IB Chemistry 2013

ATOMIC STRUCTURE
(Topics 2 & 12)
2.1 The atom (SL)
2.1.1 State the position of protons, neutrons and electrons in the atom
Protons: In the nucleus
Neutrons: In the nucleus
Electrons: Orbiting around the nucleus at different energy levels, in a negatively charged cloud

2.1.2 State the relative masses and relative charges of protons, neutrons and electrons
Subatomic Particle type Relative Mass Relative Charge
Proton 1 +1
Neutron 1 0
Electron 1/1836 -1

2.1.3 Define the terms mass number (A), atomic number (Z) and isotopes of an element
Mass number (A) Determined by the number of protons + neutrons inside the nucleus
Atomic number (Z) Determined by the number of protons in the nucleus
Isotopes Atoms of the same element, with the same number of protons but difference number of
neutrons

2.1.4 Deduce the symbol for an isotope given its mass number and atomic number
Notation:
AZX (A = mass number, Z = atomic number)

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2.1.5 Calculate the number of protons,
No. of protons never changes proton number defines an element
Electrons remain constant unless its an ion
Neutrons depends on the isotope
E.g. Na
+
ion
Atomic Number: 11
Number of protons: 11
Neutrons: 12

2.1.6 Compare the properties of the isotopes of an element
Properties of isotopes almost identical
Slight differences in physical properties, e.g.:

1. Density
2. Rate of diffusion
3. Whether or not an isotope is radioactive (can emit alpha, beta and gamma rays)
4. Melting and boiling points
5. Atomic mass

Uranium has 2 main isotopes 235 Uranium and 238 Uranium
235 isotope is required for nuclear power and explosives, but usually only occurs at low
percentages and must be separated from other isotope
Carried out by reacting uranium with fluorine, making uranium hexafluoride UF6 a volatile
gas
Uranium hexafluoride then passed through many centrifuges where the heaver UF6 made
from 238 uranium does not pass through as quickly
Eventually, after passing through many centrifuges, the final product is pure UF6, which can
be processed and reduced back to pure 235 uranium

2.1.7 Discuss the uses of radioisotopes

14
C is used in radiocarbon dating update stopped after death, with half-life of approx.
5,600 years
By calculating %
14
C left, can determine how many years ago an organism died
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Medicine
Cobalt 60
Iodine 131
Iodine 125
Cobalt 60 is a powerful gamma emitter and has been used for over 50 years to treat different types
of cancer.
Additionally, Cobalt 60 can also:
Sterilize medical equipment
Food Irradiation
Tracer for Cobalt in Chemical reactions.
Iodine 131 is used in the treatment of thyroid cancer.
Iodine 125 is used to treat prostate cancer and brain tumours.

2.2 The mass spectrometer
2.2.1 Describe and explain the operation of a mass spectrometer
A mass spectrometer is an instrument which separates particles according to their masses
and records the relative proportions of these.
In the first phase, the substance is converted into atoms or molecules in the vapour phase.
They are then turned into positive ions and then accelerated, as you can see from the
diagram.
The fast moving particles that have just been accelerated are then deflectedthe lighter
and the more positively charged the particle, the greater the deflection. Finally, particles of a
particular mass will be detected.













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1. Vaporisation
Substance is converted into atoms of molecules in the vapour phase

2. Ionisation
Particles are converted into positive ions
Done by bombarding them with accelerated electrons
These electrons collide with the electrons in the particle, knocking them off and leaving a
positive ion

3. Acceleration
Positive ions are accelerated by high potential difference between two parallel electrodes
with holes in their centres

4. Deflection
by an electromagnet, which causes fast moving ions to deflect
Particles of a certain mass will continue round the tube and strike the detector plate
Those with greater mass will not be deflected as much and will strike the wall of the
instrument
Only ions of a certain mass are detected, usually by means of the current flow required to
neutralise the positive charge

2.2.2 Describe how the mass spectrometer may be used to determine relative atomic mass
using the
12
C scale
Mass spectrometer gives lines which correspond to the mass/charge ratio of each particle
(ion)
Height of each line is proportional to the abundance of the specific particle
Hence, using knowledge of mass and % abundance of each, the relative mass of the element
can be calculated in relation to the
12
C scale

2.2.3 Calculate non-integer relative atomic masses and abundance of isotopes from given data
Calculating average mass of chlorine atom
Example:
Chlorine has two common isotopes - chlorine 35 and chlorine 37 with relative percentage
abundances of 77.5% and 22.5% respectively.
This means that in any naturally occurring sample of chlorine for every 100 atoms there
are 77-78 atoms with a mass of 35 units and 22-23 atoms with a mass of 37 units.
To find the average mass of one atom we must add up the masses of all 100 atoms and
then divide by 100.
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Mass of 100 chlorine atoms = (77.5 x 35) + 22.5 x 37) = 3545
therefore average mass of one chlorine atom = 3545/100 = 35.45
Clearly, it is not possible to have an atom with a mass of 35.45 units, but this represents
the average relative mass of a chlorine atom.

