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Conjugate heat transfer

calculations on a GT rotor blade
for industrial applications Part I:
Equivalent internal fluid network
setup and procedure description
BY ANTONIO ANDREINI, CARLO CARCASCI,
BRUNO FACCHINI / "S STECCO" DEPARTMENT OF
ENERGY ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF FLORENCE
ALESSANDRO CIANI, LUCA INNOCENTI, ALESSIO BONINI
/ ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY, GE OIL & GAS
Proceedings of ASME TURBO EXPO 2012: Power for Land, Sea & Air
GT2012 June 11-15, 2012, Copenhagen, Denmark
Abstract
Over the years, gas turbine design has been focused on
continually increasing the maximum cycle temperature. This has
been driven by the desire for increased cycle efficiency and
power output. Thus, turbine component heat load management has become an essential activity and a reliable procedure for evaluating blade
and vane metal temperatures which is a crucial aspect for safe component design. This two-part work presents a three-dimensional conjugate
heat transfer procedure developed in the framework of an internal GE Oil & Gas research project.
The procedure, applied to the first rotor blade of the MS5002E gas turbine, consists of a conjugate heat transfer analysis in which the internal
cooling system was modeled by an in-house, one-dimensional thermo-fluid network solver (developed by the University of Florence); the
external heat loads and pressure distribution were evaluated through 3D CFD and the heat conduction in the solid through a 3D FEM solution.
The first part of this work is focused on the description of the procedures in terms of setup of the equivalent fluid network model of the internal
cooling system and its tuning through experimental measurements of the blade flow function. A first computation of the blade metal
temperature was obtained by coupling with CFD computations carried out on a de-featured geometry of the blade. The results are compared
with data from a metallographic analysis performed on a blade operated in an actual engine. Some discrepancies are observed between the
data sets, suggesting the necessity to improve the models, mainly from the CFD side.
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Nomenclature
C Discharge coefficient []
D Hydraulic Diameter [m]
HTC Heat Transfer Coefficient [W/(m K)]
k Thermal Conductivity [W/(mK)]
m Mass flow rate [kg/s]
P Pressure [Pa]
R Gas constant [J/(kg/K)]
s Thickness [m]
S Abscissa [m]
T Temperature [K]
Acronyms
BEM Boundary Element Method
CHT Conjugate Heat Transfer
FEM Finite Element Method
FVM Finite Volume Method
LE Leading Edge
TE Trailing Edge
Greek Symbols
Global pressure ratio []
Introduction
In order to improve the performance of gas turbines, in terms of higher
thermodynamic efficiency and power output, combustor exit temperatures must
be increased and turbine cooling flow rates reduced. An accurate assessment of
the thermal load is key to correctly predicting the life of the components. Turbine
blades are among the most critical components as they are exposed to the
maximum temperature of the cycle and to high centrifugal loads. Low Cycle
Fatigue analysis is determined by the static load and thermal stress, while the
damage caused by oxidation and corrosion is directly dependent on the metal
temperature of the blade [25]. Considering that a small variation of the blade
temperature leads to a strong reduction of its duration, accurate numerical
methods and tools are required.
The main features of numerical approaches for heat transfer assessment to solve
the fluid dynamics of external (main flow) and internal flows (cooling flow) and solid
conduction can be divided into two main categories according to the method used
to solve the specific equation set of the problem: the Coupled Approach and the
De-coupled or Segregated Approach. The former consists of the simultaneous
solution of the equation set that characterizes different fields. The great advantage
of this method is that the coupling surfaces become part of the solution domain so
that continuity of the temperature and heat flux at the interfaces is implicitly
guaranteed. This approach may lead to difficult convergence and unsteady
computation [29]. In the De-coupled or Segregated Approach, each field is solved
separately to produce the boundary conditions for the others. Therefore,
information exchange at the interface of contiguous domains becomes necessary.
Since both internal and external heat transfer coefficient values depend on the solid wall temperature, an iterative procedure is
D
2
Heat capacity ratio []
Subscripts
aw Adiabatic wall
c Coolant
exp Experimental data
ext External
int Internal
m Mainstream
TBC Thermal Barrier Coating
w Wall
0 Total
Superscripts
eq Equivalent or modified values
* Reference quantity
necessary to ensure the continuity of the temperature and heat fluxes at the
fluid-solid interface. Hence, in each iteration, the heat transfer coefficients and film
effectiveness are computed assuming a fixed wall temperature profile.
