CIGR Canada

21, rue dArtois, F-75008 PARIS

CIGRE-129 Conference on Power Systems
http : //www.cigre.org
Vancouver, October 17- 19, 2010
Detection, Location, and Classification of Downed
Conductors in Series-Compensated Transmission Lines


AHMED E. B. ABU-ELANIEN
1
, RAMADAN ELSHATSHAT
2
, M.M.A. SALAMA
3
, NAZAR
MALIK
4

University of Waterloo
1,2,3
(CAN), King Saud University
4
(Saudi Arabia)
SUMMARY

The contact of broken (downed) conductors of high voltage transmission lines, with Objects such
as trees, structures, asphalt or sand dunes may cause high impedance faults (HIF). These high
impedance faults generate low fault current, which may be less or slightly higher than the normal load
current. The regular overcurrent relays cannot detect such faults. Locating the HIF in the Transmission
Lines (TLs) equipped with series capacitors is a difficult task and will produce inaccurate results if it
is done using traditional impedance based methods. This is because of the nonlinear behavior of the
series capacitor protection arrangement (Metal Oxide Varistor, MOV), and the rapidly changing
characteristics of circuit impedance during fault. The high impedance of the fault together with the
rapid changing of the MOV impedance increases the difficulty to classify faulted phases. This paper
presents an algorithm for protecting series compensated TLs against HIF. The algorithm uses the
Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT) to extract the high frequency transients contained in the fault
current to detect and classify the fault. Locating the fault is performed using the traveling waves
theory. The DWT is used to extract the traveling waves and to record their arrival times at both ends of
the TL. The high speed, accuracy, and reliability are the main advantages of the proposed algorithm.
The analytical expectations are verified by digital simulation using EMTDC simulation package.



KEYWORDS

Downed conductors, high impedance fault, protection, series compensated transmission lines, wavelet
transform.








abayoumy@uwaterloo.ca


1


1. INTRODUCTION

Undetected HIFs caused by downed conductors produces severe hazard to humans, animals, and
assets. Fallen conductors constitute severe danger to humans and animals if they are close to the place
of the fallen conductor. Moreover, downed conductors HIFs are associated with arcs that can initiate
fires in neighborhood buildings or structures. Due to the high impedance of the downed conductor
faults, the fault current is relatively low compared to the regular low impedance faults. The low fault
current cannot be detected by regular overcurrent relays, which means the continuity of the dangerous
effects of the Downed conductor faults. Series capacitors are connected in series with the transmission
line (TL) to reduce the series reactance between the load and the supply point. As result, their reactive
power production varies concurrently with the line loading. This results in improved transient and
steady-state stability limits, increased line loadability, and minimum voltage dip on load buses [1, 2].
A disadvantage of a series capacitor bank is that a nonlinear protection device, MOV, must be
installed to protect the series capacitor. Series capacitors equipped with MOV cause many problems to
the TL protection system. The series capacitor equipped with MOV adds non-linearity in the short
circuit current. The impedance of the series capacitor- MOV set decreases too much during the fault,
which will increase the difficulty of the location and classification of the fault. The non-linearity of the
series capacitor-MOV set and the high impedance of the downed conductors lead to extreme
complexity in the detection, location and classification of the faults.
The work done in [3] detects the downed conductor using the voltage unbalance; however, the
technique needs sophisticated sensors and communication system to be implemented. In [4] Russel et
al. used the low frequency components to detect the downed conductors. Sultan et al. in [5] detects the
downed conductors using the asymmetry between the successive cycles of the fault current. The
algorithm presented in [6] used the Kalman filtering to detect the downed conductors; Kalman filter
needs too much computational burden. Furthermore, all mentioned methods do not locate the downed
conductor or classify the faulted phases.
In this paper, a fast, robust, and accurate algorithm is presented to detect, locate and classify
downed conductor faults in series compensated TLs. The algorithm will not be affected by the
nonlinearity associated with series capacitor bank protection. Although this algorithm is designed to
deal with downed conductors, it works perfectly well with regular low impedance faults. The
protection algorithm depends on analyzing the TL current with Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT).
Then, the high frequency components extracted by the DWT, are used to locate the fault using the
traveling waves' theory. Classification of the faulted phases is performed using the spectral energy of
the DWT decomposition of the three phase currents.

