. THE .

POPULAR SCIENCE
'5' . EDUCATORAR. Y tr.'
\2J Edited by CHARLES \!:J
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[Part 6 "The Popular Science_ be on sale next Thursday, _ 7th I
A
GOOD many readers of THE particular flower is he referring? referred to as Campanula rotundifolia,
POPULAR SCIENCE EDUCATOR Some mean by that the wild hyacinth, and the wild hyacinth is described as
have expressed surprise that which grows in our woods; while Scilla festalis, then we know what
science could be made so interesting. particular species is intended in each
They declare that they have been re- case.
pelled from making any serious study TWO BOOKS THAT EVERY It is astonishing, however, what a
of the sciences by the formidable words HO S great deal of science we can get to know
used, which in the text-books are given ME HOULD HAVE without troubling to use these long and
without any explanation as to their THE BOY'S BOOK OF WONDER difficult na.mes. In THE POPULAR
meaning or derivation. AND INVENTION, prepared by the SCIENCE EDUCATOR the purpose is to
There is no doubt that from the Editor of THE POPULAR SCIENCE interest the reader in the great prin-
popular point of view science has been EDUCATOR, and sold at six shil- ciples of science, and then when he has
greatly handicapped by the technical lings, is a book that will delight the come to realise how fascinating the
language that is used, and the very heart of every boy between nine subject is he can, if he desires, go on
long words to describe simple facts. and eighteen. It is packed with to the advanced studies in which these
It must be remembered, however, illustrations, experiments and fas- scientific names become essential.
that the use of Latin and Greek words cinating letterpress, and is unlike THE POPULAR SCIENCE EDUCATOR is
for the species, genera and other any other boy's gift-book issued this able to give picture-diagrams on a much
divisions of the animal and vegetable year. more elaborate scale than is possible in
kingdoms has made for convenience THE NURSERY RHYME ordinary text-books, and these help to
among international students. OMNIBUS, also prepared by the illustrate difficult , points in a way that
If scientists of all nations were to Editor of this work, is the finest would be impossible without them. In
use their own popular names for plants book of nursery rhymes that has fact, the book depends as much upon
and animals it would be very difficult ever been issued. It contains over its illustrations as upon its letterpress
for those of other nations to identify the
600
rhymes, and several hundred to rouse the interest of the general
specimens described. By using classical pictures, including many in colour. reader in the science of everyday
names, which remain the same for all It has a copious index, so that any things.
nationalities, there is no difficulty nursery rhyme can be turned up in One interesting fact about the work
whatever in identifying any species a moment. Price 3s. 6d is that it is read by a very large number
that may be described or portrayed. of boys and girls, and also by_ a large
Popular names are useful as far as number of qlder people neanng the
they go, but for serious scientific study others refer to the dainty little harebell, three score years and ten, who have not
something more directive is needed. sometimes called the bluebell of hitherto been able to get hold of a
For example, when anybody in Great Scotland. systematic work on all the sciences
Britain speaks of the bluebell, to what When, however, the harebell is which commended itself to them.
HERE ARE SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL FEATURES 11J; PART 6
THE SANDSTORM OF THE DESERT THE STRANGE STORY OF HIGH EXPLOSIVES
A fine colour plate showing what a sandstorm is like
in the Sahara Desert.
MYSTERIES OF HEATING AND COOLING
An interesting chapter showing how the engineer and
builder have to remember the laws of heat when they
are building a bridge, a steel-framed dwelling or other
structure. Illustrated.
THE WHEELWRIGHT TIGHTENING HIS TIRE
A full page of photographs showing how the wheel-
wright uses heat to fit his metal tire upon the wooden
wheel.
VESTIGES OF A PAST ANCESTRY
A fascinating chapter in the Biology section showing
how many animals, including man, retain queer vestiges
of an ancient ancestry: Illustrated.
THE SIMILARITY OF ANIMALS BEFORE BIRTH
A striking set of illustrations showing the development
of the embryo of various animals and their resemblance
up to a certain point in their history.
A CHIMPANZEE AND HER HUMAN-LOOKING BABY
A fine full-page photograph of Boo-Boo, the famous
Zoo chimpanzee, with her young offspring.
THE INACTIVE ELEMENT NITROGEN BECOMES
ACTIVE
A full page of photographs showing big guns being
fired by means of high explosives, the principal in-
gredient of which is the gas nitrogen, found in such
large quantities in the atmosphere.
A chapter in the Chemistry section which shows how
nitrogen, so necessary to life, has been used for the
wholesale destruction of life in war. Illustrated.
WHAT HAPPENS WHEN AN EXPLOSION TAKES
PLACE
A large picture-diagram showing how during an
explosion, molecules are broken up and the atoms
re-unite to form new products.
HOW THE PETROL ENGINE OF A MOTOR-CAR
WORKS
A fine double-page drawing which gives a striking
example of the peaceful use of an explosive.
BODIES AT REST AND IN MOTION
Something about the laws of motion and how they
come into the affairs of everyday life. Illustrated.
PROBLEMS OF VELOCITY IN EVERYDAY LIFE
A full page of photographs illustrating some interesting
phases of the laws of motion.
THE SMALLEST PLANET IN TRAFALGAR SQUARE
A full-page drawing showing how the least of all the
minor planets could be set easily in Trafalgar Square,
and how the famous Empire State Building, the tallest
building in the world, would look placed against it.
THE SMALLEST AND THE LARGEST OF ALL THE
PLANETS
The story of the minor planets and of Jupiter, the
great giant of the solar system. Illustrated.
Ask Your Newsagent to Send You "The Popular Science Educator" Every Week
THE BRIGHT AURORA LIGHTS UP THE ICY NORTH
Here is a typical piece of scenery in the A rcti c, t he region of et ernal i ce and snow. T he vast polar i ce- cap that covers Green-
land and slowl y makes its way down to the sea break s off int o huge i cebergs whi ch float away int o the warmer water s of t he
south and there gradually melt, bu t not before they have proved a menace t o t he shi pping t hat crosses t o and fro between
Europe and A merica. Some of these iceber gs are of vast size, towering 200 feet above t he surface of the water, so that t hey
m ust have about 1,600 f eet below the surface. Many of t hem wei gh hundreds of mil l ions of tons. For six months t he po lar
r egi ons have to endure one long night, and then when the NQrth Pol e is ti l ted towar ds the Sun, comes the long day of si x months.
D ur ing the polar nig ht the sk y i s oft en lighted up by brilliant fl ashes of t he Northern Lig ht s, as show n i n t his pict ur e. T he
polar 'bear s har moni se with their icy surroundings, and they find abundant sust enance i n the fish and seal s of the sea
BIOLOGY
The Story of Life and Living Things and how these are constantly being affected
by their surroundings
PHYSIOLOGY, ZOOLOGY, EMBRYOLOGY and BOTANY
THE SUCCESSION OF LIFE IN ALL AGES
Life, according to the scientists, has risen from lower to higher forms by gradual evolu-
tion, and here we read some of the reasons that are believed to support this theory
W
E have seen that the lowliest of
all living animals, the amoeba,
is a creature consisting of a
single cell, which does all the work of
eating, digesting, moving and multiply-
ing.
Man, on the other hand, is a very
complex animal made up of millions
of cells of different kinds, all specialised
to do the particular work of certain
organs, such as the pumping of blood
by the heart, the digesting of food by
the stomach, the breathing in and out
of air by the lungs, and the working of
the arms and legs by the muscles.
Still more delicate work is done by
the cells that make up the tissues of the
eye and ear, and above all by those
cells that form the human brain which
directs all the activities of the body.
As Professor W. W. Watts said at
the British Association meeting in 1935,
Wood piqeon
Carrier
" Of all the wonders of the universe
of which we have present knowledge,
from the electron to the atom, from the
virus and the bacillus to the oak and
the elephant, from the tiniest meteor
to the most magnificent nebula, surely
there is nothing to surpass the brain of
man. An instrument capable of con-
trolling every thought and action of the
human body, the most intricate and
efficient piece of mechanism ever
devised, of piercing the secrets and
defining the laws of Nature ; of record-
ing and recalling every adventure of
the individual from his cradle to his
grave ; of inspiring or of ruling great
masses of mankind; of producing all
the gems of speech and song, of poetry
and art that adorn the world-all the
thoughts of philosophy and all the
triumphs of imagination and insight-
is indeed the greatest marvel of all."
The brain of the gigantic dinosaurs,
said Professor Watts, those tyrants of
prehistoric time, was tin)<:. In the diplo-
docus, eighty feet in length and twenty
tons in weight, the brain was about
the size of a hen's egg. There was
not more than a quarter of an ounce
to control each ton of body and limb.
No wonder, added the Professor, the
dinosaurs lost the lordship of creation.
A twelve-stone man of the present
day has about three and a half pounds
of brain, not far short of half a hundred-
weight per ton.
Now between the amoeba with its
simple construction and the man with
his marvellous brain there is a whole
range of animal life which can be
classified by likenesses and dissimilar-
ities into progressive groups, rising
through more and more complex forms
from the amoeba to the man.
Man himself can by care(ul selection produce new varieties of birds and animals which have little resemblance to the stock
from which they came. The pigeon is a striking example of this, and here we see some of the strange varieties of pigeon which
have been bred by man by continual selection from the common rock dove or wood pigeon
II7
THE SUCCESSION OF LIFE
Not only so, but when the fossils
buried in the rocks are examined they
are found to show a similar progress
from simple to higher forms of animal
life, and the older the rocks in which
the fossils are found the simpler are
the creatures.
These facts, together with the dis-
covery in man's anatomy of vestiges of
organs and parts which are no longer
of any use-the remains of a tail, a
third eyelid, the remains of muscles
for moving the ear trumpets, and so
on-have suggested to men of science
that the higher forms of life have come
into being, not .by a sudden appearance
on the Earth, but by a progressive
evolution or development from the
lower forms to the higher.
In the old days men were content
with the statement that God said " Let
the waters bring forth abundantly the
moving creature that hath life, and
fowl that may fly above the earth in
the open firmament of heaven. And
God created great whales and every
living creature that moveth, which
the waters brought forth abundantly,
after their kind, and every winged
fowl after his kind .... And God made
the beast of the earth after his kind,
and cattle after their kind, and every
thing that creepeth upon the Earth
after his kind."
