INTRODUCTION

TO THE
R E LA T I V 1ST I C
STRING THEORY
B. M. Barbashov
V. V. Nesterenko
JOint Institute for Nuclear Research
Oubna, USSR
Translator
T. Yu. Dumbrajs
'
lh World Scientific
,,.,, Singapore New Jersey London Hong Kong
Published by
World Scientific Publi shing Co. Pte. Ltd.
POBox J 28, Farrer Road, Singapore 9 128
USA office: 687 Hartwell Street, Teaneck, NJ 07666
UK office: 73 Lynton Mead, Totteridge, London N20 80H
INTRODUCTION TO THE RELATIVISTIC STRING THEORY
Copyright 1990 by World Scientifi c Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof. may not be reproduced
ill any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photo-
copying, recording or any information storage and retrieval system now
known or to be invented, without wriT/en permission from the Publisher.
ISBN 9971-50-687-4
Printed in Singapore by Utopia Press.
In memory of
D. 1. Blokhintsev
PREFACE
Modern ideas of the structure of hadrons and mechanism of their inter-
actions led to the study of dynamics of a one-dimensional extended object,
a relativistic string. The relativistic string model provides a clear picture
of the quark confinement in hadrons that probably follows from quantum
chromodynamics. Besides, the relativistic string is applied to interpret the
dual-resonance model in hadron physics, the theory of monopoles, nonlin-
ear Born-Infeld models, some problems of cosmology (cosmic strings). At
present, supersymmetric extensions of the string model are being considered
as extremely strong candidates for the role of unifying all the fundamental
interactions including gravitation.
First studies of the relativistic string dynamics performed by
N. A. Chernikov and B. M. Barbashov at the Laboratory of Theoretical
Physics of the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, Dubna, as early as
in 1965 were highly approved by our tutor Dmitrii Ivanovich Blokhintsev
who took a lively interest in all nonstandard approaches to the physics of
micro world or microcosm and was himself active in these investigations.
Our book is an introduction to the relativistic string theory. It gives no
full account of the vast information presently available on the subject; our
consideration is limited to the classical dynamics and first-quantized theory
of string models; and the field theory of strings is beyond the scope of our
book. The current status of the latter problem is reviewed in the book: M.
B. Green, J. H. Schwarz, and E. Witten, Superstring Theory (Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, 1987)' Vols. 1 and 2.
Contents of this book was guided undoubtedly by our scientific inter-
ests. Apart from the most important, in our opinion, facts of the relativistic
vii
viii Preface
string theory, in this book we expound our original studies, in particular,
those including the theory of an open bosonic string in external electro-
magnetic field, investigation of the string in the de Sitter space-time, the
Cartan method of describing the classical dynamics of the string, and the
model of a relativistic string loaded with point masses. Part of the results
was obtained in collaboration with A. M. Chervyakov, A. L. Koshkarov,
and O. M. Fedorenkoj we express our deepest gratitute to them.
Dubna
December, 1988
B. M. Barbashov
V. V. Nesterenko
CONTENTS
Preface
Chapter 1
Action Functional for a Relativistic String and
Lagrangian Formalism
1. Relativistic String in Elementary Particle Physics
2. Action for the Relativistic String
3. The Hamilton Principle and Equations of Motion
4. Solution of the Equations of Motion with Fourier
Series. Covariant Formalism
5. Noncovariant Lagrangian Formalism
6. Solution of the Cauchy Problem for Equations of Motion
for the Relativistic String in the Lagrange Formalism
7. Examples of Motions of the Relativistic String
Chapter 2
Hamiltonian Formalism and Quantization
8. Constraints and Equations of Motion in Phase Space
9. Hamiltonian Theory of the Relativistic String with
Gauge Conditions. Noncovariant Quantization
10. Covariant Hamiltonian Formalism and Covariant
Quantization. BRST Formalism
ix
Vll
1
1
5
13
20
25
29
36
41
41
47
59
x Content.
11. The Rohrlich Quantization of the Relativistic String 64
Chapter S
String with Masses at Ends. Charged String 69
12. Theory of a Limited Class of Motions of a Relativistic
String with Masses at Ends 69
13. Some Exact Solutions for the String with Massive Ends 77
14. Infinite Relativistic String with a Point-like Mass 84
15. Inter-quark Potential in the String Model 87
16. Open Strings in a Background Electromagnetic Field
17. The Open String with a Net Charge in an External
Electromagnetic Field
Chapter 4
96
108
Geometrical Approach in the Relativistic String Theory 121
18. Mathematical Introduction 121
19. Minimal Surfaces 128
20. Nonlinear Equations in the Geometrical Theory
of the String and their General Solutions 133
21. Investigation of Soliton Solutions to the Liouville
Equation. Semi-classical Quantization
22. Parametrization t = T in the String Theory
23. Gauge Freedom in the Moving Frame on the String
World Surface
24. Relativistic String in the de Sitter Space-time
25. Generalization of the Relativistic String Model
in the Geometrical Approach
140
146
149
157
166
Content8
Chapter 5
Connection of the Relativistic String with Field Models.
Generalization of the String Approach to the Elementary
Particle Physics
26. String-like Solutions in the Superconductivity
Theory. Cosmic Strings
27. Strings in the Dirac Monopole Theory
28. Born-Infeld Nonlinear Models and Relativistic String
29. Relativistic String and Nonlinear Two-dimensional
Sigma-model
30. Polyakov's String Theory
31. Spinning String and Superstring
32. Some Generalizations of the String Model. Relativistic
Membranes and p-branes, Null-strings, Rigid String
33. Baryon String Model
34. Relativistic Strings in Quantum Chromodynamics
Conclusion
Appendices
Appendix A. Dual Models
Appendix B. The Noether Identities in the String Theory
References
Subject Index
XI
173
173
178
182
184
188
195
208
216
220
223
225
225
229
233
245
Chapter 1
ACTION FUNCTIONAL FOR A RELATIVISTIC STRING
AND LAGRANGIAN FORMALISM
1. Relativistic String in Elementary Particle Physics
Experimental data on high-energy interaction of elementary particles
produced by present-day accelerators give still more convincing evidence
in favor of the description of hadron physics by quantum chromodynamics
(QCD).1-3 Fundamental objects of that theory are spin or fields associated
with quarks that interact with non-Abelian gauge fields of massless vector
gluons. Hadrons are regarded as bound states of the quarks. The QCD is
capable of explaining the basic peculiarity in the quark behavior, i.e., that
they do not interact with each other at short distances (the asymptotic
freedom). However, whether the quark can exist in a free state or not is
still an open problem in QCD.
It may happen that at a distance between quarks as small as the hadron
size, favored from the energy standpoint are those configurations of gluon
fields that do not fill the whole space (as in electrodynamics) but rather
concentrate along the lines connecting quarks.
4
-
7
The energy of two quarks
coupled by a gluon-field tube is proportional to the distance between the
two quarks. The forces of attraction between quarks thus do not decrease
as the distance increases; they instead remain constant. Therefore, no
external agent of any sort can break that coupling and produce a free
quark. This line of reasoning in the modern quantum chromodynamics is
postulated as a hypothesis of quark confinement. An important evidence
for this hypothesis, besides qualitative arguments in the framework of QCD,
is the absence of experimental indications of the existence of free quarks.
1
2 Introduction to the Relatilli,tic String Theo'1l
The asymptotic freedom and quark-confinement hypothesis used in the
framework of QeD allow us to describe the processes with large transverse
momenta, production of lepton pairs, jet processes in e+ e- -annihilation,
i.e., those reactions in which details of formation of final states out of quarks
and gluons are inessential. The description of the hadron-mass spectrum
and exclusive processes is beyond the scope of the QCD present-day for-
malism.
An example of one-dimensional string configurations of fields met in
physics previously is magnetic vortices in the superconductivity theory.8,9
At a strength of the external magnetic field larger than a certain critical
value, this field in the form of thin bunches of magnetic-field lines start
penetrating into a superconductor of second order. It should be noted that
in chromodynamics string-like solutions have not been obtained, however,
such solutions have been derived in a number of more simple models.
IO
-
IS
The gluon-field configurations localized along a line are initiated by the
vacuum fields in QCD creating an external pressure on the gluon tube.
16
The transverse dimensions of the tube (its radius) are determined by equal-
ity of the external pressure of vacuum fields and that of the chromoelectric
field inside the tube. Consider a piece of a tube like that in Fig. 1. It is usu-
ally assumed that the vacuum fields in QCD have a negative energy density
(- B); and this assumption is used to construct the quark-bag models.
17
The radius of the gluon-field tube in a string model of hadrons can be found
by minimizing the energy per unit length of the tube e,
( 1.1)
The first term is the classical energy of the gluon field inside the tube; for
simplicity, it is considered homogeneous. The second term is the energy
opposite in sign to that of the vacuum fields expelled by the gluon-field
tu be. The strength of the chromoelectric field I Ea I is given by the field
flux <I> generated by a quark-antiquark pair
(1.2)
The transverse dimensions of the tube are determined from the require-
ment for the energy per unit length to be a minimum, Be / B R = O. As a
result,
Ro = > / 2 ~ B))1/4 . ( 1.3)
Action FUnctional for a Relatiui,tic Strit!9 . .. 3
Fig. 1. The chromoelectric flux tube with radius R in the QeD vacuum, the energy
density of which is negative and equals -B.
The configuration of the gluon tube is stable because
(1.4)
The above consideration is purely classical. There does not, of course,
exist a complete quantum theory of that phenomenon. One-loop calcula-
tions
18
show that this picture in outline is preserved at a quantum level,
as well. If the flux of the chromoelectric field inside the gluon tube is small
compared to the critical value, the quantum fluctuations are also small and
they only reduce the energy density per unit length of the gluon tube .
Configurations of gluon fields localized along the lines connecting quarks
are simulated by relativistic strings with point masses at the ends. The rel-
ativistic string model is much simpler than a highly complicated quantum
field theory, such as chromodynamics, and at the same time it reproduces
basic predictions of the field approach.
19
, 2o Therefore the relativistic string
may be used as a comparatively simple model of a composite hadron that
is consistent with chromodynamics. Specifically, a relativistic string con-
necting two massive particles provides a potential between them linearly
growing with distance.
The relativistic-string action should apparently be an approximation to
the action of a non-Abelian gluon field. However, even having on hand the
only requirement of relativistic invariance and using the analogy with the
action of a point-like particle, we can immediately write the string action
almost unambiguously. The action of a relativistic string is adopted to be
4 Introduction to the Relativiltic String Theortl
proportional to the area of the world surface swept out by the string as it
is moving in the Minkowski space.
It should be noted that the relativistic string model was first developed
not in the framework of quantum chromodynamics, but in other branches
of theoretical physics: electrodynamics with the Dirac magnetic charges,21
nonlinear field models of the Born-Infeld type,22 dual-resonance models of
hadrons,23-30 and bag models.
31
How the relativistic string connects with
the Dirac monopoles and Born-Infeld fields will be discussed in Secs. 27
and 28; here, we shall briefly examine the relativistic string as a dynamical
basis of dual-resonance models.
Dual-resonance models (see Appendix A) are the top of the so-called S-
matrix approach to hadron physics. In this approach, an attempt is made to
construct the hadronic scattering amplitude directly on the basis of general
principles, such as causality, relativistic invariance, unitarity, and analytic-
ity, without using the interaction Lagrangian and dynamic equations. As
is known, that program is not yet fully realized. Physically, the most in-
teresting hadron amplitudes have been constructed in the dual-resonance
models.2
4
-
28
Besides the requirements listed above, these hadron ampli-
tudes should also obey the duality principle. The concept of duality was
essentially based on the finite-energy sum rules.32.33 These rules connect
the low-energy resonances with the parameters of the asymptotic behavior
of the scattering amplitude.
The dual approach assumes that the hadron spectrum in the tree-
approximation is equidistant and consists of an infinite number of reso-
nances with zero width. The spectrum is generated by an infinite discrete
set of creation and annihilation oscillator operators, a;t,.., an,..,
n = 1,2,3, ... , each being a Lorentz vector.34 A set of operators like these
can be obtained by quantizing a finite one-dimensional relativistic object (a
string, filament). A direct generalization of an ordinary linear string to the
relativistic case is not suitable for the dual models as the string quadratic
Lagrangian does not yield constraints on the state vectors which could be
identified with the Virasoro conditions in dual models. Therefore, for the
relativistic string a nonlinear Lagrangian has been proposed.
35
-
38
The relativistic string is worth attention, irrespective of the elementary
particle physics, as a simplest extended relativistic object.39
The theoreticians are presently being attracted to superstring thea-
ries
4o
-
u
as extremely strong candidates for the role of unifying all the
fundamental interactions, including gravitation.
Action FUnctional/or a Relatiw6tic String . .. 5
Superstrings are one-dimensional relativistic entities with a length on
the order of the Planck dimension (10-
33
cm). In addition to their linear
dimensions, superstrings are characterized by spin (fermionic) degrees of
freedom, which are distributed along the strings. The number of physical
fermionic degrees of freedom is precisely equal to the number of bosonic
degrees of freedom, so that the overall theory has supersymmetry.
A systematic quantum theory of superstrings is formulated in a ten-
dimensional Minkowski space-time, M
10
. For several reasons, for which the
detailed mechanisms are not yet completely clear, six of the dimensions
undergo a compactification to a Planck scale: M
10
-+ M4 X K6. An ex-
tremely attractive idea here is that the theory of interacting superstrings
will make it possible to choose a compact manifold K6 in an essentially
unambiguous way and that the topological properties of this manifold will
determine the basic features of the low-energy dynamics of superstrings,
which describes today's physics of elementary particles. In the low-energy
limit (E < 10
19
GeV), the superstring theories reduce to the supergravity
and to the Yang-Mills supersymmetric theory.
Superstring theory thus organically incorporates supersymmetry,
Kaluza and Klein's idea regarding the multidimensionality of our space-
time world, and also the idea of nonlocality of the entities which are the
mediators of the fundamental interactions. Important properties of super-
string theories are the absence of anomalies, i.e., a breaking at the quan-
tum level of classical symmetries in the theory (gauge symmetry, Lorentz
invariance etc.) and may be the possibility of eliminating divergences in the
theory. Remarkably, superstring theories leave us essentially no latitude in
choosing a fundamental gauge group. There are only two possibilities: the
SO(32) group and the Es X Es group.
2. Action for the Relativistic String
A relativistic string model can be constructed by generalizing the rela-
tivistic dynamics of a massive point to a one-dimensional object. At present,
it seems strange why such a generalization has not been made immediately
upon the creation of special relativity; more so as the problem of the rela-
tivistic description of extended bodies has been the subject of investigations
from the very creation of that theory till the present time.
6 Introduction to the Relativiltic String Theo'1l
As is known, the relativistic dynamics of a point with mass m and
coordinates r(t) is given by the action
(2.1)
where v(t) = dr(t)jdt and c is the light velocity. Let us take a one-
dimensional extended object which will be called the relativistic string.
Its position in space at time t is given by a three-dimensional vector r(t, cr),
cr1 ::; cr ::; cr2. The parameter cr "numbers" points of the string. Further,
suppose that along the string a mass is uniformly distributed with a density
per unit length Po and that the internal forces between neighboring points
are such that they do not contribute to the action (for instance, they do
not include the elasticity forces).a Then the action of the relativistic string
may be obtained by integrating (2.1) along the whole string
Sstr = -poc
2
t'dt r
'
dIV1-v'ijc2 ,
ltl 10
(2.2)
where v.l (t, cr) is a normal component of the velocity vector of the string
at point cr,
v.l (t cr) = ar(t, cr) _ k (ar . ar)
, at at acr '
(2.3)
k is a tangent vector to the string at point cr
k = (arjacr)/(arjacr)2 ,
(2.4)
and dl is a differential element of the string length,
dl = ...j(arjacr)2 dcr .
(2.5)
Substituting (2.5) into (2.2) we get
(2.6)
The action of the string contains only the normal components of the
velocity of the string points because the intrinsic dynamics of the string is
not considered.
aOne may equally well consider the energy distributed along the string with a linear
density poc
2
. without specifying its nature.
Action FUnctional for a Relatiui6tic String .. 7
A drawback of formula (2.6), as well as (2.1)' is the absence of explicit
relativistic covariance. Recall how this is remedied for a point particle.
The time t in (2.1) will be considered a function of a certain parameter
r, then also the coordinates of the point will be a function of the same
parameter, r(t) = r(t(r)) = x(r). The Lorentz vector xl.&(r) = {ct(r),x(r)}
defines the trajectory of a massive point in Minkowski space-time. Upon
that substitution, formula (2.1) assumes the form
(2.7)
where xl.& = dxl.&(r)/dr It = 0 1 2 3 x
2
= c
2
i2 - x
2
, r "" .
The action of a point particle (2.7) has a clear geometrical interpreta-
tion: it is proportional to the length of the particle world-trajectory.
Let us now produce analogous substitution in the action of the string.
We shall consider the time t in that formula to be a function of some new
parameter r and the old parameter a. As a result, the string coordinates
also become functions of these parameters, r(t, a) = r(t(r, a), a) = x(t, a).
We may introduce the Lorentz vector xl.& (r, a) = {ct( r, a), x( r, a)} that
defines four-dimensional coordinates of the string in space-time. Further,
we shall make the change of integration variables in formula (2.2)
t = t(r, a), a -+ a ,
a(t, a) .
dtda = a(r, a) drda = tdrda ,
(2.8)
dr/dt = x/i, ar/aa = x' - (t' /i)x .
Here we used the following abbreviations for partial derivatives with respect
to the parameters r and a:
j(r,a) = af(r,a)/ar,!'(r,a) = af(r,a)/aa. (2.9)
Upon substituting (2.3)' (2.4) and (2.8) into (2.2)' the action of the string
takes the relativistic-invariant form
(2.10)
where I = PoC. The functions rda), i = 1,2 define the integration range in
the new variables rand a.
8 Introduction to the Relativinic String Theo'1l
Equation (2.10) has a clear geometrical interpretation: up to the factor
( -1)' it is a functional of the area of the world surface of the string de-
fined in a parametric form XI.l(T, 0'). Really, let, in the Euclidean space of
dimensionality larger than two, a surface x = X(T, 0') be given. The area of
a parallelogram formed by intersection of infinitesimally distant coordinate
lines on that surface, 0' = 0'0, 0' = 0'0 + dO' and T = TO, T = TO + dT, is
determined by the formula
dEl = !x!!x'!sina(T,O')dTdO',
where a( T, 0') is the angle between two tangent vectors x and x' at the point
(TO, 0'0)' By means of elementary transformations, the expression for dEl
reduces to the form
= !x!!x'!
