were to act, as suggested i n the above anal ysi s of the expl i ci t ap-
proachs numeri cal i nstabi l i ty, as a convecti ve operator on the magneti c fi el d, thi s
i mpl i ci t scheme coul d be expected to work, as i n fact i t does for the (v x (i 7x ~))
convecti on al ready i mpkxnented i n the code; ADI schemes have been shown to be
98 Of cour se, the hi ghl y nonl i near nature
stabl e for si mpl e convecti ve equati ons .
of the Hal l terms effecti ve convecti ve vel oci ty (i ncl udi ng the speci al treatment
of cross-deri vati ves) coul d sti l l prove troubl esome.
After successful t~sti ngof si mpl e nul l cases, the KMC probl em was set up
and run on the MHRDR Hal l codi ng descri bed above. Si nce MHRDR i s wri t-
ten i n general i zed coordi nates, goi ng from cyl i ndri cal t~)Cartesi an coorchnates
requi red onl y mi nor changes. An open magneti c fi el d boundary condi ti on, to
si l ni l l ate the i nfi ni te space i n whi ch the sol uti ons were deri ved, had to be added;
thi s entai l ed ai l owi ng mag.~eti cfl ux convecti on through the bouxl dari es, as i f
~ !nfi ni te expanse of pl asma and fi el d were avai l abl e. The fi rst runs brought
out some previ ousl y undi scovered bugs i n the codi ng, whi ch were removed. The
debugged code then showed the formati on of the magneti c penetrati on front,
whi ch begi ns to move al ong the densi ty ramp i nto the fi el d-frm area. However,
l arge posi ti ve and negati ve spi kes i n magneti c fi el d appear and grow rapi dl y, di s-
rupti ng the sol uti on and dri vi ng the r.api red ti mestep down unacceptabl y, i .e.,
numeri cal i nstabi l i ty sti l l appeared to be present. The codi ng was thoroughl y
66

checked, and i t was determi ned that the fl uxes from one cel l to another were
exactl y as had been pl anned. That nonl i neari ty can render unstabl e al gori thms
whi ch are stabl e for rel ated l i near equati ons i s wel l known; i n parti cukr, the
nonl i near effecti ve convecti on vel oci ty, whi ch i nvol ves the cross-deri vati ves di s-
cussed above, was known as a possi bl e source of troubl e. A si mpl er approach
for the cross-deri vati ves was tri ed: expl i ci t central di fferences; thi s r emoves any
part of the cross-deri vati ve from the i mpl i ci t l i ne sol ved, except as expl i ci t matri x
coeffi ci ents, Thi s sti l l appeared numeri cal l y unstabl e.
I f the fi el d equati on coul d be consi dered as fundamental l y a convecti on equa-
ti on (though nonl i near), the appearance of posi ti ve fi el d anywhere i n a probl em
whi ch started wi th al l negati ve fi el d raisesa red fl ag: from where can thi s posi ti ve
fi el d have been convected? I t was seen that the posi ti ve fi el d spi kes ori gi nated
i n zero-fi el d cel l s, adjacent to negati ve-fi el d cel l s i n whi ch the convecti on vel oc-
i ty poi nted from the zerofi el d cel l i nto the adjacent cel l . The val ue of fi el d to
be convected, based on our center di fferences, was the average val ue of the two
cel l s, hence l ess than zer o. The resul t was that negati ve fi el d was convected from
the zermfi el d cel l i nto the adjacent one, l eavi ng behi nd a posi ti ve spi ke. I f the
al gori thm used had been an expl i ci t one, thi s woul d have been a cl assi c exampl e
of wrong-way (i .e., not upwi nd) di fferenci ng for a convecti on equati on: onl y
val ues behi nd (i n the sense of the convecti ve vel oci ty) a poi nt can ti ect i ts val ue
at future ti mes
99. The ti me-mntered i mpl i ci t al gori thm usi ng central spati ~
di fferences i s supposed to be i mmune to thi s probl em, because i t sol ves for al l
poi nts at one ti me sel f-consi stentl y, but the stabi l i ty anal ysi s yi el di ng thi s resul t
i s for a l i near convecti on equati on wi th constant convecti ve vel oci ty, not for the
nonl i nem:convecti ve vel oci ty deal t wi th her e. Thi s nonl i near convecti ve vel oci ty,
67
~/(n,e), can change magni tude and di recti on as fi el d and densi ty vary.
However, i f i n thi s case even the i mpl i ci t space-centered al gori thm i s goi ng
to gi ve cl earl y nonphysi cal resul ts, i .e., convecti ng fi el d from poi nts where there
i s no fi el d to be convected, one can prevent thi s i n the same way a proper
expl i ci t al gori thm does. A donor-cel l scheme convects onl y the quanti ty from
the cel l behi nd (agai n i n the sense of convecti ve vel oci ty) the i nterface between
two cel l s, not the average val ue of the twt>cel l s. Thi s resul ts i n onl y fi rst-order
spati al accuracy for the spati al deri vati ve dri vi ng convecti on at he i nterfase,
but i nsures that perturbati ons wi l l be convected onl y i n the pr~per di recti on
(the s~cal l ed transporti ve property 100),and wi l l not convect somethi ng that
i s not there out of a cel l . Adapted so that the correct donor-cel l i s sel ected
based on the l ocal , nonl i near convecti ve vel oci ty (usi ng the second scheme for
thi s, based on expl i ci t central -di fferenced cross-deri vati ves), MHRDR wi th the
Hal l term fi nal l y gi ves the correct resul t: a wel l -defi ned magneti c penetrati on
al ong the densi ty ramp channel (see F~gs. 9a and 9b). For the val ues of fi el d
and densi ty ramp used i n thi s probl em [13=-1.5 Tesl a, n~ramped from 1013
to 10~4cm-3). the shock front advamxs at the correct speed, approxi matel y 2
cm/nsec. Some Gi bbs ~henornenon-l !ke noi se i s seen ori gi nati ng at the steep
fi el d gradi ent (Fi g. 9c), but thi s dvs not grow out of control . Spati al defi ni ti on
of the front al ong the channel i s good, and can be i mproved by a fi ner (hal f
the cel l wi dth) mesh (Fi g. 10). Noi se suppressi on was enhanced by l i mi ti ng the
ti mestep to 3x 10-2 seconds (even wi th an i mpl i ci t al gori thm, smal l er ti mesteps
wi l l sti l l gi ve a sol uti on wi th l ess er r or O(At2)), but the al gori thm i s stabl e and
fundamental l y correct at consi derabl y l arger ti mesteps.
An expl i ci t donor-cel l convecti on al gori thm works wel l , but has the di sad-
68
vantages of potenti al l y si gni fi cant numeri cal di ffusi on proporti onal to At and
Az, and stri ct Courant-Fri edri chs-Lewy (CFL) numeri cal stabi l i ty restri cti oji
((vCOmvcCci vc Ai /A~) < 1) 45. One can show by doi ng a Hi rts anal ysi s]o] of the
ti me-centered i mpl i ci t donor-cel l scheme used her e, that thi s di fferenci ng r emoves
that numeri cal di ffusi on present i n expl i ci t donor-cel l whi ch i s proporti onal to
At. I n a Hi rts anal ysi s, one studi es the di fferenti al equati on whi ch most cl osel y
corresponds to a di fference equati on, to reveal properti es of the di fference equa-
ti on, such as the nature of i ts er r or ter ms. Thi s procedure, appl i ed to the i mpl i ci t
donor-cel l scheme
i s proporti onal to
used her e, reveal s that the ti me-di fferenci ng numeri cal er r or
(At)2 and i s di spersi ve, not di ffusi ve. The expl i ci t schemes
numeri cal di ffusi on, proporti onal to At, i s cl osel y rel ated to the CFL ti mestep
restri cti on (i f the restri cti on i s vi ol ated, thi s er r or term represents a physi cal l y
i nadmi ssi bl e negati ve di ffusi on), so i t i s anti ci pated that the ti mestep restri cti on
wi l l be rel axed.
Thi s i s confi rmed by doi ng a von Neumann stabi l i ty
anal ysi s102]03. For
purposes of anal ysi s, the effecti ve convecti on vel oci ty c = (l /(ncepO) )~J3/~ >
0, and al l other quanti ti es are taken to be constant. Then the i mpl i ci t donor-cel l
equati on has the form
B?+]
- 1?;
c p+l - ~;:; + q - q-l)
(4.3.3) = -
At 2Az ~
where subscri pts j refer to the spati al gri d number and superscri pts n refer to the
ti mestep. I f a spati al l y peri odi c sol uti on i s assumed of form B(z, t) = ei &-f(t)
(where xj = jAz), and the resul ti ng equati on i s mul ti pl i ed by e-i k~Az, then
(4.3.3) becomes
(4.3.4)
fn+l - fn
At
= -~(fn+~(l - #k*z) + jn(~ - @iAs)).
69
Thi s can be rearranged to gi ve the rel ati ve ampl i tudes of ~n+l and ~n:
~.+1 I I - *(1 -e-i ~Ax)l
(4.3.5)
T
= I I + ~~(1 - e-~AAx)l
Thi s rati o must be l ess than or equal to 1 i f numeri cal stabi l i ty i s to hol d. Because
e-ikAz
=
cos(kAz) i si n(kAz), the rati o i s
(4.3.6)
11 ~(1 - COS(kAZ)) - ~(i Si n(kAZ))]
I I + %(1 -- co.9(kAz)) ~(i sin(kAz))l.
The compl ex contri buti on to the magni tude, a sin2(kAz), is the same for top
and bottom. (1 cos(kAz) ) i s al ways between O and 2, and cAt/(2Az) i s
al ways posi ti ve. Thus, the contri buti on to the magni tude of the real part of the
upper expressi on i s al ways smal l er than that of the l ower expressi on; thi s assures
uncondi ti onal numeri cal stabi l i ty of the al gori thm. That the nonl i neari ty of the
ful l set of equati ons sol ved, and the necessi ty of usi ng expl i ci t cross-deri vati ves i n
the effecti ve convecti on vel oci ty, di d not apparentl y upset thi s numeri cal stabi l i ty
(as seen i n the resul ts on the KMC and Z-pi nch probl ems), i s i ndeed fortunate.
Numeri cal di spersi on i s present i n many other i mpl i ci t schemes (and l i kel y
al ready present i n the rest of MHRDR). I n the ti me-centered i mpl i ci t donor-
cel l scheme used here for the Hal l ter m, there i s a rai duti nurneri ca! di ffusi on
proporti onal to Ax. Thi s can be control l ed by choosi ng appropri atel y smal l
Az, wi thout any concern about si mul taneousl y sati sfyi ng CFL restri cti ons. The
sharpness of the magneti c penetrati on fkont vi si bl e i n Fi g. 9 i s evi dence that thi s
i mpl ementati on of the Hal l term does not gi ve unreasonabl y di ffu~i vezesul ts; the
roundi ngn of the bottom cor ner , where the front l eaves the i ni ti al fi el d area, may
be due to di spersi ve effects.
The fi rst-order spati al accuracy of the scheme does represent a drop from
MHRDRs otherwi se second-order accuracy (second-order temporal accuracy i s
70
al so compromi sed by the use of the purel y expl i ci t cross-deri vati ves), so some i n-
vesti gati on was made i nto al ternate schemes of potenti al l y hi gher accuracy. Van
Leer convecti on schemesl os vary between donor-cel l and average quanti ty con-
vecti on, dependi ng on the speed of convecti on and whether or not the resul t wi l l
change the nature of the sol l l ti on (e.g. change i ts monotoni ci ty). Fhl x-cm-rected
transport l OGconvects potenti al l y unstabl e quanti ti es such as averages, then goes
back i n an anti -di ffusi on step to restore a more correct sol uti on. Nei ther of these
methods fi t readi l y i nto the exi sti ng code. However, a si mpl e techni que was tri ed
whi ch bri ngs the method cl oser to second order spati al accuracy: average fi el d
was convected whenever vel oci ti es and rel ati ve fi el d val ues i n nei ghbori ng cel l s
were such that thi s coul d take pl ace wi thout causi ng the nonphysi cal changi ng of
si gns noted above. Thi s di d seem to sharpen some of the edges of the advanci ng
magneti c front (Fi g. 11), but some thought about the approach, whi ch convects
donor-cel l quanti ti ti es at some poi nts and average quanti ti es at other poi nts, re-
veal s a potenti al l y seri ous drawback: thi s may resul t i n a di storti on of the shape
of a fi el d confi gurati on, such as a wave, as i t i s convected. Thi s i s because the
ri si ng part of a wave mi ght be convected wi th donor-cel l di fferenci ng, whi l e the
fal l i ng part coul d be convected wi th average di fferenci ng, l eadi ng to a wave-
breaki ng-l i ke effect of the wave changi ng shape as i t travel s. Because the Hal l
term i s i ntri nsi cal l y nonl i near, and hence i s expected to do thi s i tsel f (e.g. the
formati on of the nonl i near shock front i n the test probl em), i t woul d seem i nad-
vi sabl e to use numeri cs whi ch mi ght add thei r own, nonphysi cal contri buti on to
thi s effect (any more than exi sti ng numeri cal di spersi on-whi ~ causes di fferent
Fouri er spati al components to travel wi th di fferent speeds-al ready does).
An effort was made to use donor-cel l convecti on wi th the ori gi na? i mpl i ci t
71

scheme, whi ch used al ternati ng forward/backward di fferences from the i mpl i ci t

l i nes for the cross-deri vati ves. Thi s woul d be no worse i n spati al accuracy (fi rst
order or better) than other donor-cel l schemes, but by usi ng more nearl y i mpl i ci t
cross-deri vati ves, i s cl oser to second-order accurate i n ti me. Several vari ati ons of
thi s i dea were tri ed, and al l appeared to t~.numeri cal l y unstabl e on the magneti c
penetrati on test probl em. Donor-cei l I -i tdlmagneti c convecti on, usi ng center-
di fferenced expl i ci t cross-deri vati ves, i s i !~.eal gori thm found here to correctl y
execute the KMC magneti c penetrati on probl em (the di fferenci ng of thi s term
i s shown i n Appendi x D). Thi s i s the al gori thm used i n the dense Z-pi nch runs
reported l ater i n thi s chapter, whi ch yi el ded a number of i nteresti ng resul ts.
Di scussi on of some detai l s regardi ng boundary condi ti ons wi l l be deferred unti l
then, because these ti e i n to some of the resul ts noted.
4.4 Di amagneti c Pressure and El ectron Work Ter ms
As poi nted out i n the previ ous secti on, the Hal l term 7X ~/(n,e) spl i ts up
i nto an effecti ve convecti on vel oci ty ~/(n,e) (the mi nus si gn comes i n because of
the curl operator i n Amperes Law) and a magneti c fi el d ~ to be convected (such
as i n equati on 4.3.2). The di amagneti c pressure ter m, whi l e sti l l nonl i near and
i nvol vi ng a cross-deri vati ve of the el ectron pressure, i s not cl earl y a convecti ve
ter m, but more resembl es a new sourceof fi el d (magneti c energy exchanged wi th
el ectron thermal energy). Ther efor e, i t may be that MHRDRs ori gi nal ti me-
and space-centered di fferenci ngwi l l work, agai n empl oyi ng expl i ci t val ues for the
el ectron pressure cross-deri vati ves. However, one must be careful to i ncl ude the
w
accompanyi ng el ectron work (pc v G (-J /(nCe))] term i n the el ectron energy
equati on, to account for the energy whi ch goes i nto (or l eaves) magneti c fi el d by
thi s term (expansi on or compressi on of the el ectron fl ui d by the magneti c fi el d
72
as the two move together).