Calculating % abundance of isotope
Weight of isotope
1
x % abundance of isotope
1
+ Weight of isotope
2
x % abundance of isotope
2
=
average atomic weight of the element
weight * X + weight * (1 X) = average atomic weight


2.3 Electron arrangement
2.3.1 Describe the electromagnetic spectrum
Electromagnetic waves can travel through space and depending on the wavelength, also
through matter.

Electromagnetic radiation is a form of energy. Smaller wavelengths result in a higher
frequency, and the more energy the wave possesses.
Electromagnetic Radiation form part of the EM spectrum, which separates EM waves in
progressively increasing wavelengths (decreasing frequency).









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2.3.2 Distinguish between a continuous spectrum and a line spectrum
Continuous spectrum when the spectrum passes through all of the colours in the EM spectrum,
starting with red and ending with violet
Results when gas pressures are higher, so that lines are broadened by collisions between the
atoms until they are smeared into the continuum
An emission spectrum in which lines overlap with each other
Line spectrum spectrum where discrete lines are emitted and do not go through all of the 7
colours of the rainbow
Occurs when light passes through a cold, dilute gas and atoms in the gas absorb at
characteristic frequencies
Since re-emitted light is unlikely to be emitted in the same direction as the absorbed photon,
this causes dark lines (absence of light)

2.3.3 Explain how the lines in the emission spectrum of hydrogen are related to electron energy
levels
Electrons in their shells can receive energy in the form of heat or electricity and jump to
higher energy levels (promotion)

They cannot remain at these higher levels (in an excited state) for very long because it is
unstable, and soon fall back to their original shell (or other shells)

When they fall back (relax) they low the energy difference between two shells

This loss of energy is performed by releasing electromagnetic energy in the form of infrared,
visible light or UV radiation.

Movement of electrons between the shells is called electron transitions

When electron transitions take place, the energy emitted can be detected and the
wavelength measured
Provides information about the relative energies of the shells

In the H atom, energy emitted appears in several series of lines corresponding to electrons
falling back to different levels


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n = 1: UV section of the EMS; gives the value of the Ionisation energy (Lyman series)

n = 2: Visible spectrum Balmer series

n = 3,4,5 produces spectra in the Infrared spectrum

Spectral lines get closer (converge) with increasing frequency electronic energy levels get
closer the further away they are from the nucleus

2.3.4 Deduce the electron arrangement for atoms and ions up to Z = 20
E.g. 2, 8, 7 for Z = 17

12.1 Electron configuration (HL)
12.1.1 Explain how evidence from first ionization energies across periods accounts for the
existence of main energy levels and sub-levels in atoms
First ionisation energy varies moving from element to element
Outermost electron is being removed in each case
As electrons move further away from the nucleus, ionisation energy decreases as there is
less attraction between nucleus and electrons
An element at higher energy level will have lower ionisation energy and vice versa
Therefore, difference in first ionisation energy can be attributed to different energy levels

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12.1.2 Explain how successive ionisation energy data is related to the electron configuration of
an atom
Sudden increase in ionisation energy = moved up one energy level (s, p, d to f)
Highest ionisation energy in a table most likely groups 5 8 (highly electronegative)

12.1.3 State the relative energies of s, p, d and f orbitals in a single energy level
The relative energy of s, p, d and f orbitals in a single energy level is as follows:
s < p < d < f

12.1.4 State the maximum number of orbitals in a given energy level
Energy level Max no. of orbitals Max no. of electrons
s 1 2
p 3 6
d 5 10
f 7 14


12.1.5 Draw the structure of an s orbital and the shapes of the P
x,
P
y
and P
z
orbitals
1s orbital

2s orbital

3s orbital

Px orbital

Py orbital

Pz orbital

IB Chemistry 2013
12.1.6 Apply the Aufbau principle, Hunds rule and the Pauli exclusion principle to write electron
configurations for atoms and ions up to Z = 54

Hunds rule: every orbital in a subshell is singly occupied before any orbital is doubly occupied
by 2 electrons

Aufbaus principle: Electrons start filling up from the lowest possible energy level before
moving to higher energy levels

Paulis Exclusion principle: No two electrons can occupy the exact same space

E.g. Z = 23:
1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
4s
2
3d
3
OR [Ar]3d
3
4s
2

EXCEPTIONS:
Chromium: [Ar] 4s
2
3d
5

opper: [Ar] 4s
1
3d
10

Due to extra stability of half full and full sets of d orbitals respectively