The Good Wrtng Gude

INTRODUCTION
Good writing is important. The ability to write clear and accurate text is the most useful skill that
you will learn at university. Whatever subject you specialise in, and whatever career you choose
after you graduate, a command of language is a valuable asset. When employers offer a job to
an M graduate they are sometimes interested in how much he or she knows about emotional
labour or inter!generational social mobility, but they are always looking for someone with good
analytic and communication skills and an eye for detail. "n almost any job, you will spend time
working with a range of texts. #ou may produce written reports, letters or marketing copy. #ou
may also give lectures or presentations. "f you are aiming for a career in which you can use
language stylishly, such as journalism or creative writing, it is e$ually important that you know
the rules of good plain %nglish.
This document will help you to think about how you write. "t will also improve your reading skills.
While you are a student you will often be a reader, absorbing information from other sources or
analysing the structure of a text. When assessments come along, you will be a writer, and
someone else will read and analyse your work. &eading and writing are closely connected.
"mproving your skills in one area will have a knock!on effect in the other. 'et yourself high
standards in both these areas. (ne of the simplest ways to improve your own writing is to read
actively and to look at how authors mould the language to their own purposes. Try to develop an
eye for style and sentence structure as you read. This will help you to assess your own writing
and expand your language skills.
While you are at university, )good writing* means being able to produce a clear, grammatical,
logical argument to answer a $uestion in an exercise, an essay or an exam. This is not the place
to be innovative or poetic. +hances to be creative with language are available elsewhere.
cademic writing should be clear, clean and correct. "t should display your knowledge and
express your ideas. Good writing is always aimed at a particular audience. #our audience is the
teacher,s- who will mark your work. #our teachers are highly $ualified, and are likely to be the
kind of people who have an obsessive interest in grammar and spelling. They will consider a
command of language as important as any ideas you might want to share. "f your grammar is so
poor that it obscures your argument, you may fail the assessment. Markers cannot give credit for
what they think you might have wanted to say. What is on the paper is all that counts. Good
writing is not an optional extra to a degree. it is the core of the education system. Make this your
primary goal at university. %verything that you study can be channelled towards making yourself
a more perceptive reader and a more accurate writer. Get this right and you will understand
more of what you read. #ou will also be able to express your own ideas with force and clarity.
This booklet is divided into three sections. 'ection contains advice on reading a text for
analysis, and on setting up your answer to a $uestion. "t looks at planning, structure and
paragraphing, and it explains some technical terms. 'ection / deals with language. "t highlights
some common problems, and it offers advice on how to sharpen up your prose. 'ection + deals
with using sources. "t explains referencing and how to use critical material. "f you are studying
more than one discipline you may find that there are slightly different expectations about
referencing between departments. 0se the 1uick!2ix pages as checklists every time you submit
a piece of writing. %ach section also has some recommended further reading. t the back of the
booklet there is an index so that you can find things in a hurry. Many of the points have been
numbered so that your marker can point you to the relevant section when things go wrong. "f,
after all that, you would like some more advice about good writing there are several
3
things you can do4
+onsult your tutor. This is one of the reasons that tutors have office hours, and it is
remarkable how few students take advantage of this opportunity for some individual
advice. &emember to reread your tutor*s comments on your previous essay before you
write the next one. #ou will find this very helpful.
+ontact the 'tudent 5earning and 'ervice 0nit ,'5'-, &egent /uilding, Tel4 678989, or
visit www.abdn.ac.uk:sls to find some helpful advice online. '5' runs workshops and
courses on study skills and can also offer individual consultations, including support for
dyslexia.
0se your own network. sk a friend or flatmate to proofread your work before you hand it
in. 'o long as they do not change the content or borrow your ideas this is not cheating.
+hoose someone you can really trust. friend on a different course is ideal. #ou can
return the favour and improve your own proofreading skills. This is excellent practice for
a career in marketing, publishing or journalism. ;evelop an interest in writing, and
discuss with your friends what works and what does not. This is one of the best ways to
learn.
This is The Good Writing Guide. " hope it is useful.
;r. <a=el <utchison, 699>
(Adapted for Sociology by Dr. Alex King !""# and for Sociology by Dr. Debra Gimlin !""#$
6
CONTENTS
Section A: Planning
1. Readng for wrtng ..................................................................................... 4
2. Readng the queston .................................................................................. 4
3. Structure: Makng a pan ............................................................................. 5
Introductons & concusons ....................................................................5
Subheadngs ........................................................................................... 6
Paragraphs .............................................................................................. 6
4. Layout ......................................................................................................... 7
5. Submsson ................................................................................................. 7
Further Readng ....................................................................................... 8
Ouck Fx: Pannng .................................................................................. 8
Section B: Language
6. Regster ...................................................................................................... 9
7. Punctuaton: ................................................................................................ 9
Apostrophes ............................................................................................ 10
Commas .................................................................................................. 11
Sem-coons ............................................................................................. 14
Coons ..................................................................................................... 14
Dashes .................................................................................................... 15
Ouotaton marks ..................................................................................... 16
Excamaton marks .................................................................................. 16
8. Grammar: ................................................................................................... 16
Causes ................................................................................................... 17
Agreement .............................................................................................. 20
Tenses ..................................................................................................... 21
Pronouns ................................................................................................. 21
9. Speng: ...................................................................................................... 22
Common errors ....................................................................................... 23
Captas ................................................................................................... 23
US v UK speng ...................................................................................... 24
Further Readng ....................................................................................... 24
Ouck Fx: Language ................................................................................ 25
Section C: Sources
10. Choosng sources ...................................................................................... 26
11. Usng sources............................................................................................ 26
12. Layout of quotatons ................................................................................. 28
13. Referencng ............................................................................................... 29
14. Pagarsm ................................................................................................. 30
Ouck-Fx: Sources ................................................................................... 32
8
SECTION A: PLANNING
1. READING FOR RITING
%veryone has their own way of approaching a text. 'ome people like to take meticulous notes as they go
along. (thers prefer to read through swiftly and then return to look at the text in depth. ;evelop your own
style of reading. <owever, here are a few things to remember.
Keep an open mind about the text. (ne of the most valuable things you can learn as you study
sociology is the ability to suspend your own preconceptions as you read. 5earning to see things from
different perspectives is a vital part of the reading process. ;o not attempt to make a text fit your own
agenda as you go along, or dismiss it because it challenges what you believe. #ou do not have to agree
with the text, but give it a chance to speak for itself. "f you react strongly to something, try to work out why.
lternately, do not accept uncritically everything a text is trying to convey. "dentify the assumptions and
critically asses the argument as you read.
Think about language. "t is easy to be carried away ,or confused?- by engaging ethnography or intriguing
theoretical perspectives, but keep one eye open for the language the author uses. ;evelop an eye for
style. What makes Marx different from ;urkheim, or 2oucault different from /ourdieu@ What kind of words
do they choose@ ;o they use a lot of adjectives or a lot of verbs@ "s their language formal or collo$uial@ "s
their language abstract and philosophical or concrete and particular@ These simple $uestions give you an
insight into the author*s underlying concerns and preoccupations. 5anguage does more than tell a story. "t
creates a world of ideas. What makes a degree in sociology really worth having is an understanding of
how this process operates. ;o not just look at what the text says. Try to work out how it conveys ideas and
elicits certain responses.
Think about structure. This will depend on what kind of text you are reading. &ules of form are
constantly evolving. <owever, it helps to have some idea of conventions and techni$ues so that you can
see when something interesting or unusual is happening. +ompare the text to what you already know
about the area. sk yourself how the text is put together and whether it seems to be following a
convention or defying it. "f something jars or seems out of place, there may be a good reason for this.
%xplore it.
Read between the lines. /e careful about this, because you could end up supplying a number of ideas
that the text does not support. <owever, authors often manipulate the unspoken and the unseen as
carefully as the things they tell. "dentify the author*s assumptions. What are their key terms@ re they
explicitly defined, or can you identify implicit definitions@ What time period is covered in the description@
<ave things changed since then@
Take notes. This is obvious, but vital. "f you see something interesting or have a good idea, write it down
and note the page number. #ou will save hours trying to find it again later.
!. READING T"E #$ESTION
The easiest way to fail an exam or assessment is not to answer the $uestion. Make sure you understand
what the $uestion is looking for. /e especially careful if the $uestion includes technical terms such as
culture, class, social structure, etc. These vary among sociologists and are rarely used in the same way as
in common parlance. Thus, a standard dictionary can be misleading. "f you are unclear about this you can
discuss it with your tutor and clarify exactly what they want. lternatively you can look the terms up in
sociological texts for the course or previous courses you have taken. Make it clear in your essay exactly
how you are using the term, and back this up with an outside source if possible.
Think about the kind of course to which the assessment belongs. 'ociologists are looking for evidence of
sociological thinking. "nsight from psychology, anthropology, art history, and other subjects may be helpful,
but make sure you are writing sociology and not something else.
"t is often worth considering more than one $uestion while you are doing some background reading for an
essay. #ou can then choose the one that you find most interesting or stimulating as you go along. This
way you avoid heading up a blind alley and then having to start all over again. Aeep your $uestion in mind
B
as you write. %verything you say should be connected to it. void rambling. #ou will not get credit for
including irrelevant information, however interesting you may think it is. "ndeed, excessive rambling will
count against you. nswer the queston.
%. STR$CT$RE
Markers often complain about poorly structured essays, but by then it is too late to do anything about it.
/ad structure in an essay is usually the result of a failure to read the $uestion carefully, a lack of
understanding of the subject, or a rushed job. Taking time to plan out your work helps in many ways. "t
ensures that you connect your essay with the $uestion. "t reduces the stress of writing, as you know where
you are going next. "t produces a well!rounded piece of writing.