The di amagneti c pressure term was i nstal l ed i n the code i n thi s manner
(di fferenci ng appears i n Appendi x D), fi rst wi thout the accompanyi ng energy
ter m. A benchmark probl em comparabl e to the Hal l term KMC probl em
coul d not be found, so debuggi ng and eval uati on of the al gori thm had to be done
on constant-densi ty nul l cases (these ran correctl y), mock Z-pi nch probl ems
contai ni ng some very strong densi ty gradi ents (al ong whi ch i nstabi l i ty patterns
qui ckl y devel oped), and on the dense Z-pi nch probl em i tsel f. The ti me- and
srace-centered al gori thm appears to run stabl y on these probl em~, wi th si mi l ar
effects on the sel f-adapti ve ti mestep to those of the Hal l term (these shal l be
di scussed i n secti on 4.6).
The el ectron work term presents some new chal l enges. The Hal l and di a-
magneti c pressure ter ms (and the el ectron current enerpv convecti on ter m, to be
di scussed l ater) al l have the form of fl uxes: ter ms whi ch can be exactl y spati al l y
i ntegrated i n one di recti on, gi vi ng expressi ons at the fkont and back i nterfaces
of a cel l whi ch represent the fl uxes of conserved quanti ti es enteri ng or l eavi ng
the cel l . To i nsure proper conservati on (and for effi ci ency), MHRDR computes
the fl ux at any i nterface onl y once, then uses that quanti ty, properl y si gned, for
the fl ux l eavi ng one cel l , and the fl ux enteri ng the adjacent cel l . The work
term cannot be so exactl y i ntegrated, representi ng a source or si nk of energy
at the cel l (what Li ndemuth cal l s a forcen ter m, as di scussed i n secti on 3.1
and Appendi x D), rather than a fl ux. To represent such a term wi th si mi l ar
accuracy to the fl ux representati ons, an average of second order spati al l y accu-
rate di fferenci ngs of the term at the front and back i nterfaces of the cel l was
i mpl emented. These di fferenci ngs are di rect , i .e., represent the term to be di f-
73
fcrenced exactl y as wri tten, wi thout any i ntermedi ate anal yti cal mani pul ati ons;
thi s resul ts i n di fferenceequati ons very cl ose to the ori gi nal di fferenti al equati ons.
Because the el ectron pressure used i n the di amagneti c pressure tcrin i s expl i ci t
(the cross-deri vati ve), the el ectron pressureused i n the work term i s al so e)(~)l i ci t,
for consi stency. As usual , the cross-deri vati ve current term i s al so expl i ci t, other
quanti ti es space- and ti me-centered (di fferenci ng appears i n Appendi x D).
When dense Z-pi nch runs were attempted wi th the above codi ng, i t was
found that the adapti ve ti mestep dropped an order of magni tude or more com-
pared to runs wi thout the woxk ter m, begi nni ng several nanoseconds i nto the
si mul ati on, when the fi rst Hal l effects become noti ceabl e. I nvesti gati on reveal ed
ti mesteps were frequentl y droppi ng because the i terati ons of the i mpl i ci t l i ne
sol ves were not convergi ng. I n some cases, one i terati on woul d i ncl ude the Hal l
and associ ated effects, but the resul ti ng p~v o(-~/nCe) cool i ng woul d drop the
temperature (and hence el ectron densi ty, whi ch i s suppl i ed by the SESAME i on-
i zati on tabl es as a functi on of mass densi ty and temperature) bel ow the cutoff
val ue for Hal l effects; the next i terati on, wi thout these effects, mi ght bri ng con-
di ti ons back (e.g., by heat conducti on i nto the cel l ) where Hal l effects woul d be
al l owed. Hence the i terati ons woul d bounce back and forth between wi th Hal l
ter ms and wi thout Hal l ter ms, and fai l to converge wi thi n the al l owabl e l i mi t
(typi cal l y ten i terati ons, and requi ri ng that the l argest quanti ty on a l i ne not
change by more than a factor of 1O-s between i terati ons).
To counter thi s probl em, a swi tch was i nstal l ed whi ch di sabl ed computati on
of Hal l and associ ated effects at a cel l for al l i terati ons fol l owi ng any i terati on i n
whi ch the condi ti ons caused n~to fal l bel ow cutoff. Thi s i mproved performance
(l arger adapti ve ti mesteps), but one woul d sti l l run i nto poi nts i n dense Z-pi nch
74
si mul ati ons where the ti mestep woul d become unacceptabl y smal l (sti l l smal l er
than the Hal l term al one woul d requi re). The i ntent of the cutoff densi ty
codi ng was to prevent unreal i sti c (and numeri cal l y di srupti ng) effects i n regi ons
of pl asma (e.g. vacuum are=) whi ch are not part of the mai n pl asma col umn.
Thi s does prevent computati on of such effects i n l arge areas of pl asma whi ch do
not meet the requi rementsfor treatment as a col l i si onal fl ui d (Appendi x A), but
there may sti l l be some regi ons above cutoff whi ch, because of the temperature
dependence of col l i s~onal i ty, are not properl y treated as a fl ui d. The model
used i n these si mul ati ons assumes col l i si onal i ty. The i ncl usi on of the work
term at poi nts where col l i si onal i ty i s not sati sfi ed, i n energ-v equati ons whi ch
use col !i si onal quanti ti es such as Bragi nski i heat conducti on and el ectron-i on
equi l i brati on, i s physi cal l y questi onabl e and, numeri cal l y speaki ng, just aski ng
for troubl e.
Ther efor e, a second set of numeri cal swi tches w= i nstal l ed. The si mpl e
col l i si omdi ty parameter vt~iTi i /a (equati on A. I ), whi ch i s supposed to be much
l ess than 1, i s computed, usi ng as the scal e l ength a, the radi us, for a gi ven
axi al l ocati on, wi thi n whi ch 9070of the total axi al current i s contai ned. I f thi s
parameter i s greater than 0.1 i n a ce~, the di amagneti c pressure and work
term there are not computed; swi tchi ng off of the Hal l term i tsel f i s opti onal
(because the Hal l term does not cause numeri cal probl ems, and i s arguabl y
sti l l present i n col l i si ordess condi ti ons). Wi th thi s modi fi cati on, the code woul d
stabl y run dense Z-pi nch probl ems wi th Hal l , di amagneti c, and work- ter ms,
at comparabl e ti mesteps to those wi th the Hal l term al one. Thi s i s the fi nal
i mpl ementati on of di amagneti c preasure and work ter ms, whi ch was used i n
the fi ber Z-pi nch runs di scussed at the end of tbi s chapter.
75
4.5 El ectron Current Enerm Convecti on: Donor-Cel ~
The convecti on of energy by current-carryi ng el ectrons, refl ected i n the
V (~f, (~/(n, e)) ) ter m, i s a nonhear convecti on probl em essenti al l y si m-
i l ar to the Hal l magneti c convecti on probl em; the effecti ve convecti on vel oci ty,
~/(n, e) (essenti al l y the el ectron fl ow vel oci ty rel ati ve to the bul k fl ui d), i s
the same. Hence a donor-cel l treatment, anal ogous to the one deri ved for mag-
neti c convecti on, i s the obvi ous choi ce. Thi s ww i mpl emented (di fferenci ng i n
Appendi x D) and, i ndeed, ran stabl y wi th mi ni mal compl i cati ons. The above
noted swi tch di sabl i ng the term at cel l s i n vi ol ati -m of the col l i si onal model was
al so appl i ed to thi s ter m, for si mkr reasons: appl yi ng thi s effect at such poi nts
to a col l i si onal energy equati on i s physi cr Uy
meri t. Whether or not thi s term woul d cause
case that the work term caused, has not yet
and computati onal l y of dubi ous
the ti mestep probl ems i n such a
been determi ned.
4.6 ~al l MHD Resul ts on Z-Pi nches84
The ful l Hal l MHD model equati ons used i n the fol l owi ng si mul ati ons of
the fi ber Z-pi nch experi ments are (equati ons 2.2.1, 2.2.17, 2.2.24, and 2.2.13,
wi th the addi ti onal detai l s noted i n secti on 2.4):
(4.6.1)
ap
~ +v (P3 = o
(4.6.2)
a(pq
~ +v (pw) + Vp - fx i = o
a(pc) -f
-
(4.6.3)
~)+ ~ + V (~P~) + V ( (~)Pfe) +P V ~+Pe V (nee
-v c(KA VA T) - VJ2 + &d = O
76
(4.6.4)
where p is mass densi ty, i 7i s vel oci ty, ~ i s magneti c fi el d, 7(= v x ~/po) i s
el ectri cal current densi ty, ne i s el ectron number densi ty, c~ i s el ectron speci fi c
i nternal energy, c i s total speci fi c i nternal energy, ,pci s el ectron pressure,p i s total
pressure, T i s temperature, Q,.~ i s radi ati ve energy l oss, q i s el ectri cal resi sti vi ty,
and KL i s (perpendi cul ar) thermal conducti vi ty. I n thi s one-temperature model ,
separate el ectron pressure, el ectron energy, and el ectro~ number densi ty val ues
(needed for the Hal l and associ ated terms) are obtai ned by the use of SESAME
tabl es gi vi ng averagei oni zati on fracti ons as functi ons of densi ty and temperature,
as expl ai ned i n secti on 2.4. Detai l s of numeri cal i mpl ementati on are as descri bed
i n thi s and the previ ous chapter; the spati zd di fferenci ng used for the Hal l and
associ ateci ter ms, and other detai l s, are shown i n Appendi x D.
I t v-m not possi bl e to do nearl y as compl ete a set of si mul ati ons of the fi ber
Z-pi nch wi th tae Hal l model as i t was wi th the basi c MHD model , descri bed
i n Chapter 3. Earl y-appeari ng Hal l -dri ven i nstabi l i ty efTectscause the adapti ve
ti mestep to be reduced by roughl y an order of magni tude, causi ng runs whi ch
took a few Cray hours to become mns i n the tens of Cray hours, a si gni fi cant
expense. Hal l runs were l i mi ted to the 750-kA peak HDZP-H di scharge, whi ch
was thoroughl y exami ned wi th the basi c MHD model i n Chapter 3. However,
i t was possi bl e to do l -mm and l -cm axi al secti on si mul ati ons of HDZP-11 wi th
the compl ete Hal l MHD model; the Hal l term al one; the Hal l and di amagneti c
pressure ter ms; and the Hal l , di amagneti c pressure, and work ter ms. I n runs
i ncl udi ng the energy equati on ter ms, some computed the Hal i term regardl ess of
whether the fl ui d approxi mati on was vi ol ated (unl i ke the di amagne,i c pressure
77
and energy equati on ter ms, whi ch are not computed at poi nts i n vi ol ati on; see
secti ons 4.4 and 4.5), whi l e other runs l i mi ted al l ter ms to regi ons where proper
fl ui d condi ti ons were sati sfi ed. Runs wi thout the energy equati on ter ms com-
puted the Hal l and di amagneti c pressureeffects regardl ess of the fl ui d parameter
val ue (al though the cutoff densi ty sti l l di sabl ed these effects for l arge porti ons of
non-fl ui d vacuum @sma). By doi ng l -mm and l -cm axi al secti ons, one has
rotl gh]y bracketed the i mportmt i nstabi l i ty l ength scal es i n thi s experi ment, ~
di scussed i n Chapter 3: the l -cm secti on approaches the actual 5-cm l ength of
the fi ber (and the l argest observed i nstabi l i ty features), al though devel opment of
i nstabi l i ti es i s del ayed by l ack of axi al resol uti on; and the l -mm secti on resol ves
what appear to be the fastest-growi ng i nstabi l i ti es. Set-up detai l s of the runs
are essenti al l y the same as gi ven i n Chapter 3 for basi c MHD runs; al l gri ds here
were 96 (radi al ) by 31 (axi al ) zones.
Because some i nteresti ng boundary effects wi l l be noted bel ow, i t has been
del ayed unti l thi s secti on to di scuss some detai l s of boundary condi ti ons used i n
the Hal ) model i mpl ementati on. At an el ectri cal l y conducti ng boundary, ~11= O.
Si nce i t i s ~11whi ch gi ves rke to thi s boundarys contri buti on to the change i n
magneti c fl ux for the cdl adjacent to the boundary (Faradays Law), no contri -
buti on to magneti c fi el d can be al l owed from thi s boundary, i ncl udi ng Hal l or
di amagneti c fi el d fl ux. Thi s i s i mpl emented i n the code- no Hal l or di amagneti c
fi el d convecti on i s al l owed across a conducti ng boundary.
However, i n cmmputi ngHal l fl ux adjacent to a conducti ng boundary, i f the
general center-di fferenced cross-deri vati ve for ~i s used, one needs the val ue of
E at the boundary. For the l i mi ted-geometry r&i sti ve MHD of the ori gi nal
MHRDR code, i t can be shown that 8~/& = Oat a sol i d cxmducti ngboundary,
78
i .e., ~ at the boundary i s the val ue at the poi nt adjacent to i t i n the pl asma: a
mi rror condi ti on. I f the Hal l and di amagneti c pressure ter ms are i ncl uded, how-
ever, one has a more compl i cated expressi on for ~ at the boundary, rel ati ng the
cross-deri wi ti ve at the boundary to a deri vati ve of E paral l el to the boundary.
An attempt was made to i ncorporate thi s boundary condi ti on i nto the code,
but i t proved numeri cal l y unstabl e. A major f act or i n thi s i nstabi l i ty i s the
fact that MHRDR does not compute quanti ti es at (or i nfi ni tesi mal l y cl ose to)
boundari es, but onl y starti ng at the pl asma hal f a cel l i nto the system. Hence
appl yi ng boundary condi ti ons for the adjacent boundary to the l i ne Az/2 i nto
the pl asma, i s i ntri nsi cal l y an O(AZ) er r or , mi xi ng (non-boundary) pl asma rel a-
ti onshi ps wi th the compl i cated rel ati onshi p of the cr oss and paral l el deri vati ves
at the boundary. To avoi d thi s probl em, an al ternate O(AZ) approxi mati on
for the cross-deri vati ve was used: the forward (or backward) di fference between
the val ue of ~ at the fi rst l i ne i n the pl asma, and the val ue on the next l i ne
i n the pl asma, i n the di recti on away from the boundary. Li ke the fi rst-order
accurate donor-cel l scheme used for Hal l convecti on, thi s sacri fi ces second-order
accuracy for numeri cal stabi l i ty and more physi cal l y consi stent properti es.