Then it is easy to write the area of the surface in the Euclidean space given
parametrically, xl.l (T, 0'). The parameters T and 0' vary in a two-dimensional
region 0 in the plane T,O'. The area El of that surface is defined by the
integral
El = !! dTdO'v
x2x
'2 - (Xx')2
o
which is straightforwardly generalized to surfaces in the pseudo-Euclidean
space given parametrically, X 1.1 ( T, 0'), {T, 0' E O}
E = !! dTdO'V!:i:
2
x'2 - (xx'P!
o
Thus, the action of the relativistic string (2.10) equals the area of its
world surface XI.l(T, O') in the Minkowski space times the constant (- 1)'
Owing to the geometrical nature of the string action, we should in (2.10)
integrate over a certain two-dimensional region 0 in the plane T, O'
Sstr = -1 !! dE ,
o
(2.11)
Action FUnctional/or a Relatilliltic String . .. 9
where
It is natural to assume that (") is a part of the plane r, u bounded
with a sequence of curves T
1
,C
2
, T
2
,C
1
(Fig. 2a) . In this case the invari-
ance of the action (2.11) under arbitrary transformations of the parameters
rand u
r -+ T = h(r,u), u -+ (j = h(r,u) (2. 12)
is obvious. A particular form of the region (") is inessential, however, the
equations are conveniently solved in a rectangular region (") (Fig. 2b). In
some cases, it is first appropriate to consider the region (") as a curvilinear
trapezoid and to choose the gauge conditions on the string dynamical vari-
ables so that they be consistent with the requirement o-dr) = 0, i = 1,2.
A typical example is the problem of motion of a relativistic string with
charges at the ends in an external electromagnetic field (see Sec. 16).
In deriving formulae (2.10) and (2.11), it has been assumed that the
normal component of the velocity of string points v.1 (t, u) is smaller than
the light velocity c = 1
IV.1I < 1 .
(2.13)
Upon the change of variables (2.8)' this condition obviously turns into the
requirement for the expression under the radical sign in (2.10) being positive
(2.14)
This inequality means that if the top of the light cone is located on the
string world surface, the plane tangent to that surface and passing through
the top of the cone crosses it along two straight lines, i.e. , the string world
surface is time-like. In fact, the direction of the lines of intersection of the
tangent plane with the light cone is given by the isotropic Lorentz vector
nl', a linear combination of the vectors tangent to the world surface xl' and
X'I' : nl' = axl' + bX'I', where a and b are certain functions of the parameters
rand u. The equation
(2.15)
gives two values for the ratio b/a if the condition (2.14) is fulfilled.
That disposition of the planes tangent to the world surface with respect
to the light cone signifies that any of those planes contains two Lorentz
10
7
Introduction to the Relatiui8tic String TMo'1/
T
T
I
C
I
T
2
T
I
C
2
Fig. 2. Different shapes of the region 0 of variation of parameters l' and u in the action
functional of the relativistic string.
vectors, a time-like and a space-like vector. Consequently, at every point of
the world surface there are two tangent vectors, a time-like and a space-like
vector. We will assume that the time-like direction of the world surface is
given by the vector 2;1'{1', u), i.e., in our metric
(2.16)
Physically, this implies that the total velocity of the string points is smaller
than the light velocity, which immediately follows also from formula (2.8)
(
ar) 2 = X. 2 < 1 when
at t
2
2;2 = i2 - X2 > 0 .
(2.17)
The second basis vector on the plane tangent to the string world surface
is X'I' = a xl' / au. From the above consideration, it follows that it is a space-
like vector
(2.18)
Action FUnctional/or a &latilli.tic String . . 11
This means that it is always possible to choose a reference frame in which at
rest will be two infinitesimally distant points of the string with coordinates
a and a + daj the parameter r being considered constant.
Thus, from conditions (2. 13) or (2.14)' it follows that the intrinsic metric
on the string world surface should be of a hyperbolic type. The metric
defines the squared interval between two extremely close points on the
string world surface xl-'(r, a):
where
ds
2
= (xl-'dr + x'I-'da)2 = x
2
dr2 + 2xx'drda + x,2da
2
= L 9,;(u)du'dt/,
,,;=0,1
o 1 2 . , ,2
U = r, u = a, 900 = x ,901 = 910 = xx ,911 = X
Now the conditions (2.14)' (2.16) and (2.18) are written in the form
9 = det 119,;11 < 0,900> 0,911 < o.
(2.19)
(2.20)
(2.21)
Note is to be made that conditions (2.16) and (2.18) are not reparametriza-
tion-invariant, i.e., they may hold valid only in a certain fixed coordinate
system rand a . In other coordinates r, a, these conditions get generally
broken. On the contrary, the condition (2.14) implying that the world
surface of the string is time-like is invariant under arbitrary changes of the
parameters r, a (2.12) because the determinant of the metric tensor 9 is
multiplied by the squared Jacobian a(r,a)/a(r,a) .
Using the definition of the intrinsic metric on the string world surface
(2.19) and (2.20)' we may write the action (2.11) as follows:
Sstr = -1 II H drda.
o
(2.22)
The relativistic-string action (2.22) is called the Nambu-Goto action.
However, in elementary particle physics, it was first considered in Ref. 22
as applied to the study of nonlinear quantum-field Born-Infeld models (see
Sec. 28) .
The derivation proposed here for the action functional of the relativis-
tic string (2.22) cannot, of course, be considered rigorous. In fact, we have
12 Introduction to the Relatiui6tic String Theo'1l
disregarded the internal dynamics of the string, i.e., interaction of the neigh-
boring points with each other. That derivation should rather be thought of
as an intuitive physical suggestion as to why the action of the relativistic
string is to be taken in the form (2.22).
A dimension parameter of the relativistic-string theory is the constant,
we have defined as a linear density of the mass distributed along the string,
Po, times the velocity of light
,= poe
and thus it is of dimension MT-1.
Sometimes, the constant, is treated as a characteristic of the string ten-
sion. That interpretation is based on the fact that the constant, multiplied
by the light velocity e gives a constant with the dimensionality of strength
or tension. Particular examples of the motion of a relativistic string to be
discussed in Sec. 7 show that the object could execute a periodic oscillatory
motion, thus manifesting the properties of elasticity; despite this, we have
not assumed the forces of elasticity between the string adjacent points in
deriving formula (2.22).
The constant, can be estimated by using the connection of the rela-
tivistic string with dual-resonance models, a basic parameter of which is
the universal slope of Regge trajectories ci and ,-1 = 27ra'. If a' is taken
to equal 1 Ge y-2, the tension of the relativistic string will be 16 ton.
The relativistic-string action (2.22) is straightforwardly generalized to
a D-dimensional space-time with the metric signature (+ - - ... ) if the
string coordinates xl"(r, cr) in formulae (2.19)-(2.21) are assumed to be a
D-dimensional Lorentz vector J.1. = 0, 1, ... ,D - 1.
The limit of a point particle in the string theory Let us demon-
strate how the action of a relativistic string (2.22) reduces to the action of
a point particle (2.7) when the length of the string tends to zero. To begin
with, let us represent the constant, in formula (2.22) as
, = moe/1o ,
where mo and 10 are constants of the dimension of mass and length, respec-
tively. Next, we shall separate the integration over cr so as to obtain the
Action FUnctional for a Relatilli,tic String
string length
(XX')2
-'-2- - x,2
X
13
(2.23)
where L(r) = - x,2 is the usual three-dimensional length
of the string written in a covariant form,36 and u (r) is a certain point in
the range [udr),u2(r)],r1 r r2. If we now assume that L(r) -+ 0,
respectively, 10 -+ 0, and (L(r)/lo) -+ a < +00, formula (2.23) reduces to
the action of a point relativistic particle with mass amo.
s. The Hamilton Principle and Equations of Motion
Equations of motion for a relativistic string can be derived from the
variational principle by varying the functional
(3.1)
that makes sense for any sign of g. However, among the solutions to the
Euler equations, we take only those which describe the time-like surfaces,
i.e., we supplement the equations of motion with the condition 9 < O. It
becomes necessary to make this condition consistent with the equations
of motion. The region {1 in formula (3.1) is enclosed by a sequence of the
curves T
1
, C
2
, T
2
, C
1
as is shown in Fig. 2a. Let the initial and final position
of the string be given:
Under the condition
ox"'(r,u) IT; = 0, i=1,2, (3.3)
we require the variation 0 S to vanish
oS = drdu -- ox'" + -- ox'''' = 0
If
(
ae. ae )
ax'" ax'''' '
(3.4)
o
14 Introduction to tIu: Relativi,tic Stnng TheOrJI
where t. = --yylf9f. Then we make use of the Stokes (or Green) formula
II dTdu - !:) = f (PdT + Qdu) .
(3.5)
o ao
Putting in (3.5)
(3.6)
and considering that
, a
Ox'" = - ox'"
au '
(3.7)
we transform formula (3.4) to the form
oS = -J!dTdU + ox'"
aT ax'" au ax''''
o
f
(
at. at.)
+ ox'" -.- du - -- dT = 0 .
ax'" ax''''
(3.8)
ao
The variations of the string coordinates ox'" are arbitrary throughout the
whole region fl and on the curves C
1
and C
2
, whereas on the curves Tl
and T
2
, they equal zero. As a result from (3.8), we obtain the equations of
motion
L,..(ax, a
2
x) == :T (:x:) + = 0,
T, U E fl, /-' = 0,1, .. . , D - 1
and the boundary conditions
I
ox'" -.- du - --dT = 0 .
(
at. at.)
ax'" ax'"
If Ui (T), i = 1,2 are the functions defining the curves C
i
, i
boundary conditions (3.10) may be written as
(3.9)
(3.10)
1,2, the
at. . at.
ax,.ui-ax'''=O' T,uECi , i=1,2,/-,=0,1, ... ,D-1. (3.11)
Action FUnctional lor a Relatiuimc String . .. 15
For the region fl as a rectangle (Fig. 2b)' the boundary conditions (3.11)
simplify to
at.
1r,..(r,u)lo' =--a' 10. =0, i=1,2 .
. x""
(3. 12)
In accordance with the second Noether theorem, the invariance of the
action of the relativistic string (3. 1) under arbitrary transformations of
the parameters rand u leads to the linear dependence between the Euler
equations (3.9). As is shown in Appendix B, the projections of left-hand
sides of Eq. (3.9) onto x'" and x'''' equal zero:
(3.13)
These identities hold true not only for the Nambu-Goto Lagrangian (3.1)'
but also for any Lagrangian t. dependent on the set of fields x'" (r, u) and
their first derivatives for which the action is invariant under arbitrary trans-
formations of the coordinates T and u.
Thus, the system (3.9) consists of (D - 2), instead of D, independent
equations for the string coordinates. As a result, the general solution to
Eq. (3.9) contains two arbitrary functions of the parameters T and u. As
a matter of fact, those equations are covariant (retain their form) when
passing to new coordinates with two arbitrary functions
T = h(1',u) , u = h(1',u) . (3.14)
Therefore, if we have a solution to the system (3.9)' by performing the
change (3.14) in it, we again obtain a solution to the system (3.9) containing
two arbitrary functions of two variables.
That functional arbitrariness allows us to impose two conditions on the
solutions of the system (3.9) . As a rule, these conditions are taken in the
following form:
x
2
+ x,2 = 0 , xx' = 0 ,
(3.15)
or, similarly,
(x x')2 = 0 .
(3. 16)
Geometrically, the conditions (3.15) mean that on the string world sur-
face an isometric or a conformal system of curvilinear coordinates T and u
is chosen.
45
In the relativistic string theory, these conditions are called the
orthonormal gauge.
16 Introduction to the Relativiltic String Theo'1l
The internal metric on the string world surface (2.19)' when the condi-
tions (3.15) hold valid, assumes the form
(3.17)
where ~ r , a ) = goo(r,a) = -gll(r,a), gOl(r,a) = glO(r,a) = o.
The quadratic form (2.19) can always be reduced to a conformal form
(3.17) with the change of variables (2.12) defined by solving the system of
two first-order partial differential equations (the Beltrami equations
60
)
aifJ aifJ au
l
gOl au
o
- goo au
l
+..;=g au
o
= 0,
au
l
au
l
aifJ
gOl au
o
- goo au
l
+..;=g au
o
= 0 .
We do not consider here the string world surfaces with nontrivial topol-
ogy where the unique conformal coordinates r, a cannot be introduced for
topological reasons.
We will write the equations of motion of a relativistic string (3.9) with
C = -"fViYT
J.l. = 0, 1, ... , D - 1 . (3.18)
In the orthonormal gauge (3.15), the equations (3.18) are reduced to the
d' Alembert equation for the string coordinates
x" - x"" = 0, J.l. = 0, 1, . . . , D - 1 , (3.19)
and the boundary conditions (3.11) transform to
x'''+x''u(r) =0, r,aEG., i=1,2, J.l.=0,1, ... ,D-1. (3.20)
Equations (3.19) and (3.20) should be supplemented with the conditions
made in deriving them from the action (3.1):
i) the orthonormal gauge conditions
x
2
+ x,2 = 0, xx' = 0 ,
(3.21)
Action JUnctional/or II Relatilliltic String . . 17
ii) the condition that the string world surface (2.14) be time-like,
(3.22)
iii) the condition on the vectors tangent to the string world surface,
:i;2 = goo > 0 , x,2 = gIl < 0 . (3.23)
It is obvious that condition (3.22) follows from (3.21) and (3.22). Therefore
only two conditions (3.21) and (3.23) must be fulfilled. In further study
of the Cauchy problem in the relativistic string theory, we shall show that
it suffices to impose the conditions (3.21) and (3.23) at an initial instant
l' = 1'0 and they will be valid at all subsequent moments l' > 1'0 ' It is just
in this sense that we understand the consistency of conditions (3.21)-(3.23)
with the equations of motion.
From the boundary conditions (3.20) in the isometric coordinate system
(3.21), we get
(3.24)
Consequently, the ends of a string are moving with the light velocity, and on
the trajectories of the ends the string world surface turns out to be isotropic
or light-like with g = O.b This produces certain formal difficulties in vary-
ing the action (3.1) since both the Euler equations (3.18) and boundary
conditions (3.11) contain negative powers of g.46 However, these difficulties
can be avoided if all the terms in (3.18) and (3.11) with negative powers of
g are initially considered off the world trajectories of the string ends and
auxiliary conditions (3.15) are used here, and the limit {r, u} -+ C .. , i = 1,2
is then taken.
47
Variation of the functions u..(r), i = 1,2 in the string action describ-
ing the motion of its ends on the plane (1', u) (see Fig. 2c) leads to the
requirement
.c = 0, 1', U E C .. , i = 1,2 . (3.25)
But this equality, as mentioned above, is a result of the boundary conditions
(3.12) or (3.20).
bThe condition g = 0 at the string ends follows from (3.12) without the use of the
orthonormal coordinate system (3.21). Actually, the identities 1rZ' =-"IH, ".%=0 and
""+"1'%'=0 are easily verified. Therefore, when (3.12) holds, g = 0 and %'=0 (see, also
O. G. Boulware and E. T . Newman, Phil', Lett. B17'4 (1986) 378).
18 Introduction to the Relativi8tic String Theorll
Consideration of the time-like world surfaces with 9 < 0 has led to the
boundary value problem (3.19)-(3.21) of a hyperbolic type, which allows a
correct formulation of the Cauchy problem for the given equations.
A variational problem with the action (3.1) is similar to the classical
Plateau problem in geometry (lee Chap. 4). In the Plateau problem con-
sidered in the Euclidean space, one looks for a surface spanned over a given
contour and having the smallest area. The classical Plateau problem is re-
duced to elliptic equations for which only the boundary value problem may
be formulated correctly. The surfaces in the Euclidean, pseudo-Euclidean,
or Riemannian space for which the first variation of the area functional
vanishes are called minimal (though they are only extremal surfaces). It
is obvious that the minimal surfaces are not necessarily of a minimal area.
This statement requires the investigation of second and higher-order varia-
tions of the area.
Up till now, we have only considered a free relativistic string of finite
size that is described by the equations of motion (3.9) and boundary con-
ditions (3.11). Sometimes the boundary conditions (3.11) are rejected, and
an infinite relativistic string is considered, the dynamics of which is only
determined by the equations of motion (3.9)' or in the orthonormal gauge,
by Eqs. (3.19) and (3.21) . The region n of variation of the parameters l'
and a is then taken as an infinite strip 1'1 < l' < 1'2, - 00 < a < +00. For a
consistent derivation of a model like that from the variational principle, it
is necessary to impose on solutions to Eq. (3.9) such conditions in the limit
a --+ oo that make integrals in (3.10) identically zero.
The semi-infinite string is defined only by one boundary condition
in (3.11) .
To determine the action of a closed relativistic string, the string action
functional (3.1) is to be complemented with the condition
(3.26)
where a,(1'),i = 1,2 are functions defining the curves C"i = 1,2 in Fig. 2.
When the action for a closed string is varied, it is to be assumed that
the variations 0 xl-' (1', a) on the boundaries C 1 and C
2
are equal to each
other
(3.27)
Equations of motion for a closed string will obviously be the same as for
an open string, with only the boundary conditions being changed. For an
Action FUnctional/or a RelatitJi.tic String . .. 19
arbitrary region 0, the boundary conditions for a closed string following
from (3.10) are rather complicated. For a rectangular region 0 (see Fig. 2b),
we obtain from (3.10) with (3.27)
at, at,
ax'''' 1"':"'1 = ax'''' I.,.:.,.,
(3.28)
These boundary conditions in the orthonormal gauge (3.21) are rewritten
as
(3.29)
Thus, a closed string is described by the equations of motion (3.9) (or
(3.19), (3.21)) and boundary conditions (3.26)' (3.29).
Now consider the consequences of invariance of the relativistic string
action (3.1) under the Poincare transformations
(3.30)
Under these transformations of the string coordinates, the variation of the
action (3.8) equals zero. Substituting into (3.8) the solution ofthe equations
of motion (3.9) obeying the boundary conditions (3.10)' we get
ox'" - da- -- dr
1
(
at, at,)
T1+T, ox'" ax'",
(3.31)
with Ox'" defined by (3.30). Expressions (3.30) and (3.31) yield the following
conservation laws for a string:
the total momentum
(3.32)
and the angular momentum
1
[
X (!!:. da - !!:.... dr) - x (!!:. da - !!:.... dr)]
,.. ax
v
ax'v vax'" ax''''
T1
= 1 [x (!!:. da - dr) - x (!!:. da - !!:.... dr)]
,.. a . v a 'v va'" a ''''
T, X X X X
(3.33)
Integration of both these formulae over the curves Tl and T2 proceeds along
the same direction (see Fig. 2), for instance, towards growing a.