3.1 Making a plan
<owever you like to take notes and marshal your ideas, at some point you are going to need a linear plan
for your essay. "t is always worth doing this, especially in exams when time is tight and nerves are likely to
make you forget a good idea which seemed very clear fifteen minutes before. The classic layout for an
essay is an introduction, followed by three sections, followed by a conclusion. This is based on the rules of
+lassical rhetoric, in which the speaker offered an introduction, a statement, a counterstatement, a
resolution between the two and a conclusion. There is no set rule about structure, but this tried and tested
system works well and usually produces a satisfying read. "n sociology essays, this plan often evolves into
an introduction, three sections dealing with relevant ideas and examples and a final section tying these
together. (n the other hand, remember that you are not just making lists of what you know. #ou are
answering a $uestion and the whole thing should form a logical argument.
plan should operate as a skeleton for your essay. "deally it should be possible for a reader to reconstruct
your plan from the finished article. This is basically what you are doing when you take lecture notes.
Caying attention to how this process works will make planning your own written work a lot easier. Most
lecturers think carefully about how they want to present material to the class. "t might seem random, but if
you listen they will give you markers about what the main headings are, and when they are filling out these
sections. 5ook over your lecture notes and think about some of the techni$ues lecturers use. Try to see
the shape of the lecture. "s the lecturer moving outward from the text to the wider historical context@ (r
perhaps they are focusing in, beginning with background information, looking at a particular political
problem or cultural issue, and then exploring how one text contributes to this debate. lternatively, are
they working through the text section by section@ (r are they offering a spectrum of views on the text@
These are all approaches you can use in structuring your written work. clear plan makes it easier to fulfil
your intentions.
5ook at the contents page of this booklet. That is a tidy version of the plan " am using as " write. "deally
you want something that looks similar but shorter. #ou should also have a good idea of what goes in each
section. " have chosen a plan that moves from general principles that you should think about before you
start, through useful tools that you need as you go along, to some details that apply specifically to
sociology and which will give your work polish. 'ometimes you will have information that could belong in
more than one section. 2or example, you will find information about choosing secondary sources in
'ection +, although it would also have been useful here. 0se your judgement about where things go and
what belongs together. Try to give your essay direction, and keep thinking about the $uestion.
3.2 Introductions and conclusions
<ave one of each in every piece of work. void repeating the $uestion in the introduction, but do offer an
outline of the areas you will discuss. "f you have a particularly juicy $uote or fascinating fact, this may be a
good place to show it off. ;o not make wild generali=ations about )working!class people*, )most
sociologists*, )ethnic minorities*, etc. <owever if you have found a particularly outrageous generalisation in
something you have read, do feel free to start by $uoting this and then contradict it. &ead some academic
journal articles and see how other writers kick off. This is usually the hardest bit of an essay to get right.
"magine you are answering this $uestion4 Explore the connection between marriage and mone in
!ane "usten#s Pride and Prejudice.
>
weak introduction would be something like this4
Marriage and money are important themes in %ride and %re&udice. This essay explores the connection
between marriage and money in Dane usten*s novel. 2irst " will look at the theme of marriage, followed by
the theme of money. Then " will look at the connection between the two. 2rom this we will be able to see
what usten is trying to say about the link between them.
There is nothing really wrong with this introduction, but it does not open up the $uestion in an interesting
way or provide anything to grab the reader*s attention. better alternative offers a sense of where the
essay will go, such as4
The connection between marriage and money lies at the heart of %ride and %re&udice. 2rom the opening
sentence to %li=abeth and ;arcy*s engagement, this novel highlights the desirability of financial security in
marriage. <owever, the novel also shows the dangers of marrying purely for gain. This essay will explore
the different models of marriage which usten presents in %ride and %re&udice' marrying for money
without love, marrying for love without money, and marrying with both. These models allow usten to
examine the place of the marriageable woman within the society of her period.
This introduction demonstrates a knowledge of the text and some intelligent thought on the $uestion. "t
also maps out the plan of the essay that is going to follow. "f you can do this in advance then your way
ahead will be much clearer. <owever, it is always worth going back to look at your introduction once you
have finished the essay. ;oes it promise something that is not in the essay@ (r could you flag up an
interesting idea in a more stylish way@ Most good writers rewrite their introductions after they finish the
conclusion. Think of this as the shop!window for your work. 'how what you have in store in a way that will
encourage a closer look.
+onclusions are also hard to handle gracefully, but it is better to try than to ignore the problem. &eturn to
the issues which were raised by the $uestion and show how what you have said proves your point. void
introducing any new ideas or material here. ;o not save up your main idea as a punch!line. 'imilarly avoid
repeating what you said earlier, although you can, of course, refer back. s with the introduction, a short,
well!chosen $uote can help. lthough it looks good if you explore a range of arguments during the essay
itself, a conclusion should always conclude. Cush your thinking towards some sort of resolution. ;o not
just sit on the fence. nswer the $uestion one way or the other.
3.3 $ubheadings
These can be useful in honours dissertations. "n 6999!word essays, however, it is better to create a flow of
connected ideas without stopping and starting. "n a dissertation, subheadings will show your marker where
you are going. They also allow you to see whether one section of your dissertation has outgrown the
others. "f this is a problem, you might want to consider revising your plan to accommodate your material.
<owever, a few subheadings go a long way. (nly mark major sections.
3.% &aragraphs

"deally the structure of your essay should be obvious from your paragraphs. %ach paragraph should be a
step forward in your argument. Think of each paragraph as a mini essay in which you introduce a new
idea, present some evidence to back it up, and draw a conclusion from it. (nce you have done this, start a
new one.
Within a section you can link paragraphs together by connective words and phrases, such as )however*,
)conse$uently*, )moreover*. /ut make sure that these words really justify their presence. There is no use
saying, )it follows that,* if it is not obvious how one idea leads to the other. 'imilarly, avoid pompous
declarations such as )it is the case that* and )it is a useful observation to note that* etc. void starting
paragraphs with vague pronouns such as )it* and )this*. "f you cannot use a real noun, you might want to
stop and ask yourself exactly what you are talking about. "f you want to pick up an idea from the last
paragraph and explore it further, make sure that you name this idea, so that the reader can see what you
are doing. /e specific. 0se nouns and verbs.
E
Markers are suspicious of paragraphs consisting of less than three sentences or rambling on for more
than a page and a half. &ead through your essay once you are finished. "f you find any paragraphs that
are too long or too short, consider revising where the breaks fall. ;o not use novels or newspapers as
models for paragraphing, which are aiming for very different effects. Dournalists rarely have more than one
sentence in a paragraph, and often do not write complete sentences. They are playing a different game
altogether. <ere again, journal articles or ethnographies will offer good examples, so pay attention to this
as you do your research.
paragraph should be identified by a topic sentence. These often come early in the paragraph, but they
can be first, in the middle, or the last sentence. Make sure you can identify the topic sentence of every
paragraph you write. %$ually important are transitions between paragraphs. Writing flows more smoothly
and is easier to understand when paragraphs are connected to one another. Thus the last sentence in a
paragraph may introduce the topic of the following paragraph. lternatively, the first sentence of a
paragraph my refer to the topic of the previous paragraph and take it forward a step to the new topic of
the present paragraph.
"ndent the start of every paragraph by hitting the tab key to the left of 1 on the keyboard. This makes it
very obvious where your paragraph starts. ;o not indent your first paragraph or a new paragraph after a
subheading. ;o not indent after a $uotation, unless you are starting a new paragraph. 2or more advice on
layout of $uotes see pages 6F!6G.

&. LA'O$T
You can ose the goodw of your marker before they even start by presentng an essay that
s hard to read. There are severa thngs that you can do to make your essay ook good.
These w not get you extra marks, but they mght stop you osng some. They w aso put
your marker n a better frame of mnd.
Put t(e )uestion at t(e to*. It mght be obvous to you whch queston you are answerng,
but beeve me, t s not aways cear to the marker. Havng the queston on your essay aso
heps you keep the queston n mnd as you wrte. In exams there s no need to rewrte the
queston, but mark the number ceary both on your answer and on the front of the paper.
Dou+le,s*ace t(e te-t. The reason for ths s so that the marker has space to correct your
work n between the nes. It s for your benet, even f t does not fee ke t. Lea.e a
1/0!.1c2 2argin. Ths eaves room for comments and correctons. These w be usefu.
Make sure you read them.
$se a sensi+le 3ont. Paatno s one of my favourtes, but Tmes New Roman, Ara, or
Verdana are aso are easy to read and famar to the eye. Use 11 or 12-pont text; some
|udgement s necessary. For exampe, 11-pont Paatno s about the same sze as 12-pont
Tmes. Anythng smaer s hard to read (so pease forgve the 10-pont font of ths
document). Anythng bgger suggests that you mght be tryng to cover up for a short pece
of work. Do not put quotatons n tacs, uness that s how they appear n the text you are
quotng. Ony use tacs for ttes of books and pays or words n a foregn anguage.
Gi.e clear re3erences. It s easy when you know how. See pages 29-30. Aways ncude a
st of works cted or references used. Even f you ony have one or two texts to st, pease do
so. It ooks professona and t s a good habt to form.
Inclu4e a 5or4 count. Wrtng to ength s a usefu sk whch you w need ater on. Learn
to taor your work to the requested word ength. You w not be penased for an essay that
s wthn 10% of the stated word count, ether over or under. However, you w be penased
for yng about t. When markng essays for a whoe cass, t s usuay easy for the marker to
te when somethng s too ong or too short, so be honest here or face the consequences.
1. S$B6ITTING 'O$R OR7
7
Make sure you know the submsson dates and reguatons for your course. You can get ths
nformaton from your course gude. If you need an extenson, you must ask the course
coordnator before the deadne. Try to et your tutor know about a probem as qucky as
possbe.
Your course gude and the reevant eve handbook w aso have nformaton about markng
crtera and how to nterpret the Common Assessment Scae. It s worth understandng how
the markng system works, so have a ook at the eve handbook. Aso ook at the cover sheet
whch you shoud attach to your essay before depostng t n the box. Ths cover sheet gves
you a good dea of what your marker wants to see n your essay.
Return of wrtten work usuay takes two to three weeks. Most courses operate a system of
essay moderaton. Ths means that once your tutor has marked your work they pass t on to
another member of stah who ooks at a random sampe and any borderne cases. Ths
means the system s far, but can take a bt of tme, especay n the mdde of term when we
have other thngs to do. Pease be patent, and try not to pester your tutor for your work.
Ths w ony sow them down.