I t wi l l be seen that resul ts obtai ned wi th thi s method agree wi th i ndepen-
dent theoreti cal and computati onal resul ts; one can i nterpret thi s as an i ndi cati on
that the cruci al boundary condi ti on i s accuratel y model ed her e, that Hal l fl ux
i s not permi tted from a conducti ng boundary, whi l e the condi ti on paral l el to
the boundav has less i mportance. One detai l whi ch was noted, concerni ng the
.
adjacent-fl ux cross-deri vati ve ~, was that the i mpl i ci t val ue of ~ for the l i ne
adjacent to the boundary (not the expl i ci t val ue, as used i n al l the other cross-
deri vati ves) provi ded much more stabl e resul ts than the expl i ci t val ue, perhaps
79
fol l owi ng fast-changi ng boundary phenomena better. Cross-deri vati ves i nvol vi ng
pressure at the boundary empl cyed the mi rror condi ti on, that the wal l pushes
back exactl y as hard as the pl asma pushes on the wal l , wi thout numeri cal di fE-
cul ti es.
An i nteresti ng feature of the Hal l effect i s i ts di recti onal asymmetry: pure
MHD modes devel op wi thout regard to up or down al ong the axi s of cui rent
fl ow; thi s i s not true for the Hal l effect. An exampl e of thi s i s the twi sti ng of the
densi ty and pressure (i ncl udi ng magneti c pressure)contours for Rayl ei gh-Tayl or
modes shown by Huba, et al G6,when the Hal l term i s i ncl uded. Hal l magneti c
fi el d convecti on i s strongl y di recti onal (see Fi g. 8): the pri mary convecti on of
fi el d i n the KMC magneti c penetrati on probl em was up al ong the fi el d gradi ent,
then out i n the di recti on of penetrati on, up the front, and then back at the
top of the densi ty ramp channel and out the top. Thi s was cl earl y shown when
boundary condi ti ons at the top and bottom of the KMC probl em were cl osed,
i .e., al l owe~ no Hal l convecti on through them (as i s proper for a conducti ng
boundary, such as the axi al boundari es for the Z-pi nch runs): the fi el d at the
bottom became depl eted, and pi l ed up at the top.
The fi rst feature xi oted i n Hal l term dense Z-pi nch runs (and runs i ncl udi ng
al l the other terms) i s such an asymmetry i n the current fl ow pattern (some-
ti mes these patterns are obscured by i nstabi l i ty devel opment). At the anode,
l i nes of constant axi al current appear to be pi nched i nward (toward the axi s),
whi l e at the cathode, they spread outward (see Fi g. 12a). Thi s i s not seen i n
MHD runs wi thout the Hal l ter m, whi ch show a rel ati vel y constant current di s-
tri buti on from anode to cathode. Thi s effect had been predi cted on theoreti cal
grounds by Hai nes107and recentl y di spl ayed i n Hal l MHD computati onal work
80
by Vi khrev and Zabajdul l i n18, One can i nterpret thi s phenomenon i n di fferent
ways: Vi khrev and Zabajdul l i n descri be i t as enhanced magneti c fi el d propa-
gati on al ong the anode, compared to the usual resi sti ve MHD uni form i nward
di ffusi on of fi el d. Taki ng the poi nt of vi ew, suggested by the Hal l work descri bed
her e, that the Hal l effect gi v-s a convecti on of magneti c fi el d i n the ~(current-
carryi ng el ectron vel oci ty) di recti on, one can i nterpret thi s as a convecti on of fi el d
away from the cathode, l eadi ng to pi l i ng-up at the anode. Thi s was observed i n
the KMC Hal l test probl em, and i f one pl ots ~pi nch fi el d profl es as a functi on of
radi us near the cathode, and compares these to fi el d profi l es near the anode (Fi g.
12b), the pi nrhed current pattern does correspond to the depl eti on/pi l i ng-
up i nterpretati on. Vi khrev and Zabajdul l i n al so note that thi s fi el d bui l d-up
at the anode does not l ead to compressi on of pl asma at the anode (i .e., the
fi el d sl i ps through pl asma, vi ol ati ng the i deal MHD fi el d-frozeri -tqdasma
effect); the Hal l MHD resul ts here agree wi th thac resul t, showi ng no pl asma
compressi on at the anode.
Runs wi th the Hal l and associ ated ter ms i n general di spl ay new smal l -scal e
i nstabi l i ty devel opment earl y i n the fi ber Lpi nch di scharge (Fi g. 13) i n the
vi ci ni ty of the edge of the pl asma corona; such ti ects were hi nted i n the fi rst
expl i ci t Hal l term runs, al though i t i s di ffi cul t to di sti ngui sh physi cal from nu-
meri cal i nstabi l i ti es i n the bri ef expl i ci t code resul ts. Thi s i s i n agreement wi th
the recent Vl asov-fl ui d model resul t of Scheffel , Arber, and Coppi ns2s, predi cti ng
a destabi l i zi ng trend as rL1/a (the order of these ter ms; secti on 2.3) i s i ncreased.
The same basi c expl osi ve i nstabi l i ty, and i nstabi l i ty-chi ven expansi on, seen i n
non-Hal l MHD runs, i s sti l l seen to assert i tsel f her e, on top of and ul ti matel y
overri di ng the newl y added ti ects. The ti mi ng of the expl osi ve i nstabi l i ty growth
81

and expansi on i s general l y a few nanoseconds earl i er when the Hal l ter ms arc i n-
cl uded, perhaps due to a head start associ ated wi th the earl y-devel opi ng Hal l
modes. As noted i n Chapter 3, the ti mi ng of tl i i s expmi on i s experi mental l y
uncertai n, but the earl i er trend of the Hal l runs i s i n the ri ght di recti on; experi -
menter s are hard-prewed to get a pl asma i mage earl y enough i n the hi gh-current
di scharges to mi ss the expl osi ve expansi on. I t woul d have been rather supri si ng
to see a drasti c stabi l i zi ng trend from the Hal l runs, because the basi c MHD
si mul ati ons al ready show good agreementto the experi mental data from the Los
Al arnos devi ce HDZP-I I ; thi s i s al so the case for the Hal l runs.
Al l owi ng the Hal l term to be computed regardl ess of the val ue of the fl ui d
parameters i n a cel l (see secti ons 4.4 and 4.5) gave a somewhat faster (~ 2 nsec)
i nstabi l i ty devel opment and expl osi ve expansi on, compared to runs i n whi ch al l
Hal l -order effects were suppressed i n cel l s outsi de the codi si onal regi me. Thi s i s
a di fference i n ti mi ng wel l bel ow anythi ng that has bmn measured experi men-
tal l y, al though agai n i n the di recti on experi menters expect. Because the other
effects are of the same order as the Hal l ter m, but the model used here i s i nade-
quate to execute them i n the col l i si onl ess regi me, such a run coul d be consi dered
somewhat physi cal l y i nconsi stent. On the other hand, the Hal l term appears
responsi bl e for the mai n features di sti ngui shi ng these runs from standard MHD
runs (asymmetri c current fl ow pattern, earl y appearance of i nstabi l i ti es), and i t
does conti nue to exi st i n the col l i si onl ess regi me52.
The el ectron current energy convecti on term di d l ead to a fl ow of energy
i n the di recti on of -~ (current-carryi ng el ectron vel oci ty), as shown i n Fi g. 14,
qui te anal ogous to the Hal l -dri ven fl ow of magneti c fi el d. Agai n, however, thi s
di d not substanti al l y change the ul ti mate expl osi ve pl asma behavi or.
82
The approach taken i n these si mul ati ons has been to try to very cl osel y
model speci fi c experi ments: i n thi s chapter, speci fi cal l y the Los Al amos experi -
ments, to whi ch thi s author has had the greatest access, and i n whi ch the si mul a-
ti ons (and correspondi ng experi mental data) i ndi cate that the cal l i si onal MHD
model used stays val i d for l ong enough i n the di scharge to hugel y determi ne
the resul ts. Other fi ber-i ni ti ated Z-pi nch experi ments may substanti al l y avoi d
22,S4 the ~~p]=ma.omwjren techni que di scussed i n
thi s col l i si onal MHD regi me (
the next chapter may be a means to do thi s). I n that case these (col l i si onal )
Hal l MHD resul ts woul d not be expected to be val i d, because there are other
fi ni te-Larmor-radi us effects of potenti al i mportance i n the col l i si onl ess MHD
regi me. Thi s i ncl udes effects such as gyrovi scous stresss2; furthermore, certai n
features of the model used her e, such as compressi bi l i ty, shoul d not be used i n
a col l i si onl ess MHD model 40. I t shoul d be possi bl e to adapt the present code
to such a co)l i si onl ess MHD model , but that i s beyond the scope of the present
work.
83
I
CHAPTER 5: TWO PROMI SI NG RELATED FUSI ON CONCEPTS
5.1 Jl euteri um Shel l and Pl asma-on-Wi re 1m~losi ons
Vari ati ons of the deuteri um-fi ber-i ni ti ated 2Lpi nch concept (i n fi ber thi ck-
ness, current ramp, and fl ash pl asma i ni ti ati on, as di scussed i n Chapter 3)
si mul ated to date have not shown any fundamental i mprovement over the basi c
HDZP-I /l i -type experi ments, i n ter ms of avoi di ng i nstabi l i ti es and the expl osi ve
expansi cn whi ch prevent fusi on temperatures and densi ti es from bei ng reached.
As has been menti oned before, such an expanded pl asma mi ght serve as a sui t-
abl e magneti zed target to fi l l a chamber, whi ch woul d then be i mpl oded to
rai se the target pl asma to fusi on ~mndi ti ons
91,920T. ~~uate such a maweti zed
target fusi on (MTF) concept, i ncl udi ng vari ous means and geom%ri es of i mpl ~
si on, pl asma-wal l i nteracti ons, and fusi on pr ocesses, i s beyond the scope of thi s
thesi s. However, the work reported here i s a good starti ng poi nt for model i ng a
fi ber-Z-pi nch-based MTF experi ment.
The computati onal tool devel oped here may be useful i n eval uati ng and op-
ti mi zi ng some rel ated experi mental concepts, whi ch vary more s:gni fkantl y from
the ori gi nal fi ber-pi nch approach. Two such concepts are the magneti c i mpl ~
si on of hol l ow, annul ar col umns of deuteri urn,and the pl asma-on-wi re (POW)
di scharge through a l ow-densi ty pl asma surroundi ng a central fi ber cor e. Both
concepts have been the subject of some recent experi mentati on, wi th encour-
agi ng resul ts. Thi s author has therefore begun a computati onal expl orati on of
these concepts.
One cannot assume that, because the model used here can be argued to be
val i d, and agrees wi th experi mental resul ts, i n the fi ber Zpi nch case, such wi l l
sti l l be true for any proposed experi ment. I t wi l l be seen, however, that these
84
rel ated experi ments do fal l wi thi n si mi l ar regi mes to those of the fi ber Zpi nch,
so si mi l ar model i ng techni ques shoul d appl y. As i n the case of the fi ber-pi i :ch
model i ng, careful attenti on must be pai d to the detai l s of the experi ments to be
model ed.
5.2 ~mrdosi on of Hol l ow Deuteri um Cv I i nderq
Recent experi ments at the SATUk-q hi gh-current, fast-current-ri se faci l -
i ty at %mdi a Nati onal Laboratory have i mpl oded hol l ow gas-puff deuteri um
col umns wi th Apeak current of 8 to 11 MA reached i n approxi matel y 40 nsec]og.
Fr om a total deuteri um mass of 1 mg, total neutron producti on has been 0(1012),
wi th good evi dence (better than 10Yoi sotropy) that these are l argel y from ther-
mal reacti ons, and net from a beam-target i nteracti on. A sl i ght enhancement of
the neutron yi el d (up to 3x1012) was observed when a central , CD2 fi ber was
i ncl uded.
Parks suggested a fusi on scheme al so i nvol vi ng an i mpl odi ng deuteri um
shel l 10, al though i n hi s concept the fusi on condi ti ons were reached by a um-
tral , HDZP-11-l i ke fi ber Z-pi nch (on whi ch the work presented here casts doubt),
and the separatel y dri ven shel l l argel y provi ded fuel for a propagati ng fusi on
burn. A hybri d of Parks concept and the SATURN experi ments i s thi s: appl y
the SATURN current ramp to a thi n, sol i d deuteri urn shel l of radi us 1 cm, sur-
roundi ng a sol i d deuteri um fi ber; i t i s possi bl e enough fi el d/current wi l l di fl use
through the i ni ti al l y sol i d shel l that the central fi ber wi l l form a fi ber-i ni ti ated
pi nch, on whi ch the outer D shel l wi l l i mpl ode.
Such a concept was si mul ated i n one and two di mensi ons usi ng the b=i c
MHD model of Chapter 3, fol l owi ng the practi ces used herei n fi ber-pi nch si mul a-
ti ons. A 10 MA i n 40 nsec current ramp provi ded the radi al wal l magneti c fi el d
85
boundary condi ti on; a 300-poi nt stati onary nonuni form radi al gri d was used,
wi th the gri d spaci ng vari ed to provi de 2 pm resol uti on i n the vi ci ni ty of the
sol i d deuteri um (at the center and at the shel l ). Apart from the hal f-sol i d den-
si ty deuteri um fi ber {30pm di ameter) and shel l (l Opm thi ck at 1 cm radi us), and
i ni ti al current-path coronas of 1O-s ti mes sol i d densi ty and temperature 2 eV,
extendi ng 25 pm from the surfaces of the sol i d, a room-temperature, 10-9X sol i d
densi ty vacuum fi l l ed the regi on between the shel l and fi ber, and the regi on
outsi de the shel l to 1.5 cm (see Fi g. 15). TwAi mens~onaI ru,m used 31 axi al
poi nts coveri ng a secti on 1 mm i n l ength (the actual experi mental chamber i s
2 cm i n l ength, but experi ence wi th dense Z-pi nches suggested a 1 mm secti on
woul d gi ve the most appropri ate i nstabi l i ty resol uti on).
The di mensi ons of the shel l descri bed above were chosen so that the total
mass of deuteri um i nvol ved (for a 2-cm secti on) woul d be about 1 mg, approx-
i matel y the same as used i n the %ndi a gas-puff i mpl osi ons. Some current was
observed to di ffuse through to the fi ber wel l i n advance of the i mpkdi ng shel l
materi al , l eadi ng to a weak fi ber pi nch (certai nl y not near t he l -MA, HDZP-
11-i deal i zedfusi on source envi si oned by Parks), but the bul k of the heati ng and
neutron producti on came from the radi al convergence of the shel l materi al , whi ch
had come to resembl e a 10-2X sol i d densi ty, several mm-thi ck, 100-eV pl asma
annul us as i t approached the center. Convergence produced temperatures of
several keV i n a col umn of several mm radi us at 10-~ x ~ohd &nsi ty for 10-20
nsec; thi s i s enough to prod~l ce the observed 0(1012) D-D neutrons (Fi g. 16).