20 Introduction to the Relatilli.tic String Theory
If the curves Tl and T2 are given by the equations
(3.34)
the conservation laws for the total momentum (3.32) and angular momen-
tum (3.33) are simplified to
P,.. = _ f'" d U - a a ~ . . = const.,
l"l x
(3.35)
['" (ae ae)
M,..v = - l"l du x,.. ax
V
- Xv ax'" = const.
(3.36)
In the orthonormal gauge (3.21), formulae (3.35) and (3.36) are rewritten
as
1
'"
P,.. = , dux,.. (1', u) ,
"1
1
'"
M,..v =, du(x,..x
v
- xvx,..) .
"1
(3.37)
Note that the formulae obtained for the total momentum and angular
momentum of the string are valid for any boundary conditions (a finite,
closed, infinite string, etc.). The only requirement consists in that the
used solutions of the equations of motion must satisfy the corresponding
boundary conditions.
4. Solution of the Equations of Motion with Fourier Series.
Covariant Formalism
If a relativistic string is either finite or closed, the solution of equations
of motion (3.18) and the corresponding boundary conditions (3.26) and
(3.28) can be represented as a Fourier series. In doing so, it is convenient
to employ the conformal coordinates, l' and u, in which the conditions
(3.16) or (3.21) are fulfilled. The gauge conditions (3.16) may either be
imposed as conditions on the Fourier amplitudes or explicitly resolved by
expressing two components of the string radius-vector x,.. (1', u) through the
other components.
To start with, consider the first approach called the covariant formalism.
We take the region in which the parameters l' and u are varied to be a
rectangle (see Fig. 2b). It is convenient to put Ul = 0, U2 = 11" for a free
string and Ul = 0, U2 = 211" for a closed string.
Thus, we seek the solution to the equations of motion
x,.. - x"'" = , J.I. = 0, 1, ... , D - 1 (4.1)
Action Functional for a &lativi.tSc String . .. 21
obeying subsidiary conditions
(::i: x')2 = 0
(4.2)
and boundary conditions
x''''(r,O) = x''''(r, 11") = 0 (4.3)
for a free string, or
x"'(r,O) = x"'(r,211")' x''''(r,O) = x''''(r,211") (4.4)
for a closed string.
A free string Substitution of the general solution to Eq. (4.1)
x'" (r, a) = (r + a) + ,p':.. ( r - a) (4.5)
into the boundary conditions (4.3) gives
- = 0, + 11") - - 11") = 0 . (4.6)
The prime on the functions ,p",(z) means differentiation with respect to
the argument z. From (4.6), it follows that the vectors and
are equal to each other, periodic with period 211":
+00
= an",exp(-inz) ,an", = a:'
n
"" (4.7)
and isotropic = 0, owing to the condition (4.2). The sign denotes
complex conjugation.
The factor (2J1r-1) -1 is introduced into the Fourier expansion (4.7) for
convenience. Integrating (4.7) and inserting into (4.5)' we get
x",(r,a) = L exp(-inr) an", cos(na) + Q", + P", (4.8)
V 11""{ n;to n 11""{
an", = a:'
n
", ' n ::j; 0 ,
where PI-' is the conserved total momentum of the string (3.35) defined in
the orthonormal gauge (4.2) by the formula
P", = "{ fa" ::i:1-'(r, a)da , (4.9)
22
Introduction to the Relativiltic String Theorll
and the coordinates of the string centre of mass Q,. at T = are given by
11'"
Q,. = - X,.(O, a)da .
7r 0
(4.10)
Substituting the expansion (4.8). in formula (3.38)' we arrive at the total
angular momentum of the string in terms of the Fourier amplitudes
(4.11)
which consists of two terms: the angular momentum of the string as a
whole,
L,.v = Q,.P
v
- Qv P,. , (4.12)
and the intrinsic angular momentum caused by the internal motion of the
string,
i 1
S,.v = -- "'\""' -(a_n,.a
nv
- a_nVa
n
,.) .
2 L..., n
n,tO
( 4.13)
In terms of the Fourier amplitudes an,., the subsidiary conditions (4.2)
are written as follows:
+00
(
. ')2 __ "'\""' -in(rO')L -
x x - L..., e n-,
7r'Y n=-oo
(4.14)
1
Ln =--
2
+00
L n=0,1,2, ...
m=-oo
where ao,. = P,./..j1Fi. These conditions are in fact reduced to the con-
straints on the initial data, x(O, a) and x,. (OJ a) which determine the am-
plitudes an,. and constants P,. and Q,. in the expansion (4.8):
an,. '= 21f 10'" dacos(na){x,.(O, a) - inx,.(O, a)}
Q_
n
", = 0:", ' n > 0 ;
(4.15)
11'" 1'"
Q,. = - x,.(O,a)da,P,. = 'Y X,.(O,a)da.
7r 0 0
The condition Lo = from (4.14) allows us to represent the string mass
in the form
M2 = p2 = -7r'Y L .
m,tO
(4.16)
Action FUnctional/or a &lati"i,tic String . 23
Classical expression for the string spin J is given by48
T2 = [s s,.v _ svPpuS ]
.. r 2"v M2 v up
IT we make use of such an orthonormal parametrization, T and a, in which
T is proportional to X
O
= 0, n =1= 0), then in the rest frame of the string,
the second term in the formula for P vanishes, i.e.,
( 4.17)
Using the Cauchy-Bunyakovsky inequality
where a and b are complex vectors in the Euclidean space, we may write
the following chain of inequalities:
-1(a,.a",)12
(4.18)
, n, m > 0 ,
where the inner product is taken over only spatial components of the am-
plitudes with no summation over nand m. Substituting (4.18) into
(4.17), we get
n,m
where the string mass squared is given by
M2 = 27r, L .
n>O
Thus, all motions of the free string fulfill the inequality
(4.19)
that becomes an equality for a rotating straight-line string (see Sec. 7) .
The string model thus forbids the existence of particles with large spins
and small masses.
24
Introduction to tAe Relatiui,tic String Theory
The closed string From (4.5) and (4.4), we have
,p+,,(r) + ,p_,,(r) = ,p+,,(r + 211") + ,p_,,(r - 211") ,
- = + 211") - ,p'-,,(r - 211")
(4.20)
( 4.21)
Upon differentiating (4.20) with respect to r, we find that both the functions
and are periodic with period 211":
+00 +00
.// () 1 """' -in% ./,1 () 1 """' f3 -in%
'1'+" Z = 2 r.;r;:; L..... an"e ,'1'-" Z = 2 I1Fi L..... n"e ,
Y ,,"( n=-oo Y" I n=-oo (4.22)
The coordinates of the closed string are described by the following Fourier
senes:
()
i """' exp( -inr) [ -inu f3 inu]
X" r,a = r.;r:;::; L..... an"e + n"e
2y 11""( n
n,eO
+ P"r /(21T"() + Q" .
( 4.23)
Since the expansion of x( r, 0") now includes sines and cosines, the Fourier
amplitudes are doubled as compared to the open string.
The constants P" and Q,.. in (4.23) mean the same as for the open
string. The orthonormal gauge condition (4.2) for the closed string results
in two sets of equalities, analogous to (4.14) for the amplitudes an,.. and
f3n,.., respectively:
+00
1 +00
Ln = -2 L an-mam = 0,
- 1
Ln =--
2
L f3n-mf3m = 0,

n = 0, 1, 2, ... , (4.24)
where ao,.. = f3o,.. = P,../(2V1FY). The mass of the closed string is obtained
from (4.24)
M2 = p2 = -411""( L = -411""( L . (4.25)
m,eO m,eO
Comparing (4.20) and (4.8)' we see that the closed string possesses all
the solutions existing in the theory of the open string. Really, choosing
A ction FUnctional/or a Relatilli8tic String . .. 25
the initial data so that an = f3n, we reduce (4.20) to (4.8). This can be
imagined as if the closed string is folded in two, with the points of fold of
the string having the light velocity.
The spin of the closed string can be found to obey the following con-
straint:
(4.26)
This inequality can be illustrated as follows: if we take two free straight-line
strings whose ends coincide, we get a closed string folded in two. If that
string as a unique object is made to rotate with a constant angular velocity,
the spin of the system will be twice the spin of a free string; and M2 is four
times as large.
5. Noncovariant Lagrangian Formalism
In a non covariant interpretation of the dynamics of the relativistic
string, two components of the vector x,,(r, a) are expressed in terms of
the others by using the conditions (4.2) and auxiliary gauge conditions.
The point is that having imposed the conditions (4.2) that define the iso-
metric system of coordinates on the string world surface, we have not yet
completely fixed the parameters rand o'. Equations (4.1) and (4.2) admit
the transformations
rO'= J(rO') (5.1)
with the functions f subjected to the only condition: the Jacobian of that
transformation should be nonzero,
B(r,O')jB(r,O') = (5.2)
Here the prime means differentiation with respect to the whole argument
of the functions f+ and f-. This section will deal with the free string. For
the trajectories of free ends of the string on the plane r, a to obey as before
the equations
0'=0, 0'=11", (5.3)
the functions J(rO') in (5.1) should be the same, f(rO'), that is, subject
26
Introduction to tAe Relatiw8tic String Theory
to the periodicity conditionc:
f(r + 21r) = f(r) + 271" (5.4)
With a proper choice of the functions f , we can obtain the following
condition
nx = (nPh7l")r + nQ , (5.5)
where nil is an arbitrary constant vector independent of rand 0" ; pll is
the total momentum of the string (4.9); QIl are coordinates of the string
centre of mass at r = 0 (4.10). The condition (5.5) that completely fixes
the parameters rand 0" is equivalent to the two conditions
nx = nP/('7I"), nx' = 0 . (5.6)
Let us now prove that the condition (5.5) can be imposed really on the
string coordinates. Let, in the initial isometric parameters rand 0" on the
string world surface, the condition (5.5) is not fulfilled. We pass to new
parameters T and a by formula (5.1), having determined the functions f
from the equations
(5.7)
Here, u = r O" and tPll( u) are functions of the general solution of equa-
tions of motion (4.5). Introducing new functions ~ u ) = tP(u(u)),
we can easily show that Eq. (5.6) written for the new functions ~ u )
and in terms of new variables u are satisfied identically. Indeed,
(5.8)
CThe condition (5.4) is the linear inhomogeneous difference equation for the function f.
Its general solution is
49
where I d r) is the periodic function satisfying the corresponding homogeneous difference
equation
and h(r) is an arbitrary particular solution of Eq. (5 .3). In the interest of simplicity
one can take for h(r) the following function: h(r)=r .
Action FUnctional lor a ReiatiIJi8tic String . .. 27
Therefore, with (5.7)' we get
(5.9)
Here for simplicity we have omitted the Lorentz indices, the summation
runs over.
Equation (5.7) define such transformations of the parameters T and a
under which the straight lines a = 0 and a = 11" transform into the straight
lines (j = 0 and (j = 11". This is a result of the function (u) being equal
to each other and periodic with period 211" owing to the boundary conditions
(4.6).
The Jacobian (5.2) is nonzero for all motions of the string that obey the
condition
(5.10)
Imposing gauge conditions in the relativistic string theory is in a sense
analogous to choosing the potential A,.. (x) in electrodynamics. The elec-
tromagnetic potential A,.. (x) can be replaced by a quantity A,.. (x) + a,...>. (x)
with an arbitrary function .>.(x). Once on A,..(x) the Lorentz condition
(5.11)
has been imposed, admissible are only the transformations with a,.. a'" '>'(x)
= o. The choice of AI'(x) can finally be fixed e.g. by requiring, in addition
to (5.1)' Ao(x) = 0 (the Coulomb gauge).
Using the conditions (5.6) and (4.2) we may determine the partial
derivatives with respect to T and a of two components of the vector xl'
as functions of the remaining components Xl.. For this purpose, it is con-
venient to take the vector n'" to be an isotropic vector n
2
= 0 with two
nonzero components, the time component, nO = 1, and one spatial compo-
nent, n
1
= 1. In this case, the gauge (5.5) is called the light-like gauge. In
terms of variables of the light cone, x'" = {x+, x-, Xl.}, x = (xO xl) / y'2,
we get
x+ = 1I""((Xl + x'1)/2P- , x'+ = 1I""(Xl.X'.J../ P-,
x- = P- /11",,(, x'- = 0 .
(5.12)
28 Introduction to the Relativi.tic String Theorll
At this step, explicit relativistic invariance is obviously lost .
Equations (5.12) are in agreement with the equations of motion (4. 1)
and with the boundary conditions (4.3) in the following sense: if the trans-
verse components x.L(r,cr) obey Eqs. (4.1) and boundary conditions (4.3)'
the longitudinal components x and x' expressed in terms of X.L and
according to (5. 12} satisfy Eqs. (4.1) and the boundary conditions (4.3)
too. This enables us to consider the transverse components X.L (r, cr) as
independent dynamical variables and longitudinal x (r, cr) as dependent
ones.
In terms of the Fourier amplitudes, the equalities (5.12) become
-.. -
an - P_ Ln.L, n - 0, 1, 2, .. . , ak = 0 , k -:f 0 , (5.13)
where
1 +00 D-l . . . pi p
Ln.L = - L L a!,. ,ab = ..fi0' ago = y'1FY' i = 2, ... ,D - 2 .
2. 1r, 1r,
m.=-oo '1:::::2
(5. 14)
Specifically, for the mass of the string, we obtain from (5.13) at n = 0
the following expression
D-l
M2 = p2 = 2P+ P- - pi = 1r, L L (5. 15)
m;o"O i=2
from which it immediately follows that the mass M2 is positive definite.
For the closed string, the light-like gauge condition is
nx= (nP/2,1r)r+nQ .
The squared mass of close string turns out to be
D-l
M2 = 21r, L L + .
n;to i=2
If we take, in Eq. (5.5) fixing the gauge, non isotropic vector n
2
-:f 0,
then the resolution of Eqs. (5.2) with respect to the dependent components
of the vector will contain square roots, which essentially complicates the
passage to quantum theory.
Action FUnctionai lor 11 ReltJtiviltic String . .. 29
The initial data for the transverse components of the vector xl-' may be
given arbitrarily, but they uniquely define the initial data for the dependent
components x of this vector by formulae (5.12) or (5.13).
To complete this section, we shall briefly examine the problem of
whether all the motions of the relativistic string can be described in the
light-like gauge (5.5) with n
2
= 0, or in other words, whether there exist
such motions of the string that violate the condition (5.10) . It is clear that
motions like that do exist
50
,54 if the vector nl-' is isotropic (n
2
= 0), for in-
stance, when the vectors ' ~ I ' ( u) are parallel to nl-' (recall that the vectors
' ~ I - ' (u) are isotropic). This circumstance brought the results obtained in
the relativistic string theory with the light-like gauge in question and ini-
tiated the search of other gauge conditions (see Sec. 11). The condition
(5.10) is known to be fulfilled if nl-' is a time-like vector, n
2
> O. In this
case, (5. 10) written in the coordinate system in which nl' = {nO, 0, a, . . . }
(5. 16)
always holds true as ~ (u) t a in view of the vectors ' ~ I - ' (u) being
isotropic.
6. Solution of the Cauchy Problem for Equations of Motion
for the Relativistic String in the Lagrange Formalism
First, consider an infinite string -00 < a < +00 with no boundary
conditions. The string dynamics in the orthonormal gauge (3.21) is now
described by the d'Alembert equation (3.19) with the evolution parameter
T. Let, in the Minkowski space, a space-like curve pl-'(a) be given which
specifies the initial position of the string at T = 0,
pl-'(a) = xl-'(O, a)j (P')2 < 0, Ii. = 0, 1, ... ,D - 1 , (6.1)
- 00 < a < +00
and let vi' (a) be initial velocities of the string points
vl-'(a) = ;;1-'(0, a)j (v')2 > 0, Ii. = 0,1, ... ,D - 1 , (6.2)
- 00 < a < +00 .
Besides, it is natural to assume that the motion of the relativistic string
occurs in the direction of increasing time t = xO. For this, it is to be
30 Introduction to the Relatiw6tic String Theory
supposed that the velocity vector of string points at r = 0 lies in the future
of the light cone, i.e., vO(a) > o.
Using the d' Alembert formula, we obtain the general solution to the
Cauchy problem for the equations of motion (3.19)
l' /<7+1"
xl'(r, a) = -[pl'(a + r) + pl'(a - r) + vl'(>.)d>.] .
2 <7-1"
(6.3)
To comply with the auxiliary conditions (3.21), we insert (6.3) into (3.18)
thus obtaining the expression
(6.4)
where p() == pl'(a r)j v() == vl'(a r)j and the prime of the function p
means differentiation with respect to the whole argument . So, if the Cauchy
data (6.1) and (6.2) obey the conditions (3.21), the solution (6.3) will also
obey the same conditions.
Now consider the conditions that follow for the Cauchy data when the
condition (3.23) is fulfilled. Inserting (6.3) into (3.23) and taking into ac-
count (6.4), we get
(6.5)
In view of (6.4), the vectors V(+) + p(+) and V(_) - p(_) are isotropic,
therefore the condition (6.5) may be rewritten as follows:
where a( r, a) is the angle between spatial components of the vectors v(+)
+ p ~ ) and v(_) - p ~ ) . In this way, the condition (6.5) reduces to the
requirement that time components of the vectors v(+) + ~ ) and v(_) - p ; ~ )
be of the same sign:
(
'0) ( '0) 0
v(+)+p(+) v(_)-p(_) > .
(6.7)
The Cauchy problem for the equations of motion of the relativistic string
can also be formulated in another, more geometrical form.
51
Let us again
take the initial configuration of the string (6.1) and let there be given along
that curve the position of planes tangent to the string world surface at
Action FUnctional/or a Relativiltic String . .. 31
T = o. To define the family of tangent planes along pI-' (>')' it suffices to
define one more vector function wl-'P) and to require those tangent planes
to contain vectors p' I-' (>.) and wI-' (>.). These planes should cut the light cone
along two straight lines. As shown in Sec. 2, this requirement leads to the
condition
(6.8)
The Cauchy problem consists in finding a solution to the equations of mo-
tion of the string (3.19)' with the orthonormal-gauge conditions (3.21)' such
that it would describe the world surface passing through the curve pl-'(>') at
T = 0 and a tangent at every point of that curve of the plane constructed on
the basis of the vectors p'I-'(>.) and wl-'(>.). In this formulation of the prob-
lem, it is seen that the initial data to be given do not require the whole
vector wl-'(>'), but only its component that is orthogonal to pll-'(>.):
wl-'(>,) = wli(>') + wiP)' = 0, (6.9)
1-'_ 1I-'(pIW) 1-'_(1-'''' pll-'pl"')
wil - p ---;12' W 1. - '1 - ---pt2 w"',
'11-'''' = diag(l,-l,-l, ... ).