2. POWER SYSTEM MODEL

A 230 kV60 Hz power system model (shown in Fig. 1) is utilized to investigate the applicability
of the proposed technique. The model consists of two voltage sources connected to a three-phase 200
km TL. The two sources G1 and G2 have short circuit capacities of 10 GVA and X/R ratio of 50. The
power angle between the two sources is 30
o
. The TL is compensated with a three phase capacitor bank
with a MOV overvoltage protection. The capacitor bank is located at the middle of the TL section and
its compensation level is 50%. The TL is ideally transposed and has a flat configuration with 10m
spacing between adjacent conductors. Two loads of 100 MW at 0.8 power factor lagging are located at
both ends of the TL. Two 3-phase capacitor banks are connected in parallel with the loads to improve
the power factor to 0.95 lagging.

3. PROPOSED PROTECTION ALGORITHM

Since in practice a fault can be of any type, it is necessary to combine the three phase currents to
form a composite signal in such a way as to cover all faults encountered in practice. The three phase
currents (I
a
, I
b
, and I
c
) are combined to form one modal signal (I
m
) [7, 8]:

c b a m
I I I I 2 2 + = (1)

This signal is able to extract the high frequency transients encountered in all fault types [7, 8]
including downed conductor faults. Using modal signal, any common mode signal (due to mutual
coupling with adjacent circuits sharing the same right of way) can be eliminated [7, 8]. This ensures
immunity to all disturbances other than those associated with the line to which the protection
equipment is connected. Fig. 2 shows three phase currents and modal current for a b-g fault 120 km
from the end S with fault impedance of 120 ohm.

G1 G2
S
R
200 km
X/R=50
X/R=50
F1 F2
R
Communication
MOV
Capacitor
bank 1
Capacitor
bank 2
Ls
100 MW
0.8 PF
lagging
Ls
100 MW
0.8 PF
lagging

Fig. 1. The power system model.

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Fig. 2. A b-g fault 120 km from end s with 120 ohm fault impedance (a) three phase currents (b) modal signal (c)
detail 1d1 of DWT of sending end modal signal.

3.1 Detection of the Fault

During normal operation, the three phase currents do not contain any high frequency components.
However, during fault condition, the fault will generate high frequency transients of different
frequency bands. These transients travel both sides of the fault [9]. By the continuous monitoring of
the modal signal at the sending end, any fault can be detected using the fault generated high frequency
transients even if the fault is though high impedance. This technique avoids using the fundamental
component of the fault current, which is near the normal load current in value. The high frequency
transients can be extracted by the DWT. The power system model discussed before is implemented in
PSCAD/EMTDC. The sampling frequency used is 100 kHz (sampling time is 10 sec), which means
that detail1 (d1) of DWT decomposition covers frequency band 25-50kHz and detail2 (d2) covers
frequency band 12.5-25 kHz and so on. The first detail of the sending end modal signal will be
continuously monitored until the occurrence of a fault. The fault will be detected when the d1
coefficients increase over the threshold which is taken as 0.3 A in this example. The monitoring
technique will be based on a moving window of 1024 sample data (nearly 1/2 cycle). This window
will move sample by sample until detecting a fault based on the detection criterion mentioned
above. Fig. 2 (c) shows detail 1 d1 of DWT for the sending end modal signal. It is clear from the
figure that the coefficients of d1 increases rapidly after the fault inception to exceed the threshed level
indicating a fault occurrence.
2


3.2 Fault Classification

Online fault classification is very important task to perform the single pole tripping and the auto
reclosing for a temporary regular low impedance single phase to ground faults. This single pole
tripping and auto reclosing will enhance the system reliability by reducing the TL outage time for
temporary faults. The classification stage proposed in this paper is also used to discriminate between
short circuits and the switching operations.
A series of simulations are done to differentiate between the faulted phases, without using the
fundamental component to avoid the nonlinearity of the MOV, and to develop an ultra high speed
classification method that isn't affected by the high fault impedance. The high frequency transients
contained in the three phase currents offers a good solution to this problem. They can be used to
differentiate between the faulted phases. DWT with Symmlet3 (sym3) as a mother wavelet, is used to
extract the high frequency components contained in the three phase currents. The energy contained in
the high frequency transients is a very good indicator of their strength, and it will be used here instead
of the direct usage of the high frequency components to classify the faults and to discriminate between
the faults and the switching operation. The steps taken to calculate the spectral energy during the fault
or switching operation are listed:
1) Start recording the coefficients of d1 of the DWT decomposition of the three phases for the next
100 samples after the fault inception (1 m sec).
2) Use the Parseval's theorem to calculate an index (E
k
) for the energy contained in the high frequency
transients for the three phases and ground currents (ground current is the summation the three
phase currents).