Condi ti ons of 0(1021 cm-3) at z 5 keV are sustai ned for M nMY-,resul ti ng i n
an nr of order 1013cm-3sec, cl ose to the control l ed fusi on gcd of I Oi +. Some
i nstabi l i ty devel opment was noti ceabl e, parti cul arl y i n the l ower-densi ty regi on
86
between the fi ber and anmdus, These i nstabi l i ti es appeared to be swept-up
by the rapi dl y i mpl odi ng pl asma, and resul ted i n no appreci abl e reducti on i n
neutron yi el d, as determi ned by compari ng l -d and 2-d runs. Some spread-
i ng of the pl ssma densi ty (and correspondi ng spreadi ng out i n ti me of neutron
producti on) di d occur. An i mpl osi on from somethi ng on the order of radi us 1
cm, to a pl asma col umn of approxi mate radi us a few mm, does not sound l i ke a
very i mpressi ve convergence, but the temperatures and densi ti es reached over a
10-20 nsec peri od resul t i n rather good pl asma condi ti ons for fusi on and neutron
producti on. A vari ety of one- and twdi mensi onal runs were tri ed. varyi ng the
shel l thi ckness from 1.2 to 25 pm, and i ncl udi ng a 120-pm central fi ber, a 30-pm
fi ber, or no fi ber at al l . I t was found that the presence or absence of the fi ber
made very l i ttl e di fference to the neutron yi el d. The best neutron yi el d (0(1013))
was obtai ned wi th a 5 pm shel l , or about 0.5 mg total deuteri um.
Sandi a Nati onal Laboratory has proposed to bui l d an el ectri cal pul sed power
generator capabl e of dri vi ng up to 60 MA wi th an 80-100 nsec peak]]~ (hi gh ex-
pl osi ve fl ux-compressi on current generators have been devel oped by the Russi ans
capabl e of at l east 30 MA, but onl y over psec rkc ti mes; recentl y at Los Al amos,
a hi gh expl osi ve c~xrent generator del i vered 12 MA to a l oad i n 400 nsec). A
seri es of l -d deuteri um shel l i mpl osi on si mul ati ons was done to exami ne what
scrt of performance coul d be expected, i f the %ndi a-prop~d generator became
avai l abl e (or expl osi ve generators can be adapted to faster ri se ti mes). These
runs were set up si mi l ar to the above shel l -i mpl osi on runs, except the current
ramp was to 50 MA at 80 nsec. N,, central fi ber was i ncl uded, and shel l thi ck-
nesses were 50 pm to 500 pm. D-I I neutron yi eMs were greater than 10]8, wi th
the best 1017from a 100-pm-thi ck shel l (a si ngl e 2-d run has been taken to 51
87
nsec, yi el di ng more than 104 neutrons to that poi nt). Peak rnagncti c fi el ds were
over 100 MG, hi gh enough that fusi on-produced al pha parti cl es woul d be re-
tarded from l eavi ng the pl asma, l eadi ng to addi ti onal heati ng and neutron yi el d.
Because the 1O-MA shel l -i ni ti ated si mul ati ons di d not show substanti al l y di ffer-
ent neutron producti on from the gas-puff i ni ti ated ex~~eri ments, i t i s not cl ear
whether or not starti ng wi th n sol i d shc!l i n the 50-MA regi me i s cri ti cal to the
resul ts predi cted by the si mul ati on. Si mul ati ons of 1O-MA and 50-MA annul ar
gas-puff i mpl osi ons are pl anned, to hel p answer thi s questi on.
D-D neutron yi el ds of 1013from the 1O-MAexi sti ng generator at Sandi a sug-
gest the possi bi l i ty of 10]5, i f a mi xture of deuteri um and tri ti um i s used. Thi s
woul d be a si gni fi cant producti on of neutrons and fusi on energy. Condi ti ons
reached i n the SO-MAsi mul ati on runs, i n whi ch consi derabl y hi gher numbers of
neutr:ms are produced, may approach D-T i gni ti on condi ti ons, when the addi -
ti onal al pha-heati ng menti oned above (whi ch the present code i s not capabl e of
computi ng) i s i nci uded.
Si mi l ar pl asma temperatures and densi ti es exi st i n these si mul ati ons to those
di scussed i n Appendi x A, where the val i di ty of the fl ui d model for the dense
Z-pi nch i s establ i shed. The efl ecti ve sci~lel engths i .~thi s case are l arger, on
the order of mm, whi ch hel ps to sati sfy the fl ui d condi ti ons. I n contrast to
the fi ber-i ni ti ated pi nches, where i nstabi l i ti es l ead to hi gh-temperature, l ow-
densi ty regi om of questi onabl e fl ui d condi ti ons, the hi ghest temperatures for the
i mpl osi on pi nches are reached at the cxmter,i n hi gh-densi ty regi ons; thus the
fl ui d model i s val i d l onger i n these si mul ati ons. However, temperatures above a
few keV do sti l l l ead to breakdown of the cul l i si onal fl ui d model , as represented
i n equati on A.3 of Appendi x A. Because the radi al acal e l engths of these pl asmas
88
are greater, and due to the l arger fi el ds, the Lmr nor radi i are smal l er, the Hal l
and associ ated ter ms are smal l er and l ebs si gni fi cant than for the fi ber pi nch; thi s
i s fortl mate, because the computati on ti mes for the 2.d basi c MHD si mul ati ons
of these i mpl osi ons are al ready very l arge.
5.3 P1=ma-On-Wi re I m~]osi ~ns
A seri es of Z-pi nch experi ments performed by Etl i cher, ChGi ,Wessel , Chu-
vati n, and others (a Rench-Bri ti sh-Ameri can-Rusi an el aborati on) have shown
remarkabl e di fferences i n the heati ng and apparent stabi l i ty of discharges i ni ti -
ated on a wi re surrounded by a l ow densi ty puff pl asma, compmed to bare
wi re-i ni ti ated di scharges. These experi ments have i nvol ved a vari ety of materi al s,
often wi th the wi re materi al di fferent from that of the gas puff, but someti mes
wi th gas puff and wi re al l one materi al , such as al umi num A Zpi nch i ni ti ated on
a bare al umi numor other wi re rapi dl y goes unstabl e (expl odi ng wi re), produc-
i ng hot spots whose temperature can be i nferred from the spectroscopi c detai l s
of the materi a!. Pl asma-on-wi m di scharges, however, tend to show (i n vi si b!e
and X-ray radi ati on i mages) a very compact, -uni form,strai ght l i ne of very ni gh
temperature; often i t i s several keV, hi gher than even the hot spots of a cor-
respondi ng expl odi ng wi re. Thi s i s suggesti ve of some stabi l i zati on mechani sm
al l owi ng much more uni form heati ng than i s generdy seen i n pure expl odi ng
wi re di scharges (or i ndeed, i n the deuteri um fi ber di scharges model ed here).
Havi ng devel oped a tool to model deutenum fi ber di scharges, i t shoul d be
useful as a fi rst step i n eval uati ng si ngl e-materi al wireand pl asma-on-wi re di s-
charges. Thi s wi l l al l ow us to address tbe questi on of whether or not pl asma-
on-wi re mi ght be hel pful i n the stabi l i zati on of decterium pi nches. I n general ,
radi ati on i s a compl i cati ng factor b pl asma di scharges of materkl s heavi er than
89
hydrogen, parti cul ar-]yi f the pl asma becomes opti cal l y thi ck. I n t!mt case, one
must track tl ,e radi ati ve energy transport from pl ace to pl ace; i t hi usbc~mfortu-
nate that the d,:~l tmi um-fi ber-i n i ti ated pl asz!jts model ed here have been opti cai l y
thi n i n the i mportant frequency range (w..d > wP,), so that rfdiatiw }W only
produced an energy l oss ter m. For some pl wma-on-wi i -e di scharges, the opti cal l y
thi n assumpti on may sti l l be good; even i f not, 2-d MHD model i ng may sti l i offer
i nsi ghts i uto the i mportant physi cs.
Detai l s of an al l -al umi num pl asma-on-wi :-ti di scharge were obtai ned from
Etl i cher1]2, and the probl em was run usi ng the 1- ar,d 2-d basi c MH13model of
Chapter 3. T4e current ramp went i n two stages to a 250-kA peak at 70 nsec
(seeFi g. 17), -VI
-r pi i ed to a 30-pm-di ameter al umi nur.~Wiie wi th and wi thout a
1OI Tcm-3, 0.5 eV al umi num pufl pl asma extendi ng out to a radi us Gf 2.5 mm.
A fi xed 96-poi nt radi aI gri d extendi ng to 4 mm was us~d, wi th a vacuum of
10-9 x sol i d densi ty at .025 eV; 2-d runs were done for a l -mm , 31-poi nt axi al
secti on. of cour se, appropri ate SESAME tabl es fm al un~i numwere substi tuted
for thedeuteri um tabl es. The bare wi re di scharge di spl ayed si gni fi cant i nstabi l i ty
devel opment by the 70-nsec current peak, wi th fo~mati on of h~t spoi s (Fi g. 18).
At thi s poi nt the pl asma-on-wi re di scharge appeared much more uni form, wi th a
sudden jump to keV temperatures at the surface cf the wi re (whi ch has carri ed
very l i ttl e current unti l then) when the l ow-densi ty puff pl asma converges at the
wi re (Fi g. 19). Thi s mi ght represent a means of jumpi ng a mi cron-si ze wi re
or fi ber to hi gh current and temperature al most i nstantaneousl y; i t appeared
desi rabl e to do thi s for deuteri um di dmrges, to avoi d the l ow-densi ty unstabl e
corona (whi ch moti vated the fl ash-i oni zati on si mul ati ons di scussed i n secti on
3.2).
90
Whether the sudden, uni form jump to hi gh temperatures, at the ti me of
current peak/puff convergence, causes a strong, uni form di agnosti c i mage whi ch
masks l ater i nstat)i l i tydevel opment (anal ogousl y to the earl y vi si bl e and shad-
owgram i mages of deuteri um fi ber Z-pi nches), or actual l y bri ngs the wi re to a
hi gh-densi ty, hi gh-temperature (col l i si onl ess MHD?) stabl e regi me, i s a questi on
to be answered by future computati on and experi ment. The 2-d POW si mul a-
ti ons done to date run i nto ti mestep troubl e at the poi nt of current peak/puff
convergence on the wi re. Thi s may be due to so m: .. heati ng happeni ng i n such
a smal l regi on, at the surface of the wi re, and mi ght be remedi ed by fi ner spati al
resol uti on there.
A smal l number of l -d, and one 2-d, si mul ati ons of pl asma-on-wi re di s-
charges wi th deuteri um puffs and wi reswere run, usi ng the same current ramp
and other detai l s as used i n the above di scussed al umi num POW si mul ati ons.
The l -d runs showed a notabl e di fference from al umi num POW runs: when the
al umi num puff converges on the wi re, the current i s brought down to the wi re
and stays there (Fi g. 20a), whi l e for the deuteri um case, the puff converges on
the fi ber, but then bounces back to near i ts ori gi nal radi us (Fi g. 20b). The 2-d
deuteri um run showed consi derabl y greater i nstabi l i ty devel opment throughout
the puff pl asma, than seen i n al umi num runs. Several factors come to mi nd
to expl ai n these di fferences. One i s the rel ati ve di fferences i n resi sti vi ti es: the
al umi num puff pl asma and the al umi num wi re are both conductors, so that the
current carri ed by the puff i s readi l y accepted by the wi re at convergence; whi l e
the deuteri um fi ber (to the extent i t remai ns col d, whi ch i t does unti l near the
the 70-nsec current peak) i s i ni ti al l y an hsul ator, l ess abl e to accept current
from the puff. A second factor i s the abi l i ty of the al umi num wi re to accept a
91
l arge amount of energy from the *100-eV puff pl asma and re-radi ate i t as l i ne
radi ati on, whi l e i n thi s range deutcri um i s not nearl y as strong a radi ator. An-
other f:~ctor i s the rel ati ve masses of the two materi al s: the deuteri um pl asma
i s much l i ghter, so an equal amount of energy can push i t around (i .e., col l apse,
re-expand i t, or devel op i nstabi l i ti es) much more readi l y. The current ramp and
other detai l s used i n these si mul ati ons were experi mental l y opti mi zed for the al u-
mi num POW system, so i t i s probabl e that di fferent val ues woul d be opti mum
for deuteri um.
I t i s l i kel y to take consi derabl y more computati onal and experi mental re-
search to determi ne i f POW techni ques can l ead to deuteri um di scharges wi th
the desi red stabi l i ty. The si mul ati ons done to date do support the vi ew that the
POW techni que can produce greater heati ng l evel s and uni formi ty i n hi gher-Z
materi al di scharges, such as al umi num, than can be produced wi th tradi ti onal Z-
pi nch methods. Hence thi s techni que may l ead to a useful fl ash radi ati on source
for i ndustri al appl i cati ons.
92
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUDI NG
6.1 Summarv
REMARKS
I n thi s thesi s, a very detai l ed computati onal model of a cl ass of control l ed
fusi on experi ments, the deuteri um-fi ber-i ni ti ated Z-pi nch, has been constructed
(the pri mary exampl es model ed here of such experi ments are the hi gh-densi ty
Z-pi nches HDZP-I and -I I , constructed by ~. Hammel , et a13~4~14 ). I t has been
shown that the col l i si onal magnetohydrodynami c equati ons are val i d for sub-
stanti al porti ons of such experi ments.
i cs computer code has ken adapted
di rect and detai l ed fashi on, fol l owi ng
sol i d to hi gh-temperature pl asma. I n
A tw~di mensi onal magnetohydrodynam-
to si mul ate these experi ments i n a very
the devel opment of the fi ber from frozen
thi s way, one obtai ns a di rect predi ct~on
of the detai l s and outcome of an experi ment, whi ch can then be compared to
real data. To faci l i tate thi s compari son, di agnosti c i mages of the pl asma, such as
shadowgrams and i nterferograrns,have been generated from si mul ati on resul ts.
A major defi ci ency i n appl yi ng the standard magnetohydrodynami c model
to such Z-pi nches has been i denti fi ed: the assumpti on, that i on Larmor radi i
are much l ess than rel evant pl asma scal e l engths, i s not sati sfi ed. The ter ms
whi ch have been ordered out of the model based on thi s assumpti on, i n the col l i -
si onal regi me, are the Hal l and di amagneti c pressure ter ms i n the magneti c fi el d
evol uti on equati on, and el ectron pressure work and el ectron current energy ,
convecti on ter ms i n the energy equati on(s). These ter ms have been added to
the computati onal model (whi ch thi s author now refers to as Hal l MHD), and
demonstrated to gi ve resul ts whi ch are consi stent wi th known theoreti cal and
computati onal predi cti ons.
Both the standard magnetohydrodynami c model , and the enhanced Hal l
93
MHD model , predi ct that the deuteri um-fi ber-i ni ti ated experi ments model ed
here undergo expl osi ve i nstabi l i ty-dri ven expansi on shortl y after the fi bers have
become ful l y i oni zed. Shadowgrams and i nterferograrns generated from si m-
ul ati on resul ts show good agreement wi th experi mental data, supporti ng thi s
predi cti on. The Hal l MHD model predi cts sl i ghtl y faster i nstabi l i ty devel -
opment and expansi on, whi ch i s i n agrmment wi th experi menters qual i tati ve
observati ons, but beyond confi rmati on wi th present quanti tati ve experi mental
data. Si mul ati c 1s of vari ati ons to present fi ber-i ni ti ated experi ments i n fi ber
thi ckness, current ramp, and pl asma i ni ti ati on techni ques have not shown any
excepti ons to the i nstabi l i ty/expansi on probl em seen. A fi ber-i ni ti ated Z-pi nch
mi ght serve as a sui tabl e target pl asma for a magneti zed target fusi on i mpl ~
si on, but thi s requi res a secondary pl asma compressi on scheme to reach fusi on
condi ti ons.