There are several works concerned with conjugate heat transfer (CHT) problems on
gas turbine components. Bohn et al. in [8] [7] [6] have presented their Conjugate
Calculation Technique (CCT) applied to gas turbine vanes and blades, while
Takahashi et al. [26] have applied conjugate analysis of heat transfer inside and
outside a first rotor blade of a gas turbine to predict the blade metal temperature.
Heidmann et al. [15] has numerically simulated the three-dimensional coupled
internal/external flow field of a realistic film cooled turbine blade. Li and Kassab
[21] [20], and Kassab and co-workers [17] have proposed an alternative approach
to the fluid and thermal problem combining the FVM approach to solve the fluid
domain and the Boundary Element Method (BEM) to solve solid conduction. So the
main conjugate heat transfer analysis methods are based on the finite volume
method (FVM), finite element method (FEM), boundary element method (BEM) or by
a combination.
An alternative approach involves a quasi one-dimensional thermo-fluid network approach to solve the internal fluid cooling system.
A one-dimensional model to solve for the internal cooling passages represents an accurate and robust design instrument, which
allows sensitivity analysis, especially for preliminary consideration or optimization methods, due to the short calculation time.
Martin and Dulikravich [22], Jelisavcic and Martin et al. [16] have used a flow network approach to perform a multidisciplinary
optimization of internal cooling passages. Kumar and Prasad [18] have adopted the flow network approach to simulate a turbine
blade cooling system, and Carcasci and co-workers [10] [9] have performed a blade-to-blade thermal analysis of a PGT10 gas
turbine rotor blade and a PGT2 gas turbine vane. Zecchi et al. [28] has presented a preliminary design stage procedure involving a
flow network approach to perform a conjugate heat transfer analysis of NASA-C3X test case.
In such procedures involving a fluid network model, the tuning phase of the fluid network plays a key role because of the difficulty of
estimating all the internal pressure losses in the cooling system. In fact, while distributed losses can be predicted with sufficient
accuracy by correlations, it is complex to correctly estimate with sufficient accuracy the local losses such as the discharge
coefficient (C ) of the hole because of the dependence on numerous parameters. The discharge coefficient summarize all the losses
that limit the actual mass flow rate through a hole and is defined as the ratio of the actual flow rate to the ideal flow rate through
the orifice, in which the ideal flow rate is calculated assuming an isoentropic one-dimensional expansion from the coolant total inlet
pressure (P ) to the main flow static pressure (P ). The resulting expression is:
(1)
In order to correctly evaluate the hole mass flow rates and thus, the heat transfer coefficients, the characterization of the hole
discharge coefficients becomes a fundamental activity.
Recently, Schulz et al. [13] performed several experiments to analyze the behavior of C in a wide range of geometrical and fluid-
dynamic configurations using the jet-to-cross flow momentum ratio as the main parameter to reduce the data. They assumed that
pressure losses inside the hole and at the hole entry and exit were independent. They found that the increase in the pressure ratio
leads to higher discharge coefficients while by increasing the angling in both the stream and span directions, the loss at the hole
entry increases and consequently, the discharge coefficients decrease. According to Thole et al. [27], the assumption that the
sources of pressure losses are independent seems not to be universally valid: the hole must be sufficiently long to permit the
re-axialization of the flow that is distorted at the inlet by the cross-flow before the outlet is reached. From the evidence of Hay et al.
[14], L/d = 6 is certainly sufficient. More recently, Andreini et al. [3] have proposed a C correlation for an aero-engine effusion
combustor liner, while Andreini and Da Soghe [5] have focused on impingement jets for Active Clearance Control (ACC) systems by
means of CFD RANS analysis.
In this work we will assess an iterative procedure developed to solve a conjugate heat transfer problem in a de-coupled way in
which the internal cooling system was modeled using an in-house, one-dimensional thermo-fluid network solver, the external heat
loads and pressure distribution were evaluated through 3D CFD and the heat conduction through the solid was computed using a
3D FEM solution.