Trying to Find. an Answer
Nowadays, in a scientific age when
men want to know the how and why
and when of everything, they seek to
find out just how and when the many
species came into being, and many a
scientist with as firm a belief in a
divine creator as was held in olden
days, is endeavouring by the study of
the rocks and of living species of
animal and plants to discover an
answer.
The old Bible writer merely stated
the fact that various species had come
into being by creative act without
seeking to explain the process 'of
creation or to -fix any period for the
appearance of the different species,
beyond mentioning that water creatures
came before land animals.
The modern scientist confirms this
order, by telling us that animal life
began in the sea, and later invaded the
air and land. Seeing by examination
that there is undoubtedly a progressive
rise in importance and complexity
from the amoeba to man, he seeks to
place the many species in their order
of importance, and by studying the
fossils to. place them also in what he
believes to be their order of appearance
on the Earth.
When we look at a modern motor
bicycle with all its complicated parts
and its efficiency and at an old wooden
bone-shaker we can see that one has
been developed from the other, not
all at once, but by a process of evolu-
tion. We know some of the links in
the c_hain of evolution, the safety
pedaJ-bicycle, the penny-farthing type
of cycle, and so on. We may not be
aware of all the links, but we know
that some have become extinct while
others have survived and go on side
by side with the latest development,
like the pedal cycle and the motor-
cycle.
Other similar examples of evolution
might be given. The great Sydney
bridge was not made without prepara-
tion through the centuries. There is
All living creatures have a certain proportion
of nitrogen in their bodies, and the supply is
kept up by the protein foods which are eaten.
Even in an egg there is nitrogen in the protein.
This drawing shows the composition of the
volk and the white of an ordinary hen's egg
a gradual succession of ever more
wonderful bridges linking the first
fallen tree trunk that primitive man
threw across a stream to the wonder
structure that spans Sydney Harbour.
The modern, up-tocdate blast furnace
with its great size and wonderful
efficiency is a direct descendant of the
The eye of the owl, show!ng the third eyelid and
the remains of this in the corner of the human eye
wood fire that was made by some
enterprising man at the end of the
Stone Age for smelting out iron from
the ore.
Well, these serve as analogies with
the evolution of living species. We
see the modem horse, a very efficient
and highly developed type of running
animal, and then we search the rocks
and find the fossil bones of a number
of horse-like animals. When we
arrange these together in the order of
the age of the rocks in which they
were found we see a remarkable
u8
progress in both size and structure,
and the evidence is very strong, just
as it is in the case of the cycles, that
the modern horse has through count-
less generations developed from the
little Eohippus or " horse of the
dawn," whose remains are found in
the Lower Eocene rocks of perhaps
six million years ago. Eohippus, an
animal about the size of a fox, had
four hoofed toes of nearly equal size
on its forefoot, the thumb being
reduced to a mere vestige. In the
hind foot the . great toe had entirely
disappeared and the little toe was
much reduced.
Next came the Orohippus or" moun-
tain horse " with the little finger
very small, and then the Mesohippus
or " middle horse " of the Lower
Miocene rocks, about a million years
old, in which the little finger of the
forefoot was reduced to a small splint
bone, and the middle digit, or toe, was
already much larger than the other
two and almost exclusively supported
the weight of the body.
The First of the Horses
Then came the Protohippus or
" first horse " of the Lower Pliocene
rocks, 600,ooJ years old, with only
three toes on both the fore and hind
feet, and the Hipparion or " little
horse," in size between a goat and an
ass.
These animals lived together in
large herds and were widely distributed,
their remains having been found in the
rocks of the Tertiary or Cainozoic
epoch, which includes the Eocene,
Miocene, and Pliocene systems, in
Europe, Asia, Africa and America.
The nearer we approach the present
day the more rudimentary the toes
become in animals of this class, until
finally they disappear completely in
the modern horse.
It is not only the feet of these
animals that have been modified, but
the teeth have changed greatly also,
the original short root teeth having
developed in the modern horse into long
prismatic teeth.
Dr. Alfred Russel Wallace points
out that among living quadrupeds
we can scarcely find a more isolated
group than the genus Equus, com-
prising the horses, asses and zebras,
but through many species of extinct
forms found among the fossils of
Europe, India and America an almost
complete transition is established with
types found in the Eocene rocks.
Those types, by the way, seem also
to be ancestors of the tapirs and
rhinoceroses of today, so that those
animals, very unlike in form, appear
to be near relations of the horse.
When a series like this, showing
gradual changes through the past
leading up to a living species of the
present, can be brought together it
seems reasonable to suppose that the
existing type has come about by
evolution or slow development,
especially as no fossils of horses as we
know them are found in the rocks.
THE RESEMBLANCE IN TWINS AND TRIPLETS
One person is sometimes mistaken for an-
other, but likenesses between unrelated people
prove much less than was supposed when
the people are seen together. Brothers and
sisters are usually more alike than cousins,
and first cousins more alike than second or
third cousins. But, as Professor Horatio
Newman points out, two people whose
resemblance is extremely close, so close as
to approach identity, may be assumed to be
twins. The explanation is that such twins
have been derived from a single fertilised
egg. No closer resemblance is possible than
this. On this page we see examples of two
sets of twins and one of triplets, and the
striking resemblance in each group can be
seen. In the upper photograph are Pamela
and Pauline Chamberlain, twins aged two,
of Leytonstone. In the middle picture are
the Mawby sisters, Angela, Claudine and
Claudette, who are triplets, and below are
seen the Misses Celia Mary and Maimaine
Paget, who are twins eighteen years old
II9
THE SUCCESSION OF LIFE
What seems to be additional corro-
boration of this theory of evolution is
the fact that from time to time horses
are born with one or two additional
toes on the fore or hind feet, as though
they were reverting to the form of their
distant ancestors-atavism, as men of
science call it, from the Latin word for
an ancestor.
We generally assume, from the
facts of everyday experience, that true
structural resemblance indicates blood
relationship, and that the closeness
of such resemblance runs essentially
parallel with closeness of kinship.
For example, as Professor Horatio
Newman points out ; " We recognise
the fact that members of the same
human family are more alike among
themselves than like members of other
families. Brothers and sisters are
usually more alike than are cousins,
and first cousins are more alike than
second or third cousins. Whenever
we see two people whose resemblance
is extremely close, so close as to
approach identity, we at once assume
that they are duplicate twins.
"As a matter of fact twins of this
sort are not infrequent. Studies of their
closeness of resemblance show them to
be actually as nearly alike as are the
two halves of a single individual. The
explanation of this extraordinary re-
semblance is that two such twins have
been derived from a single fertilised
egg. No closer resemblance is possible
than this, and it is important to note
that in this case we have the closest
known resemblance associated with the
closest kinship."
The professor goes on to mention
that while in fiction instances often
occur of two people who are quite un-
related being so much alike that they
are able to exchange places without
detection, actual cases of this kind are
practically unknown. There have, of
course, been instances of persons
arrested and convicted in mistake for
other persons, but careful scrutiny and
measurement of such supposed
" doubles " have soon shown them to
be much less alike in many ways than
was supposed.
Like produces like, though often with
slight variations, and, as Professor
Newman says, "If closely similar in-
dividuals (members of one species} are
alike in specific characters because they
have inherited these characters from
common ancestors, it is only logical to
assume further that closely similar
races or varieties of animals or plants
have been derived from a common
species. Similarly, it must be logically
assumed that closely similar species
have been derived by descent with
modification from an ancestral species
and have inherited their resemblances
from this common source."
It is certainly going against reason to
suppose that resemblances within a
family or species are accounted for by
relationship or heredity and that
equally plain resemblances within the
larger group known as a genus do not
owe their likeness to similar causes.
If we admit family resemblance due to
descent from a common parent-and
who does not ?-then there seems no
logical limit at which we can place the
operation of heredity.
In other words, if brothers and sisters
with close resemblances owe these
resemblances to common parents, and
In this drawing, which shows the bones of a man and a horse, we see how the different parts in the two skeletons correspond.
Not many people realise where the knees, ankles, elbows and wrists of a horse are situated. It is interesting to compare these
120
THE TAIL IN MAN AND SOME OF THE QUADRUPEDS
It is interesting to compare the skeleton of a man with that of a gorilla and other animals. There will be seen when man's
skeleton is examined the vestige of a tall, which is more prolonged in the case of the bear and still more In that of the lion
121
THE SUCCESSION OF LIFE
cousins more or less alike owe
their similarities to still more
distant parents, and members of
a tribe or nation or race to very
distant ancestors, this principle of
heredity may be applied still more
widely.
No sensible person talks about
men being descended from monkeys,
but the man-like apes bear so many
resemblances to human beings that
it is only logical to suppose that
both have been descended from some
very distant common ancestor, just
as we believe that horses, asses
and zebras are derived from some
common ancestor.
At any rate, that is the idea of
evolution, and scientists have arrived
at it not because they wanted to
found a theory, but because they
have been driven to it by what they
regard as the relentless logic of
Tails Useful and Useless
If the various species of animals and
plants had been created separately we
should naturally expect to find them
quite different in structure and clearly
distinguishable from one another.
There would be no reason whatever for
resemblances, especially of parts which
while useful in some species are of no
use in others.
The tail is an example. It is of great
use to many animals, enabling some
creatures, like monkeys, to hang on to
trees, permitting others, like oxen and
horses, to switch off flies from their
bodies, and enabling others, like dogs
and kangaroos, to balance themselves.
But in man and the manlike apes the
tail in a rudimentary form is still seen
at the end of the backbone, but it is of
no use at all.
So far from species of animals or
plants being distinctly divided from
one another, it is by no means easy to
say what a 1>pecies is. They often seem
to run into one another as it were. In
the lamp-shells and snails, for example,
two or more apparently distinct species
are connected by a series of inter-
mediate varieties. This graduation of
species can only be explained logically
by believing that organisms are con-
stantly being adapted to changing
surroundings-environment, as men of
science call it-and that as time goes on
new and modified forms come into
existence suited to the environment.
That is the theory of evolution,
which there is much evidence to sup-
port, and the more knowledge we gain
tf!odern Horse
of animal and plant life, past and
present, the stronger the evidence
seems to1 becorrie.
Scientists can often point to the
factors 'that have brought about the
particuli!,r changes in the evolution
of an animal. In the case of the
modern '.horse, for example, Mr. R.