The computati onal techni ques devel oped here have proven useful i n begi n-
ni ng the eval uati on of two rel ated fusi on concepts, whi ch i nvol ve si mi l ar pl asma
scal es, condi ti ons, and geometri es. Si mul ati ons of the i mpl osi on of hol l ow deu-
teri um shel l s, wi th fast-ri si ng (0(100 nsec)) 10- to 50-MA current ramps, i ndi cate
pl asma condi ti ons, whi ch woul d produce si gni fi cantamounts of fusi on energy and
neutrons, may be obtai ned. Si mul ati onsof pl asma-on-wi re di scharges,i n whi ch
a l ow-densi ty Z-pi nch pl asma i mpl odes on a central fi ber or wi re, suggest that
such techni ques may produce hotter and more compact pi nches than tradi ti onal
Z-pi nch techni ques.
6.2 Deuteri um-Fi ber Pi nches: Future Work
Al though i t i s argued that the fi mdamental detai l s and resul ts of the exper-
i ments model ed her e, pri mari l y the Los Al arnos HDZP-I and -I I devi ces, have
94
been reasonabl y correctl y si mul ated, and the vari ati ons exami ned di d not show
substanti al ul ti mate di fferences i n resul ts, one cannot cl ai m that these resul ts
hol d for al l fi ber-i ni ti ated Z-pi nches. The phi l osophy behi nd the si mul ati ons
done here i s that detai l s are i mportant, and though an attempt has been made
to i ncl ude tdl the detai l s expected to be rel evant, thi s i s obvi ousl y l i mi ted by the
knowl edge of the model er. Fur ther mom, the detai l s of the experi ments i ncl uded
here are subject to endl ess vari ati on by other experi menters; as wel l , the detai l s
of the computati onal model are subject to debate. I t woul d be very desi rabl e
to run a seri es of control l ed experi mental vari ati ons on one machi ne, wel l di ag-
nosed, and compare these to a correspondi ng seri es of si mul ati ons. Thi s may
be possi bl e, i n col l aborati on wi th the fi ber Z-pi nch group l ed by M. Hai nes at
I mperi al Col l ege.
A major change from the type of experi ment model ed her e, whi ch has been
shown to exi st for substanti al ti mes i n the col l i si ona.1pl asma fl ui d regi me, woul d
be an experi ment whi ch operated pri mari l y i n the cdl i si onl ess, or col l i si onl ess
MHD, regi me. At fi rst gl ance, i t mi ght appear a fi ber-i ni ti ated pi nch woul d have
to go through the col l i si onal r eg?me, wi th i ts i nstabi l i ty hazards so repeatedl y
i l l ustrated her e, to get to the col l i si onl ess regi me, i n whi ch stabi l i zi ng condi ti ons
mi ght prevai l . But techni ques, such as the pl asma-on-wi re di scussed i n Chap-
ter 5, show the possi bi l i ty of produci ng very sudden changes i n temperature i n
a materi al ; even a very dense materi al can become a .ol l i si onl ess pl asma, i f i ts
temperature i s rai sed hi gh enough. To adapt the present code to gi ve consi stent
resul ts i n the col l i si onl ess MHD regi me, or even to fol l ow cdl i si onal i ty and
adapt on-the-fl y from col l i si onal to col l i si onl ess fl ui d model s, shoul d be possi -
bl e. Thi s coul d gi ve very useful resul ts i n systems, such as the dense Z-pi nch,
95
whi ch can spend ti me i n both regi mes.
I t has been argued that experi mental evi dence supports the geometri c l i mi -
tet.i onsof the model used here (@ 1 pl ane of computati on; vari ati on of quanti ti es
onl y as functi ons of r and z). The agreement wi th experi ment, of the resul ts of
si mul ati on wi th those l i mi tati ons, supports thi s argument. The absence of the
i deal l y predi cted m=l (non-azi muthal l y-symmetri c) modes cannot be expl ai ned
by such a model , nor can i t deal wi th the experi mental evi dence (Fi g. 2a) of
such asymmetry})at l ate ti mes i n the di scharge. Because i ncl udi ng the many
i mportant detai l s of the experi ments i nvol ves such computati onal demands, on
even the 2-d code empl oyed her e, one i magi nes a 3-d fl ui d code woul d need to be
consi derabl y more effi ci ent, but equal l y robust, to tackl e these i ssues. A shorter-
term sol uti on woul d be to take pl asma profi l es generated by the 2-d code at
i nterval s i n the di scharge, and usi ng these as i ni ti al condi ti ons, run a 3-d code
for short ti mes, e.g. one nanosecond, to get some i dea of m=l stabi l i ty at those
i nterval s. At l ater poi nts, when the fl ui d model i s breaki ng down, one coul d do
the same thi ng wi th 2-d or 3-d parti cl e or hybri d codes, for i nsi ght i nto col l i -
si onl ess behavi or. Conti nui ng advances i n the power of computers shoul d make
i t possi bl e to handl e the ful l 3-d probl em, not too many years i nto the future.
Thi s author woul d l i ke to make some shorter-term enhancements to the
computati onal model . The thermoel ectri c Nernst and Etti nghausen effects have
been menti oned as of potenti al i mportance when el ectron and i on temperatures
become decoupl ed, whi ch can occur, for exampl e, i n the case of i nstabi l i ty i on
heati ng. Enabl i ng the code to run i n twotemperature mode wi th SESAME equa-
ti ons of state, rather than the i deaJgas model whi ch had to be used to date, woul d
be desi rabl e. Thi s woul d al so open the possi bi l i ty of doi ng tw~temperature runs
96
wi th the ful l Hal l MHD model , al though unl ess code effi ci ency i s substanti al l y
i mproved, thi s may be just too costl y i n computer ti me (Hal l MHD runs wi th
one temperature are al ready very expensi ve, i n the tens of Cray hours). Support
for some of thi s work appears avai l abl e, but the opportuni ty to pursue major
projects such as col l i si ordess MHD i s uncl ear at thi s ti me.
6.3 Other Hal l MHD Arml i cati ons
The Hal l MHD computati onal model constructed i n thi s work may prove
useful in other appl i cati ons. One appl i cati on, made obvi ous by the KMC mag-
neti c penetrati on probl em used to (benchmark the code, i s model i ng of pl asma
openi ng swi tches. Because thi s code has been devel oped to model speci fi c ex-
peri ments by i ncl udi ng i mportant detai :, such as col d-start i ni ti al condi ti ons,
etc., i t may be possi bl e to model a gi ven openi ng swi tch experi ment more cl osel y
than wi th previ ous Hal l codes. I f an experi mental pl asma spends si gni fi cant ti me
i n tfi e col l i si onal regi me (l i ke the Z-pi nches model ed here), the i ncl usi on i n the
present code of the di amagneti c pressure and associ ated ter ms may bri ng new
resul ts; thi s author i s not aware of any other Hal l MHD computati ons whi ch
i ncl ude these addi ti onal ter ms.
Another acti ve Hal l MHD research area i s magnetospheri c and other space
pl asmas. However, such pl asmas are gmeral l y cdl i si onl ess. Whi l e thi s code,
i rcl udi ng the Hal l ter m, wi l l run i n the col l i si onl ess MHD regi me, the consi s-
tency of the resul ts has not been careful l y exami ned, as di scussed several ti mes
i n thi s paper. Hence adaptati on of the code for the col l i si onl ess regi me, whi ch
above was noted as desi rabl e for eval uati on of some vari ati ons of fi ber Zpi nch
experi ments, coul d al so be useful toward some space pl asma appl i cati ons.
97
6.4 I %tenti al of Shel l and Pl asma-On-Wi m I mpl osi ons
The potenti al of hol l ow deuteri um shel l and pl asma-cm-wi re-type Z-pi nch
i mpl osi ons, as rel ati vel y i nexpensi ve fusi on concepts i n the ori gi nal spi ri t of the
fi ber Z-pi nch, appears hi gh. These are both bei ng pursued acti vel y by smal l
research groups, who have expressed enthusi a..m to thi s author about col l ab-
orati on. A thi rd concept, whi ch has been menti oned bri efl y i n thi s paper, i s
a fi ber-Z-pi nch-tar@ magneti zed target fusi on experi ment. There are many
unanswered and cri ti cal questi ons regardi ng al l these approaches, but these ques-
ti ons can be answered at moci est cost (wi thout i nvestment of bi l l i ons of dol l ars).
The achi evement of control l ed fusi on i n one of these i nexpensi ve ways woul d
not i mmedi atel y transl ate i nto cheap, cl ean, and safe energy, but i t woul d be
a very si gni fi cant step toward such a goal . These methods may al so l ead to a
useful fl a..h X-ray sour ce. Perhaps a compl etel y pure sci enti st woul d not be
concerned wi th such consi derati ons, but thi s author has al ways i ntended to do
sci ence whi ch can be useful to humani ty.
6.5 Acknowl edgments
There are many, many peopl e who have provi ded assi stance, advi ce, and
encouragement to the author of thi s di ssertati on. To them al l , I express my
grati tude.
The bul k of my col l ege educati on has been at numerous campuses of t~e
Uni versi ty of Cal i forni a, pri mari l y Santa Cruz, Santa Barbara, and Los Angel es.
I have recei ved generous support, fi nanci al and otherwi se, at these i nsti tuti ons;
i nnumerabl e facul ty, staff, and students have contri buted to my educati on there.
Most recentl y, i n my fi ve years as a graduate student i n the UCLA Department
of Physi cs, I have been greatl y supported by many member s of that department.
98

A l arge part of my research trai ni ng and thesi s research has been at another
i nsti tuti on operated by the Uni versi ty of Cal i forni a: Los Al amos hTati onalLab~
ratory, Fi rst vi si ti ng there i n the Summer of 1986 as a Magneti c Fusi on Energy
Techno!o~ Fel l ow, from the start I was enthusi asti cal l y wel comed by staff and
management i nto thei r research programs. Si nce 1991, I have been fi nanci al l y
supported ful l -ti me by the Lab i n compl eti ng my thesi s research. I hope that I
wi l l be abl e to repay thei r i nvestment i n me, by contri buti ng to the success of
future research programs there.
A number of i ndi vi dual s deserve speci al menti on. The l ate Jay Hammel , to
whom thi s thesi s i s dedi cated, wel comed me i nto the fi el d of dense Z-pi nches; i t
has been a pl easure to work wi th hi m and hi s fi ne experi mental research group.
Ri ck Nebel was my fi rst research mentor at the Lab, and gave mea great start i n
the computati onal pl asma physi cs busi ness. I rv Li ndemuth has been my cl osest
col l aborator and supervi sor on thi s thesi s research. He has been generous wi th hi s
ti me and energy i n my behal f, and I l ook forward to conti nui ng our col l aborati on.
John Dawson, my thesi s advi sor at UCLA, has been a conti nui ng source of new
i deas, \zdi dcri ti ci sms, and frequent encouragement; al l graduate students shoul d
be so l ucky as to have an advi sor l i ke John. I have been fortunate to meet many
of the sci enti sts ci ted i n the References of thi s thesi s, and di scussi ons wi th them
have been very producti ve; i n parti cul ar I shoul d menti on Mal col m Hai nes, wi th
whose enthusi asti cdense Z-pi nch researchgroup I hope to conti nue col l aborati on.
I t i s my hope that by doi ng honest, sol i d, and useful sci enti fi c research, I
shal l be abl e to repay the i nvestment that al l these peopl e have made {n hel pi ng
me to become a sci enti st.
Al l previ ousl y publ i shed materi al whi ch has been reproduced here (from
99
Sheeh,?y,et al , i n References 82-84, and Li ndemuth, et al , i n References 38, 91,
etc.) has been prepared by U.S. government empl oyees as part of thei r offi ci al
duti es. Therefore i t i s not el i gi bl e f or U.S. copyri ght; nor i s thi s di ssertati on to
be copjri ghted, for the same reason.
.,
,i
,.
, : ,
100
APPENDI X A: VALI DI TY OF FLUI D MODEL
A common cri teri on for the val i di ty of MHD fl ui d theory40i s that the i on-i on
col l i si on ti me be much shorter than the i on thermal transi t ti me:
(Al )
<...
88
Uthi788
=
<1
Tthi a
where a i s an appropri ate scal e l ength of the system, here the effecti ve radi us of
the pl asma col umn. That the mean free path of a parti cl e be much shorter than
the scal e l ength a wi l l al so resul t i n the above restri cti on. For a two-fl ui d model ,
thi s same cri teri on hol ds for the el ectron fl ui d, because the (mi /m~)* factor
needed to obtai n ~~&from vt~i i s cancel l ed by the (m~/ml ) * factor to obtai n r ~~
from Tgl; hence vt~cree/a is also much l ess than 1. What these cri teri a amount
to, i s that parti cl es i n the pl asma must experi ence suffi ci ent col l i si ons, as they
traverse the system, that thei r di stri buti on functi ons wi l l be nearl y Ma.xwel l i an;
then, by taki ng moments of the ki neti c equati on, one obtai ns (as di d Bragi nski i 3],
et a140S43 ) a set of equati ons for the fami l i ar fl ui d quanti ti es densi ty, vel oci ty, etc.
More stri ctl y, i f i on-el ectron energy equi l i brati on i s to hol d, one must have:
(A.2)
()
*
m
?):hi Tai
me
<<1.
a
For a (si ngl e-temperature, T. = Zi ) deuteri um pl asma, thi s requi rement can
be wri tten i n ter ms of densi ty and temperature as
(A.3)
2.2 x 101Z-V2
(ncm-~acm)
<1
where T~v i s temperature i n eV, ncm-s i s (number) densi ty i n cm-3, and aC~i s
i n centi meters.
101
A 100 eV pl asma of di mensi ons si mi l ar to the fi bers used i n these experi -
ments (radi us 15 to 60 pm, sol i d densi ty w 5x 1022cm-3) meets thi s requi rement.
The i mportant coronal pl asma generated as the fi ber abl ates, i n whi ch the fi rst
i nstabi l i ty devel opment seen i n the si mul ati ons occur s, may have densi ti es sev-
eral orders of magni tude bel ow sol i d; however, i ts temperature i s often l ower,
and i t exi sts at radi i of several hundred mi crons to several mi l l i meters. Hence
the factors compensate for each other, and the fl ui d parameter general l y remai ns
i n the requi red range.
Because the actual pl asmas created i n the experi ments heat and expand
nonuni forml y, the rel evant scal e l ength to use i s subject to questi on. Fr om
the computed densi ty and temperature profi l es, pl ots were made of the fl ui d
parameter (Al ), usi ng as the scal e l ength a, the radi us, for a gi ven axi al l ocati on,
wi thi n whi ch 90!!10of the total axi al current was contai ned. For the most part,
these pl ots showed the pl asma col umn remai ned wi thi n the fl ui d I egi me unti l
very deep m=O i nstabi l i ty devel opment, wi th accompanyi ng hi gh-temperature,
l ow-densi ty regi ons, occurred.