Furt(er Rea4ing
+lancy, Dohn and /rigit /allard. 3GGF. (ow to Write )ssays' A %ractical Guide for Students. <arlow4
5ongman.
+lifford, Dames, George %. Marcus ,eds-. 3GFE. Writing culture' the poetics and politics of ethnography.
/erkeley4 0niversity of +alifornia Cress.
Greetham, /ryan. 3GGG. (ow to Write *etter )ssays. 5ondon4 Calgrave.
<ennesey, /rendan. 6996. Writing an )ssay. (xford4 <ow to /ooks.
#$IC7 FI8: PLANNING
1. Read the text carefuy, but do not focus so cosey on your chosen queston that
you mss out on everythng ese. Take notes as you go aong. It saves tme ater.
2. Make sure you understand the queston. If you are unsure about anythng, ook
t up or ask your tutor. It s better to ook a bt sy at ths stage than after the
event.
3. Thnk about the queston, and try to work out why your marker has set t. How
does t connect wth ssues and deas expored n ectures and tutoras? Identfy
the ssues that you are gong to concentrate on.
4. Make a pan. Remember that your essay s an argument that shoud persuade
the reader. Try to gve t drecton and purpose. Focus everythng towards
answerng the queston you have chosen. Work out at ths stage whch matera
you w use n each secton.
5. Demonstrate that you can step back from a text or argument and vew t as a
seres of connected deas or strateges.
6. If you are wrtng a comparatve essay on more than one text, make sure you
ntegrate the texts fuy. Do not smpy tak about them one after the other.
Create a pan that aows you to move between the deas n both documents.
7. Use your ntroducton to outne where you are gong n the essay. Avod smpy
restatng the queston. Try to be nterestng.
8. Use paragraphs to dstngush between separate deas and to move your
argument forward.
9. Use your concuson to pont out how the evdence you have gven answers the
F
queston. Make sure you answer the queston. Do not st on the fence.
10. Present your essay neaty and wth enough room for comments and correctons.
G
SECTION B: LANG$AGE
9. REGISTER
Writing well involves presenting your material in a tone appropriate to your audience and to the
task in hand. #ou would use different styles of language for a business letter, a newspaper
report, a letter to a friend or a short story. "t is important to develop a suitable tone, or register,
for your written work.
university essay is a formal document and re$uires a formal register. 'tudents often struggle
to find a balance between formal, intellectual language and open, accessible %nglish. Many
reputable scholars struggle with this too, which is why some academic books are so hard to
understand. <owever, even the most complicated ideas can be articulated clearly. #our marker
will be delighted to see complex thought presented in plain %nglish. They will also notice if you
dress up weak thinking in flowery language. Cay attention to the register of your writing and
remember who will read your work.
s you read sociologists* work, pay attention to the way they use language. "f it seems too
dense and formal then do not copy their style. <owever, if you find a book that is lucid,
interesting and readable, try to work out what makes it so clear.
"'oid being too personal( #our name appears on the front of your essay, therefore your
marker already knows that everything in the essay is your opinion. ;o not keep saying )in my
opinion* or )it seems to me that* etc. <ave the courage of your convictions and state what you
think. "f you can back up your views with evidence from sources, there is no need to apologise
or hesitate. #ou do not need to fear the first person, but don*t overdo it. Cresent your work as a
piece of cohesive thought rather than as collection of your own responses. void using phrases
such as, )" want to look at* H just get on with it.
"'oid being too cle'er( 'ome of the worst grammatical errors are caused by trying to write
long, complex sentences. short sentence is the most powerful way to make a cogent point.
<owever, one short declarative after another $uickly rings wooden. 'imilarly, do not use words
that you thin+ you understand. "f in doubt, look them up instead of leaving them out.
"'oid slang( This does not just cover words and phrases. "t also applies to informal
expressions and sentence constructions. ;o not say, )+icourel*s analysis of juvenile
delin$uency blew me away. #ou know what " mean@* #ou can express the same idea by saying,
)+icourel*s analysis is vivid and engaging,* or, )+icourel*s observational research demands a
strong response from the reader.* void using )you* or )us* for the reader of the text. )(ne*
sounds formal in everyday speech, but it is very useful in this setting.
Tenses( 0se the past tense for anything that happened in the past. "f you use the present tense
to refer to an author*s argument ,)/ruce says x, y. /rewer argues that I*- then stick with that
consistently. The present tense may be the most appropriate for certain generali=ations ,)'ocial
stratification exists in every known society.*-, but make sure that they really do apply to the
present day.
:. P$NCT$ATION
Punctuaton matters. It does not smpy te the reader when to start and stop. It
organses the text nto meanngfu unts. Gettng t wrong can serousy damage the
sense of the text. To see the power of punctuaton, ook at ths exampe from Lynne
Trusss book, Eats, Shoots and Leaves:
39
Dear |ack,
I want a man who knows what ove s a about. You are generous, knd,
thoughtfu. Peope who are not ke you admt to beng useess and nferor. You have
runed me for other men. I yearn for you. I have no feeng whatsoever when were
apart. I can be forever happy - w you et me be yours?
|
Dear |ack,
I want a man who knows what ove s. A about you are generous, knd, thoughtfu
peope, who are not ke you. Admt to beng useess and nferor. You have runed me.
For other men I yearn! For you I have no feengs whatsoever. When were apart I can
be forever happy. W you et me be?
Yours, |
1

It makes you thnk, doesnt t?
:.1 A*ostro*(es
Ths s the most common probem n wrtten Engsh. One can see apostrophes n the
wrong paces n shops, theatre programmes, adverts, newspapers, restaurant menus and
more. There s aways some pubc debate gong on about whether we shoud retan
apostrophes n the anguage or abosh them because so few peope seem capabe of
usng them propery. I woud ke to ban them; German gets on ne wthout them, but the
fact s that they st exst, and we st expect you to be abe to put them n the rght
paces.
A coeague of mne n the Engsh Department asked her coeagues what they thought
was the bggest probem n students wrtten work. Wrong use of apostrophes was
overwhemngy at the top of the st. The reason ths annoys markers so much s that the
rues are pretty smpe. Here they are:
APPROPRIATE APOSTROP"E $SE:
Signalling *ossession by addng ;s to a snguar noun: Susans book, Kngs Coege,
the boys father, the womans coat, the bananas skn, the panos keys.
If the noun or name aready ends n s then go ahead and add ;s as norma: Webers
theory, Hymess measured verse, the buss drver.
A pura noun endng n s takes an apostrophe after the s: the boys fathers, the
Trobranders gardens, the Nuers catte.
A pura noun not endng n s takes ;s: womens rghts, the chdrens schoo.
Get nto the habt of takng a moment to check f the apostrophe shoud be before
or after the s every tme you use one. Do not be tempted to tuck the apostrophe
nto a name that aready has an s: Hymes narratves, or nto possessve pronouns
(see beow).
In4icating a 2issing letter in a contraction such as dont, wont, woudnt, snt, ts.
However, these contractons are nforma and shoud not appear n academc essays,
1
Lynne Truss, Eats, Shoots and Leaves: The Zero-Toerance Approach to Punctuaton
(London: Proe Books, 2003), p.9.
33
except when they appear n quotatons from texts. Wrte out these phrases n fu: do not,
w not, woud not, s not, t s, etc. Note however that cannot s one word.
36
DO NOT $SE AN APOSTROP"E FOR:
Plurals o3 nouns en4ing in .o5els such as bananas, panos, tomatos nstead of
bananas, panos, tomatoes. Ths s known as the greengrocers apostrophe, but crops
up everywhere. There s no excuse for ths; t s |ust pan wrong.
Possessi.e *ronouns such as (ers, t(eirs, its, ours. These are compete words, ke
(is and 2ine.
It;s and its are commony confused, but ths reay annoys your marker, so get ths one
rght. It;s shoud never appear n your wrtten work. If you mean it is, then wrte ths out
n fu. If you mean +elonging to it< then there s no apostrophe. Run a search on your
essay and correct any it;s that you nd urkng n your text. Aso ook out for 5(o;s and
5(ose.
:.! Co22as
My brother used to be a sub-edtor on a day newspaper. He woud get a rough and
ready news story from a reporter, and woud cut and correct t. He woud put ther
commas n the rght paces. He woud send t to the chef sub-edtor who woud ook over
t and put hs commas n the rght paces. He woud send t to the nght edtor, who woud
approve t, and put a hs commas n the rght paces. They a thought they were
correct.
Dherent wrters vary ther use of commas, whch can be confusng when you are gettng
to grps wth the rues. In the ast 40 years, Engsh has shfted qute radcay to usng as
few commas as possbe. Someone who went to unversty n the 1960s w have earned
dherent rues from accepted contemporary practce. However, ths does not mean that
you can put commas wherever you ke. Commas provde the nterna structure or map of
each sentence. They mark out whch bts of the sentence are essenta to ts meanng
and whch bts are suppementary. They show where causes start and stop, and they
separate tems n sts. Gettng them n the rght pace keeps the movement of the
sentence cear, but havng too many can sow down your reader and make the sentence
seem cuttered and fussy. Here are some rues to observe:
$SE A CO66A:
To lin= t5o sentences 5it( a con>unction ?an4< +ut< +ecause< etc@: ths makes a
co2*oun4 sentence. There are three exampes of ths knd of sentence n the passage
above. For exampe, the second sentence coud be spt nto two:
He woud get a rough and ready news story from a reporter. He woud cut and correct
t.
I have chosen to nk the two sentences wth a comma and the word an4 to emphasse
that I want the reader to take both sectons as part of the same event. However, a
co22a cannot lin= t5o sentences +A itsel3. If I nsert a comma but mss out the
word an4< I create a co22a s*lice (see page 13-14).
The second ast sentence has a smar structure. Here I have used +ut to emphasse
the contrast. Techncay t s possbe to nk together severa sentences wth commas
to make a very ong, compex sentence. Kar Marx and Perre Bourdeu do ths a the
tme n ther wrtng, but you shoud avod t. Lmt yoursef to one con|uncton per
sentence where possbe. It s aways better to wrte short, cear sentences n essays.
38
A3ter connecti.e a4.er+s: These words are very usefu at the start of sentences n
essays as they show how your argument s movng from sentence to sentence.