Lydekker says two factors have evi-
dently been predominant in guiding its
evolution. First, the necessity of collect-
ing and assimilating food, and secondly
the need of attaining a high degree of
speed. To the one the horse owes the
marvellous perfection of its grazing
mechanism as seen in the lengthened
jaws and in the teeth ; to the other,
the fleet the graceful contour of
the body, and the increase in stature.
The adaptation for speed is most
noticeable in the progressive lengthen-
ing of the limbs and the gradual dis-
carding of the lateral toes. The limb
122
In these pictures we see the
ancestry of the modern
horse during the past six
million years or so. First
of all we see the little
animal Eohippus, about the
sil:e of a fox, which lived
in Eocene times ; then the
Mesohippus, of perhaps a
million years ago ; then
the Protohippus, of about
600,000 years ago ; then
the Hipparion, of half. a
million years ago, and
finally the horse as we
know it today
elongation is most marked in the lower
segments, more especially the foot; the
thigh-bone, or femur, and the humerus,
or upper bone of the fore;leg, displaying
much less proportionate lengthening.
Changes in the Teeth
The change in the teeth of horses is
equally striking. "During the forest-
dwelling period in the history of horses,"
says Professor Lull, " and while they
lived upon succulent meadow grasses,
the teeth, though increasing in size with
the entire organism, remain short-
crowned. Upon the expansion of the
prairies, however, and the adoption of
the harsh grasses as a main staple of
food, the tooth of the horse changes in
character, becoming elongate, prismatic
in shape and the depression lying be-
tween the crests filling with a substance
known as cement, which strengthens
the entire tooth."
MECHANICS
How the mighty Forces of Nature are applied and made to work for the
benefit of Mankind
-
STATICS, HYDROSTATICS, KINEMATICS and ENGINEERING
BALANCE AND THE CENTRE OF GRAVITY
If we are to balance ourselves and other things we should know the facts about the
centre of gravity, described here. Such knowledge will save us from many mistakes
E
. VERY molecule of matter is
attracted towards the Earth's
centre, and when a number of
molecules form a solid body the com-
bined effect of the Earth's pull on all
the particles is balanced about a point
within the body which is known as its
centre of gravity. If the body be
supported or suspended at that point
it will balance or remaih in equilibrium.
The word equilibrium simply means
equal balance.
In other words, the centre of gravity
can be defined as the point of applica-
tion of the resultant or total of all the
small downward forces which gravity
exerts on the particles of which the body
is made up. It is the point at which the
entire weight of the body may be con-
sidered as concentrated.
Under the influence of the Earth's
pull every body tends to take up the
position in which its centre of gravity is
as low as possible.
The centre of gravity of some bodies
of simple form.can often be deduced by
geometry. For example, in a straight .
uniform bar the centre of gravity is
midway between the ends : in a para]-
lelogram it is at the intersection of the
diagonals ; in a triangle it is where the
three median lines intersect : and in a
circular disc or sphere it is at the
centre.
But it can be found by experiment.
Suppose we have an irregularly shaped
sheet of card or metal and want to find
its centre of gravity. We suspend it
from some point and after it comes to
rest continue the cord by which it is
held, as a line upon the card itself.
Then we suspend it from some other
point and again draw a line on the card
in continuation of the suspending cord.
The centre of gravity is at the point of
intersection of the two lines.
A similar plan may be followed with
a more substantial body such as a
potato. We attach a string to the
potato by means of a tack and suspend
it. When it has come to rest the centre
of gravity must be somewhere in the
line that is a continuation of the sus-
pending cord. We insert a small thin
knitting needle through the. potato to
refJresen t this line.
Next we suspend the potato from
some other part of its exterior and
thrust another needle through in con-
tinuation of the vertical cord. The
centre of gravity lies in both lines and
must therefore be at the point of inter-
section.
The centre of gravity of a body is not
always in the solid material of the body.
In the case of a ring, for instance, it is
in the space enclosed by the ring, and if
the ring is of the same thickness all
through it will be at the centre of the
circle.
In a hollow cylinder the centre of
gravity is in the centre of the space
inside, half way down the cylinder.
There is also something curious about
the centre of gravity of a triangular
body. In a triangular sheet of card or
metal, as already explained, it is at the
point where all the three median lines
intersect. If three equal masses b2
placed at the corners of the triangle the
centre of gravity is at the same point.
But suppose, instead of a triangular
area like that of the card or metal, we
have three rods forming a triangle of
equal size and shape. The centre of
gravity is not now at the intersecting
point of the three median lines drawn
are tested like this to see how far they can be tilted without falling over. When a vertical line from the centre
of gravity falls within the base the vehicle will not topple over, and as the heavy engine keeps the centre of gravity low the
bus can be tilted a great deal without falling, as seen on the left. An ordinary wagon loaded up very high would fall over
at the same angle because the line of direction would fall outside the base. the centre of gravity of wagon and load being high
123
HOW THE CENTRE OF GRAVITY CAN, BE FOUND
These. drawings explain some of the mysteries of the centre of gravity. In the upper part we see how the centre of gravity
of various bodies can be found geometrically and by experiment. The centre of gravity of a triangle made up of three bars is
different from that of a triangle cut out of a piece of material like cardboard.or metal. At the bottom we see how the centre
of gravity of an irregular shape can .be found by experiment. We see also in the whipping-top and cone how there are three
forms of equilibrium, and we also see why certain objects with a wide base like a pyramid are more stable than objects with a
narrow base. A body is
124
said to be in stable
equilibrium if it tends to
return to its original posi-
tion after the equilibrium
has been only slightly dis-
turbed. Any body is in
this state when its position
is such that a slight dis-
placement elevates the
centre of gravity, for the
centre of gravity will
descend again as soon as
the body is released. A
body is in unstable equi-
librium when after a very
s Ii g h t disturbance it
tends to depart still more
from its original position
HOW CENTRE OF GRAVITY AFFECTS DAILY LIFE
I
Girl must walk
upright t:o. keep
hplance
/flan must bend forward
to bring centre of
qravlty-<Jver base
To rlse fron1 a chair sitter must
either bend forward or brinq his
feet in, to place centre of gravity
over base
To qet the sugar
the man must keep
his body as low as
possl/J!e
Heavy hags. cause
tMir hearers to /e(JJ1
in opposite directions
By bending forward
runner helps his
action as ne must:
then bring his hina
foot forward to
preserve balance
ft is impossi'b!e f,
bend. down with<
moving the feet
forward
These pictures show how in daily life we have to adjust our position so as to keep the centre of gravity over our feet, and thus
prevent ou_rselves from falling. Some of the tasks here shown are impossible, because the centre of gravity needs adjusting
125
THE CENTRE OF GRAVITY
from the sides of the triangle, as it was
before. It is at about the centre of a
circle drawn within the triangle in such
a way as to touch the three rods.
Having grasped these facts about the
centre of gravity we come next to the
subject of equilibrium with which the
centre of gravity has so much to do.
Seeing that the united weight of a body
acts as if it were concentrated at its
centre of gravity, and the tendency of
each particle is downward, it is obvious
that the centre
of gravity of a
body al ways
tends to take
the lowest posi--
tion possible.
For example,
if we suspend
any body and
let it hang freely
from a point it
will come to
rest with the
centre of gravity
beneath the
point of suspen-
sion. Now if we
move the body
from this posi-
tion to right or
left we raise
the centre of
gravity, but
directly the
body is released it will fall back to the
old position.
Sometimes we see instances that
appear to contradict this law. For
example, if we place a tin canister on a
slight slope it will roll down, because
the centre of gravity is getting as near
to the centre of the Earth as possible.
But suppose we attach a lump of lead
to one side of the interior of the
canister, and then place the canister on
the slope with the lead over the point
of suspension but a little in front,. the
canister will then appear to contradict
the law of gravitation, for it will begin.
to roll up the slope.
A Simple Explanation
The explanation is simple. The mass
of lead has changed the centre of
gravity of the canister. The heavy
piece of lead as it falls to bring the
canister into a position of stable
equilibrium causes it to roll a short
way up the slope.
Similarly, if a billiard ball be placed
on the smaller ends of two cues laid on
a table with their points together, with
the larger ends just far enough apart to
allow the ball to touch the table be-
tween them, the ball will roll along
between the cues towards the ends,
appearing to rise, when actually its
centre is descending in obedience to the
pull <;:>f gravity.
If we hang an umbrella with a
crooked handle
on the end of a
mantelpiece or
shelf, the other
end will slant
in under the
mantelpiece.
The reason is
that the centre
of gravity of
the umbrella is
about half-way
down the stick,
and when the
article comes to
rest the centre
of gravity must
be under the
point of sup-
port. This
causes the stick
to s Jan t in-
wards.
It is the
science of the
centre of
gravity which
explains many
of the ap-
parently won-
derful tricks of
balancing which
are seen on the
stage and in
children's toys.
Some examples
are given on
page 128.
The man carrying the baskets must keep them vertically over the centre
of gravity of himself and the baskets combined if the baskets are not to
topple over. The man on the penny-farthing bicycle is top-heavy because
the combined centre of gravity of himself and the cycle is very high
Take the case
of a weight sus-
pended from
126
the end of a piece of wood. If we
try to rest the other end of the wood
on a table it will, of course, fall off,
being pulled down by the weight, but
by the arrangement shown in the
picture on page 128 the wood can be
made to remain upon the table without
falling. The second piece of wood
pushes the weight to one side, so that
its centre of gravity is underneath the
table, that is, under the point of support
of the whole arrangement.
If the piece of wood to which the
weight is attached were to attempt to
fall, the weight would have to rise up-
ward towards the table, but being
heavier than the wood this cannot take
place, and so the whole device remains
at rest. Similar explanations will sug-
gest themselves as we look at the
various balancing tricks on page 128.
The mason and the bricklayer as
they add tier upon tier to their wall
use the plumb line to see that the wall
is vertical, for if it leaned inward or
outward it would be liable to fall over.
The famous Leaning Tower of Pisa
looks as if it must fall, but it is really
in a state of stable equilibrium, for a
line dropped from its centre of gravity
would fall within the base of the tower
and when this occurs any standing
body is stable. It is when the line of
direction, as the line drawn from the
~ n t r e of gravity fo the ground is called,
falls outside the base that a body is
unstable and must fall over.