A cutoff densi ty, bel ow whi ch ohmi c heati ng (and l ater, Hal l efi ects) was
turned off, was empl oyed i n the cal cul ati ons to prevent unreal i sti c heati ng (and
exagerrated Hal l effects) i n l ow densi ty, non-cl assi cal -fl ui d vacuum regi ons.
Both fi xed cutoff densi ti es, and cutoff densi ti es whi ch were vari ed as the pl asma
devel oped so that 99% of the mass of the pl asma remai ned above cutoff, were
tri ed, wi thout si gni fi cant di fferences i n the resul ts.
The stri ct si ngl e-temperature, si ngl e-fl ui d cri teri on above may be vi ol ated
as the pl asma heats and expands, as noted i n Chapter 1, even wi !e the i on
and el ectron fl ui d cri teri a are sti l l sati sfi ed. Thi s moti vated the two-temperature
102
MHD work reported i n Chapter 3.
I deal MHD fl ui d theory orders out the Hal l (Jx ~) and di amagneti c pressure
ter ms i n Ohms Law, on the basi s of smal l rati o of Larmor radi us to pl asma scal e
l ength40(thi s i s di scussed further i n secti on 2.3 and Appendi x C). That thi s rati o
may not be smal l i n a Z-pi nch, wi th i ts fi el d nul l on axi s, i s wel l known1g~41 (al so
see secti on 2.5). Pl ots of thi s parameter from the MHD si mul ati ons (Ch. 3)
showed thi s as wel l , moti vati ng the i mpl ementati on of Hal l MHD i n the code
(Ch. 4).
103
APPENDI X B: I MAGI NG OF THE PLASMA
The bendi ng of l i ght rays by densi ty gradi ents i n a pl asma al l ows i magi ng of
the pl asma wi th a number of techni ques known as ScMi erenmethods or shadowg-
raphy (Los Al amos experi menters refer to thei r i mages as shadowgrams)113.
I n the Los Ahunos scheme, a 530 nm l aser shi nes through an area of pl asma
(typi cal l y 1 cm2), on whi ch an i magi ng l ens i s focussed. Rays whi ch undergo
l arge defl ecti on, due to a hi gh densi ty gradi ent, mi ss the l ens, l eavi ng a dark area
(shadow) on the i mage col l ected (photographi cal l y or el ectroni cal l y),
When hi gher-current experi ments appeared to l ack steep. enough densi ty
gradi ents to produce good shadowgrams, i nterferometri ci magi ng was empl oyed.
The phase shi ft of the beam passi ng through the refracti ve pl asma, rel ati ve to
a vacuum reference beam, i s used to generate i nterference fri nges, whi ch map
the densi ty of the pl asma
113, Wi th these methods, the l aser can be fl =hed
for extremel y short ti mes, so that i t has been possi bl e to generate hi ghl y ti me-
resol ved (better than 0.2 nsec) i mages of the pl asma.
To generate comparabl e di agnosti c i mages from si mul ati on densi ty profi l e
resul ts, one sol ves the Eul er-Lagrange equati on1]4, whi ch descri bes the path of
a l i ght ray travdi ng through a medi um of varyi ng i ndex of refracti on p:
(B.1)
where ~ i s the posi ti on of the ray.
Thi s may be expressed as si x fi rst-order O.D.E.s:
(B.2)
dfz dp
x TX
dz
f.
z=~
104
(si mi l arl y for y i ad z).
A seventh term may be added to thi s to compute the phase (shi ft) of the
wave @ travel i ng through the refracti ve medi um:
(B.3)
where w i s the angul ar frequency of the wave.
Refracti vi ty of a ful l y i oni zed pl asma i s gi ven by:
(B.4)
=(-s
where ti P~2= e2ne/come.
However, for si gni fi cant parts of the di scharge, there may remai n sol i d, non-
i oni zed materi al -whi ch al so has refracti ve qual i ti es (i n fact, of convergi ng effect,
as opposed to the di vergi ng effect of pl asma refracti vi ty). An empi ri cal equati on
for the refracti vi ty of l i qui d deuteri um, bel i eved appl i cabl e for sol i d of si mi l ar
densi ti es, i s usedl ]s. A gri d of l i ght rays i s then traced through the computed
densi ty di stri buti on (n, for pl asma refracti vi ty, neutral densi ty for sol i d refrac-
ti vi ty) to generate our predi cted shadowgrarn/i nterferogram, usi ng a packaged
O.D.E. sol ver, LSODE]16.
Test cases of thi s ray-traci ng al gori thm on deepl y m=O modul ated Gaussi an
radi al pl asma densi ty di stri buti ons, poi nted out somethi ng cri ti cal l y i mportant
i n the i nterpretati on of experi mentedshadowgrarns: geometri c factors (i magi ng
l ens si ze and di stance from the pl asma) may cause the shadowgrarn i mage to
di ffer drasti cal l y i n si ze and modul ati on from the actual pl asma.
105
APPENDI X C: PHYSI CS OF HALL AND ASSOCI ATED TERMS
I n exami ni ng the physi cs of the Hal l and associ ated ter ms, i t i s useful to
l ook at some key steps i n the deri vati on of si ngl e fl ui d MI -I D equati ons from
Bragi nski i s twofl ui d transport equati ons, as done i n Chapter 2. A fi rst i mpor-
tant step i s the droppi ng of the el ectron i nerti a term (2.2.2) from the el ectron
momentum equati on (2.1.3, 2.2,3, 2.2.8). Thi s has the effect of sayi ng that, on
the ti me and l ength scal es of the model , al l forces on the el ectron fl ui d-el ectri cal
(~), magneti c (t7ex ~), (el ectron) pressure (vp./(nce) ), and those due to col -
l i si ons wi th i ons (resi sti ve, qJ~-are i n bal ance, that i s, sum to zer o. Sol vi ng thi s
.
equati on for E gi ~.s an Ohms Law:
(Cl ) E=
+(VP,) +llt i7,x B.
One can el i mi nate J?from thi s equati on by appl i cati on of Faradays Law, i l ~/&
= v x~ (note al so that i n thi s model ~= (V x ~)/pO):
.
(C.2) * = v xi!= v x(:( Vpe) + rJ 17.x 5).
Thi s equati on gi ves the ti me evol uti on of magneti c fi el d as a functi on of magneti c
fi el d and el ectron pressure, densi ty, and vel oci ty (where p!asma resi sti vi ty q i s
a functi on of these four quanti ti es). I t i s l i mi ti ng forms of thi s equati on whi ch
determi ne the magneti c fi el d behavi or i n the vari ous MHD model s di scussed her e.
Jumpi ng fi rst to the I deal MHD model (some assumpti ons of whi ch shal l
be more careful l y di scussed bel ow), i n whi ch the VpC/(nee) and q~ ter ms are
negl i gi bl e, and the domi nant part of el ectron vel oci ty i n i ?ex 1? i s gi ven by si mpl e
pl asma (center-of-mass)
(C.3)
vel oci ty U,one has:
as
= v x (c x S).
&
106

Thi s equati on l eads to the i nteresti ng resul t

117,118that ~agl l eti c fl ux through
any surface area movi ng wi th the (I deal MHD) pl asma i s constant; i n effect,
pl asma i s frozen to the fi el d l i nes, and magneti c fi el d i s convected wi th pl asma
vel oci ty fi .
I f one mai ntai ns the more exact 0, x ~ expressi on (and then uses for ti c
equati on 2.2.9, t7c= U- (7/(nee)) ),
(C.4) : = v x (Cex @ = v x (:(JX q) + v x
Thi s i s the fi el d equati on commonl y used i n a Hal l MHD
thi s paper, addi ti onal ter ms of si mi l ar order are retai ned).
al most the same frozen to the fi el d l i nes resul t can sti l l
(17x 3) .
model (al though i n
I t can be seen that
be appl i ed, except
that the fi el d i s now frozen to the el ectron fl ui d, and convected wi th el ectron
vel oci ty ti ,. Thi s has been noted by Coppi ns et a119,and i s a major reason why
the Russi an l i terature often uses the term el ectron magnetohydrodynarni cs 19
. .
i n reference to Hal l MHD. I n thi s l i ght, the Hal l ter m, J x 13/(n~e), i s men as a
correcti on to the I deal MHD assumpti on that el ectrons (and fi el d) are convected
wi th center-of-mass vel oci ty 17. The odd resul t that convecti on of ~ i n one
di recti on i s dri ven by i ts deri vati ve i n a perpendi cul ar di recti on, ari ses from the
Hal l terms cross-product of ~ (whi ch contai ns the cross-deri vati ve of ~, si nce
.
J = (V x ~)/Po) with ~, to which the Faradays Law curl operati on i s then
.
appl i ed.
I f the Hal l term i s an i mportant correcti on to the fi el d equati on, one expects
that the vpc/(nee) term may al so be i mportant; these ter ms are of si mi l ar or-
der, as noted i n secti on 2.3. The vp,/(n,e) term l eads to an effecti ve current
correspondi ng to a magneti c fi el d tendi ng to reduce the exi sti ng fi el d; hence i t
107
i s cal l ed the di amagneti c pressure ter m. I t i s rel ati vel y easy to see the reason
for thi s di amagneti c current i n the c~e of an i sothermal pl asma, where an el ec-
tron pressure gradi ent corresponds to an el ectron densi ty gradi ent kT. v n. 120.
Through any fi xed vol ume el ement, humor gyrati on of parti cl es around the fi el d
l i nes wi l l l ead to a fl ui d dri ft perpendi cul ar to ~ and Vnc. Thi s i s because more
parti cl es from the hi gh-densi ty si de wi l l gyrate through the el ement, than cor-
respondi ng parti cl es on the opposi te si de of thei z orbi ts {movi ng i n the opposi te
di recti on) from the l ow-densi ty si de.
Thus the Hal l and di amagneti c pressure ter ms can be seen as correcti ons
to the moti on of the el ectron fl ui d, whi ch ul ti matel y determi nes the evol uti on
of the magneti c fi el d (equati on C.2). The el ectron energy convecti on term (see
secti on 4.5) and the el ectron pressure work term (secti on 4.4) i n the energy
equati on, whi ch are i ncl uded here i n the compl ete Hal l MHD model , al so ari se
from thi s same attenti on to the detai l s of el ectron fl ui d moti on. The el ectron
energy convecti on term comes di rectl y from the substi tuti on of ; (J-/( rz~e))
for V, i n the ener ~ equati on. So does the work ter m, whi ch i n secti on 2.3
has been shown to be vi tal to total energy conservati on, when the di amagneti c
pressure term i s i ncl uded i n the magneti c fi el d equati on.
These correcti ons can be dropped, as argued i n secti on 2.3, when i on Larmor
radi us i s smal l compared to pl asma scal e l ength a. Speci fi cal l y, thi s i s to say that
the magni tude of the fi el d convecti on term Cx ~ wi l l be much greater than that
of ~ x ~/(nte), or the si mi l arl y ordered Vp~/(n~e) ter m, when rL:/a << 1.
Al though the al gebra rel ati ng the rati os of the correcti on ter ms to ]; x ~], and
the rati o rL1/a, of secti on 2.3 i s rel ati vel y strai ghtforwar~ i t i s somewhat di ffi cul t
to pai nt a si mpl e physi cal pi cture why thi s i s so. The correcti on ter ms can
108
be regarded as creati ng addi ti onal el ectri c fi el ds (Ohms Law equati on Cl )
l eadi ng to E x ~ dri fts, whi ch occur i n fl ui d as wel l as parti cl e model s. The
+4
magni tude of an ~ x 1?dri ft t~D= E/B 121. Such dri fts are the resul t of Larmor
gyrati on, but they are not di rectl y proporti onal to Larmor radi us; however, l i ke
Larmor radi us, they are i nversel y proporti omd to B. The dri ft due to one of
these correcti on terms el ectri c fi el d wi l l be UD =
(VI %/(n~e) )/~. I f such a
dri ft vel oci tj i s compared to a characteri sti c center-of-mass convecti on vel oci ty
(whi ch woul d appear i n the Ux ~ term), such as the i on thermal sp=d Vthi ,the
i on Larmor radi us orderi ng emer ges.
109
APPENDI X D: SOME DETAI LS OF NUMERI CS
The component forms, and the i ntegrated spati al l y di fference fl uxes/forces,
representi ng the four Hal l and associ ated ter ms added to the code i n Chapter
4, are as fol l mv. These ter ms are i ncorporated i nto the numeri cal al gori thm
descri bed i n ~tefex.nce 38, fi ve pages of whi ch are reprodumd fol l owi ng thi s ma-
teri al . Reference 38 descri bes the code ANI MAL, whi ch i s the pr edecessor of
the MHRDR code devel oped her e; the detai l s reproduced are essenti al l y i denti cal
for the two codes.
Hall term :
jHd/ =
Diamagnetic pressure term :
fflitz.prea. =
Electron pressure work term :
110
ftvork= -- (h+ ~BJ+;;+;:k;b;::::k k-B2 +k-)+
4T;OP(
1 ::,,){
1
(~2 j,k+l~2 j,k+l
h2 j,k-1 ~2 j,k-1
)]
Pj,k ~j,k
Electron energy convecti on term :
where ~ = (Qj+l,k + Qj,&)/2, c$(Q)k = (Qj+l,k- Qj,k)/21 andQf oco iS the
appropri atel y sel ected donor-cel l quanti ty Qj , k or Qj +] , kt dependi ng on the di -
recti on of 17~O~Ve~~~~~ = ,~/nee, The general i zed coordi nate {1, i n the Lpi nch
work done her e, corresponds to the radi al (r) di recti on (for whi ch j i s the i ndex),
and (3 to the axi al (z) di recti on (for whi ch k i s the i ndex); the second coordi nate
~2 i s the azi muthal (6) di recti on, for whi ch the scal e factor h2 i s r . The above
formul as representfl uxes i n the (1 (r) di recti on; fl uxes i n the ~3(z) di recti on can
be obtai ned by repl aci ng (I wi th {~ (i ndi ces j wi th k) and mul ti pl yi ng by -1.
111
h MHD modelbsscdonlocaltkrrnodynamicquilibnum issrtcorporucd i moANI MAL. Thebasi c model
apanons uc
(1)
-(qw- : +ADJ
P;
xrsd
ai i
- v x (; x i i )+v x
[ 1
~(V ii)-~ VT =0.
at Po
(3)
(4)
I nEqs.(1)to(4), pisthedensity,Vistk ffuidvelocity,ptk pwme,~tk mxgwcti c field, ethecpccifIcintcrsssl
etkrgyof thefluid, Ktk thermxl conductivity, Tthetcrnpcmwc i njoi sl cs, qthcel ccrncxl resi sti vi ty, 4M srxdi xti ve
energyloss,snd~the fru-s~ Pamexbility;mksunitsxmusedthroughout. Equxtion(1) ictk continuityquation.