Procedure description
CHT3D is an iterative procedure for performing a conjugate heat transfer analysis of gas turbine blades in a de-coupled way. The
procedure involves the interaction between various codes, each of which solves a specific part of the conjugate heat transfer
analysis. The simplified diagram of Figure 1 shows the main codes involved in the procedure.
In the first step, a trial constant blade temperature is imposed. Using this temperature profile, the internal fluid cooling channels are
solved through a one-dimensional flow network approach. The internal pressure, mass flow rate, adiabatic temperature and heat
transfer coefficients are thus computed. The external loads in terms of adiabatic temperature, heat transfer coefficient and
pressure distribution are provided by 3D CFD. A specific tool computes an equivalent pattern of adiabatic wall temperature and heat
transfer coefficients considering the effectiveness profile calculated by the one-dimensional flow network and the thermal barrier
coating data. The thermal FEM solution gives the new blade temperature pattern. Using this new temperature profile, the entire
procedure is repeated until convergence is reached.
D
0c m
D
D
Figure 1
Iterative calculation scheme
Generator Drive Mechanical Drive
Output Shaft (MW) 31.1 32
SC Efficiency (%) 35.0 36.0
Pressure Ratio 17:1 17:1
Heat Rate (kJ/kWh) 35% 36%
NO Emission (ppm) 15 15
Exh. Gas Flow (kg/s) 101 101
Exh. Gas Temperature (C) 510 510
Load Rotated Speed (rpm) 3000/3600 5714
Table 1
General MS5002E machine performance at ISO conditions
Further details of the setup of each code will be explained in
the following section showing an application of the entire
procedure to an industrial case.
Description of the test case
The subject component is a first stage blade of the MS5002E gas
turbine designed by GE Oil & Gas; the expected performance of the
machine is reported in Table 1.
The cooling system is based on two independent fluid flow
networks (Figure 2). The acronym LE will be used for the fluid
network near the leading edge, while that near the trailing edge
will be referred to with the acronym TE. The cooling system is
characterized by a system of ribbed radial tubes (serpentine
channel), a cold bridge with shower-head and shaped hole in
proximity to the leading edge and several axial tubes (slots) to
discharge the exhaust air at the trailing edge of the blade.
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This paper was prepared for presentation at the ASME TURBO EXPO 2012 held in Copenhagen, Denmark, 11-15 June 2012.
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Conjugate heat transfer calculations on a GT rotor blade for industrial applications Part I:
Equivalent internal fluid network setup and procedure description
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Figure 2
Conceptual internal cooling network
Figure 3
General DoE model
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Flow network setup
The internal fluid cooling system was modeled using an
in-house 1D fluid network solver; details of the code and
examples of its use can be found in [18] and [10].
Once the cooling network was appropriately modeled,
tuning with the experimental flow function is necessary to
ensure that the numerical model and real component have
the same fluid dynamic characteristics. The experimental
flow function, in terms of reduced mass flow rate:
and pressure ratio , was measured on a static test rig at
adiabatic conditions by GE Oil & Gas. Estimating the
discharge coefficients became a fundamental activity for
tuning the experimental flow function. Due to the complexity
of the blade drilling geometry configuration (diameter and
length of the holes, hole inclination and orientation, shape
of the holes), internal and external flow condition
correlations (pressure ratio, Mach number, Reynolds number
of the cross-flow) available in the literature cannot predict with sufficient accuracy the value of the C . Therefore, the tuning of the
numerical flow function was performed in a global sense, where C of the holes were grouped into several categories depending on
the hole typology in which the values of the C for each category were the same. In particular, the holes in the LE flow network were
grouped into five categories:
C C of shower-head holes;
C C of impingement holes;
C C of film cooling shaped holes;
C C of bleeding holes on curve (dust holes);
C C of discharge tip holes (PS tip holes).
while the TE flow network holes were grouped into four
categories:
C C of axial discharge slot on TE;
C C of film cooling holes;
C C of bleed holes on curve (dust hole);
C C of discharge tip holes (PS tip holes).
The flow network tuning was carried out with analytical and
statistical tools in order to obtain the maximum information
with the least number of tests. Due to the simplicity, flexibility and rapidity of the fluid network solver, it was decided to apply the
Design of Experiments (DoE) approach.
DoE considers the system as a black box that works a transformation of input variables into one or more outputs (Figure 3) [23].