Indeed, the tangent plane is defined only through W1.(>.), and only this
entity enters into the condition (6.8) that with (6.9) is rewritten to the
form
I-' 1 ( 2 12 (/)2) 0
W 1. W 1.1-' = p/2 W P - P w > .
In this way, different vectors wI-' (>.) having the same normal components
wi (>.) provide the same motions of the string. Hence the component wI!
parallel to p'l-' has no physical meaning.
General solution to the equations of motion (3.19) is of the form
(6.10)
To satisfy the orthonormal-gauge conditions (3.21)' the vectors are to
be isotropic,
(6.11)
.
Here the prime means differentiation with respect to the whole argument
of the functions At the initial moment T = 0, the string configuration
according to (6.1) is determined by the vector function pI-' (>.), therefore
+ = pl-'(>,) . (6.12)
32 Introduction to the Relatiui6tic String TheO'1l
The velocity of the string points at r = 0
(6.13)
lies obviously in the plane tangent to the initial configuration of the string.
Consequently,
+ = a(u)p'''(u) + b(u)w"(u) . (6.14)
We shall determine the coefficients a(u) and b(u) requiring the functions
,p in (6.12) and (6.14) to obey (6.11). As a result, we obtain two equations
for a and b,
which yield
(1 + a
2
)p'2 + 2ab(p'w) + b
2
+ w
2
= 0 ,
ap'2 + b(p'w) = 0
(6.15)
(6.16)
Integrating (6.14) and using (6.12) and (6.16)' we obtain the solution to
the Cauchy problem for an infinite string,S1
1 11O'+T (p'w)p'" - p,2w"
x"(r,u) = -[p"(u+r)+p"(u-r)]+-....; d)". (6.17)
2 2 O'-T (p'w)2 - p,2
W
2
As was to be expected, formula (6.17) contains only the normal compo-
nent of the vector w". With the decomposition (6.9)' the integral in (6.17)
may be written in the form
It can be shown that the integrand in (6.17), up to a constant I, represents
the density of the canonical momentum of the string at the initial moment,
P" (0, u), where
ac (xx')x'" - X,2 X"
p"(r,u) = -a ." = ''''';C'2 2 '2)
X XX - X X
(6.18)
Action FUnctional/or a &Iativi,tic String . ..
Substituting x''''(O, 0") and x"'(O, 0") from (6.17) into (6.18)
we get
(
I ) I", 12 '"
x''''(O 0") = ''''(0") x"'(O 0") = p W P - P w
, P , , . /( I ) 2 12 2 '
V pw - p w
(plw)P'''' - p'2w'"
p"'(O,O") =, y(p
l
w)2 _ pl2w
2
.
33
(6.19)
(6.20)
Note that the velocity of the string points at the initial moment x'" (0, O"),
determined by formula (6.17) coincides with w"'(O") only when the initial
data p'''' (0") and w"'(O") obey the orthonormal gauge conditions (3.21)
p'2 + w
2
= , p' w = . (6.21)
Provided these conditions hold valid, the integrand in (6.17) is merely the
string velocity at the initial moment, and formula (6.17) transforms into
(6.3) with w'" = x"'(O,O").
In the general case, according to (6.19),
x"'(O, O") = wi (0")(-pI2(0")jwl(O"W/
2
despite the fact that formulae (6.18) and (6.20) contain x"'(O,0") and w"'(O")
in the same manner. There is no contradiction as formula (6.18) cannot be
reversed, i.e., the velocities X'" (r, 0") cannot be expressed in terms of mo-
menta p",(r, 0"). This is a consequence of the relativistic-string Lagrangian
being singular
(6.22)
(see Chap. 2).
The above-considered Cauchy problem :n the relativistic-string theory
represents reformulation for the hyperbolic case of the geometrical problem
of construction of a minimal surface passing through a given curve and
tangent to a family of planes given along that curve.
d
Coordinates of the
minimal surface in the three-dimensional Euclidean space are defined by
the Schwarz formulae
52
j and for an n-dimensional Euclidean space, by the
formulae found in Ref. 53:
1 i n /.U
X.(u, v) = 2"[x.(u) + x.(v)] + 2" L P.rdxr
r=l II
(6.23)
dIn classical differential geometry of the last century it was called the Bjorling problem.
34 Introduction to the RelatitJi8tic String Theo'1l
Here X. (u, v) are the coordinates of the minimal surface obeying the equa-
tions
8
2
X.(u,v)/8u8v = 0, s = 1,2, ... ,n, (6.24)
n n
= 2:)8v X.)2 = 0,
(6.25)
.=1 .=1
where u and v are complex variables. This surface passes through a given
curve whose coordinates are analytic functions x. (t). The planes tangent
to the minimal surface have, along that curve, direction cosines given by
analytic functions P.r(t):
(6.26)
The direction cosines p.
r
are expressed through the metric tensor and vec-
tors tangent to the surface as follows:
(6.27)
where
T = 8(x., xr )
'"'.r 8( u, v) .
(6.28)
Inserting (6.27) and (6.28) into (6.23), we obtain the Euclidean analog of
formula (6.17). In the Schwarz formulae and their generalizations to an n-
dimensional case, it is essential that the initial data be given by analytic
functions. Just this circumstance allows us to determine the coordinates of
the whole minimal surface from their values along the given curve.
The obtained solution of the Cauchy problem for the string equations
of motion
1 1 l(7+T
xlA(r, a) = -[plA(a + r) + pIA (a - r)] + - plA(O, A)dA
2 2, (7-T
(6.29)
will also obey the very general Lagrange equations (3.18) in which no use
is made of the orthonormal parametrization (3.21). Considering that equa-
tions (3.18) are covariant under arbitrary change of the parameters r and a
(3.14)' we may, from (6.29)' derive the general solution to equations (3.18)
upon making in (6.29) the following change
r = h (1', a), a = 12(1', a), a(h, h)/a(1', a) =1= 0 . (6.30)
Action FUnctional lor a Relativi,tic String . 35
The string coordinates xl'(r, a) under reparametrization (6.30) are trans-
formed as scalars
xl'(1',O') = xl'(h(1', 0'),12(1',0')) , (6.31)
therefore the searched solution can be written in the form
1 1 jF(1"' U)
xl'( r, a) = -[pl'(F(r, a)) + pl'(G(r, a))1 + - pl'(>.)dA .
2 2, G(1",u)
(6.32)
Here the bar of the variables r and a is omitted and two new arbitrary
functions
(6.33)
are introduced. If these functions are chosen so that F(O, a) a and
G(O, a) = a, formula (6.32) will, in arbitrary parametrization, yield the
solution of the Cauchy problem for the Lagrange equations (3.18) with the
initial data
A clear idea of the motion of the relativistic string may be attained
only when the evolution parameter r on the string world surface coincides
with (or is proportional to) the time t. In this case, the initial data of the
Cauchy problem should comply with certain conditions.
51
Starting configuration of the string pI' (>.) should, obviously, be of the
form
(6.34)
where to is a constant (starting moment of time); Xo(A) is a spatial initial
configuration of the string. To define the initial strip of the string world
surface, the vector wI' (>.) should be chosen as follows:
WI'(A) = {l,W(A)} . (6.35)
If the hyperbolic condition
(6.36)
holds valid, and the parameter A in (6.34) and (6.35) is chosen so that the
equality
(6.37)
36
Introduction to the Relatiui8tic String Theorll
takes place, the solution to the Cauchy problem is determined by the for-
mulae
t=Tjx(t,a)=-[Xo(a-t)+Xo(a+t)]+- w- XQ:
2
x ~ d)'"
1 11<1+t [ (I w) ]
2 2 <1-t Xo
(6.38)
To feel sure that the initial data do fulfil the condition (6.37), we make use
of the following formula for x(t, a),51
1 11<1+t VI X/2 ~ 2 U (x' ~
x(t,a) = -[xo(a-t)+Xo(a+t)]+- 12 0 vi 12 2 0 I 2 d:A.
2 2 <1-t XO Xo u - (xou)
(6.39)
Here the starting spatial strip for the string world surface is defined by the
vector functions xo(:A) and u(>.) subject to the only condition
(6.40)
Proceeding from the solutions (6.38) and (6.39), it is easy to show that at
all moments of time the equalities
(6.41)
are fulfilled. This is a particular case of the orthonormal-gauge conditions
(3.16) at t = T.
In Ref. 15, formulae are given which also yield the solution to the Cauchy
problem in the relativistic string theory when the initial data are defined
to be functions of one of the Cartesian coordinates of the enveloping space.
Formula (6.17) allows us to obtain the solution to the Cauchy problem
for a finite string, as well. For the boundary conditions (4.3) to be satisfied,
it suffices to continue the initial data pl'(:A) and pl'P) outside the interval
o < :A < 1r in an even manner relative to the points 0 and 1r (see formula
(6.20)) .
7. Examples of Motions of the Relativistic String
Having solved the Cauchy problem for the relativistic string, we can
study its particular motions from given initial positions.
54
Nonlinear char-
acter of this object causes peculiarities in the motion. Specifically, the string
length may alter in the process of motion, the string being even capable of
contracting to a point. The velocity of free ends of the string always equals
A ction FUnctional lor a Relati"i8tic String . .. 37
the velocity of light, which is a result of the boundary conditions (4.3)
and orthonormal-gauge conditions (4.2) according to which x2(r, ad = 0,
0'1 = 0, and 0'2 = 1r. Setting t = r, we get (dx(t,ai)/dt)2, = 1. If the
string was at the initial time at rest, trajectories of its free ends coincide
with the configuration of the string at the initial moment.
Consider the simplest examples of motions of the string. Let the string
be initially a circle with radius R at rest in the plane x, y:
XO(A) = RCOS(A/R) ,YO(A) = Rsin(A/R) ,ZO(A) = 0,
to ( A) = 0, tlo (A) = 1 , v ( A) = a .
By formula (6.3)' we obtain
t = r,x(t,a) = Rcos(t/R)cos(a/R) ,
y(t, a) = R cos(t/ R) sin(a / R) ,Z = a .
Thus, the ring remains in the plane x, y and vibrates with period 'Jr R. In
this case, it is immaterial whether the string is regarded as infinite and
rolled into a ring, or finite but closed.
The string being initially a finite piece of a straight line at rest starts
to oscillate, alternately contracting into a point and assuming initial sizes;
its ends periodically changing places. (See Fig. 6 on p. 80.)
Consider rotation of the string in a plane. Assume the following initial
data
X"(O, a) = {a, Jrw sin(wa), 0, a}
x"(O, a) = { ~ o ~ sin(wa),o} , -L < a < L .
The string shape as developed in time is shown in Fig. 3. The string rotates,
remaining all the time in the plane x, y, however, not all its points possess
the same angular velocity. Therefore in the profile of the string there appear
corners (cusps) and the string length varies with time. When 2wL = 'Jr, the
string rotates as a rigid rod with the angular velocity w. The string mass
squared is defined as
38 Introduction to the Relatiw8tic Strinf} Theor"
2
) "" t,
'\',
~ 2"-- :'/'
.... ---/
Fig. 3. Rotation of the string in a plane: 1,2; 1', 2'; ... , 1"", 2"" represent successive
positions of the string.
and the angular momentum equals
J = / j+L da(xy _ yx) = w-
2
[wL - sin(2wL)] .
-L
When 2wL = 11", the string possesses a maximum angular momentum, and
J = M2/ (211"/) = a' M2. In this way, we get a linearly rising Regge trajec-
tory with the slope parameter a' = (211"/) -1.
In Fig. 4, profiles are shown for the string that at the initial time was
a circle cut at one point. The string ends remain free as the string moves,
with their trajectories coincident with the initial profile of the string. The
motion of the same string but with fixed ends is shown in Fig. 5.
1 = 0
o
I = = ~ rr R
2 ----.
r)<)\
, J
/
I --'"
1
t = "3 rrR
,....-'-.'
( ~ I
\ ~ ~
....... _ 2
I = ~ rrR
2
/l'
I \
I \
\ /
'-. ./
I
, I =1rrR
,....1 ....... I "\
\ \
" /
...... ./
2
7
1== 4 rrR
"...-, 2
tC,1
\ I
'- ,
t = rrR
,...-,
I \
I I
\ /
'- "...
t = 2rrR
o
Fig. 4. Motion of the string which are initially a circle; string ends 1 and 2 are free.
Other examples of classical motions of the relativistic string can be
found in Refs. 30 and 55.
Action FUnctional for a Relatilli,tic String . .. 39
Fig. 5. The same as in Fig. 4 but string ends are fixed.
Chapter 2
HAMILTONIAN FORMALISM AND QUANTIZATION
8. Constraints and Equations of Motion in Phase Space
Specific features of the Hamiltonian dynamics of the relativistic string,
as well as its dynamics in the configuration space, are determined by the
properties of invariance of the action (2.22). As has already been men-
tioned, action is invariant under the change of parameters T and CT by for-
mulae (2.12) with two arbitrary functions of two variables. It immediately
follows that the Nambu-Goto Lagrangian is degenerate or singular. 56 In-
deed, in the Noether identities (3.13)
(8.1)
that are valid for all values of the functions x"( T, CT), the coefficients of each
of the derivatives of x" (T, CT) should independently vanish. Equating to zero
the coefficients of x"( T, CT), p. = 0, 1, ... ,D - 1, we get
(8.2)
where
(8.3)
So, the matrix has two eigenvectors x" and x'" with zero eigenvalues.
Consequently,
rank = D - 2,
(8.4)
41
42 Introduction to the Relativi.tic String Theory
where D is the dimensionality of space-time. This means that the the-
ory should contain two primary constraints on the canonical variables, the
string coordinates xl"( r, cr) and momenta
(8.5)
This assertion does not depend on a particular form of the Lagrangian l
and is based only on symmetry of the action under the transformations
(2.12) .
For the Lagrangian (2.22) the canonically conjugate momenta are de-
termined by the formula
(xx')x'l" - x'
2
xl"
pI" = , J( . ')2 2 '2 '
XX - X X
which easily gives the constraints on xl" and pI",
CPi = ,2x'2 + p2 = 0 ,
CP2 = x'p = 0 .
These constraints may be rewritten as
(8.6)
(8.7)
(8.8)
(8.9)
It should be noted that the condition (8.8) is universal for all
parametrization-invariant Lagrangians, and it is only the constraint (8.7)
that depends upon a particular form of l (see Appendix B).
There are no other (secondary) constraints in the string theory as this
theory has no Lal}ranl}ian constraints, i.e., the Euler equations without
second derivatives of the string coordinates with respect to r. This as-
sertion immediately follows from the Noether identities (8.1) because the
Lagrangian constraints are obtained by projecting the Euler equations onto
zeroth vectors of the matrix ). .
The canonical Hamiltonian
(8.10)
for the Nambu-Goto Lagrangian vanishes identically as in this model the
Lagrangian is a homogeneous function of the first degree in the velocities
x(r,cr).
Hamiltonian Formali6m and QuantiZ4tion 43
The constraints (8.7) and (8.8) should be first -class constraints, i.e.,
should be in involution, at least, in a weak sense. Only in this case the
string dynamics in the phase space contains functional arbitrariness, the
same, as the Lagrangian dynamics.
We introduce for two functionals,
1
'"
F = l(x(r,u)'p(r,u))du,
"I
and G = {'" 9(x(r,u),p(r,u))du ,
1"1
t he Poisson brackets in a conventional manner,
{F, G} = {'" (6F 6G _ 6F 6G) du .
1"1
(8.11)
This leads to the following values of the Poisson brackets of the canonical
variables,
u), Pv (r, u'n = u') , = diag (1, -1, -1, ... ) ,
u), xv(r, u'n = u),pv(r, u'n = 0,
(8.12)
where the function tl. (u, u') represents the 6-function for the region [U1, U2] ,
1
'"
I(u) = tl.(u,u')f(u')du',
"I
(8.13)
In particular, if the string is infinite, U1 -+ -00 and U2 -+ +00, then
tl.(u, u') is the simple Dirac 6-function,
tl.(u, u') = 6 (u - u') . (8.14)
From (8.11)-(8.13) we get,
= . (8.15)
To simplify the formulae where it is possible, we shall omit the explicit
dependence of the canonical variables on 1"-
By using formulae (8.12) and (8.15) it is easy to compute the Poisson
brackets algebra the constraints (8.7) and (8.8)'
{<pl(U)' <pdu'n = 4,2(<p2(U) + 11'2 (u')) ,
{<pdu)' 11'2 (u'n = (<p2(U) + 11'2 (u')) tl.(u,u') ,
{<pd u)' 11'2 (u'n = (<pdu) + <pdu'))-aa tl.(u,u') .
u'
(8.16)
44 Introduction to the Relati"i6tic String Theorll
It is to b8 noted that the algebra (8.16) is universal for all the parame-
trization-invariant theories
s6
and its structure does not depend upon a
particular form of the Lagrangian.
If the constraints <pdO")' i = 1,2, are treated as generators of transfor-
mations of the phase space x" (0") and pI' ( 0"), the corresponding group space
may be regarded, according to (8.16) as a symmetric space with a stability
subgroup generated by <p2(0").
Let us compute the Poisson brackets of the constraints (8.7) and (8.8)
with the string coordinates,
{<pdO")' X,.(O"')} = 2p,.(0")b.(0",O"') ,
{ <P2 (0"), X,.( O"')} = ~ (0") b. (0", 0"') .
(8. 17)
These formulae allow us to interpret <P2 (0") as a generator of O"-reparame-
trization and <pd 0") as a generator of the dynamical evolution of the system.
Using the method of Lagrange multipliers we may go from the Euler
Eq. (3.9) to the equations of motion in the phase space,
(8.18)
where HT is a generalized Hamiltonian, a linear combination of the con-
straints (8.7) and (8.8)'
(8.19)
Equations (8.18) are to be supplemented with the boundary conditions
s7
i = 1,2 . (8.20)
Explicitly, Eqs. (8. 18) and the boundary condition (8.20) are written as
follows,
(8.21)
(8.22)
(8.23)
Hamiltonian FormaJi6m and Quantization 45
Of all the solutions to these equations, only those which obey the constraints
(8.7) and (8.8) should be considered.
For an arbitrary functional, G = J:
1
' 9 (x, x', p, r) the total derivative
with respect to r, along the phase space trajectories is defined by the for-
mula
dGjdr = aGjar + {G, Hr} , (8.24)
and the boundary conditions
- -- -0
a (a 9 ) 1<7'
au x ~ <71 - ,
(8.25)
is satisfied here.