Equation(2)istheequationof motion;thefoh tcnnistheLorcntxforce,Y X B, wbcrctk current&nsityThasbeen
elimin.mdthroughtheuscof Ampere-tIAwwiththeUSUXI ncglcztof displacement curmm.EquxtioD(3) istk intcrnx!
encrg}quation; thefourthtermisthedivergenceof tk kxt-!iow vectorxndtk fustpxrtof therscxt-tcAxst term
represents ohmicheating,@. Equxtion(4) is RdSYS IXW, bad on ~ s~dc fJ~s ~w. E = - ~ x ~ + d
- ~ x VT, wh~m ~ VCCtOr flis thc Wsvemc tkrrnockrnc cdfrcient multipliedby a unit vector in tk E
direction
For implementationintoANIMAL. Sk vector-model Eqs. (1) to(4) mustbewritsn out intocomponent
form.I& gcomerncvcrsxsdify of ANIMAL isxtsxined bywritingthecomponent equations inL- .irgencralorthogonal,
runihwar coordinateform xndmsk.ings coordirsxsc mnsformtxl i on fromtk USUXI (xl ,x3,~)~~~~j~
coordma~e systemtoa ftxcd cmnhss c system(f], ~3,t).1ti srcqtsi ml ttsxt tk ~Sfmti On rn~t~ti sfy
ax, .aXJ
= O. Ignoring Sk xxirnuthxl componentof &j. (4), tk wmposmt forms of Fiqs. (1) to (4) tkn
~ atl
a
# (h1h2h3~1X33 ~)+~
(33h2h3p[l -v:])++ (xl l ~ha~ [v3-vfl) 0 5)
: (~h2h3xi1x3301) + ; (x33h2h3~vI [1 - v:])
( h v [V3-V:l ) h~pv3(vl h~3x~J-v3h31x33
2 xl l hl 1P 1
+at3
~ (h2B2) = 0,
~ T ~ h3x33B2ati
+ 2h3x33 a~l
(6)
112
: (h1h2h3x1ix33P~3)+ A (
U,
~3h2h3v3 [v] -Vfl )
+ ~ (mh2 PV3[V3 - v:])
+ h2V] (v3h3,X33 vl h13x11)
ap+ 1
*n1h2xll 313 PO
~ (112B2) = O,
hlxl192 ~13 (7)
; (h, h2h3x11x33PC)+ ; (x33h2h3PC[vl - :])
a
~
(
X,1hl h2m[v,-vf]) +p~ (h,h3X,,V,)
[(
2h3x33
a? f11921 a
~ (h1h2x11v3)- ~ -~
+ p aE3
at,
+-
K atl
[h2g21
1 11
~oh2B2 U1 )]
a
[(
hlh2% al
fiTlB21 a
-
313
+
K at3
l h2Bzl
h3x33
#oh2Bj 3/ 3
)]
h3x33 -
[
h2#1911 3T
~ (h2B2)
~
. A (h2B2)+ ~
h1h2x11AoU1 MO at] atl
1
lid
: (h,h3x11x33B2)+ :
[h3x33Bdv@ f)] ; [hlxllgdv, -v:)]
a
h,xu
[(
1921 3T
-
u3
& ; (h2B2)+fl
h3x33
B2 a&3
)]
a
[(
3X33 ~ a
1921aT
-
)]
(h2B2)+# ~ ~ 0 -
ul ~ ~h2 atl
(9)
t9xl
~x3 ~ =
8hl b - 8h3 @= b,=,
In Eqs.(5) 10(9), tbcdefinitionsx,, = 8X1 d Vf = t23T
i3x3
w 33 w 3
~e 31 K* 1
havebeenintroducedfor convenicm. TIE notationsV1xndv refer to thevelocitycumpcmrnts in tk /1 ad /3
t
direction,rcspcctivelyo xndB2 is tbecomponent of UMgnetic Ad normxl to tk /,-/3 pk.
Tk conqmen~ Eqs. (S)to(9) xrcwhen essentially in tbc form in which sky xrc diffaenced. h is very
importxmtonotethxtonlyfmt xndsecondspxtixl dcrjvtivecof thedepc~ntv~~lcgpo vi, V30c, xndB2MCpfCK13t
Xod t&t mixed SkriVxtives of tbc form
& ~ ~ -O ~y ~~o~ Bq@# Pbyh Cff= ~ -
m
ckkd in as. (1) to (4) gcnerxliyinvolv; k-kixcd secondskivxtive.
113
Thecompsent Eqs. (5) to(9) cm beWrineninOXform
%+ (+)(w 0
(17)
hat %, f, ~, and~ amfive component vccIors,and
i = (p, v, , V3! t, B2).
(18)
h)) derivativesWM rCSpCCI to oneorthogonal coordinate(1 appcsuin ~ mtdOtdYdcri~atlves wih ~~ct 10tic
secondcoordinateg3appearini. Theswoxhcmatel}@ fmite-dtifemncewu~!ion$in A~IMAL cxssbCconside~
to have!heform
(19)
what ~;ckdcsignmsvaluesaI timetuk 6PM cmrdimtes(tll,t (h)k ~ EW. (19) ~d (z), ~ ~d ~ ~ sPa~~
fsnkc-difference approxunations to~ and~, respectively. EquxtiorIK(19) xrrd(20) showthestandardADI coupling
between unknownquantities. In Eq. (19), whichisusedtocdvanccthecalculations from1toP+ 1,theunkrsowrss are
dscvalues~~] xlongGlineof constant k; tie quantitiesGt k + 1andk - 1xrcknownquantitiessincetky havethe
superscript n. k @ (20), whichisusedtoadvancethecalculationsfromto to[n2, * unkno~ms~ ~ v~ues
~;z alonga lineof constamj; thequantitiesGI j+l andj-1 arcknownquantitiessin= hey hcvethesupcrscrip(
rs~l. Equations(19) and(20) arcin generalnonlinearfunctionsof& unknownquantitiesandtherefore CMISOI &
solveddirrxtl>. To solveEqs. (19) and(20), ANIMAL usesesscnsisdly a Newton-%sphson merhodasgivenby
~~g[on,2a ~ong o~m. Applic~tion of the ?+ewron-ftnphson methodto~. (19) gives~ Wation of tie fo~
(21)
wheretheadditional superscriptsf xnd f + 1indicatetheiterationnumberxndwhcmA, ~, and~ uc matrices.
Tbecaiculations rcponcdbyLindcmuthandKiUccn17catrbcconsidcmd asusingEq. (21) for 1?= Oonly.As
shownb) LindemuthandKiUccn,Eq. (21) for fi = OgivesM Gpproximationformally second-order accuratewifh
respect tosheCimestcp At = tn+ - F.Repeatedapplicationof Eq. (21) untilconvergence isachievsxl doesnolincrease
sheformalaccuracyof the solution.andas. ( 19)and(20) rut, whenusedtogether, stillof accom&or&x xccum:ywith
respect tothetimesmp.However,thebasicreasonforsltcsuccess of ADI isthattheerrcrsinnud:cedononetirncstep
arcccnccllcdonthefollowing simcstcp. Thisxppammlyrquims thetwoapproximations sotheX of Eq. (17) tohave
theaarncvalues,xsindicmdinEqs.(19) and(20). IfEq. (21) isnotiteratedtosomesonofconvcrgcncc, thenclcffcct
istouscawmcwhatdifferentvsducfor%in(20) thanisusedin(19). Experienceduringthecodedevelopment process
Isasshownthatfailurc toitemrcintroduccsunwmstcd, nonphysical effutsthatdfcct tbealculations unlewthc timcsscp
is reducedconsiderably.
Note IIIIM~. (19) or (20), cmsidcmdalone,isanapproximation tothecompletephysical system, Eq. (17).
ANIMAL, as IISpredecessor,
f? das nol Uw ~tionaj timeslepor splittingprocedures, WhettbyOnephysical
proces4r onedimension-is mad asif theotherswerenotpresent.Exphncc duringcodedevelopment has
showninstances wherethecoupling&t wcnphysical pmcesscs ordimensions wassufficientlystrongthatafractional
timesrcpmethodwouldhaverequireda considerably reducedtimesteptomaintainaccuracy. Forexample,situations
havebeenobservedwheretheenergyirsa=~ dueto Ohmicheatingwasbalancedby theheatlossdueto thermal
conduction, sotlsmt nonetchangeoccumed, t ndyeteitherprocessb) itselfwouldhaveledtoodmsticchange in the net
energy.
Equation inappropriate onlywhm 1 <j <Jand 1 <k <K. ANIMAL csIsts boundaryconditionsinthe
fonts
(22)
(23)
Equations (21) to (23) form G act of linear. siasulrarreous,
uidiagonal algebmcequationsitsthe unknown
quantities~~~1. e1 far 1=j =J aIongaIineofconstant k, 1 <k <K.Themctbodof solutioninvolvescalcsdating
ES and~S suchthat
Substitutionof Eq. (26) imoEq. (21) leadsto thescsultthat
and
[
= n+1,fS+ (~ )?+10*G Ej- , :k
~f:lo = (A1)J,k
1
-1
n+] e .
1j,k
(26)
(27)
(28)
(29)
(30)
115
UsingEqs (29) a..d (30) for J-1 andJ2 in Eq. (26) and substitutinginto&q. (23) leadsto
(31)
@is the solutionprocedurealonga line ofcons[~~ k istoset andstoresheboundarycondition~. (22), cafsula!e~,=,
~. and~ofq.(21 ) forj = 2, calculareand S(ORq and~2 fmm tis. (27) and(2g), repctisively calculate~, E, C, and
V of Eq. (21), andcalculateandSIOIC the~sand~sofEqs.(29) and(30) for 2< j < J. UJ :S tindctild fp~ .
7! (31)4A allaher UJSISRC~CUISl~in~m~ingordcrof] fromIUI. (26). NoIethaIit isnotrrcccsarsry tostorcA, B, ,
andV foreach]aslongastheboundaryconditions havehe formgiveninEqs.(22) and(23). Also,notcthsteachk line
is computedirrdeprdentl).
Equations(21) to(31), asGmethodof solvingEq. (19), gi-vcthebasic_ANIMALalgorithmfor advancing
thecalculasioufromtimetnlotn+1.
Thealgoridrrrrbcgins byscttingU~J1,O = U~k . ?bcnfork = 2(~r K-l)Eqs.
1(
(21) to (31) amappliedrxqrccisivcly urrsil ,
~;; l.Q+l
iJ:; lQ
)
/ u:~l~ < & where 6 is typically
s x 10-4. Tkn eachsuccessive k isadvancedsimilarly.WhenaUk suchthat2 Gk GK 1have&n athmmuf, h
boundaryconditionsEqs. (24) arrd(25) areusedto setvaluesat k = 1 andk = K.
To advancethecalculationfromtimeto+l to tn+2, tbcNewton-lUtphson rncthodisappliedto Eq. (20).
Boundaryconditionshavethesameformasin Eqs. (22) to (24), with thcSU~pt n+l ~pl~ by SS+2. ~
~uationsusrrcsponding to Eqs. (21) and(26) arc
= n+2,Q , @+2,Q+ I + (~ )g+2, E, @2,e+ I + (~ )9+2,Q. @+2.Q+1
A3)J~ J,k 3 j.k j,k+ 1 3 J,k J,k- 1
= (V3);:VJ
and
(32)
(33)
respectively. Tbcderivationof expressions for ~~~20Q. ~~c~21e . ~~,~20Q, F~o~2q , ~~~2-Qsmnespondirrg to Eqs.
(27) to (31) ISsuasghrfonvard. Tbus, &#gori@ns for solving both @. (19) and(20) ~=id~nsicalexceptfor ths
mcrkodof establishing thecoefficientsE2H, andFof Eqs.(22) to(25) andthecocffrcients A, B, C. and~ of Eqs.(21)
md (32). (Rigomrslyspeaking, ~ andV art not coefficients.)Theonlyotherdifferc- inthetwoalgorithmsis
wheredsccompu*dresulrs, Eqs.(26) arsd(33), amssorcd, Tbcsimilarityinthetwoafgonthmsisusedtominimhethe
codingin ANIMAL.
A formularu!byEqs.( 19):0(33). ANIMALs basicslgorithrnisquitegencraf andDA notbercstrictcdtos
fsve~mponentsolutionvector~ asindicatedinEq. (18). ANIMAL isinfact set up to cslcuhtc subsets of themodel
equations. Tlscfollowingsubsetscanbe selectedin additionto Eq. (18):
(1) ~ = (p. c, B) irsone-dimension, i.e., oncdimen=ional diffusivetraxssport.
(2) ~ = (P. t, B) k two dimensions.
(3) u = (p, Vl, c), i.e., orscdimcnsional hydmdynsmics.
(4) u = (p, Vl, V3, c), i.e., two-dimensional hydrodynamics.
(5) ~ = (p, v,, c, B2). i.e., one-dimensional MH23.
For Eq. (18) andeachof thesubsetsa varietyof physicsoptionsamavailable;e.g., ~ = (p, v,, c) cur be ideal
orredimensional hydrodynamics if thethermalumductivityandradiationamsettozero.In addition,becauseof the
gcrscrality, tbcA!WMAL algorithmissetuptohandleasmarryastenvsriablesinanticipationof theadditionof mom
dcpcrsdcmvtiables. Forexample,mostof thestructuretohsndlcadditional magneticfieldsxmsportcnfa BJarrd. B3is
tidy in dsccode(ANIMALs pmdc.cessor
17did ~ fut c~culamBI ~ B3); whatismissingismerelydmg to
skwxninctheappropriatecoefficients, andthiswo~ bea relatively@nor fractionof* entireding.
1!is impxtant to notethatfor theoncdirncnsiorsal subsets, Y of Eqs. (19) and (20) arc identicallyzmo.
Hence,in onedimcnsional cxfculations, ANIMAL usesa fullyimplicitmethod(Eq. (19)]to dvmcc fromtn to to+]
andthenANIMAL usesafulJyqlicit method[Eq. (20)] totdvancefromtn+t tota+2. BycombiningEqs.(19) and
(20), orK w seethat the oncdirrtcnsiotuldifferenceqtrntionsrelatingW+2 to W, for n even, appearto bs
Crank-Nicholaon,2 whcms thoserelatinglP+3 to LP+l qrpcarto be leapfrog.2
116
FI GURES:
Fi gs. l (a-d): Shadow=m and si mul ati on resul ts, HDZP-I (earl y): (l a) Exper-
i mental shadowgrams, HDZP-1, shot 3863: l eft-hand i mage, z30 nsec (z50 kA);
ri ght-hand i mage, 40 nsec (.u65 kA); each gri d bl ock i s 0.1 mm square.
117
0..
,..
15 G
E
m
P
00 G
00 G 05 9 10 G 15 G 1
(mm)
G 9
Fi g. l b: Si mul ati on shadowgram from secti on of same si ze as l a, HDZP-1, 30
nsec (5OkA).
118
19 *
15 .
~
E
10
E
N
05 G
00 9
00 . 05 G 10
r (mm)
15 G 19 9
Fi g. I c: Correspondi ng si mul ati on densi ty contours, 30 nsec (50 kA); ri ght-most
sol i d contour (0.01 kg/m3) contai ns 9570of the total mass; dotted cxmtours,from
ri ght: 0.012, 0.036, 0.23, 1.3 kg/m3.