A modern motor omnibus can travel
on a highly cambered road and can
slant a good deal out of the perpendi-
cular. The reason is that the heavy
machinery at the bottom of the motor-
bus keeps the centre of gravity of the
vehicle very low, and it has got to
slant a great deal before the line of
direction falls outside the base.
On the other hand, a wagon with a
load piled up very high upon it is not
in the same position as the motor-bus,
for having no heavy engine at the
bottom its centre of gravity is raised
by the load and the line of direction
will on a slanting road fall outside the
base, and the wagon tumble over.
Counterbalancing the Wind
A sailing ship at sea will upset in a
squall if it has not sufficient ballast
in the hold so as to keep the centre of
gravity low down to counterbalance the
weight of masts and rigging. When
yacht-racing, the yachtsmen will often
go to one side of the yacht and lean
well over in order to adjust the centre
of gravity and prevent the vessel heel-
ing over completely as the wind catches
her sails.
There is an amusing children's toy
which consists of a little man who
cannot be made to lie down. As fast
as we lay him on the table he jumps
to the vertical position. The reason
is that in the lo:wer part, where the
feet are, there is a heavy metal ball or
hemisphere, and this keeps the centre
of gravity so low that the body can
only remain in stable equilibrium in
an upright position.
Now there are thtee states of equili-
brium. When a body is at rest if by
a slight motion its equilibrium is
disturbed then, if the body tends to
return to its former position, its equili-
brium is said to be stable. In such a
case the slight motion raises the C'.entre
of gravity, but on being released the
body tends to return to its original
position. A pyramid is an excellent
example of a body in stable equilibrium.
It would take a great deal of disturb-
ance to turn a pyramid on its side.
But supposing a body is. raised so
that a slight disturbance lowers the
extent to which the centre of gravity
has to be raised in order that they may
be overturned. Objects are also shown
in unstable equilibrium, the slightest
disturbance of which lowers the centre
of gravity so that they will fall over
and not recover their old position.
Ignorance of the science of the centre
of gravity has been responsible for
many boating accidents. When boys
or men are sitting down in a boat,
i:he centre of gravity is kept low and
the boat is safe on smooth water, but
wl;en one or more stand up in the boat
the .:entre of gravity is at once raised
THE CENTRE OF ORA VITY
tends to bring its centre of gravity as
near the centre of the Earth as possible.
A young four-legged animal is able to
walk almost directly it is born, for it
has a good base with its feet and when
standing is in stable equilibrium. A
human baby, however, has to learn to
walk, that is, to balance itself, because
with only two feet it is not in such
stable equilibrium when standing. This
is more the case with a baby than with
a man, for the centre of gravity in a
baby is much higher than it is in a
grown person.
Our attitude when walking with
When the wind catches the sail as shown in this picture, and the boat heels over, the sailors lean well out on the other
side to keep the centre of gravity of the whole concern in the middle. Otherwise the boat would go right over
centre of gravity. The body will not
then return to its original position, but
will take up a new position in which
the centre of gravity is lower than
before. In this case, tlie equilibrium
is said to be unstable.
Sometimes a body, owing to its shape,
is able to rest equally well in any
position in which it may be placed. In
such a case the equilibrium is said to
be neutral. We see examples of neutral
equilibrium in a ball, and a whipping
top resting on its side. A .thin book
lying on a table is in a state of stable
equilibrium, but if it is stood up, then
it is in unstable equilibrium, for the
slightest' push will send it over.
Some bodies like a cone can be placed
in all three states of equilibrium.
It must be remembered that if from
its form or position a body cannot be
overturned without its centre of gravity
being lifted, its state of equilibrium is
stable. The degree to which the centre
of gravity rises when a body is over-
turned depends on the breadth of the
base compared with the height of the
centre of gravity above the base. The
diagrams on page 124 show a number
of objects of different shapes with the
and the slightest disturbance of the boat
by the movement of one of the people
or a wave striking the side may send
the whole concern over.
The old-fashioned rocking-horse, the
child's cradle, and those huge rocking
stones often called logan stones illus-
trate the principle of the centre of
gravity. The centre of gravity being
low they can be rocked and will return
to their original position.
A cradle is much less likely to over-
turn with a child in it than when it is
empty, the centre of gravity being
lower in the former case owing to the
weight of the child's body. If, how-
ever, the cradle is more or less filled
,with pillows so that the child lies high
ih it, then it is liable to turn over if
rocked very much.
Sometimes a rocking stone is rocked
too far and it tumbles over. This
happened once with the famous Logan
Stone in Cornwall. A naval lieutenant
had rocked it till it fell and he had to
spend a very large sum of money to
replace the rock in its old position.
The swing of a pendulum and the
movement of the swings at a fair are
examples of how a body when disturbed
127
bags and parcels depends upon the
necessity of keeping the centre of
gravity of the body over the base,
that is, over our feet. A man with a
load on his head must walk upright.
If we carry a. heavy bag in our right
hand we lean to the left. If we have a
parcel on our back we bend forward,
and if we lift or carry a heavy bundle
in front we bend backward. In all
cases the change of the attitude is for
the purpose of keeping the centre of
gravity of ourselves and the load we
bear over our feet.
A man standing with his heels close
to a perpendicular wall cannot pick up
an object in front of him without
mov.ing forward, because his centre of
gravity as he bends places him in un-
stable equilibrium. A man rising from
a chair first bends his body forward
or draws his feet backward, so as to
place his base u n e ~ his centre of
gravity. Then he is able to rise.
When a man walks or runs he keeps
his body inclined forward, so. that the
centre of gravity may overhang the
base. This helps him in his running,
for he has constantly to advance his
feet to prevent falling forward.
SOME EXPERIMENTS TO ILLUSTRATE EQUILIBRIUM
Here are a number of experiments which can be carried out with ordinary materials found in every home and school, to illus-
trate the principle of equilibrium and the centre of gravity. The drawings are self-explanatory. Many of them appear to
be wonderful balancing trick,!>, but by means of weighted objects like the penknives and the forks and the weights on the
wings of the bird the centre of gravity of each particular device is kept low, and the arrangement is really in stable equilibrium.
The little man in the bottom right-hand corner has a piece of lead at the base which makes him always stand upright
WHY THE LEANING TOWER OF PISA DOES NOT FALL
Here is the Leaning Tower of Pisa, 181 feet high, which inclines 13 feet 8 inches out of the perpendicular. The sinking of the
foundations took place during construction, and attempts were made to correct it by diminishing the height of the stages on the
north side. This gives the tower a convexity on the south. The tower is safe, for its line of direction falls within its base
129
HOW THE ATER SYSTEM OF A HOUSE WO.RKS
This drawing shows how, because a liquid is heated by convection, that is, by the rising of the liquid as it becomes warmer
and the descent of colder liquid from above, a house can be warmed by a hot-water system, and hot water supplied to a bath-
room and taps. Cold water from the main sup.ply descends to a boiler at the bottom of the house, where it is by con-
tact with the side of the stove, and as it becomes warm rises to a hot-water tank above and then passes through pip'es to the
upper part of the house, where it is conducted to radiators for the warming of the rooms. As. the water becomes cooler it
is displaced by other hot water rising, and gradually descends through a return pipe to the boiler for reheating. Similarly,
hot water rises from the hot-water tank through the bath pipe and can be drawn off in the bathroom. In the drawing only
two radiators are shown, for. clearness, but, of course, there would be a radiator in every room, and also in the entrance hall
or passage of the house. The hot-water pipes pass up through a linen cupboard in order to keep the clothes aired. If the
hot-water pressure gets too high the water then forces itself up a pipe and returns to the cistern at the top of the house
130

..................................
account of the Physical Properties of Matter and some of the great Natun.JI
Forces harnessed by man
LIGHT, SOUND, HEAT, MAGNETISM and ELECTRICITY
----
HOW HEAT IS TRANSMITTED.
l:-Ieat, as we read in this chapter, can be transmitted in three different ways, and it is important that
we should understand the science of the matter, as it affects cooking and other everyday practices
I
F we place the end of a poker in the
glowing embers of a fire the end
will soon become red hot, and
gradually the . handle will become
warmer and warmer, till at last it has
become too .hot to hold in the hand
without some protection. Yet the
handle has not been in contact with the
source of heat at all.
Similarly, if we put a saucepan of
cold water on the fire, or gas-ring the
water at the top of the saucepan well
away from the fire will become continu-
ally warmer till at last it is boiling.
If we sit in the sunshine on a hot
summer day we shall get warmer and
warmer. Indeed, so hot is the sun-
In this picture we seethe
principle of warming a
house by hotwater
pipes fed by a boiler in
the basement. The hot
wafer -rises by convec-
tion currents, and the
cold water sinks to be
reheated
shine that if the rays are concentrated
by means of a reading glass, or even by
passing them through a bottle of water,
we can set fire to paper or dried grass.
Now how is it that the heat is thus
transferred to a distance? . Well, there
are. three different 'methods of trans-
mitting heat, and they are illustrated
by the- three examples which have
been given.
In the case of a solid body like the
poker in the fire, the heat is trans-
mitted by a process known as conduc-
tion. What really happens is this.
The heat of the fire causes the molecules
of iron to begin moving to and fro more
rapidly than they were doing. As
the speed of their vibration increases
they gradually cause the whole of the
molecules in the poker to swing to and
fro more rapidly, and at last this
movement reaches the handle.'
1n this heating by conduction there
is no transference of the particles of
the body. An excellent illustration
of what goes on has been given by
suggesting a picture of a number of
boats moored in a harbour, each boat
representing a molecule of the poker.
When a storm arises some distance
out at sea the waves approach the
harbour and set the boats vibrating.
The energy of the first wave is almost
entirely absorbed by the first row of
boats, and those nearer the land will
feel nothing of the movement. But
after a time, when the front boats are
in violent agitation, the wave move-
ment of the water will penetrate
farther into the .harbour, and at last
the rear boats will be reached and the
whole fleet will be sef swaying.
In other words, the movement is
conducted from boat to boat till the
farthest boats are reached and set in
motion.
The Process of Convection
Now in the case of the water boiled
in the kettle over a fire or gas-ring,
the way in which the uppei; layers of
water becom.e heated is quite different.
Here the process is known as convec-
tion, and in both liquids and gases heat
is transferred mostly by convection.
The word simply means conveyance.
Convection depends upon the fact
that substances change in density when
heated, that is, they become lighter
as they become hotter. What happens
in the kettle of water can be seen
clearly if instead of using a kettle we
use a glass flask and boil the water
over a Bunsen burner.