The constraints (8.7) and (8.8) are invariant relations
58
for equations of
motion (8.18). Within the use of (8.24) it is easy to verify that dtpi/dr = 0,
i = 1,2, on the solutions of these equations. Thus, it suffices to impose
the constraints (8.7) and (8.8) on the initial data in order for them to be
satisfied at all times.
As in any theory with first class constraints, in the string dynamics in
the phase space there is a functional arbitrariness. The Lagrange multipliers
A;( r, Ui), i = 1,2, in the equations of motion remain as arbitrary functions.
This corresponds to the functional arbitrariness in the Lagrange description
of the string dynamics in the general-covariant approach.
Let us now prove the equivalence of the Hamiltonian description of
the string dynamics (Eqs. (8.21)-(8.23)) to the Lagrangian description
(Eqs. (3.18) and (3.12)). Let x"(r, u) and p"(r, u) be solutions to the Hamil-
tonian Eqs. (8.21) and (8.22) with arbitrary functions, Ai (r, u), i = 1,2, and
obeying the boundary conditions (8.23) and constraints (8.7)' (8.8). Then,
from (8.21) with (8.7) a.nd (8.8) we get
(8.26)
Note that these formulae do not imply the possibility of fixing the La-
grange multipliers within the framework of Eqs. (8.21)' (8.7) and (8.8). We
have assumed that x,. (r, u) is a solution to the Hamiltonian equations with
arbitrary functions A;(r, u), i = 1,2, and formulae (8.26) show that the
expressions in the right-hand sides are arbitrary functions of rand u.
46 Introduction to the Relativi8tic String Theory
If now we insert into (8.22) the obtained values of the Lagrange multi-
pliers (8.26) and the expression for the momentum p"'(r,CT) from (8.21), we
obtain exactly the Euler Eq. (3.18)'
:r {(_g)-1/2[x,..x'2,_ + BBCT - x,.. (xx')]} = O.
(8.27)
Analogous substitution into (8.23) gives boundary conditions in the La-
grangian formalism (3.12) .
We may also proceed in an opposite direction, i.e., to start with the
Lagrange Eqs. (3.18) and (3.12) and arrive at the Hamiltonian Eqs. (8.21)-
(8.23). Equation (8.21) results from the definition (8.6) and formulae (8.26);
whereas the second Hamiltonian Eq. (8.22)' from (3.18)' (8.26) and (8.6).
In Refs. 30 and 59 the Hamiltonian Eqs. (8.21) and (8.22) are written
in the following form,
a,.. = -(fa,..)', h,.. = -(gb,..)' , (8.28)
where
a,.. = p,.. + , b,.. = p,.. - ,
f = 2'>'1 + >'2, 9 = -2,>'1 + >'2 .
(8.29)
In those papers a general solution has been found to Eq. (8.28) containing
two arbitrary functions of two variables r and CT. As it is to be expected,
that solution for x,..(r, CT) reproduces the general solution to the Lagrange
Eq. (3.18) defined by formula (6.32). The general solution for p,..( r, CT) can
be obtained by substituting (6.32) into the definition (8.6),
p,..(r,CT) = !{p,..(F(r,CT))F'(r,CT) + p,..(G(r,CT))G'(r,CT)
2
+ CT))F'(r, CT) - CT))G'(r, CT)]} .
(8.30)
In this formula, p,.. and p,.. are the Cauchy data for the Hamiltonian Eq.
(8.28)
x,..(O, CT) = p,..(CT), p,..(O, CT) = p,..(CT) , (8.31)
that should also satisfy constraints (8.7) and (8.8). The functions F(r,CT)
and G(r,CT) obey the only condition
F(O, CT) = CT, G(O, CT) = CT . (8.32)
Hamilt onian FormaJism and Quantization 47
Unfortunately, the quantum theory of the relativistic string cannot be
constructed on the basis of the general solutions (6.32) and (8.30) . Quan-
tization requires the functional arbitrariness to be in a way fixed in the
Hamiltonian formalism.
9. Hamiltonian Theory of the Relativistic String with Gauge
Conditions. Noncovariant Quantization
There are two ways to eliminate the functional arbitrariness from the
string Hamiltonian dynamics. The first, consists in imposing on the string
canonical variables, gauge conditions supplementary to the primary con-
straints (8.7) and (8.8) . The other, is the choice of definite values for
the Lagrange multipliers, ).i(1',O') in the Hamiltonian equations of motion
(8.21)-(8.23). To start with, consider the first method.
According to the Hamiltonian theory, for systems with degenerated La-
grangians, the elimination of the functional arbitrariness in the dynamics
of such systems in the phase space, requires as many gauge conditions to
be imposed on the canonical variables as there are first class constraints
in the theory.61,62 Thus, in the relativistic string theory only with two
first class constraints, two gauge conditions are to be introduced. These
conditions should explicitly depend upon the evolution parameter 1', like
in every parametrization-invariant theory with the canonical Hamiltonian
identically equal to zero.
63
,64 Besides, a set of the gauge conditions and
first class constraints taken together should constitute a system of second
class constraints.
61
When selecting the gauge conditions in the string the-
ory, one should be careful with the following considerations. The functional
arbitrariness here is caused not by physical but by pure geometrical nature
of the parameters l' and 0'. Therefore, to remove that arbitrariness, it is
natural to connect the parameters l' and 0' with physical variables describ-
ing the string (coordinates, momenta). For instance, let us connect the
parameter l' with a linear combination of the string coordinates defined by
the constant vector n independent of l' and 0',
(9.1)
Here PI' is the total momentum of the string,
(9.2)
48 Introduction to the Relativi!tic String Theory
We calculate the Poisson brackets of the gauge condition xd a) with
constraints (8.7), (8.8),
{<pda}, xda')} = 2,(np(a) )Ll(a, a') ,
{<P2{,a},xda')} = ,(nx'(a))Ll(a,a') = o.
(9.3)
From (9.3), it follows that the condition (9.1) does not break the theory
invariance under the a-reparametrization generated by the constraint <P2,
but the invariance under transformations generated by <PI is broken as
(np) i=- O. Indeed, (np) cannot be zero because
(np) = ,(lg!)-1/2[(xx')(nx') - x'2(nx)]
= -'1(lg!)-1/2
x
'2(nx) = _(lg!)-1/2
x
'2(nP)/1r ,
(904)
and we assume that the projection of the total momentum of the string P'"
onto the constant vector n", does not equal zero. So, the only condition (9.1)
is not sufficient for the complete removal of the functional arbitrariness of
the theory. We will also need the scalar product (np) defined by (904) to
be a constant,
(9.5)
Then, multiplying the Lagrange Eq. (3.18) by a constant vector n", and
taking account of (904) and (9.5) we get
:a (n", = '1 :a [(lg!)-1/2(xx')(nx)] = - :a = O. (9.6)
In this way,
ae
n"'-a ' = /(1') .
x",
(9.7)
However, according to the boundary conditions (3.12), the function /(1')
should equal zero. Therefore, throughout the whole range of variation of
the parameters l' and a we have
(np)(xx')/X,2 = 0 .
(9.8)
Consequently, the gauge conditions (904) and (9.5) have led to fulfilment of
one of the orthonormal-gauge conditions of the Lagrange formalism,
xx' =0. (9.9)
Hamiltonian FormaJi. m and Quantization 49
Substitution of (9.9) into (9.5) yields,
(9.10)
If now we put the constant C equal to nP / 1r, the second condition of
orthonormal gauge will also be satisfied in the Lagrange formalism,
(9.11)
We shall take the second gauge condition in the Hamiltonian formalism in
t he following form,
X2(U) = np - nP/1r = 0 . (9.12)
If it is rewritten in the integral form
the parameter u may be interpreted as a relative portion of the projection
onto the vector n of the momentum of the string part that lies between the
boundary u = U1 and point u.
Let us write the Poisson brackets of X2 with IPI, IP2 , and Xl,
{IPdU),X2(U')} = -2,2(nx'(u)).:l(u,u') = 0,
{IP2(U),X2(U')} = (np(u))aa,.:l(u,u') = (nP) aa,.:l(u,u') '
u 1r u
(9.13)
(9.14)
(9.15)
From (9.14)' it follows that the gauge condition (9.12)' as it is required in
the generalized Hamiltonian dynamics, breaks the theory invariance with
respect to the u-parametrization generated by IP2(U).
Now, we will require the gauge conditions (9. 1) and (9.12) to be con-
served in the evolution of the string,
dXi/dr = 0, i = 1,2 . (9.16)
This will allow us to determine the Lagrange multipliers in the Hamiltonian
Eqs. (8.2) and (8.22) . Indeed, using (8.19), (8.24), (9.3)' (9.13), and (9.14)
50
we get
Introduction to the Relativi.tic String Theory
dX1 nP nP nP
- = -- + {Xl! Hd = -- - 2"(-),1 = 0,
dr 11" 11" 11"
dX2 { } nP 1'" ( ') 8 (' ) ,
-d = X2,HT = -- ),2 r,CT -8 D. CT,CT dCT
r 11" 0 CT
(nP) ,
= ---),2(r,CT) = O.
11"
Consequently,
(9.17)
(9.18)
To determine the function f(r}, we project the boundary conditions (8 .23)
onto the constant vector nl' in terms of which the gauge conditions (9. 1)
and (9.2) have been written,
(9.19)
In this way
(9.20)
The Hamiltonian equations of motion and the boundary conditions assume
the form
. -1 . /I
XI' = "( PI" PI' = "(XI' '
~ = 0, CT = 0,11"
As a result,
- /I 0
xI' - xI' = .
(9.21)
(9.22)
(9.23)
The Hamiltonian constraints (8.7) and (8.8) for the solutions to the equa-
tions of motion (9.21) transform to the orthonormal-gauge conditions of
the Lagrangian formalism
(;; x')2 = 0,
(9.24)
and the gauge conditions (9.1) and (9.12) turn out to be equivalent to
one Lagrange condition (5.5). Thus, the gauge (9.1) and (9.12) in the
Hamiltonian formalism exactly reproduces the Lagrangian dynamics with
the gauge condition (5.5).
Hamiltonian Formali.m and Quantization
51
Once the functional arbitrariness in the Hamiltonian dynamics of the
string is fixed by the gauge conditions (9.1) and (9.12)' the transition to
quantum theory may be realized in two equivalent ways.
As the primary constraints (8.7) and (8.8) and gauge conditions (9.1)'
(9.12) taken as a whole, represent second class constraints, we may employ
the formalism of the Dirac brackets.
56
In this case the commutator of two
operators F and 0 is determined by the formula,
[F, 01 = i{F, G}* , (9.25)
where {F, G}* are the Dirac brackets of functions F(q, p) and G(q, p),
(9.26)
Here, 8 A (q, p) is the complete set of all the second class constraints, CAB =
{8
A
, 8
B
}. The rule (9.25) in quantum theory ensures the constraints,
e A (q, p) = 0, to be fulfilled in a strict sense (i.e., their vanishing as oper-
ators). Quantization of the relativistic string in the light-like gauge with
n
2
= 0 by using the Dirac brackets can be found in Ref. 65. Here, we will
expound another approach based on the explicit separation of independent
dynamical variables.
66
For quantization, this separation should be carried
out so that independent variables remain canonical. In the general case,
this is realized with the use of an appropriate canonical transformation
given by the gauge conditions.
61
,63 In parametrization-invariant theories,
this transformation explicitly depends on the evolution parameter. The
Hamiltonian governing the dynamics on the physical submanifold of the
phase space is the derivative with respect to the evolution parameter of the
generating function of the given canonical tr.ansformation.
63
However, for
the relativistic string in the light-like gauge (9.1) and (9.12) with n
2
= 0,
the direct solution of the constraints (8.7), (8.8), (9.1) and (9.12) for the
variables x = (xO xl) /..;2 and p = (pO pI) /..;2, allows us to sep-
arate independent canonical variables, the transversal components xi and
pi, i = 2,3, ... ,D - 1.
Let n'" be a constant isotropic vector with two nonzero components
nO = n
1
= 1. Then, taking account of (5.12) we obtain from (8.7)' (8.8)'
(9.1) and (9.12),
p+ = + ,2x 711(2P-) , x'+ = P- ,
p- =P-/7r, x'- =0.
52 Introduction to the Relatitli8tic String Theory
The Hamiltonian responsible for the dynamics of independent canonical
variables X.L and P.L may be taken in the form
Indeed, the variational principle in the Hamiltonian formalism
leads to the canonical equations of motion
. aJ( -1
X.L = ap.L = '1 P.L,
. a (a)()
P.L = au
='1
X
1,
(9.28)
and boundary conditions
= = 0, u = 0,11" ,
that are equivalent to the corresponding equations in (9.21) and (9.22) .
Considering all that, solutions for X.L(T,U) and P.L(T,U) may be taken
to be expansions following from (4.8) and (9.28)'
. i . .
x' (T, u) = -- L e-
1n
1' cos(nu) + Q' + -T ,
,fif1 n 11"'1
n;l!O
(9.29)
where = j = 2,3, ... ,D-l. The Fourier amplitudes of the depen-
dent variables are given by formulae (5.13) and (5.14) . The Hamiltonian
(9.27) with the expansions (9.29) assumes the form
1 +00 D - I p2 1 D-I
Ho = L
o
' = - a
j
a
j
= + - a
j
a
j
... 2 -n n 211" 2 - n n
n=-oo j=2 '1 n;l!O j=2
(9.30)
In quantum theory xi (T, u) and pi (T, u), j = 2,3, .. . ,D - 1 are considered
Hamiltonian FormaJi.m and Quantization
as operators obeying the commutation relations,
[xi(r, u), pk(r, u')] = i{xi(r,u)'pk(r, u')} = ,
[xi(r, u), xk(r, u')] = [pi(r, u), pk(r, u')] = 0,
j, k = 2,3, ... , D - 1 ,
+00
53
= L [5(u - u' + 2'1m) + 5(u + u' + 21rn)]
n=-oo
n=-oo
The Fourier expansions (9.29) can be inverted
= e
inr
(;:) 1/210" h-
1
pi (r, u) - inxi (r, u)] cos nudu ,
n = 1,2, ... ,
. . pi 11" '
Q1(r) = Q' + -r = 11"- x
1
(r,u)du,
11"1 0
pi = 11" 10" pi ( r, u) du , j = 2, 3, , D - 1 ,
(9.31)
(9.32)
where D is the dimension of the space-time. Now we can use (9.31) and
(9.32) to obtain the commutators of the Fourier amplitudes
= n5
ii
5
n
+
m
,o, [Qi, pi] = 5
ii
,
n, m = 1, 2, ... , i, j = 2,3, ... , D - 1 .
(9.33)
The conventional creation and annihilation operators, and n =
1,2, ... , with the commutators
(9.34)
are connected with as follows
n = 1,2, ....
To be free of divergences in quantum theory, one should take the normal
product of the operators in formulae (5.13) and (5.14). In doing so, the
54 Introduction to the Relativi,tic String Theory
classical expressions may be added with a certain constant, usually denoted
as -a(O),
where
1
= -
2
+00 D-l
L L: .
m==-oo ;==2
The same constant is to be inserted into the string mass squared (5.15)'
D-l
M2 = 1r, L L : : -21r,a(0) ,
n;o!D ;==2
and into the Hamiltonian (9.30)'
1 +00 D-l
H = 2" L L : : -a(O) .
n==-oo ;==2
(9.35)
Quantum equations of motion can easily be derived. For instance, for
we have
= i[H, = ,
i.e., = which corresponds to the expansions (9.29).
In the considered case, the norm of the state vectors is obviously positive
as they are constructed only by action of the operators on the vacuum
a+ila+
h
a+;ml
p
)
Bl n:;a Bm J
(9.36)
where Ip) is the vacuum state with the total momentum P;
(9.37)
These vectors coincide with the so-called "transverse" states in the
Veneziano dual-resonance model.
23
-
2s
A central problem in the non covariant approach is to prove relativistic
invariance of the theory in the quantum case. To this end, one should verify
that the generators of the Poincare group P,. and M,.., constructed with
Hamiltonian and Quantization 55
the use of the dynamical variables of the string obey the known commu-
tation relations. The total momentum of the string, P"" is a generator of
translations, and the angular momentum tensor
(9.38)
is a generator of Lorentz rotations. It turns out that all the commutation
relations are correct except for the commutator,66.43
[M+', M+ij = fl [m (1 - 2
1
4 (D - 2))
+ C14 (D - 2) - a(o)) ] - ,
(9.39)
where 2 :::; i, j:::; D - 1; D is the space-time dimensionality. Algebra of the
Poincare group requires, [M+
i
, M+ij = o. Therefore, the only way to make
the theory relativistic-invariant is to put a(O) = 1 and D = 26. It then
follows, in particular, that the mass of the string ground state, according
to (9.35)' is imaginary (tachyon).
It is interesting to note that introduction of the constant a(O) into the
operators Lo and M2 may be interpreted as consideration of the zero-point
oscillations of the string.
67
Indeed, when those oscillations are taken into
account, the classical expression
00 D-1 00 D-1
a
i
a
i
= na+'a
i
-n n n n '
n=1 ,=2 n=1 ,=2
is to be in quantum theory replaced by the following operator
Therefore,
D - 2 00
a(O) = --2- Ln .
n=1
(9.40)
(9.41)
56 Introduction to the Relativi8tic StrirIIJ Theorll
The divergent senes in (9.41) should be regularized; compare it to the
Riemann
00
d s) = L n -', Re s > 1 , (9.42)
n=1
that can be analytically continued to the point s = -1, which gives,68
d-1) = -1/12 . (9.43)
Therefore, we may assume that the renormalized value of a(O) isb
a(O) = (D - 2)/24. (9.44)
Renormalization of that sort is consistent with relativistic invariance of the
string quantum theory according to which, as shown above, D = 26 and
a(O) = l.
In Ref. 67 the regularization of a(O) was interpreted as renormalization
of the velocity of light (with which perturbations propagate along a free
relativistic string).
The number of physical states with a given mass squared of the free
open string
00 V-I 00 V-I
a'M2 = -a(O) + L L = -1 + L n L ,
(9.45)
n=1 .=2 n=1 .=2
rapidly grows with M2. The degeneracy of the n-th string mass level in-
creases exponentially when n --+ 00. Let us sketch the proof of this impor-
tant result in the string theory.
aRegularization with the Riemann is commonly used in quantiution of the
fields in a curved
bThe same result can also be obtained by the following regularization
CD
The first divergent term should be suppressed here and we have E n=-1/12.
n.=o
Hamiltonian and Quantization 57
From (9.45) it follows that the degeneracy of the n-th string mass level
equals the number of the states on the n-th energy level in the system
of D - 2 noninteracting oscillators PD-2(n). To study Pk(n) one usually
introduces the generating function,70
Zk(X) = L:>k(n)X
n
, Pk(O) = 1 .