119
19 G
15 *
n
E
E
10 G
N
05 G
o
00 9 05 G 10 9 15 9 19 G
r (mm)
Fi g. I d: Si mul ati onmdal current amtours, 30 naec(50 kA); ri ght-most sol i d con-
tour (48 kA) contai ns 95% of the total axi al current; right-moatdotted contour:
20 kA.
120
Fi gs. 2(a-b): Shadowgrm, HDZP-I (l ate): (2a) Experi ment~ shadowgrams,
HDZP-1, shots 3876,7: l eft-hand i mage (3876), z65 nsec (~120 kA); ri ght-hand
i mage (7), *8O nscc (*150 kA); each gri d bl ock i s 0.1 mm squan .
121
E-
E
19 m
15 m
10 G
05 .
I r I 1 1 1 I 1 r
.
.
.
!
.
1
1 1 1 1 1 t I
00 .
1 1
00 .
05 9
10
15 .
19
(mm)
G
Fi g. 2b: Si mul ati on shadowgr~ HDZP-1, 65 nsec (120 kA).
Fi gs. 3(a-b): Shadowgrms, HDZP-11: (3a) Experi mental shadow~am, HDZP-
11,shot 194, -5 nsec (*50 kA); each gri d bl ock i s 0.25 mm square.
123
20 .
15 .
z
E
K
~ 1. 0
05 .
1
0. 5 1.0 1. 5 2.0 25
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(mm)
Fi g. 3b: Si mul ati on shadowgranq HDZP-11, 12 wc (160 kA i n 1.2 MA ramp).
Fi gs. 4(a-e): I nterferogrU and si mul ati on resul ts, HDZP-I and-I I : (4a) Exper-
i mental i nterferogr=, HDZP-11, shot 205, z20 nsec (*200 kA); each gri d bl ock
i s 0.25 mm square.
125
25 .
20 G
15 G
05 .
. .
-
m
(mm)
Fi g. 4b: Si mul ati on i nterferogram, HDZP-11, 32 nsec (230 kA).
25 .
20 G
15 G
.
.
.
b
. .
.
.
05 .
00 .
00 G 05 G 10 G 15 G 20 G 25 G
(mm)
Fi g. 4c: Si mul ati on i nterferogr~ HDZP-1, 50 nsec (85 kA).
I
127
N
25 9
20 .
1. 5
1
0
0
.
Ill
WI
1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I 1 I 9 1
1
10 G 15 G
r (mm)
20 9 25 G
Fig. 4d: Correspond% simulation density contours, HDZP--, 50 nse (85 kA);
ri ght-most dotted contour: 0. 007 k~/i .3,
ri ght-n~ostscl .i d c~,l l our : ~ (}S Lg/msc
128
25 .
20 G
.- E
it
I I
k
I
t., A s
0
I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 f 1
I
05 10 15 20 25
G 9 9 G 9
r (mm)
Fi g. 4e: Si mul ati on axi al current contours, HDZP-1, 50 nsec (85 kA); l eft-most
sol i d contour: 75 kA; dotted contours, from ri ght: 60, 45, 30 kA.

4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
1
I 1 1 1 1 I 1 1
OOO.O 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
z (mm)
Fi gs. 5(a-c): Li ne densi ty VS,
axi al l ocati on: (5a) Experi mental l y computed
total l i ne densi ty vs. axi al l ocati on, HDZP-11, shot 205, z20 nsec (z200 kA).
130
E
L)
x
40 .
35 G
30 m
25 .
20 .
15 .
10 G
05 .
fi 1 & I t 1 1 1 1 1 1 I n 1 n 1 m
00#
009 05 w 10 # 1. 5 1. 8
z(mm)
Fig. 5b: Simulation line density, HDZP-11, 32 nsec (230 kA).
% 2.2
0
r-
20
-0
18
x
16 m
14 .
08 .
06 9
04 9
02 G
r
I
1
I
1
1
8
1
m
1
8
1
1
1
1
I
D
00 w
00G
n 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 n
05 9 10 9
z(mm)
Fi g. 5c: Si mul ati on l i ne densi ty, HDZP-1, 44 nsec (70 kA).
132
15 G 18 9
,~3
v T : v 1 1 v 1
J o
/oc
*
* , 8 1 1 v 8 .
#
-------
.!
Fi gs. 6(a-b): Resul ts of twetemperatwe HDZP-11 si mul ati ons (6a) Average
(mass-weighted) electron (dotted) and ion (solid) temperature (eV) vs. ti me
(nsec); (6b) Peak el ectron (dotted) and i on (sol i d) temperatures (eV) vs. ti me
(nsec).
133
I
TOTAL amen
Fi gs. 7(a-b): Resul ts of expl i ci t Hal l term HDZP-11 si mul ati ons: (7a) Axi al
current contours, 2.6 nsec.
m
-5.0-100
-101
I
-1.51]01
I
t r ~
-2.0.]01
-2.5.]($
1
-3.o~l ol
I
r(m)+
PHI UM.FLD.
Fi g. 7b: Magneti c fi el d (Tesl a) vs. radi us (m) at axi al mi dsecti on, 4 nsec.
135
.
. ---- -
4
-----
T
B(t)
u~
b
- /
~ne
2%
T ~>o
-
--- ---
B(t=O)=-1.5T.
B(t=O)=O
x-+
Fi g. 8: KMC magneti c penetrati on probl em: At ti rne=O, perpendi cul ar mag-
neti c fi el d i s -1.5 Tesl a on l eft htdf-phne and Oon right half-plane;fieldpenetrates
at speed uW/2along density ramp channel for time>O.
136
5.~nl(r2
4. 50=10-*
.-.:.. .
q.m=lo-z
- , I t II I It J .1 n
* II v#\ * I b II . * I O. - -1 .8X*O
. -1. 6SE400
3.50NI0-2
- -1. 4M400
- -! .22E+O0
3.00=10-2
- -1 .02E+O0
...- ..
. -8. 15E-01
2.93.10-2 *
- -6. 12E-01
. -4 .Of)f-ol
-2.04E-01
].50,10-2
10-2
n
PHI MAG. FLD. MI N=-2. 039E+O0
~x. o.wo~~o
ZTPY2 -o 361 TIME= 1.001E49
Fi gs, 9(a-c): KMC probl em usi ng i mpl i ci t donor-cel l
penetrati on contours (fi el d va!ues i n Tesl a) at 1 WC.
Hal l ter m: (9a) Magneti c
137
- s .
G
I
I
,
.
-. -.
,3 I
. . . . . . . .
. ~1
G
L
8. :;:::~.- ....-..
......... .
.-..........-.-.,- .,:,
......
~\. -. , . . -,.,!
w- - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - . F d
e.
.
,: G

1 1 J m
L
1 r I I
.,
N
. . . . .
-------
,*
.
*
8 *-
. -. ,
-..
-..
. .=2
MAG. FLD. MlN--z .054E+O0 MAX= o .000E+oo
-o 694 TIME- 2.000E+9
Fi g. W: Magneti c penetrati on contours at 2 nsec.
138
x-+
Pill MAC. FLD.
()
m
2Tn2 -o 361
T= l@OOfE~ 9(o@B200 1
Fi g. 9c: Magneti c fi el d (Tesl a) vs. distance x(m) alcmg dotted line shown in
Fi g. 9b, where y=4 cm, at 1 neec.
139
T
.
%50=10-2
[
.-- . -.--.....--..-...,
. . . .
3. 50 S10-2
E
a
t.:: , f, ,, 6,. .
. , . ., . . ,.8,.,, I,,
, . . . : . . .. . . .. . . . .
rb
9 . * . . . u. . . . . . . , I
. . .
?..*.! - L# ;a~.%, 8:: : ;;;
t,
, . ,, ,,
,, , , .,
,. . . .*
[
0. .0 ,,
. e , , . , , ,
# tl e. .
3.00=10-2
---- --. - .1~ D! . 8 so , ; .
. ... .. . . . . ..
G, u G
2.00=10-2
1
1.50810-2
1
t
,, ,, ,, ,
lo Gn **9
,, ., ,, , ,, ,, , * : )
$. ,, ,, . ; ;0 .
,1 ,, ,, . .
i
,.. I
,, ,, ,
.,
.
\
:
3
OTTED
1
-2.07E+O0
-} . 87E+o0
-1 .66E+O0
a
- -1. 45i+oo
G -1 .24E+O0
G SOL 10
G -1 .04E+O0
- -0. 29E-01
- -6.22E-01
G 4. lsf-ol
-2.07E-01
- -6. 75E-15
2 .07C-01
4. 15E-01
6.22E-01
o.29f-ol
1 .04E+00
PHI MAC. fLO. Ml N--2 .073E+O0
~x. O.WOE*O
ZBGY2 -2 1357 TIME= 2.000E-09
()
m
Fi g. 10: KMC probl em, i mpl i ci t donor-cel l Hal l ter m, Az/2 (ti er spati al gri d):
Magneti c penetrati on contours (fi el d val ues i n Tesl a) at 2 nsec. .
140
5.00810-2
OTlfD
-2.51 E+oo
, t $ meu. I I : I o * * * * ~ # 9~* 91*
-2 .26E+O0
\ * 9 II* lo ~s
-2 .OIE+OO
3.50=10-2
-1. 76E+O0
-t . SIE+OO
SOL10
3.00810-2
-1.2. :+00
. - . - -1 .00E+OO
2.5@@
-7.54E41
-5.02f-ol
-2 .51C-01
-6. 75E-15
2 .Slc-ol
5. 02E-01
7 .54f-ol
9.Ooc+oo
1.26E+O0 [
1,50s10-2 -
.
.
,0-2
1 9,
:0
8*
I
81
~.,,,,,,,,h j- .L.t.,j
:1
5.00=10-3
II
81
1
n
x-b
PHI MAC. FLD. MIM--2 .512E+O0
WK=O.000~+00
2TYY2 -o 694 TIME= 2.000Z-09
()
m
Fi g. 11: KMC probl em, i mpl i ci t hybri d donor-cel l /spacecentered Hal l ter m:
Magneti c penetrati on contours (fi el d val ues i n T-1a) at 2 neec.
141
S.ahlo+
Zamu+
I
Fi gs. 12(a-b): Hal l MHD axi al boundary effects (HDZP-11 si mul ati on): (12a)
Axi al current contours pi nched at anode (bottom), 4 nsec.
142
WI M&no.
r(rxz)~
Fi g. 12b: Magnetic field (Tesl a) vs. radius (m) for axial locations adjacent to
anode (line A) and cathode (line B); piling-up at anode, 4 nsec.
143
.
0
:
\
:
;
:
i
f
r
,.
b
:.
1.
m
.
1
.
0
.
:
o
i
Dcmlw
Zlvl
I
a
.
4
..
.
.
.
: ii
.
;
.
.
.
.0
,
*:
~1
olMi
Fi g. 13: Densi ty (top) and axi al current (bottom) contours, HDZP-11si mul ati ons
(8 nsec), wi th (l eft) and wi thout (ri ght) Hal l ter m: Hal l -dri ven smal l -wavel ength
i nstabi l i ty devel opment.
144
tLC- TtW.
Fi}*. 14: Full Hall MHD model energy convection - H
simulation (6.5 nsec); (top) temperature contours; (bottom) temperature (eV)
vs. radius (m) for axial locations adjacent to anode (line A) and cathode (line
B).
1
all Moons.
?91B- -o
0 f- 0.000C* Ko-ts, 1
Uc - m.
Sam
-o 0 T- O.owc oaCO-15. 1
Fig. 15: Initial conditions far deuterium shell implosion simuhtions: density
(kg/m3), temperature (eV~, and magnetic field (Tesla) vs. r (m) at axial
midsection.
146
M
Fig. 16: Conditions at peak convergence of deuterium shell implosion simulation
(54 nsec): temperature (eV), magnetic field (Tesla), and number density (cm-3)
vs. radius (m) at axial midsection.
1
Fig. 17: Experimentally prescribed
aluminum POW simulation.
- T
2
c u
148
(Amps) v t (see)for all-
Fig. 18: Aluminum exploding-wire simulation, *69 nsec density, tempera-
ture, current contours.
1
F
t
E
x
Fig. 19: Aluminum POWsim~ation, -69nsec: demity, temwrature, current
contours.
1
I I I I I I I t r I I I
I I 1 , I I * I
()
s
TOTALCURRENTCHANNELR TYPE 1 S.000E-01 VS. TIME
ZAL04
Figs. 20(a-b): Radius (m) within which 90% of total axial c.wrent is contained
vs. time (see), l-d POW simulations: (20a) Ahuninum POW simulation.
1
n
a
D
+
b
I
b
()
sec
TOTALmWTOIANNELRIYPE 1 9.000E41VS.TIME
ZOP06
Fig. 20b: Deuterium POW simulation.
1
REFERENCES:
1.
9
*.
1
1
1
An excellent account and bibliography of early Z-pinch theory and experi-
ment can be found in Chapters 3 and 7 of S. Glasstone and R. H. Lovberg,
Contro!led Thermonuclear Reactions (R. E. Krieger Publishing Co., Mal-
abar, Florida, reprint 1975); additional fundamental papers on the Z-pinch
include References 5-7, 18, and 87.
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J. E. Hammel and D. W. Scudder, in Proceedings of the Fourteenth Euro-
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%aint 1987, edited by F. Engelmann and J. L. Alvarez Rivas (European
Phj,sical Society, Petit-Lancy, Switzerhmd, 1987), p. 4
J. E. Hammel, in Dense Z-Pinches, edited by N.
N. Rostoker (.4merican Institute of Physics, New
R. S. Pease, Proc. Phys. Soc. B 7 (
S. I. F3raginskii, Sov. Phys. JETP 6,494 (1958).
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2 1 (
J. E. Hammel, D. W. Scudder, and J. S. Shlachter, Nucl. Inst. Meth. 207,
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A. E. Robson, in Dense Z-Pinches (Ref. 4), p. 362.
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(J. E. Hammel, Los Alarnos National Laboratory Report No. LA-6203-MS
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
( N Prices: PC A02/MF AO1). Copies may be ordered from the
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Lovberg, R. Riley,
Schemes (Ref. 13), p.
Shlachter, J. E. Harnmel, F. Venneri, R. Chrien, R.
in Phvsics of Alternatile Mamwtic Crmfinrmcnt
519.
hf. G. Haines, in Phvsics of Alternative Magnetic Confinement Schemes
(Ref. 13), p. 277.
Numerous theoretical and computational investigations, including early
work by this author, have suggested m=l growth rate reduction or stabi-
lization for given plasma profiles (see, for example, Refs. 21-23,25,26,30);
none have made a definitive link between these results and actual experi-
ments, which is the intent of the present work, for the m=O mode.
E. S. F i G H M and A. E. Danger, Phys. Fluids B 3, 2835
(
Kadorntsev, in Riwiews of Plasma Physics, edited by M. A. Leontovich
(Consultants Bureau, New York, 1966), kol. 2, p. 165.
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1
23. A. H. Glasser, J. E. Harnmel, H. R. Lewis, I. R. Lindemuth, R. H. Lovberg,
G. H. McCall, R. A. Nebel, P. Rosenau, D. W. Scuddcr, P. T. Sheehey, and
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2 G. O. Spies, Plasmn Phys. Controlled FWion 30, 1025 (1988).
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