We place at the bottom of the flask
131
a few crystals of permanganate of
potash. The water in contact with
the crystals becomes a purple colour,
and it will be seen to rise through the
upper layers of water and then to
descend again down the sides of the flask.
W:P,at happens is this. The water
at. the bottom of the. flask in contact "
with the heat becomes hot and
begins to . expand, which makes it
lighter than the colder water above,
and thereupon it rises to the top, being
driven up by the force of the colder and
heavier water as it presses down drawn
by gravity. The warm water rises in
the flask for the same reason that the
balloon rises in the air, as explained
on page 60.
When the warm water rises it be-
comes somewhat cooled, and then as
other warmer water rises from the
bottom it presses down again, and so
there. is a constant circulation till at
last tl>e whole of the;water in the flask
has been raised tO the same tempera-
ture, namely. 'Zi2_ Fahrenheit.
In a thermos
flask the inside
is insulated,
and the heat of
the liquid in
the container
can only be
transmitted
by radiation
through the
surrounding
vacuum
HOW HEAT IS TRANSMITTED
It is this principle of convection that enables a house
to be heated by a hot-water system as shown on page 130.
Convection plays a large part in nature. The
circulation of the air with the various winds like
the trade-winds, and the currents of the sea are all
due to heating by convection.
It must here be explained
that even with liquids a certain
amount of heat is transmitted
by conduction.
Now there is a third method
The miner's safety
lamp is safe, because
the gauze which sur
rounds it, while al-
lowing the gas to
enter the lamp and
there catch fire, con-
ducts the heat away
gradually w it h o u.t
getting hot enough
to set fire to the
gas outside the lamp
in the workings
Inner g,au1e
absorh1n9 'heal
of flame

Fire -rf.a.mp : :
enfermg :
lamp
/
Path of air\
for combustion
of flame
This picture shows the principle of the safety lamp. The
gas burning beneath the gauze passes through the
mesh, but does not catch fire above, because the .heat is
conducted away by the gauze. On the other hand, when
the flame is lighted above the gauze sufficient heat does not
pass through to light the gas coming from the burner below
by which heat is transferred, and that is known
as radiation. It differs from the other two methods
in that it does not require the presence of
any material medium like the iron or the water
or the air.
The Sun warms our Earth by radiation. There
it is, more' than ninety million miles away,
and yet a great deal of the heat which it pours out
travels across the immense space and reaches the
Earth. In the case of conduction and convection,
a material substance is necessary for the trans-
mission of the heat, but in the case of radiation
a material substance so far from assisting, only
obstructs the transmission of the heat.
We can prove this by standing some distance
from a roaring fire. We feel the heat which
comes across the room to us by radiation, but
if we put a screen between ourselves and the
fire the screen will shut off the heat of the fire
from ourselves.
When heat is transmitted by radiation it travels
in straight lines or rays, which is why it is called
radiation, from the Latin word radius, meaning a
ray. If it did not, the heat would travel round
the screen and still reach us.
Three Forms of Heat Transmission
In the case of the domestic f i ~ we get an
example of all three forms of transmission of
heat: the bars of the grate and the poker are,
heated by conduction, the air in the chimney
and in the room is heated by convection, and we
ourselves, as we sit in front of the fire, are
heated by radiation.
A scientist, Mr. E. Nightingale, gives us some
excellent analogies to help us to understand the
three modes of transmission of heat. He says,
" Recently an agricultural institute was on fire
near St. Albans, and the students tried to put it
out before the fire engine arrived. They did so
by forming two lines and passing buckets of
water from a pond to the building. This was
analogous to the process of conduction, the
students representing the . molecules and the
buckets of water the heat energy.
" If each student had run to the pond with an
empty bucket and returned with a full one the
process would have illustrated convection. When
the fire engine arrived, water was thrown on
the fire by the hydrant. This illustrates the
process of radiation. These illustrations," adds
Mr. Nightingale, "are only analogies, and, like
all analogies, must not be pressed too far. The
reader is warned against supposing that heat is a
material substance like water."
When heat is radiated, it is said to travel by
a transverse wave motion in the ether of Space.
We do not know what this ether is or even
whether it really exists, but we know that heat
travels by a kind of wave motion and
we assume, therefore, that if there are
waves they must be waves in some-
thing, We cannot, however, collect
or analyse ether as we can air.
Heat when it travels by radiation
moves with the same speed as light,
that is, at about 186,000 miles per
second. We know this, because
directly the sunshine breaks through
the clouds warmth and heat are
In a domestic stove
we find all three'
methods of heat
transmission. The
stove itself gets hot
by conduction, the
water in the boiler
is heated by con
vection, and a person
standing in front of
the fire is warmed by
radiation
experienced at the
same moment as
the sunshine.
why,
alike
they
It may be asked
if radiant heat and light are
in so many respects, wherein do
differ. Well, as we shall see
when we come to study light, the only
difference is one of wavelength. It
has been described as resembling
the difference between the top notes
of a piano and the notes at the
bottom.
Now when we come to consider heat
by conduction we find that different
substances have different degrees of
conductivity. That is, heat is trans-
mitted more easily through some sub-
stances than through others.
For example, if two spoons, one of
silver and tlie other of German silver,
are placed in a glass of hot water and
a piece of phosphorus be put on the end
of each, in a . very short time sufficient
heat is conducted along the silver
spoon to set the phosphorus alight,
while the piece upon the other spoon
will remain The reason
is that the silver is a better conductor
of heat than the other metal.
The fact that some substances are
bad conductors of heat is made use of
in many ways. For example, in frosty
weather wisps of straw are bound round
water pipes to keep them from losing
133
HOW HEAT IS TRANSMITTED
heat, so that the water in the pipe
may not freeze and burst the pipe.
Ice when carted through the streets
in summer weather is covered with a
blanket so that the heat may not reach
the ice and melt it. Wool is a bad
conductor of heat, and that is why we
use blankets oh our beds and woollen
clothing on our bodies in winter. It
is not that the wool is warm in itself.
It simply prevents the heat of our bodies
from being conducted away into the
atmosphere.
For the same reason steam pipes
and boilers are covered with hair-felt
or asbestos packing, because these sub-
stances are bad conductors of heat, and
so the heat of the steam is prevented
from escaping
into the air.
Fur and
down are bad
conductors,
and so they
keep the ani-
mal or bird
warm. That is why a swan or duck
can float for hours in water that is
little above freezing point. Its feathers
and down prevent the heat of its body
from escaping into the water.
If a sheet of wire gauze be held over
a gas flame, the gas flame does not
pasB through it, though the gas itself
does, and if the gas flame of the burner
be extinguished but the gas escaping
through the gauze be ignited at the
top, the flame will not go down to the
burner.
HOW HEAT IS TRANSMITTED
The reason is that the heat of the
flame, whether it be above or below
the gauze, is conducted away by the
wires, the metal being a good conductor,
and so the temperature of the gauze on
the side opposite to tp.e flame is not high
enough to cause combustion of the gas
there.
It is this principle that is utilised in
the miner's safety lamp. The flame of
the lamp is surrounded by gauze. If
there is gas in the workings of the mine
this will pass through the gauze and it
will be seen to burn inside the lamp as
it reaches the flame: But it will not
catch fire outside because the heat of
the flame inside is distributed by the
wire gauze and thus the heat is not
enough to ignite the gas.
Of course, if the miner does not take
warning when he sees the marsh gas
burning inside his lamp the gauze will
in time become heated sufficiently to
fire the gas outside in the mine. The
value of the safety lamp is that it
Here on the right we see why dark clothes
are warmer in sunny weather than light-
coloured clothes. The dark colour absorbs
more of the heat rays and reflects less, but
the opposite is. the case where the clothes
are light coloured. Above we see how heat
is conducted through woven material by
convection currents in the air enclosed in the
spaces between the fibres
gives the miner timely warning that
there is gas in the mine.
The object of clothing, especially in
winter, is to prevent the escape of heat
from the body, and that is why those
substances should be selected for dress
that are bad conductors of heat. The
worse the conductor the more our
bodily heat will be conserved.
Experiment has shown that of the
substances which we wear fur is the
worst conductor, and therefore the
warmest covering for the body. Next
to it is wool woven into flannel and
cloth. Then in order come cotton,
linen and silk. Being better conductors
they form comparatively cool cover-
ing for summer.
Air is a bad conductor of heat, and
that is why it is always warmer in
winter to wear loose clothing than
tight. Many people seem to think
that if their clothes fit tightly round
them they will be warmer, but this is
not the case.
Light-coloured clothing is much
cooler on a hot sunny day than dark
clothing. When the rays of heat from
the Sun fall upon a white material a
little of the heat is absorbed, but most
of it is reflected and so the body is
protected from the outside heat. When,
however, the rays fall upon a black
coat or dress most of the heat is absorbed
and only a little reflected. The result
is that dark clothing is warni because
it allows the heat rays to pass through.
Dark clothing not only looks warm but
it is actually warmer.
The fabric of our clothes consists of
woven cloth, that is, threads of the
material are interlaced so that there
are thousands of little chambers in the
material filled with air. When we are
standing in the sun -
shine or in front of
a fire the heat rays
strike upon the
clothing and set up
convection currents
in the pockets of
air between the
fibres. A little heat
also passes by con-
duction along the
actual fibres in the
same way as it passed along the
poker to the handle.. It is, however,
mostly by convection that the heat of
the Sun or a fire passes through our
clothing.
The different sensations of heat and
cold which we experience in touching
bodies arise altogether from cone
duction. When two bodies of different
temperatures are placed in contact,
the warmer one parts with its heat to
the colder until both are of the same
temperature. There is a constant
134
tendency towards what scientists call
the equilibrium of temperature,
If in winter we go into a room without
a fire and touch first the carpet, then
the wooden table, then the brick wall,
and lastly the fender, we should con-
sider that these objects were colder and
colder in succession. Why ? The
reason is a simple one. The carpet
being a bad conductor carries away
little heat from the hand; the wooden
table being a better conductor takes
away more heat and so gives a s e n s ~
tion of coldness ; the wall is a better
conductor still and steals more heat
from the hand, so feeling colder ; and
the fender, the best conductor of all,
carries away much heat rapidly and
so gives a sensation of great cold.
The thermos flask is a good example
of how a bad conductor of heat can be
used. It consists of a vessel with
double walls of glass, the two inside
surfac.es being silvered like a mirror.