=
=
m
i n
k k
T n d E
2
1
)) ( (
(2)

Where;
n: sample number,
k: subscript for phase a, b, c, or ground g,
d
1k
: the value of d1 of phase k at sample number n.
i: the fault inception sample,
m: last sample in the calculation period, and
T: the sampling period (10 sec here).

The sampling period T is a constant, so it can be omitted from the equation to produce a new index
E

k
that is higher in to magnitude than the energy index E
k
.

T
E
E
k
k

=
'
(3)
After a detailed study on switching operations and all types of faults (with or without high
impedance) using PSCAD/EMTDC, the following facts are observed:

1) Single line to ground faults (Downed conductor or regular low impedance fault)
a) The faulted phase has the highest energy index.
b) The energies of the other two phases are close to each other (the difference is very small, less
than phase).
c) The energy index for the ground is large (more than ground).
2) Double line to ground faults (Downed conductors or regular low impedance fault)
a) The faulted phases have the highest energy index.
b) The energy index for the ground is large (more than ground).
3) Line to line faults
3


a) The faulted phases have the highest energy index and they are nearly equal (the difference is
4


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less than phase).
b) The energy index for the other phase is very small and nearly zero (the difference is less than
phase).
c) The energy index for the ground is very small, (less than ground).
4) Three phase symmetrical faults
a) The energy indices for the three phases are random.
b) The energy index for the ground is very small, (less than ground).
5) Switching operation
a) Switching operation has the same characteristics as the three phase symmetrical fault.
b) The Energy index of the modal signal is lower than that of the three phase symmetrical fault.

Figs. 3 to 5 show the three phase currents and d1 coefficients for the three phases and ground
current of different down conductor faults with different locations and fault impedances. Fig. 6 shows
a bc-g fault with high fault impedance to simulate two downed conductors. Figs. 7 and 8 depict a line-
to-line and symmetrical faults to show the success of the proposed technique to deal with low
impedance faults. Figs. 9 and 10 show a load switching operation at the sending end and a capacitor
switching operation at the receiving end respectively.


















Fig. 3. DWT decomposition of phase c downed
conductor at 80 km from end S with 200 ohm fault
impedance (a) three phase currents (b) d1 of phase
a (c) d1 of phase b (d) d1 of phase c (e) d1 of
ground current.

Fig. 4. DWT decomposition of phase a downed
conductor at 195 km from end S with 100 ohm fault
impedance (a) three phase currents (b) d1 of phase
a (c) d1 of phase b (d) d1 of phase c (e) d1 of
ground current.













Fig. 5. DWT decomposition of phase b downed
conductor at 130 km from end S with 120 ohm fault
impedance (a) three phase currents (b) d1 of phase
a (c) d1 of phase b (d) d1 of phase c (e) d1 of
ground current.

Fig. 6. DWT decomposition of bc-g fault at 180 km
from end S with 100 ohm fault impedance (a) three
phase currents (b) d1 of phase a (c) d1 of phase b
(d) d1 of phase c (e) d1 of ground current.
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Fig. 7. DWT decomposition of ab fault at 110 km
from end S (a) three phase currents (b) d1 of phase
a (c) d1 of phase b (d) d1 of phase c (e) d1 of
ground current.




Fig. 8. DWT decomposition of abc fault at 90 km
from end S (a) three phase currents (b) d1 of phase
a (c) d1 of phase b (d) d1 of phase c (e) d1 of
ground current.


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Fig. 9. DWT decomposition of load switching
operation end S (a) three phase currents (b) d1 of
phase a (c) d1 of phase b (d) d1 of phase c (e) d1 of
ground current.



Fig. 10. DWT decomposition of capacitor bank
switching operation at end R (a) three phase
currents (b) d1 of phase a (c) d1 of phase b (d) d1
of phase c (e) d1 of ground current.