"o5e.er< Aet< still< ne.ert(eless< t(ere3ore< t(us< 2oreo.er< 3or e-a2*le< etc,
can be used to suggest a connecton or contrast between two sentences wthout formay
|onng them. A comma s requred after one of these when t appears at the begnnng of
a sentence.
3B
However, you w aways make occasona mstakes.
"o5e.er s partcuary probematc. If you eave out ths comma, t sounds ke the
whoe sentence s a subordnate cause whch shoud ead to some other statement. If
(o5e.er s operatng as part of a subordnate cause, the comma goes after the cause:
However much you try, you w aways make occasona mstakes.
Ths s easy to get wrong, so ook out for ths one.
T(oug( and alt(oug( cannot be used as connectve adverbs at the start of sentences:
8 Athough, many peope try to do so. They can, however, be used at the start of a
subordnate cause:
Athough Durkhem has been thoroughy crtcsed, hs deas reman nuenta.
To se*arate ite2s in a list: Ths works for nouns and ad|ectves:
Edward Sapr wrote grammars of severa anguages, a genera book on anguage, essays
on personaty and even poetry. He was remembered by hs coeagues as havng a
percng, nqustve mnd.
If you have three or more tems, use an4 between the ast two. Avod stng verbs and
adverbs. One at a tme s qute enough.
To signal parenthesis( +ommas can be used like brackets to insert an extra piece of information,
interesting or otherwise, into a sentence. &eread that last sentence without the words between the two
commas. "t still makes sense. The phrase between the commas is not a complete sentence. "n this case
it is a modi)ing phrase* which adds some extra information or comment about the preceding noun.
The first comma signals a short diversion from the sentence. The second comma shows that this is
finished, and the sentence picks up where it left off. #ou could insert a different kind of phrase or clause
here, such as )or even a witty aside* or )if you have any extra information to insert*.
Carentheses have great comic potential, but try to resist the temptation to use them in essays for
hilarious remarks that probably will not seem so funny to your marker. lso avoid using them to include
lists of things that you would like to mention but cannot be bothered to include properly in a working
sentence4
+ Asylums describes many aspects of patients* lives, close observation by staff, lack of privacy and
limited sources of personal identity, which give us the sense of the )impoderabilia* of daily living.
<ere it would be better to say4
Asylums describes many aspects of patients* lives. "t covers their close observation by staff, lack of
privacy and limited sources of personal identity, which combine to give the reader a sense of social
complexity.
The second version sounds less muddled. Try to avoid long, rambling diversions in sentences, or
diversions within a diversion. (ne short phrase is fine, but if your parenthesis is any longer than ten
words, you should consider putting this information in a sentence of its own.
"f you do use commas to form a parenthesis, make sure you close it. #ou would not use just one
bracket. "n fact, avoid using brackets and dashes wherever possible. Good use of commas is much
more elegant.
3>
To mark out clauses( "f you are ha=y about what a clause is, you need to read something that
will explain the basics of grammar slowly and carefully. 'ee the list at the end of 'ection / for
some further reading.
Traditional grammar is very careful to note every shift in the syntax of a sentence by inserting a
comma. ,'ee two letters on page 39.- Modern writing is more relaxed about this. 5ook at
sentences four and five in the opening paragraph about commas on page 33. These sentences
are grammatically identical, but " have only put commas in one of them so that you can see the
two styles in action. ptly enough, the chief sub!editor liked to take commas out whenever
possible, while the night editor liked to put them back in. "n that particular case it does not make
much difference. The syntax works either way.
'ome clauses do not need to be separated by commas, especially when a linking word such as
that* whene'er* since etc. is used. <owever, commas can make a dramatic difference to the
meaning of a sentence. 5eaving them out can make a sentence ambiguous. 0se commas to
make your meaning apparent, not just to provide pauses where you think the reader needs a rest.
The easiest way to get this right is to be absolutely clear in your own head about what you want
to say, and to say it as simply as possible in short sentences. #ou will find a $uick explanation of
clauses on page 37, which should help.
To introduce speech( comma is used to introduce speech or a $uotation when it forms part of
the preceding or following sentence4
;ima said, )Without deer there is no culture, nothing.*
or
)Without deer there is no culture, nothing,* said ;ima.
#ou can also use a colon to introduce a $uotation or speech4
;ima said, )Without deer there is no culture, nothing.*
lways use a colon when the $uotation follows a complete sentence4
;ima told me one of those perfect statements that " had to write down immediately4 )Without
deer there is no culture, nothing.*
,- .-T /$E 0-MM"$
To 1oin sentences without a con1unction( This creates a comma splice which comes a close
second to dodgy apostrophes on the marker*s hate!list.
comma splice looks like this4
+ 'ome markers are sent into a rage by comma splices, they will give themselves a hernia with
fury, and will cover your essay in red pen.
"t should read4
'ome markers are sent into a rage by comma splices. They will give themselves a hernia
with fury, and will cover your essay in red pen.
or
3E
'ome markers are sent into a rage by comma splices. they will give themselves a hernia with
fury, and will cover your essay in red pen.
(ddly enough, this $uirk was tolerated more in the nineteenth century. 'o, you will sometimes
see comma splices, which would now get red pen all over them, used by very stylish and correct
writers, such as &obert 5ouis 'tevenson or &alph Waldo %merson. This just proves that the
language is alive and constantly changing, but it is not worth arguing this point with your tutor.
5earn the current rules and follow them. My experience as a marker suggests that the comma
splice is a common mistake of bright students who read $uickly and think coherently. 'ometimes
certain ideas seem so connected that one instinctively wants to put them in the same sentence.
<owever, linking these is no longer the job of the comma. "f you really want to run together two
sentences that seem to connect, consider a semi!colon ,see below-. "t is an under!used
punctuation resource. lternatively include a conjunction, and* but* so* or* )or etc. +onnective
adverbs such as howe'er* et* still* ne'ertheless* there)ore* thus* moreo'er etc. are not strong
enough to join two sentences. "f you want to use one of these, stop the sentence and start again. "f
you are a fast reader, keep a special lookout for comma splices as you proofread.
2.3 $emi3colons
2ew people know how to use a semi!colon well, which is a pity, as this is an elegant element
of style. "t has two main functions in prose4
To connect two sentences( This is a good antidote to the comma splice. "t works especially well for
short sentences where the sense follows on directly into the second sentence, and where the two
halves are of e$ual importance and length4
" opened my notebook. " began to write.
"t is also possible to use a semi!colon with a connective adverb4
" opened my notebook. however, " did not begin to write.
This is more cumbersome and should be used sparingly. The golden rule of using semi!colons to join
clauses is that each half of the completed sentence should also operate as a grammatical sentence in
its own right. "n other words, only use a semicolon where you could put a full stop. Therefore, you
should avoid putting a semicolon next to conjunctions, such as and* but* so etc* or relatives, such as
that* which* when etc. #ou do not need these. The semi!colon does the job of linking well enough by
itself.
To separate items on a list( This is especially useful when the list is long and the individual items on
the list include commas4
'ociologists and philosophers have conceptualised the )social body* in various ways4 'hilling*s
notion of the body as a )project*. <epworth and 2eatherstone*s understanding of the body as a
)mask*. and the )absent body* discussed by 5eder.
This way the reader can easily tell where the important divisions between the items occur. "f this list
only contained commas, it would be very confusing. When using semi!colons in a list, it is often a
good idea to introduce the list with a colon to show where the list begins.
2.% 0olons
5ike semi!colons, these are rarely used but are not as confusing as many people think. The
function of a colon is to introduce information of some kind4
To introduce a list( colon announces that something important is about to follow. This makes it
ideal for kicking off a long list, as above. The list can also be a se$uence of short items separated by
commas4
37
#ou will need four ingredients to bake a cake4 flour, sugar, butter and eggs.
To introduce a 4uotation or speech( This is very useful in essays, and works well before a
large, indented $uotation. lways use a colon to introduce a $uotation which follows a
complete sentence.
To introduce an explanation or statement( "n this case the colon is used to create some sort of
anticipation. "t is often used when reporting speech or when summari=ing or expanding the first half
of the sentence4
'chneider*s message is clear4 societies are not partible into kinship, economy, religion, and
politics.
or
'ahlins pulls no punches4 opponents to the culture concept are whiners.
,- .-T place a colon between a 'erb and its ob1ect or a preposition and its complement.
+ "n the available space, write4 your name, address, and phone number.
Jot every list need be announced with a colon.
2.5 ,ashes
0nlike semi!colons and colons, dashes are over!used. They are often used by writers who
are unsure which punctuation mark to choose. ;ashes should J(T be used instead of
brackets, parenthetical commas, semi!colons, full stops, or colons before lists and
$uotations.
void all of the following constructions4
+ %ven the dual!earner family K a very common case in /ritain K finds it increasingly difficult to
purchase a home in many parts of the country.
+ %li=abeth makes her feelings obvious K she despises Mr +ollins.
+ %li=abeth feels only one emotion for Mr +ollins K contempt.
ll of these can be rewritten using more appropriate punctuation. <owever, dashes do have their
place, whatever some may say. When you use one make sure you type a long dash ,K- not a short
hyphen ,!-. Cress +trl, lt and the hyphen key at the top right of your keyboard. ;ashes are useful
where the sense of the sentence is interrupted in some way, or where a long $ualification or
description has led away from the main point of the sentence.
The dash provides a breathing space in which the sentence can reorganise itself4
sdiwal is young, enthusiastic, intelligent, successful, courageous to the point of
foolhardiness K the classic tragic hero.
The final phrase does not fit easily into the syntax of the sentence, but it is obviously referring to the
subject of the sentence, sdiwal. "f you were to put a comma after )foolhardiness*, the final phrase
would get lost in the list of adjectives. #ou could create a new sentence4 )<e is a classic tragic hero.*
<owever, this lacks the immediacy and movement of the version above. dash seems justified in
this case.
3F
<ere is another one4
<amlet*s indecisiveness, his arrogance, his suspicion of others, his passionate, brooding,
introspective nature K these all contribute to his downfall.