The air between the walls is pumped
out and the space is hermetically
sealed so that no air can enter.
Heat cannot be transmitted by con-
duction or convection . through a
vacuum owing to the absence of any
material substance. Heat, however,
can pass by radiation through a vacuum
just as readily as. light, but in the case
of the flask it is reflected back when it
falls upon the mirrored surface. By
this means hot liquid placed inside
a thermos flask keeps hot, or equally
a cold substance such as liquid, air
remains cold because heat cannot get
to it.
It will be seen on reference to. the
drawing of a thermos flask on page 131
that this vessel is a very ingenious
device, and we know when we take
hot milk or tea in a thermos flask for
a picnic how well it works and how
warm the fluid keeps for a long
period. The whole device is a very
carefully thought out scientific ip
vention.
CHEMISTRY
The Science of the Elements of which all the matter in the
Universe is made up
The Wonders of COMBUSTION and CHEMICAL COMBINATION
NITROGEN WHICH IS NECESSARY TO LIFE
Nitrogen, of which more than three-quarters of the air we breathe consists, is a very
important element, and, as we read here, is absolutely necessary to all living things
R
ATHER more than three-quarters of
the bulk of air we breathe con-
sists of nitrogen gas; which, as
already explained, dilutes the oxygen
and prevents it causing everything to
burn up too quickly and too vigorously.
It used to be thought that pure
nitrogen could be obtained from the
air by extracting the oxygen by means
of some such substance as phosphorus
or heated copper with which the
oxygen would combine, foaving the
nitrogen free.
But in 1894, Lord Rayleigh and
Sir William Ramsay found that the
nitrogen thus obtained contained an-
other element and was really a mixture
of nitrogen and argon, with traces of
one or two other gases.
In the laboratory pure nitrogen is
generally obtained by heating together
sodium nitrite and ammonium chloride
or ammonium sulphate. Ammonium
nitrite is formed
of nitrogen only die because they are
suffocated, that is, deprived of oxygen.
But although, in the ordinary way,
nitrogen is so inert, it will at high
temperatures combine with oxygen to
form nitric oxide, represented by the
symbol NO, and with certain elements
such as lithium, boron, calcium, and
magnesium to form nitrides. Nitrogen
also unites with hydrogen to form
ammonia.
. It may seem strange that with
nitrogen such an inactive gas and so
unready to get into combination with.
other elements, it should on the other
hand when it has combined be very
energetic in getting out of its com-
pounds. On this account it is the basis
of all high explosives.
Now, nitrogen is absolutely essential
to life. T)le waste of our bodies is made
good by food. As we work and play
we expend energy, and this energy is
Caustic potash
to deprtYe air
Y u = = ~ of carbon
di{))Cide
Hot copper turninqs
combminq with
OXl/qen)
materials that have been destroyed.
Now the tissues of our body consist of
various elements. There is always
carbon and we know that flesh con-
tains carbon because .whenever a piece
of meat is cooked so much as to be
charred, black carbon can be seen.
Another element present in all living
tissue is nitrogen, and, of course, there
are also oxygen and hydrogen. These
last two elements must be in all living
tissue because a great part of it, as we
hlJ.ve seen, is composed of water. There
a.re also small quantities of other
elements like sulphur and pl;lqsphorus.
We read in another part of this book
more about foods, but it may be
mentioned here that the body cannot
take the carbon and nitrogen it needs,
and which are absolutely essential to
it, neat. We might eat a lump of
charcoal, but it would not give our
tissues the carbon they require.
Now when we
come to nitrogen
there are ample
supplies all round.
Breathing It In
and this then
decomposes into
water and nitro-
gen. The gas can
be collected either
over water or over
mercury.
)
1?91- ~
From Liquid Air
Commercially,
large quantities of
nitrogen are ob-
tained from liquid
air. Thtf liquid is
allowed to evap-
orate and the
nitrogen, being
more v ola tile,
passes off first and
is collected, leav-
ing behind the
Making nitrogen gas by passing air deprived of its carbon dioxide over hot copper turnings. The
copper combines with the oxygen and the nitrogen is passed on to be collected
As we know,
three-fourths of
the atmosphere
consists of nitrogen
and we are con-
stantly breathing
it in with the
oxygen that we
need. But our
bodies make no
use of it, and it is
breathed out again
with the air we
expire. Saltpetre
contains a good
deal. of nitrogen,
oxygen which is also collected for use.
Nitrogen is a colourless, tasteless and
odourless gas, slightly soluble in water.
It is rather lighter than oxygen and
air but seventy-four times as heavy as
hydrogen. Under a high pressure. it
condenses to a colourless liqu:id, which
boils at- 195'5 Centigrade. Cooled still
more, to -2II
0
, it becomes a snow-like
crystalline solid.
Although nitrogen and oxygen are
in contact in the atmosphere, they do
not in ordinary conditions combine, for
nitrogen is a very inert substance which
does not combine readily with other
elements and supports neither com-
bustion nor animal life. Nor does it
burn. It is not poisonous like chlorine,
and animals placed in an atmosphere
derived from the constant oxidation or
breaking down . of the tissues by the
oxygen introduced into the body
through the lungs.
The waste of substance corresponds
to- the amcmnt of energy expended.
When a muscle contracts as we raise
our arm to take down a book from a
shelf or to throw a cricket ball it be-
comes slightly smaller, because part of
it is destroyed to give the muscle the
power to contract. It is similar to the
destruction of fuel when a fire is burning.
In the contraction of the muscle, heat
is produced, and energy is furnished.
If we are to continue healthy and
active the waste of tissue must be made
up and this is done by means of food.
The foods we consume must supply the
135
but no animal could use this substance
as food. All the food of an animal,
except its water, must b ~ organic in
character, and be derived directly or
indirectly from plants.
Now the foods that we eat can be
divided into three classes. There are
the proteins which build up and repair
our tissues. These contain nitrogen,
carbon, oxygen, and "hydrogen all com-
bined in such a way that they can be
used easily. Good examples of protein
foods are the white of an egg, or albu-
men, the curtly matter of milk, or casein,
and that part of wheat flour which is
known as gluten. All these proteins
and others contain nitrogen as well as
carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen.
The other two classes of foods, the
NITROGEN
fats and oils, and the starches and
sugars, we need not deal with now.
They contain carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen, but no nitrogen.
Nitrogen having entered the body
as protein food undergoes chemical
changes and having done its work
leaves the body again as a waste sub-
stance known as urea.
The loss of nitrogen in the body which
comes from the breaking down of the
protein material must be made good by
fresh protein material or the person
will starve and die. No matter how
much of other food products he may
consume, if his diet does not contain
nitrogen he will soon perish. An
animal deprived of this vital food
will live for some time, but it will be
feeding upon itself, using up the nitro-
gen in its own body. It has been rightly
said that a starving sheep is as much a
carnivorous animal as a lion.
We must remember that the body of
an average man of twelve stones con-
tains about three and a half pounds of
nitrogen in the tissues. Protein matter
contains in round figures about fifteen
per cent of nitrogen, so that about
twenty grammes of nitrogen can be ob-
tained from I 30 grammes of protein food,
or seven-tenths of an ounce of nitrogen
from four and a half ounces of protein.
In addition to the fifteen per cent of
nitrogen in the protein there is fifty-
three per cent of carbon, twenty-two
per cent of oxygen and seven per cent
of hydrogen.
When the protein has been exhausted
or burnt it is changed into carbon
dioxide, water, and ammonia.
Unlimited Supplies of Nitrogen
To return to the free nitrogen of the
air. We have already seen that although
the supply is practically unlimited, in
the form in which it exists it is useless
for living creatures. It must be made
available in the form of compounds.
But what man finds so difficult to do
Nature is able to perform in a perfectly
quiet manner.
Leguminous plants, like the clover,
pea, and bean, are able in partnership
with tiny bacteria in the soil to take
nitrogen from the air for their own use
and to leave part of it stored up in the
soil for plants of another season. Other
kinds of green plants ha.ve to take their
nitrogen from the soil in the form of a
salt called a nitrate. The bacteria that
help the leguminous plants to use the
free nitrogen form little nodules on the
roots, and these nodules swarm with
the useful bacteria.
To do similar work and take nitrogen
from the air and. make it into useful
compounds for the soil man has to set
up elaborate and expensive machinery.
But the bacteria do the same work
quietly and in order to provide the soil
with the fixed nitrogen that is needed
for his crops, the farmer has only to
plough in his peas or clover or beans.
There is indeed a regular nitrogen
cyde, something like the carbon cycle
which is illustrated on page 91.
In 1898 Sir William Crookes warned
the world that the supply of wheat
would become insufficient for the needs
of the groWing population unless the
yield of the soil could be greatly
increased. But this, he pointed out,
would in a few years exhaust all the
known supplies of combined .nitrogen,
so that it looked as though famine
stared the world in the face. At that
time the chief sources of nitrogen
supply were matter of plant origin like
vegetable refuse ; matter of animal
origin like manure; fish-meal, and
guano, ammonia compounds from coal
Roots .of red clover with the nodules made by
bacteria, whiGh take free nitrogen from the
air and from it form nitrates on which plants
of various kinds can feed
and peat; mineral deposits like the
saltpetre beds of Chile; compounds of
nitrogen in certain rocks, and the
nitrogen absorbed by the. nodules on
the roots of leguminous plants with the
aid of bacteria. Of these various
supplies the one of greatest importance
is that of the compounds obtained
from the distillation of coal.
Coal provides a very valuable source
of supply of compound nitrogen. It
was stated by Professor Alexander
Finlay twenty years ago that if all the
coal mined at that time were distilled
r36
or coked, it would produce II,800,000
tons of ammonium sulphate.
Unfortunately this valuable by-pro-
duct obtained during the manufacture
of gas, is wasted when coal is burned
in the ordinary way. We see on pages
56 and 57 how the ammonia liquor is
collected in the gasworks and distilled
with lime to form ammonium sulphate,
a valuable fertiliser for the soil. .
But aminonia, the chemical symbol
of which is NH3, can now be manu-
factured by passing a mixture of nitro-
gen and hydrogen at a pressure of
about 200 atmospheres over some such
substance as iron at a temperature of
about 500 Centigrade. The iron does
not take part in the chemical combina-
tion ; it is merely what scientists call a
catalyst, that is, something that loosens,
as described on page 63.