(9.46)

Using the Hamiltonian in the system of free oscillators
(9.47)
we can represent the generating function Zk (x) in the following way
(9.48)
i=l
where pdn) = p(n) is the number of partitions of the integer n into the
integer addends without restrictions and Zdx) is the generating function
for p(n) . In the mathematical theory of partitions
70
one proves that
00 00
n=O n=l
From (9.48) and (9.49) we get,
(9.50)
Thus, the degeneracy of the first four mass levels of the open string is 1, 24,
324 and 3200 respectively. The corresponding state vector are represented
in the Table.
58 Introduction to the Relativi,tic String Theorll
a'M2
State vectors The number of states
-1
Ip)
1
0

24

24
1
a' a' Ip)
-1 -1
300

24
2 a' a
i
Ip)
-2 -1
576
a' a
i
a
k
Ip)
-1 -1 -1
2600
The generating function Z24(X) in the string theory is tightly connected
with Dedekind's l1-function 71
00
l1(r) = x
1
/
24
II (1- xn) , (9.51)
n=l
where x = exp(211"ir).
To explore the asymptotic behavior of the string mass spectrum, the
Cauchy integral representation for Pk (n)
1 1 Zk(X)
Pk(n) = -2' ,
1I"t r x
(9.52)
is used,72 where r is a contour around the origin and it lies entirely in a
unit circle. When n -+ 00, the basic contribution to this integral is given as
x -+ 1-. The asymptotic behavior of Zk (x) in this limit can immediately
be obtained from the asymptotic behavior of Zk(X) given by Hardy and
Ramanujan.
73
Using a saddle-point approximation to evaluate the contour
integral in (9.52) we get
(9.53)
Hamiltonian Formali.m and Quantization 59
From (9045) and (9.53) it follows that the asymptotic behavior of the mass
spectrum of the open string is
(9.54)
where /30 = 21r[(D - 2)0:'/6]1/2 = 41r#, B = (D - 1)/2 = 25/2. Hence,
the statistical sum of states for the string converges only if the temperature
is less than 1//30' The quantity To = /3
0
1
is thus a maximum temperature
for open strings in thermal equilibrium.
10. Covariant Hamiltonian Formalism and Covariant
Quantization. BRST Formalism
Functional arbitrariness in the generalized Hamiltonian theory with
first-class constraints can be eliminated by fixing the Lagrange multipli-
ers >.;(r, 0"), i = 1,2, in the generalized Hamiltonian (8.19). Unfortunately,
no general rules are known to exist for this purpose,74 and the only guide
one may apply to is the requirement for the Hamiltonian theory upon fix-
ing the Lagrange multipliers to reproduce the dynamics in the configuration
space.
If in (8.21) and (8.22) we set >'2(r,0") = 0 and jdr,O") = 0, we can from
those equations eliminate the momenta PI-' (r, 0"),
- 4
2
\\" 4
2
\211 0
XI-' - 1 II 1''1 1 xI-' - 1 1I1xl-' = . (10.1)
If we now put >'1 = (-21)-1, then PI-' = TXI-' and Eq. (10.1) reduces to the
wave equation
- II 0
xI-' - xI-' = , (10.2)
while the constraints (8.7) and (8.8) provide orthonormal parametrization
of the Lagrange formalism,
x
2
+ X,2 = 0, xx' = 0 .
(10.3)
The boundary conditions for canonical variables (8.23) transform into
the boundary conditions (4.3) in the configuration space. So, with the
choice of the Lagrange multipliers
(lOA)
we can extract from the Hamiltonian equations (8.21)-(8.23) the Lagrange
dynamics of the relativistic string.
60 Introduction to the RelatilJi.tic String Theory
In Sec. 9 the same values were obtained for the Lagrange multipliers,
(10.4), but there were previously introduced the gauge conditions (9.1) and
(9.12).
The solution for xI' (r, 0") is the expansion (4.8), and for p,. (r, 0") =
Ix,.(r, 0"), the following Fourier series
( )
(
I) 1/2 '""' -inT () P,.
p,. r,O" =; L., e O!n,. cos nO" +-;-
noto
Quantum theory postulates the commutators
(10.5)
where '100 = -'1.:.: = 1.
The time components O!;ro, n > 0, acting on vacuum will produce the
state vectors with negative norm. Physical states are only those states
that obey the conditions Pi = 0, i = 1,2, which is equivalent to the
conditions,
n=0,1,2, ... , (10.6)
where Ln = -t L : O!n-mO!m : j L;r = L_
n
Those conditions fully co-
incide with the Virasoro conditions in the dual-resonance Veneziano model
(see Appendix A).
According to (10.6)' at n = 0 the string mass is defined by
M2 = p2 = -1r
,
L : : -21r/0!(0) .
moto
The operators Ln obey the Virasoro algebra,
[Ln, Lml = (n - m)Ln+m + (D /12)n(n
2
- l)on+m,O ,
(10.7)
(10.8)
where D is the dimensionality of space-time. The appearance of a c-number
term in the commutator (10.8) that makes the algebra of the operators Ln
open is important. For this reason, in conditions (10.6) determining the
physical state vectors we should only use the operators Ln with n o. In
the classical theory the corresponding Poisson brackets do not contain that
term,
(10.9)
Hamiltonian Formaii$m and Quantization 61
Algebra (10.9) is isomorphic to the Lie algebra of the conformal group on
a plane.
The appearance of the Schwinger term in the commutator (10.8) is due
to the transition to the normal product of operators an in Ln. It is most
easy to derive that term by computing the vacuum-expectation value of
the commutator (10.8) by the Wick theorem 75 and considering the pairing
of the operators a:aj equals '1
P
<16(k)6( -j)kOk+i,O, where 6(k) is a step
function.
The physical space of state vectors with positive norm
c
can be con-
structed only in the space-time with dimension D = 26 and for a(O) = 1.
24
The ground state of the string then (d. formula (10.7)) has a.n imaginary
mass (tachyon) . The reason is the c-number term in the commutator (10.8).
It should be noted that the light-like gauge (9.1) and (9.12) are not ex-
plicitly used, however, the so-called transverse states necessary for proving
the absence of ghosts are based on that gauge.
24
The mathematical formalism of quantum theory of the relativistic string
we have here considered coincides the operator formalism in the dual-
resonance Veneziano model (see Appendix A). This allows the relativistic
string to be treated as a dynamic basis of the dual-resonance approach.
The noncovariant method in the string theory is analogous to quanti-
zation of the electromagnetic field in the Coulomb gauge and the covariant
approach is an analog of the Fermi method in quantum electrodynamics.
However, here is an essential discrepancy: the constraints on the vector-
potential in the Maxwell theory are linear, while in the string theory the
constraints (8.7) and (8.8) are quadratic in XI' and p".
When quantizing a closed string (see Sec. 4) we have two sets of com-
muting annihilation and creation operators, and The physical state
vectors are subjected to the gauge conditions
(10.10)
and to the mass-shell condition
[Lo + Lo - = 0 . (10.11)
CThe solution to Eqs . (10.6) does not contain the state vectors with negative norm if
or a(O)<l, The results derived in the theory of Kac-
Moody83 algebras have made it possible to construct a new proof of the "no- ghosts"
theorem in a relativistic string mode\.84
62 Introduction to the Relativi6tic String Theory
The closed string may be associated with the dual Virasoro-Shapiro
model. 76, 77 That model has no ghost states of D = 26 and a(O) = 2, con-
sequently, the model contains a massless particle with spin 2, the graviton.
In hadron reactions, closed strings describe the exchange by vacuum
quantum numbers as these strings cannot be assigned nonzero quantum
numbers. As a rule, with the vacuum exchange the Pomeranchuk trajectory
is identified. For that trajectory 0.4 (GeV)-2 and ap(O) 1.
This slope of the vacuum trajectory can be explained in the theory of the
closed string (see formula (4.16)), however, the value ap(O) 1 explicitly
contradicts the requirement in the theory of the closed string that a(O) = 2.
A covariant quantization of a relativistic string without gauge fixing
is set forth in a simple and compact way in Refs. 78-80 by means of the
Becchi-Rouet-Stora-Tyutin technique
S5
,86 (the BRST formalism) . This for-
mulation of the quantum mechanics of a string proves useful in deriving a
covariant quantum field theory of interacting strings.
This formalism can be described as follows. In gauge and in generally co-
variant theories, in which constraints IPa (q, p) are the first-class constraints
in Dirac's terminology, 56
(10.12)
it is necessary to introduce additional dynamical variables which correspond
to Faddeev-Popov ghosts in the derivation of a covariant quantum theory.
With each constraint IPa one associates a canonically conjugate pair of
ghosts C
a
and C
a
,
(10.13)
If some of the constraints are fermion constraints, the algebra (10.12) is a
graded algebra. The ghost variables are fermion variables if the correspond-
ing constraints is a boson constraint , and vice versa. We then introduce a
BRST-charge operator,S7,88
Q = L IPaCa - L .
a a,b,c
(10.14)
This is a nilponent operator; i.e., its anticommutation relation (or its Pois-
son brackets in classical mechanics) vanishes by virtue of (10.12), (10.13)
and the Jacobi identity for the structure constants (for simplicity, we
Hamiltonian Formalism and Quantization 63
assume that the structure constants f ~ do not depend on the canonical
variables q and pl. We use Q to construct some new constraints tPa which
take into account the presence of ghosts in the theory
(10.15)
The constraints tPa again satisfy the algebra (10. 12) and are BRST-
invariant,
(10.16)
smce

(10.17)
In going over to a quantum theory, we must order the operators in
IPa(q, p) and Q. Equations (10.12) and (10.17) must then be rechecked
since anomalies may appear.
At the classical level, the constraints Ln = 0 in the string theory are
first-class constraints since they satisfy the closed algebra (10.9). We denote
by C
n
and c
n
the corresponding fermion ghosts,
(10.18)
They also obey the following Hermitian conjugation relations,
(10.19)
The BRST charge in the theory of a bosonic string is given by the expression
Q = L L-mc
m
- ~ L(m - n) : c-mc-ncm+n : -o:(O)co .
(10.20)
m m , n
As before, the term with 0:(0) in (10.20) arose from the normal ordering
of the operators O:n in Lo. The square of the Hermitian operator Q must
vanish, according to (10. 17). This vanishing is obviously possible only in a
space of states with a non-positive-definite norm.
The quantum Virasoro operators are now defined by,
(10.21)
m,n
64 Introduction to the Relatitli8tic String Theorll
The anomalous term in the algebra of the operators in is,
D 1
_(m
3
- m) + -(m - 13m
3
) + 20:(0)m .
12 6
(10.22)
This term vanishes if D = 26 and 0:(0) = 1. Consequently, it is only in this
case that the quantum theory of a bosonic string is conform ally invariant .
The infinite number of conditions on the physical state vectors of the
string (10.10), are replaced by a single condition in the BRST formalism
Q I ~ = O. (10.23)
All solutions (10.23) which do not contain excitations of ghosts satisfy con-
ditions (10.10). Thus, the "no-ghosts" theorem from the covariant string
theory is also valid here.
11. The Rohrlich Quantization of the Relativistic String
Unfamiliar results in the quantum theory of the relativistic string, such
as limitation on the space-time dimensionality and tachyon states do not
look absurd from the point of view of the dual models. They are, moreover,
necessary for the relativistic string to be considered the dynamic basis of
t he dual models. In fact, the Fock space constructed in the operator for-
malism for dual-resonance amplitudes was without changes transferred to
the quantum theory of the relativistic string.
66
However, from a physical point of view, that situation cannot be con-
sidered satisfactory. It is difficult to understand that such a thoroughly
st udied object in classical theory and nonrelativistic quantum mechanics as
the string cannot consistently be analysed at the quantum level in a realistic
4-dimensional space-time. Attempts were undertaken to find other quan-
tum solutions for the relativistic string problem which would not encounter
the above difficulties. Along these lines, it was Rohrlich who obtained in-
teresting results.
s9
Another approach will be considered in Sec. 30.
The Rohrlich approach is based on two points: i) choice of the gauge
condition fixing the parameter T and ii) use of that condition for eliminating
the states with negative norm, the physical state vectors being constructed
in the center-of-mass frame of the string (CM frame). That reference frame
is the only preferred frame for such a composite relativistic object as the
string. All previous attempts for quantization of the string fully ignored
this fact.
Hamiltonian Forma/ilm and Quantization
65
The light-cone gauge (5.5) with n
2
= 0 was, either explicitly or im-
plicitly, employed in all previous methods of quantization of the string.
Its essential drawback, as noted in Sec. 5, is that it does not allow us to
describe motions of the string when
n(x x'} = 0 . (ILl)
Therefore Rohrlich
89
has proposed to replace the arbitrary vector n"
under the conditions (5.6) by the total momentum of the string
Pi = p
2
/('f1r} , PX' = 0, (11.2)
which i8 equivalent to the requirement
(11.3)
We may reasonably set p
2
> 0, which gives
P(i x'} =1= 0 .
Thus, the new gauge yields no constraints on the string motion.
Inserting the expansion (4.8) into (11.3) we get
(11.4 )
which signifies that in the eM frame, where P = 0, the time Fourier compo-
nents Q:nO are zero; and it is just these components that after quantization
lead to the states with negative norm. That is why in quantum theory it is
convenient to construct the physical space of state vectors precisely in that
reference frame.
Equations (11.4) are now considered to be constraints on the state vec-
tors
(11.5)
this equality being sufficient to hold for n > o. In other words, we impose
on the state vectors only negative-frequency-components of the constraints
(11.4) (cf. the Lorentz condition in quantum electrodynamics).
If we assume that P O I ~ C M =1= 0, then from (11.5) we obtain
66
Introduction to the Relatilli,tic String Theor"
i.e., also in the quantum case, the time components of the operators Cli
n
,.,
n > 0, are in fact zero.
d
So, the state vectors in the CM frame are con-
structed only by the action on vacuum of the spatial components of the
operators a ~ . = Cli_n,./..;n, n > 0,
where the three-dimensional vectors Vn = (vnx ' v
ny
, v
nz
) have only non-
negative integers as components.
In an arbitrary reference frame the state vectors can be obtained from
14 cM by the action of the unitary operator
U = exp{ia,.P" + (i/2)w,..,M""} , (11.6)
where a,. is the shift vector, w,.., are the parameters of the Lorentz rotation,
P,. is the string total momentum, M,.., is the angular-momentum tensor of
the string (9.33). The state vectors will obviously remain to be positive-
definite as [U, Gnl = 0.
The physical states 14 should be subjected to further constraints (10.6)
with n ~ 0,
where
An = - ~ L : Clin-mCli m : .
m;tO,n
(11. 7)
(11.8)
Constraints G
n
, n > and L
m
, m ~ 0, taken together represent the
first-class constraints, in accordance with the Dirac classification
S6
as they
form a closed algebra,
[Gn,Gml = 0, n,m > 0, [Ln,Lml = (n - m)Ln+m' n,m> 0,
[G
k
, Lnl = kG
n
+
k
, k > 0, n ~ .
dNote that the condition (11.5) was applied, e.g., to eliminate the states with negative
norm in the hadron quark model with a potential of the relativistic oscillator?O
Hamiltonian Formali8m and Quantization 67
Therefore the conditions (11.5) eliminating the ghosts and the conditions
(11.7) and (11.8) defining the physical vector states are consistent . Note
that the commutator [Ln, Lm] does not contain a c-number since n 0
and m o.
The constraints (11.7) and (11.8) singling a subspace of the physical
state vectors I<P) out of the Fock space of the vectors with positive norm,
I<P)CM, do not break relativistic invariance of the theory since [Ln,U] = 0,
n 0, where U is the operator of transformation from the inhomogeneous
Lorentz group (11.6).
Thus, in the quantum string theory proposed by Rohrlich, one cannot
resolve the constraints at the operator level in order to single out the inde-
pendent dynamical variables. Equations determining the resolution of the
constraints are fulfilled in a weak sense as only the "annihilation" part of
the constraints is imposed on the state vectors.
In conclusion, note that t he possibility for constructing a dual model on
the basis of that sort of quantum theory of the relativistic string remains
still an open problem.
Chapter 3
STRING WITH MASSES AT ENDS. CHARGED STRING
12. Theory of a Limited Class of Motions of a Relativistic
String with Masses at Ends
The requirement of reparametrization invariance does not allow us to
distribute the mass, as well as the charge, along the stringj the only pos-
sibility is to put the masses at the string ends. If, however, we give up
the reparametrization invariance, we cannot consistently introduce into the
theory the constraints on dynamical variables (gauge conditions) with the
use of which we could eliminate the states with negative norm.
91
As mentioned in the Introduction, the model of a relativistic string with
point-like masses at ends provides a clear picture of the quark confinement
in hadrons. That picture of quark interaction is supported by rather rea-
sonable considerations based on quantum chromodynamics.
4
-
7
A good deal of works
39
,92-102 are devoted to the study of the relativis-
tic string with massive ends. Even at the classical level that problem faces
difficulties of principle, such as, it is impossible to resolve the nonlinear
boundary conditions in an explicit form. Only particular results have been
obtained along this line. Some types of motion of the relativistic string with
massive ends (e.g., its rotation as a whole) was investigated
92
, 93, 100
j
classi- .
cal dynamics of that string was thoroughly studied in the two-dimensional
space-time
97
j an exhaustive analysis was made of the nonrelativistic limit
of the problem and it was shown how there arises a potential linearly
growing with distance.
39
, 95 Some modifications of the relativistic string
model with massive ends were considered that admit quantization of the
theory. 91,94,96,98,101 , 103
69
70 Introduction to tM Relatiui.tic String Theorll
The action of the relativistic string with massive ends IS chosen as
follows,92-94
(12.1)
where the constant "( is of dimensionality of the mass squared; ml and m2
are masses at the string ends; x"( r, a) is a parametric representation of the
string world surface,
X,. = aX,./ar, x ~ = aX,./aa,
dxv(r,a'(r))/dr = xv(r, a.(r)) + ~ ( r , a.(r))&.(r)
The functions ai (r), i = 1,2 describe the motion of the string ends on the
plane of the parameters r and a. In the Minkowski space, the metric with
signature (+, -, -, ... ) is used. For the parameters r and a we will often
employ the following notation,
x" = ax"/au
i
i = 0 1
,'I. J J J
When the equations describing the string dynamics are derived, the
string coordinates x" (r, a) and functions ai (r) are to be varied in the action
S. Variation of x"(r, a) in (12.1) results in the equations of motion and
boundary conditions. As in the free-string theory, on the world surface
x" (r, a), one may take conformal coordinates r, a where
In this case, the equations of motion become linear,
- 1/ 0
x,. - x,. = ,
but they are complemented with nonlinear boundary conditions
/1-1 ~ ( Xv + x ~ ) = x ~ + xv&, a = ad r) ,
dr y'x2(1- &2)
d ( Xv + ~ ) I" ( )
1/2- =-xv-xva, a=a2r
,... dr y'x
2
(1- &2)
/1-i = TYlih, i = 1,2,
(12.2)
(12.3)
(12.4)
String with MIU.e. at End.. Charged String 71
that represent a central difficulty in solving the problem under considera-
tion.