"n both these sentences you could $uite correctly substitute a colon. <owever, the effect of a
colon is to lead the reader forward into the following section. dash is more like a bucket of
cold water flung in the reader*s face, jolting them back to the starting point of the sentence.
+olons point forward, and dashes point backward. Jobody wants this experience too often,
so, once more, use with extreme caution. "f you can replace a dash with another punctuation
mark, you probably should.
2.6 7uotation marks
"n /ritish usage, speech and $uotations are signalled by single $uotation marks4
(*/rien asked her respondents to identify their social class and got, )What do you mean by
class@*
1uotations and speech within $uotations are signalled by double $uotation marks4
*When (brien*s respondent said, L" am middle classM, she did so without utilising a
sociologists* definition of class status.
#ou will see this done the other way around, with double $uote marks on the outside and single
$uotes within. This will probably be in books or journals published in the 0', where the system is
reversed. Clease use the /ritish system. 2or more on $uotations, see 'ection +.
2.2 Exclamation marks
;o not use these, unless they appear in $uotations ,see above-. n academic essay should
persuade by force of reason and evidence. %xclamation marks do not fit in the formal register of
academic writing.
8 9R"MM"R
"f you want to express interesting ideas then a sound grasp of grammar is essential. #our
understanding of grammar may be more developed than you realise. "f you have studied a foreign
language, you may have a very sophisticated knowledge of how it works. Most speakers use
grammar well without knowing all the terms for the techni$ues they are using. This is fine when it
works, but it can help to stop and think about what you are doing. Markers tend to use technical,
grammatical terms when pointing out problems in your work, which is not much use to you if you
do not know what they are talking about.
This section will point out a few common problems, and offer definitions of some terms that may
crop up in your markers* comments. "f you have serious problems with the grammar of the
prestige variant of %nglish used in academic writing, this booklet will not solve them. "f your
markers consistently complain about your syntax, sentence structure, tenses, pronouns and the
like, you probably need some help from one of the sources listed on pages F and 6B.
'yntax is the order of elements. %nglish is an )'N(* language, which means the normal order of
elements is subject!verb!object. )The man bit the dog,* is clear in its meaning, if weird. Croblems
can develop, however, when a writer starts to pile various modifying elements ,subordinate
clauses, temporal phrases, etc.- at the beginning of a sentence. Then it is possible to lose track of
the subject, the verb, and the object ,complement-.
3G
8.1 0lauses
+lauses are the internal sections of a sentence, which fit together to build up meaning. %very
clause has a noun and a verb, sometimes called a subject and a predicate. <owever, not all
clauses are of e$ual weight and value. The clauses of a sentence are like the internal walls of a
house. 'ome can be moved around or altered without doing too much damage. (ne is always
essential and cannot be removed without the whole thing falling in. +lauses which are essential
are main clauses. compound sentence will have two main clauses. main clause re$uires a
noun and a verb4
" know.
<owever, it can also be more elaborate4
" know some useful things about grammar.
main clause is the bit of a sentence which can make a sentence all by itself.
)Anow* is the principal 'erb of this sentence, which means it is the verb in the main clause.
)"* is the sub1ect of the sentence, which means it is the noun doing the verb, also called the
predicate.
)'ome useful things about grammar* forms the ob1ect of the sentence. This is the noun
phrase which represents the thing that )" know*.
'ubjects, objects and predicates can all be made up of single words or phrases to make up the
main clause.
$ubordinate clauses( (nto this main clause one can attach other clauses, which support and
describe the main clause. These are called subordinate clauses. ll the subordinate clauses in
the following examples are underlined. 'ubordinate clauses can often be moved around without
changing the meaning of a sentence4
" know some useful things about grammar, which is lucky for you.
or
"t is lucky for you that " know some useful things about grammar.
subordinate clause is a section of a sentence which contains a subject and a predicate ,i.e. a
noun and a verb-, but which is doing the job of an adverb or an adjective. "t is not part of the main
action of the sentence. "t is describing a thing or an action in the main clause or in another
subordinate clause. sentence can have more than one subordinate clause. They can follow
and:or precede the main clause.
/ecause my mother drilled prescriptive grammar into my brain, " know some useful
things about grammar, which is lucky for you, as you can draw on these to improve your
writing.
/y now, however, this sentence is getting a bit long and complex for my liking. (nce you have
more than three clauses in a sentence, it is very easy to get confused about which is the
important one. " advise against sentences any more complex than this. They are hard to write
well and hard work to read. The real danger is when the main clause gets missed out, and you
end up with something like this4
69
+ /ecause " have studied %nglish, which is lucky for you, as you can draw on these to
improve your writing.
This is not a sentence. "t has no main verb, only a succession of subordinate clauses.
subordinate clause is often flagged up by a word such as while* which* i)* that* whene'er*
although* as* despite* etc. "t describes the subject, the object or the predicate of the main
clause. phrase containing a participle ,usually a verb ending in H ing- behaves similarly. These
cannot form sentences in their own right, even though you will find them in The Sunday Times.
"n your written work, therefore, you should avoid things like this4
+ lthough this is not the case.
+ <owever much you try.
+ &arely appearing to do so.
+ /eing of sound mind and judgement.
ll of these are sentence )ragments. They do have nouns and verbs, but they lack a principal
verb and are not valid as stand!alone sentences in formal written %nglish. +harles ;ickens, who
was once a journalist, uses these often in his fiction for dramatic effect. <owever, they have no
place in academic essays. The Microsoft grammar check will not always pick up sentence
fragments, so correct these carefully yourself. " have found using M' Word*s grammar checker to
be of little use beyond mild entertainment.
,angling elements( #ou also need to make sure that the different bits of the sentence match up
in a way that makes sense. subordinate clause or participle phrase can cause complications
when it is not $uite clear to which bit of the main clause it refers. My mother*s favourite example
of a dangling modifier recalls her own days driving an OA%4
2ull of curves, the young woman drove her sports car down the mountain road.
This is called a dangling modi)ier* because the first phrase dangles ambiguously from the main
clause and modifies the ,apparent- wrong noun. This sentence highlights the curves of the
woman, when the road*s curves were probably what the author had in mind. "n this sort of
sentence, try to keep the subject of the main clause as the subject of the subordinate clause, so
that the two halves of the sentence are talking about the same thing or person. This may re$uire
some rewording.
The young woman raced her sports car down the curvy mountain road.
5ook out for other elements in sentences that )dangle*. Make it clear what each bit of the
sentence describes. &emember that pronouns usually refer to the most recent available noun.
,'ee section on pronouns page 63-
Most importantly, make sure that what you have written makes sense to your reader, not just to
you.
Relati'e clauses( relative clause is a subordinate clause which refers to a preceding noun or
pronoun. "t usually starts with who* which or that. "n the following sentence the relative clause
has been underlined4
The ethnography which we read last year is out of print.
63
There are two kinds of relative clause4 de)ining and non-de)ining.
de)ining relati'e clause is essential to the meaning of the sentence because it gives important
information about the preceding word. This identifies it in some way, marking it out from all other
possible occurrences of the word. The example above is a defining relative clause. "t makes clear
that the sentence is discussing one particular ethnography studied last year, in contrast to
ethnographies studied this year or two years ago.
non3de)ining relati'e clause offers information that describes but does not specify. it is doing
the same job as a modifying clause in a parenthesis. 5ike this, it must be enclosed in commas to
keep it out of the way of the main action of the sentence4
Weber, who was born on pril 63, 3FEB, is one of the most important founding figures in
sociology.
When the clause defines, there are no commas. When it does not, it is surrounded by commas,
or by a comma and a full stop, if it ends the sentence.
&emember to add the second comma after a non!defining relative clause. void things like this4
+ Weber, who was born on pril 63, 3FEB is one of the most important founding figures in
sociology
"t is important to decide whether a relative clause is defining or non!defining, since the commas
alone can change the meaning completely. +ompare the two pairs below4
<e answered all the $uestions which were on social stratification.
<e answered all the $uestions, which were on social stratification.
Were all the available $uestions on social stratification or not@ personal favourite in this
category is4
ll the sailors who were in the lifeboat were saved.
ll the sailors, who were in the lifeboat, were saved.
The first sentence implies that some sailors did not make it into the lifeboat and came to a sorry
end. The other one says that all the sailors were in the lifeboat and survived.
Who says punctuation is not a matter of life and death@
That and which4 "f you use your Microsoft grammar check as you write, you will find that it
constantly makes a fuss about whether you use )that or )which* at the beginning of relative
clauses. The people at Microsoft, for reasons of their own, will not let you start a defining relative
clause with )which*. "f you type a comma followed by )which*, a green line appears under the text.
Microsoft insists on ,compare to earlier examples-4
The ethnography that we studied last year is out of print.
and
<e answered all the $uestions that were on social stratification.
66
#ou can do it this way for a $uiet life, but the rule above about commas is the more important one.
Microsoft is not the ultimate authority on grammar, and " do not see why it should be allowed to
boss everyone around. " reserve the right to use )that* and )which* in both defining and
non!defining clauses as appropriate. #ou should too. ,owler-s .odern )nglish /sage has an
intelligent discussion of which and that, if you want to learn more.
8.2 "greement $ub1ect and 'erb agreement
singular subject should have a singular verb. plural subject should have a plural verb. This
sounds simple, but can be confusing when the subject of the sentence is a short phrase4
+ The number of passes have risen to fifty.
The verb should be has4
The number of passes has risen to fifty.
The main subject of this sentence is )the number*. The phrase )of passes* is only a modifier of the
subject. )Jumber* is singular and re$uires a singular verb. <owever, a phrase containing )a
number of* would take a plural verb, just like a phrase containing )a lot of* before a plural noun4
number of passes are just above the borderline.
lot of passes are just above the borderline.
This is because )a number of* and )a lot of* behave like modifiers, such as )many*. /e especially
careful if you have a list in a sentence or some sort of $ualifying or relative clause4
+ <amlet*s failure to take control of the situation, act decisively and regain his rightful position
as ruler, are disastrous.
<amlet*s )failure* is the subject of the sentence. 'o this should read4
<amlet*s failure to take control of the situation, act decisively and regain his rightful position
as ruler, is disastrous.