This process of making ammonia
from the free nitrogen in the air is shown
in the draWing on pages 138 and 139.
Ammonia, NH3, the molecule of
which contains one atom of nitrogen
and three atoms of hydrogen, is a
colourless gas with a pungent odour,
as we know when we sniff our smelling
salts. It also has a caustic taste. Its
density compared with air is about
three-fifths.
When Ammonia Burns
It forms a colourless liquid which
boils at -33.2 Centigrade, and freezes
at - 77 into white crystals. The gas
is very soluble in water. At normal
temperature and pressure one volume
of water will absorb 1,300 volumes of
ammonia. At a high temperature like
700 Centigrade ammonia separates into
two constituent gases, nitrogen and
hydrogen. It also speeds up when elec-
tric sparks are passed through the gas.
Although ammonia will not burn in
ordinary air, a jet of the gas when
made to flow into a vessel containing
oxygen can be ignited, and it burns
with a yellowish flame.
Ammonia in the liquid state is em-
ployed a great deal in refrigerating
plants. We see its use in the drawing on
pages 80 and 81. It is used in the manu-
facture of ice, and it is also used in the
manufacture of high explosives as well
as soda fertilisers, ammonia salts, and
nitric acid.
It is interesting to know that the
early alchemists were acquainted with
ammonium carbonate, which gives off
ammonia. In early days sal-ammoniac,
which is ammonium chloride, was pro-
duced by heating urine and common
salt together, and also from the soot
which was obtained by burning camel's
dung.
Later the compound was prepared
by distillation from animal refuse, such
as bones, hoofs and horns. This yielded
carbonate of ammonia, and that was
converted into sal-ammoniac by adding
to it hydrochloric acid.
It was because of this method of
preparation that the old name for
ammonia was spirits of hartshom. Of
course, such methods have long since
been superseded.
THE NITROGEN CYCLE THAT IS ALWAYS GOING ON
In the drawing below we see what scientists call .the nitrogen y l e ~ Four-fifths of the air consists of nitrogen gas, and a
certain amount of nitrogen is necessary for the support of all living things, whether plants or. animals. But nitrogen, though
free as air, cannot be used in that state. As one scientist has said, "That is the trouble, it is too free. Free nitrogen costs
nothing, and is good-for nothing." It is only when nitrogen is fixed in compounds, that is, in combination with other elements
in the form of food or fertiliser, that we can make use of it. Fixed nitrogen in the form of nitrates is obtained from Chilean
saltpetre and used for feeding the soil. The free nitrogen of the air is also seized in great chemical works with elaborate
machinery and formed into nitrates. But there is a way in which Nature itself prepares nitrates, and this we see in the drawings
below. The cavities of the soil are full of air, and minute bacteria which live on the roots of beans, peas, clover and other
leguminous plants take the nitrogen from the air in the soil and form nitrates from it. They do this on the roots of no other
plants. The nitrates are formed in 'little nodules on the roots, and so when beans and kindred plants are dug into the ground
they enrich the soil with nitrates. Good crops result, and domestic animals and birds feeding upon the plants obtain the
necessary nitrogen to build up their tissues. Then when human beings eat the meat of these animals and plants they also
receive nitrogen to build up their tissues. Refuse from animals is acted upon by bacteria producing nitrogen compounds such
as ammonia, which return to the soil, where they are broken up and the free nitrogen released enters the atmosphere. Thus
there is a regular cycle in which the nitrogen passes from the air through the various stages described and returns once more
to the atmosphere. The knowledge
that. bacteria working on the roots of
leguminous plants seize the free nitro-
gen of the air and fix it as nitrates
has only been gained in recent years,
although for centuries it has been
known that these plants enrich the soil
r37
HOW AMMONIA IS MADE FOR COMMERCIAL USES
One of the greatest triumphs of the chemist has been the artificial manufacture of ammonia, which. is used in large quantities
in the production of ice, in the preparation of fertilisers, and for other purposes. For years chemists experimented without
success, but at last a German chemist, Fritz Haber, succeeded in making a few ounces of ammonia from a mixture of nitrogen
and hydrogen. The ammonia molecule contains one atom of nitrogen and three of hydrogen. From that small beginning
the process was improved and developed till now there are Haber plants all over the world, making hundreds of tons of
ammonia every day. The process is shown in this drawing. First of all water-gas is prepared in a generator. Anthracite
coal or coke is heated up with a blast of air, and carbon dioxide gas is formed, leaving the nitrogen of the air free. The
blast is then cut off and steam is PG\Ssed over the hot coke, producing the water-gas, which is a mixture of carbon monoxide,
hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen. This mixture of gases passes into a series of scrubbers, where, by means of water
SJ:>rays, the tarry matter is taken from the gas as it moves upward through coke, which acts as a distributor for the water.
From the scrubbers the gas passes to a water-gas holder, and then goes on to a converter, which is filled with heated iron
oxide, and is treated with a blast of steam. The iron oxide acts as a catalyst, and the carbon monoxide is changed to carbon
dioxide. After going through another water-gas holder the mixed gases pass to a compressor, where they are put under a
pressure of twenty-five atmospheres. From the compressor the gases pass to another tower, where a downward spray of
FROM THE NITROGEN FOUND IN THE ATMOSPHERE
water dissolves the carbon dioxide, and the nitrogen and hydrogen leave the pur,ifying tower in the right proportion for
combining, but there is still a trace of carbon monoxide. They go to a compressor, where they are put under a pressure of
250 atmospheres, or 3,675 pounds to the square inch. From there they pass to ahother tower where the last traces of
carbon, monoxide are dissolved in a downward shower of ammoniacal copper solution kept circulating by a pump.. The
gases, hydrogen and nitrogen, issue from the top of the tower and after going through a cooling tank enter a reaction tower,
where they are heated, and, passing over an iron catalyst, arecombined tG form ammonia. Some nitrogen and hydrogen
remain uncombined. The mixed gases are drawn from the bottom of the tower and are pumped to the bottom of an absorp-
tion tower in which.a water spray pours from the top. This absorbs the ammonia in the mixed gases, and the liquid is
drawn off first to a cooling tank, and then to a storage tank. The nitrogen and hydrogen which remain in the tower after
tpe formation of the ammonia then rise, leave through a pipe at the top, and join the other nitrogen and hydrogen going to
the catalyst chamber. The passage of the gases from the generator can be traced in the drawing by means of the arrows
139
HOW VENUS CHANCES HER SIZE AND SHAPE
The planets Mercury and Venus, circling round the Sun
inside the Earth's orbit, exhibit phases, as does our Moon,
and this picture-diagram showing Venus as it travels
round its orbit makes clear why we cannot always see
the full illuminated disc of the planet. We are, at various
times, looking at the planet sideways, as it were. When
Venus appears as a round disc it is at its farthest, and the
various phases of the planet shown in the diagram are
drawn to scale. It will be seen that there is a very great
difference in the relative size and shape of the planet as
seen from the Earth at different points in its orbit
PHYSIOGRAPHY! A
description of the Physical Universe with the Daily, Monthly
and Yearly Happenings in Earth and Sky
..................................................................
ASTRONOMY, GEOLOGY, PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY and METEOROLOGY
THE THREE NEAREST PLANETS
The planets Mercury, Venus and Mars are described as terrestrial planets, because they
appear most like. the Earth. Here we read many interesting facts about these worlds
M
ERCURY is the planet.
to the Sun and receives from
it more heat and light than
any other planet. It has the swiftest
motion, excepting some of the minor
.. planets, and the most' eccentric orbit
; with the greatest inclination to the
ecliptic. The ecliptic is the plane of
the Earth's orbit or the apparent yearly
patl:i of the Sun round the heavens
through the twelve constellations of
the Zodiac.
Mercury is the smallest of the
planets, except of course the asteroids
or planetoids, and it has the least mass.
Its diameter is about 2,765 miles and
its mass or weight about one-eighteenth
that of the Earth, while its density is
believed to be four-fifths of the Earth's.
There is much difference of opinion,
however, about these figures.
It is believed to rotate
on its axis once in every
eighty-eight days, the same
period it takes to revolve
round the Sun, and there-
fore it presents always the
same face to the Sun. Its
speed as it travels round
the Sun is twenty-nine miles
a second, or over 2t million
miles per day.
water vapour in it, but it is not quite
certain that the lines indicating thiR
are not due tq the water vapour in the
Earth's own atmosphere.
It is quite certain, however, that
Mercury's atmosphere is less dense
than that of Ven us, because when the
planet passes across the face of the Sun
it shows no encircling ring of light as
does Venus, due to the reflection of
sunlight on the atmosphere. Under the
powerful heat of the Sun it would
certainly be difficult for a planet of so
small a mass to retain very much
atmosphere.
The surface of Mercury shows little
of interest, and it is only in compara-
tively recent times that sufficient
markings have been detected to enable
the planet's period of rotation to be
calculated.
naked eye in the daytime when it is
nearest to the Earth.
In size, density and physical condi-
tion it is a twin sister of the Earth.
Its diameter is 7 ,600 miles, and its
mass or weight about four-fifths that
of the Earth. Its orbit round the Sun
is more of a circle than that of anv
other planet, there being less than a
million miles difference between its
greatest and least distances from the
Sun. At its greatest it is 67,705,000
miles away and at its'nearest 66,787,000
miles. The mean rlistance is 67,245,000
miles.
At its nearest point to the Earth
Venus is only 23,701,000 miles away,
the nearest that any major planet
approaches, while at its farthest it is
r62,229,ooo miles.
It receives from the Sun nearly
twice as much light and
heat as the Earth, and its
gradtational pull is equal
to eighty-six per cent of
the Earth's. As it travels
round the Sun it races
along at 2r7 miles a second,
or 1,873,000 miles a day.
It is interesting to. note that
as the planets are farther
from the Sun so their rate
of travel in their orbits is
less. While Mercury rushes
along at twenty-nine miles
a second, Neptune's rate
per second is only just over
three miles.
Varying Forms
Nearest and Farthest
At its nearest it is
28,588,000 miles from the
Sun, and at its farthest
43,386,000 miles, which
shows how verv eccentric
its orbit must be. The
mean distance is 35,987,000
miles. From the Earth at
its nearest Mercurv is
48,020,000 miles, but at
its farthest, that is, when
it is on the opposite side of
the Sun, it is 137,910,000
miles.