Variation of the functions u;(1')' i = 1,2, as shown in Ref. 99 does not
give rise to any new equations as compared with (12.2)-(12.4). So, the
functions u;(1'), i = 1,2 are inessential dynamic variables and without loss
of generality they may be put as constants,
(12.5)
This choice of the functions u. (1') may also be argued as follows. Equa-
tions (12.2)-(12.4) derived without fixing the functions u;( 1') preserve their
shape under the conformal transformations of the parameters l' and u with
arbitrary functions /,
7'0'= /(1'u). ( 12.6)
This can easily be seen if we rewrite the boundary conditions (12.4) in the
form
(_1)1+1 . +
J.L
d1'
)ut u
= ,
uf = l' u.(1'), i = 1,2 .
Here, the functions tP+l'(u+) and tP-l'(u-) are the general solution to
Eqs. (12.2) and (12.3)'
xl'(1',u)=tP+l'(u+)+tP_l'(u-),
Using transformations (12.6) we may always transform the curvilinear
trapezoid on the plane 1', u with boundaries l' = 1'1, U = u1 (1'), l' = 1'2,
U = u2(1') into the rectangle l' = 1'1>u = 0, l' = 1'2,U = 11" (see Fig. 2).
With (12.5) the boundary conditions (12.4) get simplified but remain
nonlinear in the string coordinates xI' (1', u),
(12.7)
Thus, we should look for solutions to the linear equation (12.3) with the
nonlinear conditions (12.2) and boundary conditions (12.7).
72 Introduction to the Relatiui8tic String Thee'l'
We cannot obtain the general solution to the equations of motion (12.3)
obeying the nonlinear boundary conditions (12.7). IT, however, we limit
ourselves to such motions of the string for which the parameter T is the
proper time of massive points at the string ends,94 i.e.,
(12.8)
the boundary conditions (12.7) become linear,
(12.9)
It should be noted that fixing the gauge with the only condition (12.8)
would not limit the string motions if the point mass were put either on an
infinite string or at the end of a semi-infinite string (see Sec. 14).
Setting x( T, 0") = e-
iWT
u(O"), we arrive at the following boundary-value
problem for the function u(O"),
A specific feature of it is the dependence of the boundary conditions on the
spectral parameter w.
104
The solution is
(12.10)
where N
n
are normalization factors and Wn are roots of the transcendental
equation
( )
2wnq
tg Wn1l' = 2 2'
Wn - q
that is equivalent to the following two equations
tg(w
n
1l'/2) = -wn/q (even n) ,
ctg(w
n
1l'/2) = wn/q (odd n) .
Analogous equations, differing in sign, were obtained In Ref. 91 within
another approach to the string with massive ends. The frequencies Wn are
symmetric with respect to zero therefore they may be numbered so that
Wo = 0, W-n = W
n
, n = 1, 2, .... The eigenfunctions (12.10) then
satisfy the condition un(O") = u_n(O").
String with MfU.e. at End.. C/aal'!/ed String 73
The eigenfunctions (12.10) obey the orthogonality conditions,lo4
11< duun(u)(U)Um(U) = 6
nm
,
and completeness condition
00
L un(u)un(u')(u') = o(u, u') , (12. 11)
n=O
where (u) = 1 + q-1[6(u) + 6(u - 11")] and the function 6(u, u') is defined
so that
11< du' /(u')6(u,u') = /(u) ,
for any sufficiently smooth function /(u) given in the interval 0 U 11".
The normalization factors N
n
are as follows
Now for x,..(r, u) we obtain the following expansion
00
x,..(r, u) = L e-iW"T O!n,.. un(u) + Q/,
y2, n=-oo Wn
n;eO
+ --q- P,.. r, O!-n = .
2 + 1I"q ,
So, x,..(r,u) is almost periodic function in rand u.
105
(12.12)
When masses at the string ends tend to zero, q --+ 00, Wn --+ n, Un (u) --+
and the expansion (12.12) reduces to the solution of a free
string (4.8).
Inserting (12.12) into the subsidiary condition (12.2) we get
+00
L
n ,m=-oo
(12.13)
where again O!o,.. = ..,j2hP,... Since the frequencies W
n
, as contrasted to
the case of a free string, are not integer, (12. 13) leads to the following
constraints on the amplitudes O!n,..,
O!nO!m = 0, n f:; -m; n, m = 1, 2, . . . ,
O!nP = 0 , n f:; 0 ,
p2 = -b /2) L (N
n
/ N
o
)2fl+fr O!-nO!n .
(12.14)
n;eO
74
Introduction to the Relativi,tic String Theorll
These constraints are much more stronger than the Virasoro conditions
(4.14) in the theory of a massless string. This does not contradict the fact
that the initial action (12.1) has the same reparametrization invariance as
the Nambu-Goto action (2.22) for a free string. The fact here is that not all
the motions of the string with massive ends are considered but only those
satisfying the conditions (12.8) . For a massless string Wn = n and from
(12.13) the Virasoro conditions
1
L =--
n 2
+00
L an-mam = 0,
n = 0, 1, 2, . . . ,
m=-oo
follow. Besides the constraints (12. 14) at the string ends, the relations
(12.8) should hold leading to the equality
(12.15)
The conserving total momentum of a string with massive ends is given
by
PI' = 1" p,..(r,cr)dcr = ,1" e(cr)xiJ(r,cr)dcr .
The angular momentum tensor takes the form
i 1
MiJv = QiJP
V
- QVPiJ - - L -(a_n,..a
nv
- a_nVa
niJ
)
2 Wn
n;o!O
and the string mass squared is
(12.16)
(12.17)
If the string does not make any vibrational motions (an = 0, n =1= 0), its
mass squared is nevertheless different from 4m
2
,
(12.18)
In passing to the quantum theory we postulate the following commuta-
tion relations
[amI" a nv! = -wmOm+n,oTliJv, [Q,.., Pv! = -iTliJv ,
TliJ
V
= diag(l , - 1, -1, .. . ) .
Stnng with MQ,A,e, at End.. Charged Stnng 75
With due consideration of the completeness conditions (12.11) we obtain
the conventional "equal-time" commutators for x/l (r, u) and Pv (r, u')
[x/l(r,u),pv(r,u')] = [x/l(r,u),,(u')xv(r,u')] = -i17/lv5(U,u').
Other commutators are zero.
Using the solution (12.12) we may also find commutators for different r
and r', for instance,
[x/l(r,u), xv(r',u')] = i (17/lv ) (r' - r)
, 2 + 1fq
17/lV " U
m
(u) U
m
(u') [ . ( ') ]
+ - exp -tW
m
r - r .
2, Wm
m;ll!O
As the Hamiltonian of the system that gives correct equations of motion
for an/l( r) we may take the quantity
p2 q 1
H = - ( ) + - La-nan'
2 , 2 + 1fq 2
n;ll!O
(12. 19)
The constraints (12. 14) and (12. 15) on the amplitudes an/l in the quan-
tum theory are imposed as conditions on the physical state vectors
(12.20)
G
n
l4>} == a
n
P
I4>} = O,n > 0; (12.21)
p
2
14>} = [(-,/2) : a-nan: +lh]I4>} ,
n;ll!O
[(2,)-1 L : a-nan: +.82]14>) = -m
2
14>} ,
(12.22)
n;ll!O
where the constants .81 and .82 are due to transition to the normal product
of the operators: a-nan. It is sufficient that the conditions (12.20) and
(12.21) be valid only for the indicated three values of nand m. In this case,
the operators (12.20)-(12.22) and Hamiltonian (12.19) constitute a closed
algebra. Consequently, the conditions (12.20)-(12.22) on the state vectors
are not contradictory and the evolution of the system in time does not lead
beyond the scope of that set of conditions.
76
Introduction to the String Theorll
The condition (12.21) can be used, as Rohrlich
89
has made for a free
string, for constructing the physical space of state vectors with a positive-
definite norm in the CM frame of the string where P = o. Since G
n
and Lnm
commute with the operator U (see formula (11.6)) of the transformation
from the inhomogeneous Lorentz group, the physical space thus constructed
will be relativistically invariant.
Specifically, for the operator M2 in the string CM frame we have
00
M2 = "Y L (N
n
/ an + , = a_n/.;w;:, n > 0 ,
n=1
where m5 = f3I + f32 + MS, MS is defined by (12.18).
The formulae obtained for the string mass squared (12.17) and angular-
momentum tensor (12.16) are the same as in the theory of a massless string.
However, the frequencies Wn are now not integer, therefore the spectrum is
more rich. The most part of its degeneration characteristic of a free string
is removed. The constraints on the state vectors (12.20) are essentially dif-
ferent from the Virasoro conditions (10.6). They can obviously be satisfied
for a finite set of amplitudes an, the number of nonzero an should not
exceed the dimensionality of the space-time where the string moves. In this
connection, we would like to mention papersl06-108 in which a consistent
quantum theory has been developed for a limited class of motions of a free
massless relativistic string in a four-dimensional space-time (the one-mode
approximation). In that approach, only one Fourier amplitude is con-
sidered nonzero in the expansion (4.8). Here, it is important to employ
quantum operators of the type of the angular momentum, which allows us
to avoid difficulties of the ordering of operator multipliers.
The relativistic string with massive ends was also considered by An-
dreo and Rohrlich
96
but they did not use the reparametrization-invariant
Lagrangian (12.1) and proceeded from the linearized action for the string
with massive ends,
(12.23)
This action immediately leads to the linear boundary conditions (12.9).
However, here the following difficulties arise. First, it is not clear how the
String with MlU6e6 at End6. Charged String 77
obtained solutions are related with the string with massive ends described
by the conventional action (12.1), and second, the action (12.23) does not
directly lead to the gauge conditions which could help us to eliminate the
states with negative norm. The use for that purpose of the Virasoro con-
ditions from the theory of a massless string, as is made in Ref. 96 looks
rather far-fetched.
13. Some Exact Solutions for the String with Massive Ends
The theory of the relativistic string with massive ends is a more realistic
hadron model as compared to that of the free string if for no other reason
than the string ends loaded with masses cannot move with the light velocity,
unlike the free case.
Owing to difficulties in the quantum theory of a free string, it would be
natural to find a consistent theory of that object in the limit of zero masses
of the massive string theory. In this limit, in Ref. 97 in a two-dimensional
space-time the quantum theory of a massless string has been constructed
obeying the requirement of relativistic invariance.
Physically, much more attractive is the parametrization of the string
world surface in which the evolution parameter coincides with time
t = xO(l',O').109 Then the action (12.1) is written as follows,
Xi = x(l', a;), i = 1,2, 0'1 = 0,0'2 = 11"
(13.1)
Here, the dot means differentiation with respect to t . The action (13.1)
is invariant under arbitrary transformations of the parameter a therefore
the corresponding Lagrangian is degenerated. The theory contains one
constraint on the variables x(t,O') and p(t,a)
cp(O') = x'(t,a)p(t,a) = 0,
where
p(t,O') = l ~ t r = ''/ [x'(xx') -X(X')2],
x J...tr
l.tr = -,v'x'2(1 - X2) + (xx')2 .
(13.2)
(13.3)
(13.4)
78 Introduction to the &latiuiltic String Theorll
The constraints (13.2) are of the first class, as it must be in the reparametri-
zation-invariant theory,
a
= + au' tt.(a,a') .
Here, tt.(a,a') is the a-function that takes into account the boundary con-
ditions for the canonical variables x(t, a) and p(t, a) in the problem under
consideration.
Considering the equalities
51
. 12 '2
px - 'c.tr = -,,---x ,
... tr
we obtain the canonical Hamiltonian
where
1 ,2
(
2 )2
- 'c.tr X ,
P' = mX. / VI -xt, i = 1, 2 .
(13.5)
(13.6)
(13.7)
According to the constraint (13.2), the vectors p(t, a) and x'(t, a) are or-
thogonal to each other, therefore, the Hamiltonian can be rewritten as
follows
r 2
H= io dalp+1x'l+ ",Vpt+mt
o .=1
(13.8)
A string with massive ends in a two-dimensional space-time
Dynamics of such a string model has been studied in Refs. 19 and 97. In
this case, the vector x(t, a) has the only component and the density of the
string momentum p(t, a) according to (13.3) equals zero. As a result,
(13.9)
IT the string motions that lead to the appearance of the folds on the string
are excluded from the consideration then H can be rewritten as follows
2
H = 1I
x
(O) - X(1r)1 + "' vPt + mt . (13.10)
.=1
String with Mauel at EmU. Charged String 79
In this way, the canonical variables describing the string fall out of consid-
eration. Instead of the string connecting two point particles, in the the-
ory there appears an interaction potential between those particles linearly
growing with distance (a one-dimensional Coulomb potential).
Variation of the action (13.1) in two dimensions
results in the following Euler equations
:u C::I) = 0, 0 < u < 1r ,
and boundary conditions
d mIX x'
dt VI - x2 ='171'
d m2x x'
dt VI - x
2
= -'171 '
u = 0,
u=1r .
(13.11)
(13.12)
(13.13)
For equal masses, i.e., ml = m2 = m, the solution to these equations in
the CM frame, PI + P2 = 0, is as follows,97
x(t, u) = =f(1 - 2u/1r){ -[(t - to)2 + m
2
;'2]1/2 + (1r
2
/4 + m
2
;'2)1/2} .
(13.14)
For the time t in the range -1r /2 < t < 1r /2 we should take the plus sign
and set to = O. This solution is smoothly continued for other values of t,
as shown in Fig. 6. When 1r /2 < t < 31r /2, we should put to = 1r and take
the minus sign, etc.
The limit of zero masses in that solution
x(t,u) = (1- 2u/1rHlt - tol- 1r/2) , (13.15)
reproduces the so-called longitudinal motions of the massless string which
have not been described in a light-like gauge.
50
,54,110 The solutions (13.14)
and (13.15) are plotted in Fig. 6.
The spectrum of masses M in the quantum theory determined by the
Hamiltonian (13.9) can be found by solving the non-local Schrodinger equa-
tion
, [:00 dk'G(k, k').p(k') + [Jk2 + ~ + Jp + ~ - M] .p(k) = O.
(13.16)
80 Introduction to the Relativi&tic String Theorll
2
2
11
- 2
11
2
X (r , a)
Fig. 6. Motion of the relativistic string with point masses at the ends in two dimensions :
the solid curve is a trajectory of the point <7=11'; the dashed curve, of the point <7 = 0; and
the dot-dashed curve, of the point <7=11'/4 ; the constant a equals (1I"/4+m'h')1/l; 1
and 2 are trajectories of the string ends, when m = O.
The Green function in that equation is given by
G(k, k') = lim 1!'-
l
r roo drcos[r(k - k')] exp(-er) = P (k 1 k/)2
.-+0 10 1!' -
(13.17)
Here, P is the principal-value symbol. For the light-like gauge the
Schrodinger equation (13.16) is rewritten as follows
1
+00
I -00 dk'G(k, k')tfi(k') + [mi/(1/2 - k) + ~ / 1 / 2 + k) - M2]tfi(k) = 0 ,
(13. 18)
with G(k, k') given by (13. 17). It is interesting to note that 't Hoof tIll
has derived that equation for the two-dimensional chromodynamics. Exact
solutions to Eqs. (13.16) and (13.18) are not yet known.
String with Ma..e. at End.. Charged String 81
In Ref. 97 it has been shown that the quantum theory of the relativis-
tic string with massive ends in the two-dimensional space-time does not
break the relativistic invariance. This statement is also valid for the mass-
less limit in the theory under consideration. The authors of Ref. 97 point
out the dependence of spectral properties of their quantum theory of the
relativistic string on the choice of classical canonical variables in terms of
which quantization is accomplished.
A rotating string with massive ends If Ref. 92, in the gauge t = r,
a particular solution has been found for a string with massive ends rotating
with the angular velocity w as a rigid rod. Variation of the action (13.1)
results in the following Euler equations
(C.tr) = (C.tr)
at ax au ax' '
(13.19)
where the string Lagrangian C.
tr
in the gauge t = r is given by formula
(13.4). The boundary conditions are written as follows
d Xl a C.
tr
m- = -- u = O,
dt V1 - xi ax"
d X2 a C.
tr
(13.20)
m- = - - - u = 1r .
dt v1 - ax"
We have put ml = m2 = m for simplicity. It turns out that the particular
solution to Eqs. (13.19) and (13.20) may be represented in the form
x(t,u) = p(u}(coswt,sinwt,O) . (13.21)
In this case, the string is a straight line of length Ip( 1r) - p(O) I and it rotates
as a unique object with the angular velocity w. The world surface of the
string is a helicoid.
52
Among the ruled surfaces (i.e., surfaces formed by
moving straight lines in the space) only the helicoid and plane are mini-
mal surfaces. Considering that Xx' = 0 we can easily verify the following
equalities,
(ac.tr) = (ac.tr)
at ax au ax'
i
W2
pp'
sin(wt), 0] .
V1- w
2
p2
(13.22)
Consequently, the solution (13.21) always holds for the equations of motion
(13.19) for any function p(u). This signifies invariance of the action (13.1)
under arbitrary transformations of the parameter u.
82 Introduction to the Relatiui6tic String Theory
Substitution of (13.21) into the first boundary condition (13.20) gives
(13.23)
Thus, both the boundary conditions will be satisfied if the function p(a)
obeys the requirement
wp(o) = -wp(1f) = wR , (13.24)
where
(13.25)
The constant R introduced into (13.24) represents half a distance between
the string ends. When w -+ 0, R tends to infinity.
From formula (13.25) it follows that for a given frequency wand fixed
mass m, there may always be found the distance 2R between the string
massive ends at which the centrifugal forces acting on point masses will
be balanced with the string tension. In this respect, the behavior of the
relativistic string drastically differs, e.g., from the behavior of a spring with
the constant elasticity k that links two point masses. According to Newton
mechanics a system of that sort may rotate only with one given frequency
w
2
= 2k/m.
Let us calculate the energy E and angular momentum J of a rotating
relativistic string with massive ends. For the solution (13.21) the density
of the string momentum (13.3) is of the form
"Y1P'lpw
p(t,a) = ...; [-sin(wt)'cos(wt),O].