DoE is helpful for understanding the direct influence and cross influence of each C on the flow network behavior. Since the LE and
TE flow networks were physically separated, two independent DoEs were performed. The tests were carried out on both the leading
and trailing edge flow networks with full-factorial experiments, so every possible combination of input factors was considered. This
procedure allows the values of the controllable variables (the C values) to be determined in order to have the response as close as
possible to the desired value.
The values of C used in the simulations, 0.6, 0.7 and 0.8, are comparable to those presented in the literature.
The response parameter is the Average Error between the numerical and experimental flow function defined as:
D
D
D
D,shw D
D,imp D
D,shaped D
D,bleed D
D,tip bleed D
D,ax-tubes D
D,film D
D,bleed D
D,tip bleed D
D
D
D
Figure 4
Main effects plot of LE flow network average error vs C
Figure 5
Interaction plot of LE flow network average error vs C
Figure 6
Flow Function LE comparison between experimental and
numerical results
(2)
The MATLAB statistic toolbox was used to post-process the output data.
Leading Edge flow network DoE
For the Leading Edge (LE) flow network 35 = 243 experiments (flow
function), a total of 31518 fluid network runs were performed
considering 13 points for each flow function. As shown in Figure 4,
which reports the main effects plot, the most important factors are
C ,shd and C , imp, since changes in these C values cause a severe
change in the output response. This is due to the high rate of air flow
that passes through these holes. The others C do not affect the
output significantly; this is explained by the low mass flow rate that
leaks from shaped, bleed and tip holes. The flow rate through the tip
holes is very small because most of the cooling air leaks from the
shower-head system through the cold brige system.
In Figure 5 the interaction plot is presented. A strong relationship
between C ,shd and C , imp can be seen, as expected. This is
reasonable because the flow rate through the shower-head holes is
determined by the flow rate through the impingement holes of the
cold bridge.
Starting from the parameter set found through the DoE methodology, additional sensitivity analyses on C , imp were performed due
to the importance of this factor, and a new configuration of C values is shown in Table 2. The comparison between the numerical
and experimental flow-function is reported in Figure 6.
C C C C C
0.7 0.65 0.8 0.7 0.7
Table 2
Discharge Coefficient values for LE flow network
TE flow network DoE
For the Trailing Edge flow network, 34 = 81 simulations, 1134 fluid network runs were performed considering 14 points for each flow
function. As shown by the main effects plot in (Figure 7), the results confirm the importance of C and the low influence of the
other three parameters . The reason is that most of the mass flow rate of cooling air is discharged through the axial ducts, so most
of the losses are located there.
Figure 7 also shows that there are no significant cross-interactions between the parameters of the TE network.
D
D D D
D
D D
D
D
D
D,swd D,imp D,shaped D,bleed D,tip bleed
D,ax-tubes
Figure 7
Main effects plot of TE flow network average error
vs C
Figure 8
Interaction plot of TE flow network average error vs C
Figure 9
Flow Function TE comparison between experimental and
numerical results
The selected set of C values is reported in Table 3 and Figure 9 shows good agreement between the numerical and experimental
flow functions.
C C C C
0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6
Table 3
Discharge Coefficient values for TE flow network
CFD setup
The investigated geometry represents the first rotor blade of the MS5002E gas turbine. Consistent with GE Oil & Gas standard
practice, the geometry was de-featured in order to allow automatic mesh generation; therefore, both the tip and endwall were
simplified compared with the featured geometry. For further details, please refer to the second part of the work.
Steady state CFD RANS calculations were performed with the commercial 3D Navier-Stokes solver ANSYS CFX v.13.0. The flow path
boundary conditions were provided by GE Oil & Gas. A static pressure distribution was imposed at the outlet, whereas the inlet
boundary conditions, obtained with a mixing plane (circumferential direction averaging), are described in terms of total pressure,
flow direction, turbulence and total temperature distributions. The purge flows were characterized by the total temperature, mass
flow rate and cylindrical components of flow directions. In order to obtain the HTC distribution, adiabatic and/or fixed constant wall
temperature conditions were applied on the solid surfaces.
Compressibility effects were taken into account and a High Resolution advection scheme was used. The fluid was modeled as an
ideal gas and the properties of the specific heat capacity, thermal conductivity and viscosity were expressed as a function of
temperature. The energy equation was solved in terms of the total temperature, and the viscous heating effects were accounted for.