0ollecti'e nouns( 'ome writers relax the rule about singular subject, singular verb for collective
nouns. These nouns denote groups and therefore imply their members, such as arm* audience*
committee* )amil and 1ur. "t is often acceptable to say4
My family are delightful.
/ut if you start this sort of thing, it can be hard to know where to stop. What about the
go'ernment* the uni'ersit* the communit* the )ire brigade* the compan, etc@ 2or the sake
of consistency and accuracy, it is better to obey the singular rule and to write.
My family is delightful.
"f you want to make it clear that you are talking about the members of the group then do so4
ll of my family members are delightful.
Inde)inite pronouns. The rules about collective nouns become harder if you include an indefinite
pronoun in your sentence such as e'erbod* e'erone* somebod* someone* anbod*
anone* nobod* no one* none. These words all take a singular verb.
68
%verybody in my family is delightful.
Watch out when the indefinite pronoun is used after a plural.
+ Jone of my relatives are delightful.
Jone of my relatives is delightful.
This seems counter!intuitive until you remember that )none* is just a short version of )not one.* ll
the pronouns listed above follow this rule. <owever, they are sometimes linked to the plurals
the* their and them:sel'es;(
%verybody is entitled to their opinion.
or
"f students do not like phenomenology, " would not make them read it.
This is done to avoid a gendered pronoun. "n earlier centuries his or him was often used in this
context as an indefinite pronoun. <owever, as many people pointed out, using masculine
pronouns as the default is part of an andocentric bias, which is no longer acceptable. (ne can
say )his or her* and )him or her*, but it sounds a bit clumsy and raises the problem of who should
go first4 girls or boys@
Many other languages have a non!gendered pronoun, a human version of it* for this sort of
situation, but %nglish does not. 'ome older writers object to their* theirs and them in this
context, but the language is definitely moving towards this as the solution to the problem. (n the
whole, " think using the plural is better than trying to turn the clock back to a sexist way of seeing
the world.
8.3 Tenses
Make sure that you only write in one tense at a time. "t is easy to get this mixed up if you are
using a conditional case or reporting speech. s with everything else, look at what you are writing
carefully. Make sure you are clear what you want to say and that it cannot be read in a different
way. Write about ethnographic facts in past tense ,unless you really do mean )right now*- and
theoretical generali=ations in present tense. ,'ee page 39.-
8.% &ronouns
pronoun always refers to the most recent plausible noun. This is called the law o)
antecedents. "t works like this4
The cat dropped the mouse. "t ran away.
This says that the mouse ran away, not the cat. <owever a gendered pronoun will match up with
the most recent gendered noun, or proper name.
The girl dropped the mouse. 'he ran away.
"n this case it is the girl who runs away. Technically, of course, it might be a female mouse.
<owever, we are not told the mouse*s gender, so the girl is the most likely candidate for
)she*.
6B
Cronouns can get out of hand when there are too many of them in a sentence, especially if this
sentence contains an indefinite pronoun or two, such as )it# and )this#. 2or example, what does
this mean@
"t is useful to note that <amlet*s indecision about killing his uncle takes more time than it
should, but this doesn*t mean that it is morally wrong, and this might be the case because
he gets to think about it first.
"s it <amlet*s indecision or the killing of his uncle that may or may not be wrong@ What might be
the case@ Who gets to think about it first4 <amlet or his uncle@ student who writes a sentence
like this may have an idea in their own head what they mean, but they have not exactly made
their point clear. (n the whole, you should avoid starting sentences with )it* and )this* whenever
possible, and be aware that pronouns later in a sentence may be misread if not clearly attached
to an earlier noun. There is no law against using a noun or name twice in a sentence if it helps
clarify the point. lways strike out pointless phrases such as )it is useful to note that*. Write
shorter sentences.
<. $&E==I.9
There is no short cut to good spelling. #ou just have to learn what each word in the language
looks like. <owever, there is one simple thing you can do which will help4 buy a dictionary.
good dictionary will be the most useful book you buy during your time at university, so do not
grudge the money for it. Get into the habit of taking your dictionary ,and this booklet- with you
when you are writing, and look up words you are unsure about. This will not just help with
your spelling. Make sure that you also read and understand the definition of the words you
use. "t is easy to get similar words confused. 0sing a dictionary rather than the spell check
on your C+ can help you avoid some embarrassing errors.
Microsoft spell check is a useful function, and can help you spot typing errors that
your eye might otherwise miss. <owever, it is not foolproof. "t will not notice the difference
between their and there* or it and is* or allusi'e and elusi'e. "t will clear anything in its own
dictionary, without checking to see if this word belongs in your sentence. "f you rely on it too
heavily, you can end up with sentences like this4
;uring this scene, the ghost of <amlet*s father can be seen hoovering in the background.
and
"n %aradise 0ost 'atan rallies the fallen angles.
;o not automatically accept any corrections that the spell check suggests. /e especially
careful with names. fourth!year %nglish student recently submitted an essay where the names
of the characters <agar and "shmael had been changed throughout to )<aggard* and
)2ishmeal*. <ow we laughedI
lways read through your essay carefully after you have printed it out. #ou will notice mistakes
that you did not pick up on screen. "f there are only a few of these, your marker will not mind if
you correct these by hand. "t is better to show that you have read through your work than to
present a pristine text full of errors. "f you find a lot of mistakes, go back and print out the essay
again. &emember that the ability to produce a clean, polished text is an important skill in its own
right. "t is worth spending time and effort on this. Jot only will good spelling earn you extra marks
for each essay during your time as a student. this is a skill that will also be useful in the workplace
later on.
6>
<.1 0ommon errors
There may be no short cut to good spelling, but there are some common pitfalls which you can
avoid. <ere are some areas which need special care4
Words ending
>ant?ent ...................eg4 dependent, dependant
>ance?ence .............eg4 observance, correspondence
>ite?ate ....................eg4 infinite, obstinate
>ible?able ................eg4 fallible, reasonable
>ibilit?abilit ..........eg4 fallibility, disability
>arate?erate ............eg4 separate, desperate
>ege?edge................eg4 privilege, acknowledge
>cede?ceed?sede ....eg4 precede, proceed, supersede
>ice:ise....................eg4 noun practice, verb practise
Words beginning
>de?di ......................eg4 despair, divide
>im?in.......................eg4 impossible, inconceivable
Words including
>ie?ei .......................The old rule is a good one4 I be)ore E except a)ter 0* when the sound is
E.
>double letters .......,see 0':0A spelling below-
>our .........................this often becomes or before a suffix eg4 vigour:vigorous
Words which sound like other words ...............eg4 principle:principal, affect:effect
Trust your dictionary, not your ears.
<.2 0apitals
Croper nouns ,names- such as 2iji, 'pain, 'candinavia, the ma=on, 5ake Michigan, Mont
/lanc, etc, have an initial capital letter. "n %nglish, adjectives and nouns denoting nationality
and language do as well4 %nglish, (ld %nglish, +hukchi, 'anskrit, and "talian. <istorical periods
are treated in the same way4 the Middle ges, the &enaissance.
Words denoting religions, movements or )schools* and peoples, together with the adjectives
referring to these, and words denoting people belonging to them, have an initial capital4
+hristianity, +hristian. ;adaism, ;adaist, ;adaistic. 2abianism, 2abianist, 2abian. "slam,
"slamic. Dew, Dewish. The /ible, the (ld Testament, the Jew Testament, and the Aoran all
take capitals, as do all book titles. <owever, the adjective )biblical* does not.
common noun is often capitalised when it forms part of a name or a title. Thus the 'ociology
;epartment gets capitals, but the phrase )studying sociology* does not. +laudius in (amlet, is )the
Aing*, just as one would write )the 1ueen* when referring to %li=abeth "" or some other specific
$ueen. /ut king or $ueen used in a general way, does not have a capital letter. 2or example, )The
king of a country should not hold too much power*. God gets a capital when one is naming the
God of +hristian, "slamic or Dewish faiths. Words used as names for God are often capitalised
too, such as the lmighty, the +reator etc, although the practice of capitalising pronouns referring
6E
to God ,<im, <is, Thy will be done, etc.- is dying out. Writing of )gods* from other cultures does
not re$uire capitali=ation, unless they are named.
<.3 /$ ' /K $pelling
Clease use 0A spelling at all times in your own writing. <owever, some of the texts which
you read will be printed with 0' spellings, so it is useful to know the main differences.
/ritish ll: merican l( single consonant at the end of a word is often doubled before a suffix
in 0A %nglish, but not in 0' %nglish4 revelling:reveling.
/ritish re: merican er( centre:center, metre:meter, theatre:theater
/ritish ogue: merican og( catalogue:catalog, demagogue:demagog
/ritish our: merican or( colour:color, humour:humor, vigour:vigor
/ritish se: merican @e( criticise:critici=e, analyse:analy=e
"t is acceptable to reproduce 0' spellings in $uotations if you are $uoting from an merican
text, such as &obert 2rost*s poem )The &oad Jot Taken*4
Two roads diverged in a wood, and " K
" took the one less traveled by,
nd that has made all the difference.
6

Aurther Reading
/urchfield, &. W., ed., ,owler-s .odern )nglish /sage 8rd ed ,(xford4 (xford 0niversity Cress,
3GGF-
Gee, &obyn, and +arol Watson, /sborne Guide to *etter )nglish' Grammar Spelling and
%unctuation ,5ondon4 0sborne, 699B-
Cartridge, %ric, /sage and Abusage' A Guide to Good )nglish ,<armondsworth4 Cenguin, 3GGG-
Ceck, Dohn and Martin +oyle. The Student-s Guide to Writing' Grammar Spelling and
%unctuation ,<oundmills4 Calgrave, 3GGG-
&itter, &. M. ed., The 1xford Dictionary for Writers and )ditors, 6nd ed ,(xford4 (xford 0niversity
Cress, 6999-
'trunk, William and %. /. White, The )lements of Style ,5ondon4 5ongman, 3GGG-
Truss, 5ynne, )ats Shoots and 0ea2es' The 3ero4Tolerance Approach to %unctuation ,5ondon4
Crofile /ooks, 6998-
2
&obert 2rost, The %oetry of 5obert ,rost ed. by %dward +onnery 5athem ,5ondon4 +ape,
3G73. repr. 6993-, p.39>
67
7/I0K AI+( =".9/"9E
3. Write in clear, simple, formal %nglish.
6. Get apostrophes in the right places. It#s should never appear in your essay. "f you mean
it is* write it out in full. "f you mean its B belonging to it* there is no apostrophe.