At its nearest Mars is over 215 million miles nearer the Earth than when
it Is at its farthest. Here we see how this difference in distance makes the
planet vary in comparative size. The pictures show the planet as it appears
Venus, like Mercury and
the Moon, shows phases,
that is, it is sometimes
round, sometimes a crescent,
and takes various forms in
between. The diagram on
page 140 explains the
Mercury receives nearly seven times
as much light and heat from the Sun
as does the Earth. Its gravitation or
the pull on objects at its surface is only
two-fifths that of the Earth.
Being nearer the Sun than the
Earth, Mercury is often seen with the
Sun shining s1antingly upon it, which
means that it has phases. We see it in
crescent, gibbous, and other forms, as
though it were the Moon in miniature.
. Of course, these forms can only be
detected through the telescope, but
they affect the planet's brightness to
the naked eye. An examination by
means of the spectroscope suggests
that Mercury has an atmosphere with
when seen through a powerful telescope
As the same face is always presented
to the Sun, the opposite side of the
planet must be perpetually sunless and
intensely cold, but the sunlit face must
be subjected to a heat seven times as
great as the most intense African
blaze.
The albedo, or reflecting power, of the
planet is less than that of the Moon or
any other planet.
The next planet in order from the
Sun is Venus, the brightest of all and the
best known by sight. It is called the
Morning Star and the Evening Star,
according to the time of day when it is
visible in the heavens. It is so bright
that it can be seen quite easily by the
.141
rea'Son for this. Planets
outside the Earth's orbit cannot be
seen in these phases.
Of course, as its distance from the
Earth varies so much, its size also
varies greatly and it appears largest in
the crescent form and smallest when
seen at the full.
As to the planet itself we know little,
for it is surrounded by a dense atmos-
phere. We know this by several indi-
cations.
First of all, the bri11iance ot the
planet decreases from the centre to-
wards the limb or edge, this being due
to the fact that as the atmosphere is
thicker at the edge when seen from
the Earth than it is at the centre, it
THE NEAREST PLANETS
absorbs more of the Sun's light there.
In the second place when it is seen
in one of. its phci.ses other than the full
planet the terminator or dividing line
hetween the ilh:1minated and unillu-
minated parts shows twilight effects.
Finally, when the crescent phase is
verv thin illumination can be dis-
cerned beyond the horns or pointf' and
this can only be due to an atmosphere
round the planet.
As to the length of Venus's day,
that is, the time it takes to rotate on
its axis, this was at first thought to be
'l.3 hot1rs 21 minutes, or rather less than
the Earth's dav. Then in r88o the
Italian astronomer, Schiaparelli, sug-
gested that the period was 225 days,
the same as its period of revolution
round the Sun.
If this were correct then Venus, like
Mercury, would always present the
same side to the Sun, and while one
face would be baked the other would
experience intense cold. Other astro-
nomers confirmed this idea till quite
recently, when they changed their
view, and the reason for the change is
interesting.
If the dark hemisphere of Venus
were really always turned away from
the Sun, it would receive no heat, and
could, therefore, radiate none. But
by means of a very sensitive little
instrument known as a thermopile,
which will record an almost infinitesimal
These four drawings show the com-
parative size Of the Sun as seen from
the four pianets Mercury, Venus,
Earth and Mars. If we lived on
Mercury the Sun would be a big
globe more than twice as great in
diameter as wheri seen from the Earth
amount of heat, like that radiated by a
star, it has been found thatthe dark
side of Venus, when turned towds
the Earth; radiates an appreciable
amount of beat. This is regarded as
proof that that part of the planet
must at intervals be turned towards
the Sun so as to receive the heat
which it is found to radiate, and many
astronomers now believe that Venus
rotates on her axis in about five days.
Others still maintain that the period
is twenty-four hours.
Because of its atmosphere few
;markings can be seen on Venus.
T h e spectro-
scope gives no
sign that the
planet's at-
mosphere con
tains oxygen or
water vapour,
but this may
be because we
can only
examine the
light reflected
by clouds high
up in the
atmosphere.
Deeper down
there may be
both oxygen
and water
vapour.
As the phy-
sical conditions
on the surface
of Venus are
probably more
like those of
the Earth than
those on any
other planet,
it is possible
that, given
oxygen and
As can be seen from this drawing, the orbit of Mars iS much more eccentric
than that of ttie Earth, that is, the Sun is far more. out of the centre than
it is out of the centre of the Earth's or:,bit
water in the lower atmosphere, there
may be life on the planet.
Professor E. B. Frost, of Yerkes
Observatory, says that living beings
are much more likely to exist on Venus
than on Mars. So far as we know
Venus has no satellite or moon.
After Venus comes the Earth and
then Mars, the nearest of the planets
been more
studied than any.
Unlike Venus,
when it is nearest
to our Earth it
shows a fully
illuminated face,
circling round the
Sun outside the
Earth's orbit.
Mars is one of
the best known of
all the planets,
and has perhaps
and, having a much thinner atmosphere,
its surface can be readily examined
owing to the absence of thick clouds.
The diameter of this planet is
4;352 miles against the 7,926 miles of
the Earth and the area of the planet's
surface is rather more than a quarter
of our world's. In volume it is about
one-seventh of the Earth, and its m<i:ss
or weight one-tenth. its density bejng
seven-tenths of the Earth's. The pull of
gravitation on the surface of Mars
is only about two-fifths of that on the
Earth's surface.
Mars travels round the Sun in an
orbit half as large again as that of the
Earth. When it is nearest to the Sun
it is 128,440,000 miles away, but. at
its farthest it is 154,860,000 miles.
Its speed as it travels in its orbit
is 149 miles a second, or 1,287,000
miles a day, as against the Earth's
8 ~ miles a second.
Being so much farther away, Mars
does not receive so much
light and heat from the Sun
as does the Earth. The
quantity is only about orie-
half.
At its nearest point to the
Earth Mars is 33,916,000
miles away, but at its most
distant it is 249,384,000 miles.
As a consequence its size as seen from
the Earth varies a .great deal. When
at its neare:;;t its diarneter appears
seven times the diameter when viewed
at its most distant point. The bright-
ness also varies a great deal, for when
it is most remote it is hardly as bright
as the Pole Star, but at its nearest
it is fifty times brighter and rivals the
planet Jupiter.
Mars turns on its axis in 24 hours
37 minutes 23 seconds, so that its day
is almost the same as our day in length.
Mars is the only heavenly body
besides the Earth and the Moon
whose exact period of rotation is
known. With the Sun and the other
planets, it is difficult to see any fixed
points which will act as sure guides in
determining the period of rotation.
A year on Mars is 687 of our days-
that is, it takes that period to make
one complete revolution round the Sun.
It was not till 1877 that two small
moons were found attending Mars,
but they give to us only about as much
light as the reflection of a man's hand
would do at a distance of a hundred
miles, so that they are very difficult
to examine. They are very s.mall for
THE NEAREST PLANETS
satellites, one called Deimos being
only about ten miles in diameter and
the other, Phobos, being about twenty
miles in diameter.
The most remarkable Jhing about
these moons is their nearness .to the
planet. Phobos circles round Mars at a
distance of from 4,000 to 5,800 miles,
and Deimos at a distance of from 12,000
to 14,600 miles.
Mars is rather more flattened at its
poles than the Earth. Viewed through
a telescope, the planet shows great
variety of colour on its surface. There
are large orange-coloured or reddish
This drawing of the planet Mars shows the so-called canals which many astronomers say they can see on its surface. It
is thought that these may probably be water channels constructed by intelligent beings, and that when they appear more
distinct at certain seasons of the year this is due to the growth of vegetation along their banks. Mars appears to have large
areas of desert on its surface, but there are white polar caps, which are supposed to be ice, or frozen carbon dioxide gas
THE NEAREST PLANETS
regions that have
led to Mars being
described as the
Red Planet. These
regions are thought
to be deserts, and
to appear as the
Sahara would look
if viewed through
a telescope from
another planet.
Then there are
blueish- green
regions which are
believed to be the
dry beds of ancient
seas. It used to be
thought that the
colour was due to
water, but it is now
thought that it is
the result of some
Actual photographs of the planet Mars, taken at . Lick Observatory, The
photograph on the left was taken by means of violet rav'3, and that on the right by
rays. The righthand picture shows distinct markings on the planet's surface, and both
show the white pofar cap, but there is no indication of the supposed
appears round the
pole of each hemi-
sphere, and it is
believed that these
must be masses of
frozen material.
But while some
astronomers think
the material is
w at er, others
believe it may be
carbon dioxide. It
is when these white
caps almost dis-
appear that the
canals become most
distinct, which has
given rise to the
idea that the caps
are ice and that
when this melts
the water runs into
form of vegetation. If the so-called
seas were really water it is believed
the planet would have a denser
atmosphere and be largely covered
with cloud, and in any case the
water would reflect the Sun's image.
No such reflection is seen.
The " seas " vary in colour according
to the season. One part of the year
they are brown and certain stripes and
lines are said to cross them. These
lines are the so-called canals. Some
astronomers fail to distinguish them,
and photographs give little or no help,
but as a number of responsible astro-
nomers claim to have seen them and
have even made maps of their positions,
we must assume that they really exist.
These so-called canals are very
straight, and on that account are
believed by some to have been made
by intelligent beings.
In the winter season a white cap
A -strange projection which appeared on the
edge of Mars some years ago, and was
thought by some to be a signal. It was
probably the reflection of sunlight on
mountain tops or clouds
the canals and causes vegetation to
grow along their banks, just as plants.
grow beside the banks of the Nile.
As to the real character of these
markings, nothing definite can be said
at present. We must wait for further
knowledge, and it must be emphasised
that any ideas about living creatures
on Mars are purely speculation without
definite proof.
Some years ago patches of light
were seen projecting from the edge
of Mars, and some people thought
th@se might possibly be signals. They
are far more likely to have been the
reflection of the Sun from clouds or
mountain tops.
From time to time proposals have
been made to send signals to Mars by
flashing lights or wireless, but even if
such signals could reach intelligent
beings there, they might not recognise
them as signals.
When a planet has an atmosphere many of the Sun's rays are absorbed before they reach the planet's surface. As can be
seen here, forty per cent of the Sun's light is absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere, so that only sixty per cent that
comes to the Earth actually reaches the solid surface of our globe
144