The SST k- turbulence model, in the formulation made available by the CFD solver, was used in conjunction with an automatic
near-wall treatment approach that blends between the Wall Function and Wall Integration on the basis of y+ value.
D
D
D
D,ax-tubes D,film D,bleed D,tip bleed
When a fixed constant wall temperature condition was applied at the blade surface, the presence of purge flows, which are cooler
than the hot gas, leads to a heat flux reversal in the regions where the solid temperature is higher than that of the fluid. For this
reason, the HTC reduction was carried out using an adiabatic wall temperature distribution obtained from a simulation performed
without purge flows. It should be pointed out that the effects related to these features were taken into account later, by providing to
the one-dimensional flow network solver an additional adiabatic wall temperature distribution obtained with purge flows.
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Conjugate heat transfer calculations on a GT rotor blade for industrial applications Part I:
Equivalent internal fluid network setup and procedure description
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Figure 10
Wall adiabatic temperature pattern
Figure 11
External heat transfer coefficient
pattern
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Film cooling and TBC evaluation
The original pattern values of the adiabatic wall
temperatures and heat transfer coefficients computed by
CFD runs were properly modified to take into account film
cooling effects and the presence of the thermal barrier
coating.
The film cooling effect was evaluated from the fluid
network solver along a pre-established radial section,
using a correlation of L'Ecuyer [118] for cylindrical holes
and the correlation proposed by Colban and co-workers
[11] for shaped holes. This provided an interpolation phase
in which the adiabatic temperature predicted by the CFD
run of the point internal to the influence film cooling zone
was modified by the value predicted by the correlation
(Figure 10).
The presence of the thermal barrier coating was taken into
account by scaling the external heat transfer coefficients. Due to the small thickness of the coating (considered to be of constant
value along the profile), a one-dimensional heat flux between the TBC and blade material can be assumed. Considering that the TBC
conduction resistance and external convective load are in series, the external equivalent heat transfer coefficient is:
The heat transfer coefficient distribution obtained is shown in Figure 11.
Thermal conduction model
Once the internal and external thermal loads were calculated, the conduction through the metal of the blade could be solved. The
thermal FEM model was modeled and solved using Ansys ver. 13.0. The model consisted of about 1.3x106 ten-node tetrahedral
elements. The CFD output data, in terms of the adiabatic wall temperature and heat transfer coefficient runs, were interpolated on
the FEM mesh for the airfoil, endwall and the first part of the cavity that were analyzed in the second part of this work [4]. The
interfacing with the fluid network output was made by surface patches on the internal channels and holes.
To complete the set of thermal boundary conditions, the property values of the rest of the shank and firtree surfaces were applied.
In particular, those conditions were derived from a thermal analysis performed on the whole machine using an in-house GE code.
The results were data matched with the available prototype test data.
Results
In order to assess the accuracy of the proposed methodology, a comparison with experimental metal temperatures will be
discussed. Metal temperatures were obtained by an extensive metallographic analysis carried out on a set of blades actually run in
a machine. The blades were sectioned at six different heights along the airfoil from platform to tip: 0%, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, 90%
of the airfoil span extension.
Each section of the microstructure was examined at 17 different locations for a complete mapping of the metal temperature along
the profile. All the samples were submitted for SEM examination to assess the variation of the shape and dimensions of phase in
order to measure the equivalent metal temperature. In all locations where a significant alteration of precipitations was visible,
the size measurements were carried out using image analysis. In the locations where the bucket material had not suffered severe
alteration or where the micro structure was just slightly altered (i.e., diffusion mechanisms that cause material aging were only
slightly active) the temperature was estimated using reference pictures for material aged up to 12000/15000 hours at temperatures
in the range of 780-820C. The experimental results refer to a set of blade that have operated for about 15,000 hours.
Figure 11 shows the experimental and numerical comparison of the wall temperature profile along the non-dimensional abscissa
S/Stot in which 0 corresponds to a conventionally defined leading edge, values between -1 and 0 are located on the pressure side
and those between 1 and 0 are on the suction side of the blade. Since the experimental data is representative of average metal
temperatures around discrete points, the numerical metal temperatures used for comparison were obtained by averaging at the
same locations.