8. void comma splices. use a semi!colon or start a new sentence.
B. Think about clauses. ;o not have too many in one sentence. "t is always better to write
short, clear sentences whenever possible. ;o not present subordinate clauses as
complete sentences. These are sentence fragments.
>. Make sure that single nouns have single verbs and that plural nouns have plural verbs.
E. Write about authors in past tense ,unless they are still alive-. Write about fictional
characters and events in present tense.
7. 0se pronouns with care. Make sure that the pronoun refers to the most recent available
noun. void vague pronouns such as )this* and )it*, especially at the start of sentences.
F. ;o not rely on Microsoft to sort out your grammar and spelling.
G. lways read through your work carefully once you have finished. +orrect any mistakes
that you find, by hand if necessary.
39. /uy a dictionary and use it.
6F
$E0TI-. 0( $-/R0E$
1C. 0D--$I.9 $-/R0E$
+hoosing and using sources is an integral part of studying. 2inding useful texts can seem rather
daunting, especially if most of the texts recommended in the course guide have been checked out
of the library. <owever, there is no need to panic and log on to Google. There are thousands of
books and hundreds of thousands of journal articles in the 1ueen Mother 5ibrary. ;o=ens of
these will be relevant to your essay topic. The trick is knowing where to look. #our tutor will not be
impressed if you give up searching, and write a superficial essay built up of information from
lecture notes and things downloaded from the "nternet. <owever, if you are prepared to look a
little bit harder in the library, you will find some wonderful sources, which will inform your work and
give you original ideas.
-ther disciplines(
There is no law that says you have to stay on 2loor 3 of 1M5. Think creatively about your essay
$uestion. "f it has a historical angle, you might want to look at something which will give you some
background knowledge of the period. /ooks on cultural history and philosophy can be especially
interesting, as they explore many of the same issues that sociology does.
"cademic !ournals(
"t is easy to forget about these, but short articles are often more use than books. They are $uicker
to read and sometimes more interesting. There are several ways of searching for articles online,
which you learned about in the pathfinder exercise.
Internet sources(
There are many interesting and scholarly pieces of work on the "nternet. There is also a lot of
superficial and inaccurate information. /e very careful about what you use from the "nternet. 'ites
which are sponsored by universities or academic publishers are likely to give you very good
information. #ou can often get journal articles on the "nternet which are not available in 1M5.
'cholarly societies also often have good biographical information about regions and topics and
useful lists of recommended reading. <owever, be wary of study!notes sites, which are aimed at
school students and will not bring your work up to the level we would like to see. ;iscussion
boards and essays which are not published through an academic site often contain information
which is not correct. There is nothing to stop you posting your work on the "nternet, so what you
find there could be the work of an enthusiastic undergraduate with some "T skills. #our marker will
get twitchy if more than one item of your bibliography is made up of "nternet sites. 0se a mix of
sources as you do your research. Wikipedia is just another encyclopaedia, and using
encyclopaedias in academic writing is pitiful.
11. /$I.9 $-/R0E$
%ffective use of multiple sources is crucial. "t is almost impossible to write a really good essay
without multiple sources. %ven for a critical analysis, it is a good idea to pick up some discussion
about the author*s ideas from other sociologists who agree or disagree with him, and then
compare what they say about the text. 5earning from other thinkers and writers is what being at
university is all about. #ou will also find that reading other people sharpens up your own ideas.
<owever, you need to know how to incorporate other writers* work into your own. Good use of
material shows that you have done your research, and that you are also confident about your own
opinions. "t is an essential element in a first!class essay. 0sing sources well is much more than
avoiding plagiarism. "t is about showing off your knowledge, and making your sources work to
back up your ideas.
6G
11.1 "rgue with people
Dust because someone has spent a lifetime researching a subject and is an internationally
recognised authority on a particular region or theory does not necessarily mean they are right.
2eel free to challenge anything and everything that you read. "n fact, when you read sociology,
you should probably start with the assumption that you are going to disagree but you are
prepared to be persuaded if they make a good enough case. This is called critical thinking.
'tudents often discard any article that they do not agree with. This is like taking the springs out of
a trampoline and then wondering why it does not bounce. +ritical material that you can prove is
missing the point is a gift. &oll your sleeves up and get to work on it. Dust make sure you can
back up your position with examples from other people. 'ometimes pure logic will do the trick too.
This is the sort of thing that makes an essay sparkle. 'o, be assertive with critics. They are only
human after all.
11.2 "cknowledge the critic in our text
"t is not enough to drop in a footnote at the end of a sentence, or name a book in the
bibliography. #ou must acknowledge your sources more actively than this. Make sure you
say who said what and whether you agree. 2or example, )"n his study of the subject,
lexander Aing argues a which is a useful approach to interpreting this myth because of b.
<owever, he overlooks the issue of c which is a vital element in the religion.* There are good
reasons for naming the author like this4
It sounds good.
cademics all enjoy a bit of name!dropping, and like to see that you have considered an idea put
forward by an important critic or literary figure. %ssays are all about showing what you have read
and learned. Anowing about the key players in a debate is part of this.
It helps our marker4
&emember that it is your job to make your essay accessible to the reader. #our marker may not
have read all the books you refer to, so some help in sorting out who said what is often
appreciated. 2or example, do you have any idea how many books there are in 1M5 on culture@
lternatively, your marker may have read all your sources, in which case they will expect you to
give credit to the sociologist where it is due.
It makes )or clarit4
(ne of the hardest skills in writing about sociology is making it crystal clear which ideas come
from outside sources, which are based on common knowledge ,or hearsay- about a time, region
etc, and which are your own thoughts on the subject. #ou want to sell the last category, but your
marker will not know what your thoughts are, unless you make it clear where other people*s ideas
stop and yours start. ;o not assume you can fudge this to your advantage. cademics tend to be
cynical by nature, and will assume that you have absorbed ideas from somewhere else unless
you mark this out neatly.
It helps with structure(
Jaming the critic makes it easier to refer back to this idea later in the essay. %.g.4 )2. &. 5eavis
takes a completely different line to <utchison on this matter. <e argues x y and 6.* This helps to
hold the whole essay together and makes it look like a well balanced piece of writing.
89
12. ="E-/T -A 7/-T"TI-.$
12.1 Fer short 4uotations
1uotations of a few words should be incorporated into a longer sentence like this4
Aang ,3GGB4 6G- uses the term )body labour* to refer to the provision of body!related
services and the emotional labour which often accompanies that practice.
or
Aang*s term, )body labour,* refers to the provision of body!related services and the
emotional labour which often accompanies that practice ,3GGB46G-.*

lways reference the source when you $uote from a text.
12.2 7uotations o) up to three lines
These may also be incorporated into your text. They should be preceded by a colon or
comma when appropriate4
Wilson ,3GE743EF- creates a compelling image of turn!of!the!century /ritain4 )5ittle to eat,
long hours, dangerous, dirty work for not only adults but also children.*
The colon or comma is not needed if a word such as that* which* whether introduces the
$uotation. "n this case, the $uotation functions as a subordinate clause and is an integral part of
the wider sentence. When the $uotation appears within a sentence, the final full stop should
appear outside the $uotation marks, even if the full stop is part of the original sentence.
page number in brackets should go inside the full stop when the $uotation is run
on in the text4
Wilson creates a compelling image of turn!of!the!century /ritain. <e describes it as
involving, )5ittle to eat, long hours, dangerous, dirty work for not only adults but also
children* ,3GE743EF-.
12.3 7uotations longer than three lines
These should be set apart in an indented paragraph of their own. 5eave a line, indent the
whole paragraph one tab space from the margin, and set out the passage without $uotation
marks, except for those that may appear in the passage $uoted4
The insertion of Marxism into the Western academy in the mid!3GE9s also significantly, and
not unironically, contributed to a growing concern with culture. That circumstance has, of
course, arisen largely in relation to the mainly Marxist problem of the persistence, recently
the expansion, of capitalism. 'pecifically, in so far as capitalism should have collapsed by
virtue of its own economic weight, according to most nineteenth! and early
twentieth!century Marxist theories, then its continuance and present expansion have to be
explained by non!economic factors. ,&obertson 3GG64 B6-
fter an indented $uote there is no need to indent the first line of text, unless you intend to
start a new paragraph, which is not recommended. #ou should have a lot to say on the same
topic following such an important $uote.
83
12.% Ellipses
To signal that you have omitted a short section of a $uote use ellipses in s$uare brackets
PIQ. The brackets signal that these ellipses are yours4
The insertion of Marxism into the Western academy in the mid!3GE9s also significantly PIQ
contributed to a growing concern with culture. That circumstance has, of course, arisen
largely in relation to the mainly Marxist problem of the persistence, recently the expansion,
of capitalism. 'pecifically, in so far as capitalism should have collapsed by virtue of its own
economic weight, according to most nineteenth! and early twentieth!century Marxist
theories, then its continuance and present expansion have to be explained by
non!economic factors. ,&obertson 3GG64 B6-
Make sure that the $uote still makes grammatical sense in its own right. #ou must also make
sure that you do not corrupt the content of the author*s original sentence. (nly use ellipses to
travel a short distance within a text. 0se it to join sections of the same sentence, or possibly
adjoining sentences. "f you wish to $uote clauses or phrases that are further apart, do so in
two separate $uotations. ;o not use ellipses to indicate a large section of text which all
seems relevant to your argument, but which you cannot be bothered to sift through for the
important phrases or sentences4
O The insertion of Marxism into the Western academy in the mid!3GE9s also significantly, and
not unironically, contributed to a growing concern with culture. PIQ "n so far as capitalism
should have collapsed by virtue of its own economic weight, according to most nineteenth!
and early twentieth!century Marxist theories, then its continuance and present expansion
have to be explained by non!economic factors. ,&obertson 3GG64 B6
13. REAERE.0I.9
Good referencing demonstrates that you care about the accuracy and the reliability of your
sources. "t also shows that you are attentive to details, which gives your argument more authority.