Table I shows the energy indices (E

k
) for the cases in Figs. 3 to 10. The detection criterion
presented is able to detect all disturbances. The first four cases, which represent downed conductor
cases, are detected and classified correctly using the detection and classification algorithm. The two
low impedance faults in Figs. 7 and 8 are detected and classified correctly. The two switching
operations shown in Figs. 9 and 10 generate phase energy indices similar to the symmetrical faults;
however, they are correctly classified using the modal signal energy index. It was found based on
simulation that the switching operations generate modal signal energy index less that 500 while the
energy index for the symmetrical fault is higher than this threshold.

3.3 Fault Location

Accurate fault location is very imperative for post fault maintenance. To locate the downed
conductor, traveling wave theory is exploited. The fault generates wide band of high frequency
transients travels both directions. The traveling waves will reach the transmission line ends at different
Table I: Energy index for the three phases and ground during disturbance
Fault type
Fault
distance
from end
S (km)
Fault
impedance
()
E'
a
E'
b
E'
c
E'
g
E'
modal

Algorithm
Classification
c-g 80 200 60.87 60.87 187.62 87.57 Not needed c-g
a-g 195 100 61.81 24.76 24.77 7.91 Not needed a-g
b-g 130 120 9.39 23.99 9.39 11.54 Not needed b-g
bc-g 180 100 21.94 38.49 76.55 11.77 Not needed bc-g
ab 110 0.1 10.67 10.67 0 0 Not needed ab
abc 90 0.1 608.86 3.76 707.71 0 1049.3 abc
LS at end S* 0 -- 5.12 23.76 6.82 0 297.05 switching
CS at end R* 200 -- 0.73 0.051 1.16 0 3.0797 switching

*LS and CS mean load switching and capacitor switching


times depending on the distance between the transmission line end and fault point. For example, for
faults near the sending end, the traveling waves will reach the sending end before the receiving end.
Using synchronized clocks at both of the transmission line ends, the time at which the traveling waves
reach both ends can be recorded and used to locate the fault point [10]. Assume a fault occurred at F1
as shown in Fig. 11. The traveling wave will arrive at the sending end and the receiving end at time
(t
1
) and (t
2
) respectively. The distance between the fault point and the sending end (relay point) is
calculated using (5) [10].

2
) (
1 2
t t v L
d

= (5)

where,
d: the fault distance from the sending end,
L: the transmission line length, and
v: the propagation speed of the traveling wave.

The arrival times of the traveling waves are recorded using d1 of the DWT decomposition of the
modal signals at the sending and receiving ends. The modal signal should be calculated for
both the receiving and the sending ends as shown in Fig. 12. The detection criterion used to detect the
fault is used here to record the arrival time of the traveling waves at both ends (t
1
and t
2
). Table II
shows the actual and calculated distances from end S for the cases shown in figs. 3-8. From Table II, it
is clear that the fault location method gives reliable results with relatively low error.

4. CONCLUSION

A protection algorithm for protection of Downed conductors in series-compensated transmission
lines is proposed in this paper. The algorithm uses the DWT to detect and classify the fault while using
the DWT together with the traveling waves to locate the fault. In this paper, the fault can be detected
and classified in 1 ms. The algorithm is tested for different types and conditions of faults. The
algorithm succeeded in all types of faults. This algorithm is reliable in detecting the downed
conductor location using double-ended traveling waves algorithm with the aid of DWT. The faults are
located with relatively low error (1 % maximum error for 200 km line). The algorithm is robust and
can discriminate between faults and switching operations.

6


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G1 G2
F1
1
t
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t
S R
MOV
fault
inception time



Fig. 11 Fault generated traveling waves.



Fig. 12. An a-g fault 130 km from end S (a)
sending end modal signal (b) receiving end modal
signal (c) d1 of DWT decomposition of sending
end modal signal (d) d1 of DWT decomposition of
receiving end modal signal.

Table II: Fault distance Calculation
Fault type
Fault distance from
end S (km)
Fault
impedance
()
t1-t2 (sec)
Calculated distance
from end S (km)
Percentage
Error
c-g 80 200 0.00013 85.5 0.625
a-g 195 100 -0.00064 196 0.513
b-g 130 120 -0.0002 130 0
bc-g 180 100 -0.00053 197.5 0.2778
ab 110 0.1 -0.00007 110.5 0.4545
abc 95 0.1 0.00004 94 1.05

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