Figure 12a
Comparison between experimental and
numerical temperature profile - 0%
Figure 12b
Comparison between experimental and
numerical temperature profile - 20%
Figure 12c
Comparison between experimental and
numerical temperature profile - 40%
Figure 12d
Comparison between experimental and
numerical temperature profile - 60%
Figure 12e
Comparison between experimental and
numerical temperature profile - 80%
Figure 12f
Comparison between experimental and
numerical temperature profile - 90%
Most of the discrepancies between the numerical and experimental data are close to the leading edge at the hub section (0%, 20%)
and at the tip section on the suction side of the blade (90%). As shown in Figure 10, in this region, the presence of purge cavity flows
coming out from the endwall and casing have a significant impact on the adiabatic wall temperature, leading to lower values,
especially on the suction side of the blade. In fact, the coolant flow feeds the horseshoe vortex, which acts as a coolant jets in a
cross-flow (the main flow path). Several authors have confirmed that the diffusion of a jet in a cross-flow is generally strongly
underestimated by RANS modeling. The horseshoe vortex is mainly fed by cooling air, and the coolant mass flow confined within the
horseshoe vortex does not show, across the rotor row, a considerable mixing with the main flow [12] [24] [2]. Therefore, LES
approaches should perform better.
Regarding the section near the endwall, the second part of this work [4] shows that using a de-featured model of the cavity gives an
incorrect estimate of the mixing field and therefore an inaccurate prediction of the heat transfer coefficient. Moreover, to correctly
assign the load on the external surfaces of the root, a detailed characterization of the flow field within the cavity is essential.
Referring to the other sections (40% 60% 80%), the experimental temperature profiles are fairly well predicted by the numerical
procedure; more specifically, the maximum relative error (with respect to the maximum blade temperature) is below 6%.
However, additional sensitivity analysis of the flow network parameter was carried out to investigate the causes of these
discrepancies. The major discrepancies are close to the cold bridge system, which is characterized by mixed radial and axial flow. To
take into account the change in CD values with pressure ratio, and so the internal heat transfer coefficient distribution on the
leading edge, variable of different discharge coefficients for the impingement holes were considered, but no significant variation of
the temperature profile was noted.
Furthermore, the metallographic results refer to real operating conditions of the component (15,000 working hours), while the CFD
analysis refers to nominal design conditions. Therefore, due to the real variability of the operating conditions, it is difficult to define
a fully representative set of boundary conditions for the CFD analysis.
Conclusion
This work deals with an iterative procedure to perform a conjugate heat transfer analysis of gas turbine blades in a de-coupled way.
A mixed approach is proposed in which the internal cooling system was modeled by an in-house one-dimensional thermo-fluid
network solver, the external heat loads and pressure distribution were evaluated through 3D CFD and the heat conduction through
the solid was computed using a 3D FEM solution.
In the first part, the flow network tuning with the experimental results is explained; the DoE technique was used to evaluate the
reciprocal influence of the discharge coefficients of each group.
The external loads in terms of adiabatic wall effectiveness and heat transfer coefficient were provided by CFD runs from a
de-featured model in which the geometry of the cavity and tip region were simplified. Further details can be found in the second
part of this work. The CFD data were modified to take into account film cooling effects and the presence of the thermal barrier
coating.
The results, in terms of temperature profiles on the surface of the blade, were compared with the experimental data obtained from
an extensive metallographic campaign. The results highlight major differences in the sections closest to the blade hub and the
suction side at the tip section. In those regions, the diffusion of the jet coming from the purge cavity is generally strongly
underestimated by RANS modeling; the coolant mass flow confined within the horseshoe vortex does not show, across the rotor row,
a relevant mixing with the main flow and, as a consequence, leads to lower external adiabatic wall temperatures. The influence of
the cavity model on the blade temperatures is reported in the second part of this work, suggesting the need for an accurate study of
the entire cavity flow field.
In the rest of the sections examined, the results obtained in this study are in good agreement with the experimental results.
Furthermore, the metallographic results refer to real operating conditions of the component (15000 working hours), while the CFD
analysis refers to nominal design conditions. Therefore, due to the real variability of the operating conditions, it is difficult to define
a fully representative set of boundary conditions for the CFD analysis.
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