Ceople will always be more willing to listen to your big ideas if you can get the small things right.
This is not just the case within the university, so referencing is a good chance to practise taking
care with facts and figures4 another skill that you will find useful in all sorts of contexts. %vidence,
statistics, $uotations, ideas and concepts should be carefully attributed so that you get the credit
for your reading and so that, if we think a mistake has been made, we can check back to see who
made the mistake.
There are several kinds of referencing styles around, and even within sociology, different journals
re$uire their own particular style. /eing able to follow directions is an important transferable skill,
so put all the commas and full stops in the right places. What you cite should be what you actually
read rather than the original. 'o if what you know about Marx comes from reading Giddens, then
cite Giddens as the source. The idea is to tell the reader where you got your information. /oth
direct $uotes and paraphrases must be referenced .
There are two parts to the referencing system we recommend4 that which goes in the text of the
essay and that which goes in the bibliography at the end.
13.1 In the text

a- "f you mention the authorRs name, follow the name or the full sentence with a bracket
containing the year of publication ,found on the reverse of the bookRs title page- and the
number of the page from which the idea comes. As Duncan (789:' ;!$ says ...
b- "f you do not mention the author, add it in the bracket. As recent research shows ... (Duncan
789:' ;!$.
86
c- Where there are two authors, name both. Where there are more than two, use the first name
and Ret al.R ,abbreviation of the 5atin et alii ,masc. plural- or et aliae ,fem. plural- or et alia
,neut. plural- for Rand othersR-. As recent research shows ... (Duncan et al. 789:' ;!$.
d- "f you read about what an author said in a book by someone else cite as follows. <apitalism
emerged from = (Weber cited in .acionis and %lummer !""!' !7>$.
e- "f citing a web page give the author of the page you have looked at or the individual or
organisation who maintain the site and a date. The rest can go in the bibliography
13.2 In the bibliograph
5ist all the works you have cited, in alphabetical order of author ,and by date where there is more than
one work by the same author-, giving the following details where applicable4
/ooks and chapters in books4 uthor, "nitial. year of publication. )Title of chapter*, page
numbers and editors ,if an edited collection-, Title of boo+ ,in italics-. Clace of publication4
Cublishers. "f you are referring to a whole book leave out the chapter title, page numbers and
editors. 'ee ;avie ,a chapter- and 5eiter ,a whole book- below.
Dournal articles4 uthor, "nitial. year of publication. )Title of article*, Title of &ournal ,in italics-.
Nolume number ,issue number-4 page range. 'ee Mouch below.
Websites( uthor or organisation running the site, date of the article or when page last
updated. )Title of the page you looked at*. Web address. Give as much information as you
can, &ust the web address is not enough.
The point of all this is for the reader to be able to trace the very page of the very version you
have read.
$ample bibliograph
;avie, M. 3GE9. RThe pattern of urban growthR, pp. 383!E3 in G. Murdoch ,ed.- Studies in the Science
of Society. Jew <aven4 #ale 0niversity Cress.
%ngender 3GGG. )Women and the 'cottish Carliament*. May 3E,
http4::www.engender.org.uk:scotparl:index.html
5eiter, A. 3GF9. A %rimer on )thnomethodology. 5ondon4 (xford 0niversity Cress.
Marx, A. and %ngels, 2. 3FBF. The <ommunist .anifesto.
http4::www.anu.edu.au:polsci:marx:classics:manifesto.html.
Marxists.org no date. )Aarl Marx and 2rederick %ngel*s Manifesto of The +ommunist Carty*.
http4::csf.+olorado.%;0:psn:marx:rchive:3FBF!+M:.
Mouch, /. 3GF9. RMarxism and industrial clothing4 modes of productionR. *ritish ?ournal of Sociology
3E ,B-4 687!BF.
'ome of the collections of readings can be a bit tricky. &eference each reading separately. "f you used
the reading by /erger for example, put ,/erger 3GGF4 3B- in the text and in the bibliography do this4
/erger, C. 3GGF. )'ociology as <umanism* pp 3B!37 in W. Aidd, M. Airby, 2. Aoubel, D. /arter, T. <ope,
. Airton, J. Madry, C. Manning, and A. Triggs ,eds-, 5eadings in Sociology. (xford4 <einemann.
1%. &="9I"RI$M
The 0niversity defines plagiarism as )the use, without ade$uate acknowledgement, of the
intellectual work of another person in work submitted for assessment*. "t may have been
acceptable to copy and paste text from "nternet sources into a project at school, but at university
88
we want you to be careful and transparent about all the sources which you use. ll information
should be traceable back to a reliable source. We are keen for you to explore outside sources,
but you must show where you found your information. Clagiarism is the deliberate failure to do
this. "f you have copied something, even a short phrase, word for word out of a book, or if you
have copied and pasted anything from an "nternet site, you must put it in $uotation marks and
give a reference. +hanging one or two words, or paraphrasing a sentence does not release you
from the obligation to name your sources. "f you summarise someone else*s argument, make
sure that your marker can see what you are doing. Make sure that your own opinions emerge
distinctly as well4
%rnest Dones ,3GBG- argues that <amlet*s behaviour can all be traced back to his repressed
desire for his mother. <amlet*s confusion about his feelings towards his father and his uncle
are due to his jealousy at their relationship with Gertrude. <owever, this seems implausible,
as <amlet clearly loves and reveres his father, a detail which Dones fails to fit into his
2reudian reading
This make it clear which ideas are Dones*s and which are the writer*s.
cademics do not just regard plagiarism as la=iness or cheating. They see it as a form of
stealing. cademics make their living by having ideas. "f you use these ideas without giving credit
for them, it is a bit like having a meal in a restaurant without paying. Clagiarism is regarded as a
serious offence in a university. 'tudents who are caught are called up in front of the <ead of
'chool and sometimes the 0niversity +ourt. 'erial offenders will be expelled from the university.
To a marker, it is often obvious if a phrase or a whole paragraph has been lifted from an outside
source. "f you can find something on the "nternet in five minutes, your marker can get a funny
feeling about it and Google it just as fast. The stupid thing is that the effort re$uired to plagiarise
effectively is probably about the same amount of effort re$uired to use the same sources in an
argument and reference them properly. There is information about avoiding plagiarism in every
course guide, in the 'tudent <andbook and on the 'chool website. %very time you hand in an
essay, you sign a declaration on the cover sheet saying that you have read and understand the
rules.
Make sure that you have. 'tudents often worry about how to incorporate information from
lectures and seminars into their written work. "nformation given in a lecture becomes public
knowledge. 2eel free to use it in your work. that is what it is for. There is no need to cite it
formally. <owever, lecturers do not like to see their own phrases parroted back to them in written
work. part from anything else, this makes them suspicious that you have not done much other
reading on the subject. "f you can digest the information given in lectures and express it in your
own words, your lecturer will feel that they have done a good job. "f you want to use a $uote from
a class handout, look it up in the library, or email the lecturer and ask where you can find it. ;o
not cite the handout as though it were a published text. "f you have an inspired idea about a text,
only to find that some clever critic got there first, do not panic. There are very few truly original
ideas. The fact that someone else wrote it down and got it published shows that you are thinking
along the right lines. 0sing this idea is not plagiarism, but the smart thing to do here is to use the
critic to back you up. This makes you look better, not worse.
<amlet*s relationships with women are all problematic. <is supposed romance with (phelia
never demonstrates any shared affection or sexual attraction. <e is unnaturally close to his
mother, which complicates his relationship with his uncle, as %rnest Dones ,3GBG- points out
in his 2reudian reading of the play.
@ame your sources. Gi2e references. Show your +nowledge.

2urther details can be found in the +ode of Cractice on 'tudent ;iscipline4
http4::www.abdn.ac.uk:registry:$uality:appendix>x3>.pdf
8B
ll essays must be submitted using the Turnitin0A software which identifies text taken from other
sources. "t is therefore very important that you reference your work properly and fully. 2urther
information will be given to you by your course tutors.
"nd )inallG
Good writing is a skill that takes years to develop. s with playing a musical instrument or training
for a sport, there is always something new to learn, or a different approach to explore. This
booklet is designed to give you some basic advice to help with your written work at university.
<owever, a love of language and an interest in the way words work can last a lifetime. #ou will
find that these are useful tools for life, which will open up the world around you in surprising ways.
Aeep reading, and keep writing.
<<:A:;G
7uick Aix( $ources
3. 5eave yourself a realistic amount of time to find useful books in the library. "t may take a
whole day to find what you need. This is an important part of studying. +onsider this a good
day*s work, not a waste of time.
6. ;o not limit yourself to the recommended reading in the course guide. There are thousands of
books in 1M5. ;o=ens of these will be of interest to you. Think creatively about your
$uestion, and keep looking until you find something that is useful. &ead journals.
8. 0se your sources to back up your argument. Jame the scholars in your work, so that your
marker can see who said what. This helps your idea to emerge more clearly.
B. #ou do not need to agree with everything you read. n essay that has some sort of debate
going on within it is much more interesting than a se$uence of similar ideas or viewpoints.
>. Give accurate references. ccount for all the information you use, and follow the referencing
conventions for different kinds of text.
E. 0se "nternet sources with caution. (nly use information from good sites. Much of the
information on the "nternet is unreliable. "f you cannot be sure of what you have found, do not
use it. Jever cut and paste from the "nternet into your essay without giving a reference.
7. Crovide a list of works cited, even if you only have one or two books to list. "t is a good habit
to form for careful scholarship.
F. void plagiarism. "f you give good references and account for all the information you use, this
will not be a problem.
G. 'how your knowledge. #our marker wants to see what you have been reading and what you
have learned.
-ther $ources o) Delp
Good advice on essay!writing ,and other study skills- is at http4::www.abdn.ac.uk:infoskills and
http4::www.abdn.ac.uk:writing:
The cademic 5earning and 'tudy 0nit offers individual students help with study skills and essay
presentation4 see http4::www.abdn.ac.uk:alsu .
8>