1- p
2
w
2
(13.26)
Owing to the conditions (13.24) p'(a) < O. Inserting (13.21) and (13.26)
into (13.6) we get
(13.27)
String with MlUle6 at End4. Charged String 83
The first term is the contribution of the string to the energy. If the rotation
is nonrelativistic (w R < < 1), that term gives a linearly growing potential
2,R between the massive particles at the string ends.
For the string angular momentum we obtain the following expression
a
(13.28)
The connection between J and M2 = E2 obtained by eliminating
R from (13.27) and (13.28) is nonlinear at small M2. However, it be-
comes linear when M2 tends to infinity100j and in this case the inequality
J < c/ M2 with a = (2;'I'/) -1 holds. In the limit of zero masses at the string
ends, m - 0, we arrive at the result valid for the free string,
, 1r
J---
w
2
2 '
(13.29)
Here, we have taken into account that for m - 0 from formula (13.25) it
follows that w R - 1.
The use of this model in hadron physics can be found, for example in
Ref. 112.
The considered problem is of interest also as an example of consistent
description of the relativistic circular motion of massive particles. 113
In Ref. 100 an attempt has been undertaken to investigate a more gen-
eral class of motions of the relativistic string with massive ends that would
combine a linear one-dimensional motion of the string massive ends along
the line linking them with the rotation of the string as a unique object.
It has been assumed that the string preserves the form of a straight line
and makes motions only in a given plane, the trajectories of its ends being
symmetrical with respect to the string center (equal masses).
aIn Ref. 93, formula (35) defining J contains an error, instead of the difference of two
terms giving the string angular momentum, their sum (see, for comparison, Ref. 100) .
84 Introduction to the Relatiui8tic String Theor1l
14. Infinite Relativistic String with a Point-like Mass
When the infinite relativistic string is loaded only with one point-like
mass, then it is C}olways possible to choose such a gauge that the evolution
parameter r be proportional to the proper time of a massive point.
103
It is important that in this case there are no restrictions on the string
motions unlike the finite relativistic string with two massive ends. After
this parametrization choice the problem under consideration becomes linear
and the general solution of the equations of motion and boundary condition
can be obtained explicitly.
The action for the infinite relativistic string with a point-like mass m
at point a = 0 is taken as follows
(14.1)
The variation of this action with the conditions 5 x,. ( rl, a) = 5 x,. ( r2 , a) = 0
and 5x,.(r,a = oo) = 0 results in the equation of motion
x,.(r,a) - x ~ r , a ) = 0, (14.2)
and in nonlinear condition at point a = 0
d ( Xv (r, 0)) [' ( )' ( )]
m-
d
V' = I Xv r,O + 0 - Xv r,O - 0 .
r x
2
(r,0)
(14.3)
As usual, the searched solution X,.( r, a) is assumed to satisfy the orthonor-
mal gauge conditions
(X x')2 = 0 . (14.4)
Equations (14.2)-(14.4) are invariant under the reparametrization
2a( r, a) = f (r + a) - f (r - a), 21' = f ( r + a) + f (r - a) ,
with an arbitrary function f. Therefore this function can be chosen so
that a new evolution parameter l' be proportional to the proper time of the
massive particle
(14.5)
Indeed, if one introd uces the new string coordinates X,. (1', a) = x,. (r(1', a),
a(1', a), then x2 ( r, 0) may be expressed in the following form,
String with Ma .. e, at End.. CharrJed String
85
In order that (8x,,(r,0)j8r)2 = m-y-3/2, it is sufficient to put (I'(r))2 =
m-
1
-y3/2x2(r,0). By virtue of Eq. (14.5) the condition (14.3) becomes
linear
i,,( r, 0) = k [ x ~ r , 0 + 0) - x ~ r , 0 - 0)], k = -yl/4m-l/2 . (14.6)
The separation of variables x(r,a) = exp(iwr)u(w,a) leads to the fol-
lowing boundary value problem for the function u(w, a),
u"(w,a) +w
2
u(w,a) = 0,
- w
2
u(w, 0) = k[u'(w, 0 + 0) - u'(w, 0 - 0)] .
It should be noted that the spectral parameter w is again involved into the
boundary conditions.
104
Solutions to this problem can be represented as
follows
u(w,a) = N", [cos(wa) - ;k sin(wlal)] ,
where normalization constant is N", = [11"(1 + (wj2k)2)] - 1/2. The eigen-
functions u(w, a) obey the orthogonality relation
r+
oo
1-
00
dau(w,a)(a)u(w',a) =o(w+w')+o(w -w'), (14.7)
and the condition of completeness
1
+00 (a)
dwu(w,a)u(w,a')-- = 5(a,a') .
-00 2
(14.8)
In this formulae the weight function (a) = 1 + k-
1
5(a) and the function
5(a, a') is defined by the requirement
r+
oo
1 -00 da' l(a')5(a', a) = I(a) ,
where 1 (a) is an arbitrary even function 1 (a) = 1 ( -a) given in the interval
-00 < a < +00.
Now, we have the following representation for the string coordinates
i 1+
00
Q (w) .
x (r ) = -- dw-"-e-'
WT
u(w a)
",a IF ' ,
v .. -y -00 w
(14.9)
86 Introduction to tM Relativi.tic String Theorll
where a,.( -w) = a;(w).
Taking into account Eq. (14.9), we get the conserved total momentum
of the system under consideration
/
+.OO a f. /+00
P,. = - -00 da ax" = "( -00
= ::!.x,.(r, 0) + "( dax,.(r, a) .
/
+00
k -00
For convergence at infinity of the integrals of the oscillating functions, the
cutoff exp e > 0 is introduced, as usual, and we obtain P,. = O.
The substitution of the solution (14.9) into the orthonormal gauge con-
ditions (14.4) results in the restrictions of the Fourier amplitudes
L(O) = I dwN.., No_..,a(w) a(O - w){1 i;k)(1 i
O
w) = O.
(14.10)
These equations have to be supplemented by the condition (14.5) which
gives one more constraint on the amplitudes a(w)
11 27r
L(O) = '2 dwN.., N
o
-.., a(w)a(O - w) - P 5(0) = 0 . (14.11)
Equations (14.10) and (14.11) differ essentially from the restrictions on
the amplitudes a(w) which take place in a theory of the free infinite string
22
Lo(O) = I dwa(w)a(O - w) = 0 .
When the particle mass tends to zero, then k -+ 00 and all the constraints
L(O) and L(O) turn into Lo(O) .
By virtue of Eq. (14.11) the restrictions (14.10) can be replaced by the
condition
Lt{O) = I dww(O - w)N..,No_..,a(w)a(O - w) = 0 . (14. 12)
From the expansion (14.9) and the orthogonality condition (14.7) it
follows that
a,.(w) = e'..,T . ri/+
oo
dau(w, a)h-1p,.(r, a) - a)l, (14.13)
V'2 -00
String with MlUlel at End.. Charged String 87
where p,,(r,cr) = "tc(cr)x,,(r,cr) is the canonical momentum density. Using
the formula (14.13) we find the Poisson brackets of the Fourier amplitudes
Now we can compute the Poisson brackets of the constraints (14.11) and
(14.12). For example, we have for L(O)
where
W - Oi
Wi = ~ i = 1,2, W = 0
1
+ O
2
- W
The same cumbersome expressions are obtained for the Poisson brackets of
constraints LdOr), Ld02) and L(Or), Ld02)' So, the conditions (14.11)
and (14.12) are second-class constraints according to Dirac.
56
This can be
expected, because such constraints always arise in the gauge theories, when
the gauge is fixed completely.65 In the case under consideration the choice
of parameters r, cr is fixed completely by the conditions (14.4) and (14.5).
In quantum theory the second-class constraints have to be taken as
operator equations. Therefore, commutation relations of the dynamical
variables have to be defined by the Dirac barckets
56
,65 (see Eqs. (9.25)
and (9.26)). In the case under consideration the constraints fJA(q,p) = 0
are given by Eqs. (14.11) and (14.12). Because of the complexity of the
matrix CAB (see formula (14.14)) we cannot in practice use the Dirac
method. A possible way to overcome this difficulty is to search for the
canonical variables which would have the vanishing Poisson brackets with
the constraints L(O) and L1 (0).
In the same way, one can consider the semi-infinite relativistic string
with the end loaded with one point-like mass.
99
15. Inter-quark Potential in the String Model
The relativistic string model, as mentioned in Sec. 1, provides a clear
picture of the quarks confinement in hadrons. The string describes the flux
tube of the gluon field connecting quark-antiquark. Most probably, only
such one-dimensional configurations of the gluon field dominate when the
distances between quark-antiquark approach the hadron size.
88 Introduction to tM Relativiltic String Theo'1l
The string energy is proportional to its length. Hence, the relativistic
string connecting quarks leads to a potential linearly rising with distance.
It appears that in the framework of the string model the static potential
(i.e., the interaction potential between quarks at rest) can be calculated
consistently not only in the nonrelativistic limit
39
but also in the relativistic
quantum theory.1l4-122 First, we consider the former case.
Nonrelativistic limit in the theory of the Nambu-Goto string
with massive ends Here, we represent simple but rigorous considerations
that show in what way in the nonrelativistic limit the potential linearly
rising with distance appears in the string model. Let us introduce into
the string action (13.1) the velocity of light c and take into account the
dimension of the constant 1 in this case is [MJ [TJ-l,
i
t2 1'" 2 it2
S = -1 dt davx/2(c2 - x
2
) + (x . x/)2 - L me vc
2
- x? dt .
t, 0 i=1 t,
(15.1 )
Here, x.:(T, ail, i = 1,2, a1 = 0, a2 = 7r, describe the trajectories of mas-
sive string ends. Suppose that the velocities of all the string points are
considerably smaller than the light velocity
Ix(t,a)I c, 0 a 7r. (15.2)
As a result, we obtain
(15.3)
The integral over da gives the length of the string at moment t. We suppose
that there are no folds on the string. The variation of the first term in (15.3)
with respect to the string coordinates x(t, a), 0 < a < 7r results obviously in
the requirement that the string have the form of a segment of the straight
line connecting the massive points on its ends. Therefore, the effective
action S that gives the equations of motion for the point masses on the
string ends is
(15.4)
String with MfU,e, at End.. Charged String 89
Hence, in the nonrelativistic limit the string generates the potential linearly
rising with distance
(15.5)
The string coordinates disappear from the dynamics completely. The same
result can be obtained by investigating the equation of motion of the string
in the nonrelativistic approximation.
39
Thus, the relativistic string connecting two point-like masses can be
considered as a relativization a la PoincarP23 of the nonrelativistic problem
of two bodies with a linearly rising interaction potential. 95
It should be noted that it is just this potential, at least, at large dis-
tances between quarks, that is widely used in the phenomenological com-
posite quark models of hadrons.124-129 In this framework one can obtain,
for example, the mass spectrum of the J /1/J - mesons picking out the pa-
rameters of the model and in particular the constant '"1 in Eq. (15.5).126- 128
In paper
128
the following value has been obtained for this constant
'"1 = 0.19(GeV)2 . (15.6)
On the other hand, the constant '"1 can be connected with the universal
slope of the Regge trajectories Ct.' because the relativistic string can be
considered as a dynamical basis of the dual models (see Appendix A). In
this approach,
'"1 = (21l"Ct.,)-1 .
Taking the experimental value Ct.' = 0.895 (Ge V) -2 we get
'"1 = 0.18(GeV)2 .
(15.7)
(15.8)
The agreement between these two values of the constant '"1 that have been
obtained in the framework of the quark model (15.6) and the dual-resonance
model (15.7) can be considered as an indication of the same dynamical basis
of these two approaches.
One would think that the linearly rising potential generated by a string
makes sense only in the nonrelativistic approximation, but it turns out that
this potential is reasonable for the static quarks at the quantum relativistic
level as well.
The relativistic string with fixed ends Let us consider infinitely
heavy quarks connected by a relativistic string and calculate the inter-
quark potential in this case without the nonrelativistic approximation for
90 Introduction to the JUlatitJi,tic String Theory
string variables. Consequently, we shall investigate the relativistic string
with fixed ends. This problem has been considered in papers,120-122 the
light-like gauge P9pular in the string models being used. But we shall
calculate the static quark-antiquark potential in the time-like gauge that
is more convenient for this purpose.
ll
This gauge will be introduced im-
mediately into the reparametrization-invariant action of the string (see,
Eq. (13.1)). As a result, the problem of the choice of boundary conditions
for the time coordinate of the string with fixed ends is avoided, in contrast
with papers.120-122
In the theory of the relativistic string with fixed ends the boundary
conditions are
x(t, 0) = ,x(t, 11") = R ,
p(t,O) = p(t,cr) = 0.
(15.9)
(15.10)
According to the Dirac procedure,56 the generalized Hamiltonian gen-
erating the equations of motion in the phase space is
HT = H + 1" >'(t, cr) ,(cr) dcr ,
(15.11)
where H is the string canonical Hamiltonian in the time-like gauge (see
Eq. (13.6)) and ,(cr) is the constraint (13.2) . Thus we have
HT = 1" dcrVp2 + '12X/2 + 1" >'(t, cr)x' . p dcr . (15.12)
To avoid the functional freedom in the theory and to fix the Lagrange
multiplier >'(t, cr), it is necessary to impose, in addition to the constraints
(13.2)' the gauge condition.
61
It is convenient to choose the gauge in the
following form
109
(15.13)
The physical dynamics will develop not in the whole phase space but only
on its submanifold r* defined by (13.2) and (15.13). It is easy to calculate
the Poisson brackets between X and ' on r*
{x(cr), ,(cr
/
)} I =2(-y2x'i(cr) aa
r' cr
- pi(cr)-aa 0.
cr
'
r'
(15.14)
St';rv./ with MIU.e. at End.!. Charged St,;ng
91
Thus, (15.13) does fix the gauge.
Demanding that
( 15.15)
one determines the Lagrange multiplier
{x(a), HT}I =2(p2(a) + -y
2
x'2(a))>"(t,a)
r
+ >'(t, a) :a (p2(a) + -y
2
x'2(a)) Ir. = 2-y>.'(t, a) = O.
( 15.16)
Hence,
>'(t, a) = >.(t) .
(15.17)
The equations of motion generated on r by the generalized Hamilto-
nian (15.12) have the form
x = -y - l/2
p
+ >.(t)R ,
i> = -y3/2x" + >.(t)p' .
(15.18)
(15.19)
To put (15.18) in accord with the boundary conditions (15.9), (15.10), one
must set >.(t) = O. Finally, the equations of motion are
. -1/2
x=-y p,
(15.20)
The solution of these equations obeying the boundary conditions (15.9)'
(15.10) can be represented as the Fourier series
x(t, a) = ~ + _1_ L a,.. sin(na) exp( -inVit) .
1r ..;1Fi n;o!O n
(15.21)
As x(t, a) is real, the amplitudes a,.. obey the condition
0;. =(L
n

(15.22)
The Poisson brackets ofx(t,a) and p(t,a) = yfYx(t, a) are
(15.23)
92 Introduction to the Relatiui.tic String Theorll
where a') is the antiperiodical 6-function
+00
= L [6(a - a' + 21rn) - 6(a + a' + 27m)]
n=-oo
(15.24)
+00
=.!. L sin(na) sin(na') .
11"
n=-oo
For the Poisson brackets of the amplitudes On one gets from (15.23),
(15.25)
k, I = 1,2, ... ,D - 1. D is the dimension of space-time.
Substitution of the expansion (15.21) into the constraint equation (13.2)
and into the gauge condition (15.13) results, by virtue of (15.20)' in the
following constraints on the Fourier amplitudes On
1
Ln =-
2
+00
L On-m a,.. = 0,
n = 1, 2, ... ,
m=-oo (15.26)
1 +00
Lo = 2" L Q-m ' a,.. - = 0 .
( 15.27)
m=-oo
Here, the amplitude with n = 0 is
(15.28)
The algebra of the Poisson brackets of the constraints Ln is defined by
{Ln' Lm} = -i(n - m)Ln+m - - m)6
n
,-m, n, m = 0, 1, ....
(15.29)
Even at the classical level this algebra is not closed as the gauge freedom
is completely fixed by (15.26) and (15.27) .
In the relativistic case it is natural to consider, as the static potential,
the minimal value of the energy E of the string with fixed ends as a function
of the distance R between the string ends. As the canonical Hamiltonian
in (15.12) is time-independent, then
E=H. (15.30)
Strir14 witJa MIU.e. at End.. CMrged Strir14 93
Now the physical meaning of the gauge condition (15.13) is clear: the pa-
rameter u is chosen so that the energy density is constant along the string,
i.e., it is independent of u.
Let us express the energy E in terms of the Fourier amplitudes taking
into account the constraints (15.26)' (15.27)
(15.31)
At the classical level we get from (15.31) the potential linearly rising with
distance
(15.32)
In the quantum case E(R) in (15.31) is an operator. Hence,
Vquan(R) = (,poIE(R)I,po) ,
(15.33)
where ,po is the wave function of the ground state of the string. A straight-
forward way to quantize this model is to use the Dirac method.
56
After im-
posing the gauge condition (15. 13) we obtain the Hamiltonian system with
the second-class constraints (13.2) and (15.13). To coordinate the com-
mutators of the quantum operators, for example tn, with the constraints
equations, it is necessary to employ the rule
(15.34)
where { ... , ... } are the Dirac brackets
56
for the set of constraints (15.26)
and (15.27). Very complicated expressions thus obtained for the basic com-
mutators (15.34) do not allow one to realize this program directly, even in
the theory of a free relativistic string in the time-like gauge.
130
More convenient for our purpose is another approach analogous to the
quantization of the free string in the covariant form.
23
-
29
We shall interpret
the constraints (15.26) and (15.27) at the quantum level as the conditions
for the physical state vectors, despite these constraints are the second-class
ones. Remember that the Virasoro conditions in the covariant quantiza-
tion of the free relativistic string are the first-class constraints only at the
classical level. In the quantum case, the algebra of the Virasoro operators
is not closed due to the anomalous Schwinger terms arising from the nor-
mal ordering of the operators in the Virasoro conditions. This drawback in
94 Introduction to the &lati"i,tic String Theorll
interpreting the Virasoro operators as the conditions on the physical state
vectors is easily got over: it is sufficient to impose on the state vectors only
"the positive frequency parts" of these operators.
So, we shall consider the amplitudes in the expansion (15.21) as the
usual harmonic oscillator operators with the commutation relations
Further, in Lo we postulate the normal product of a.n
1
Lo =-
2
+00
L
m=-oo
The operators Ln obey the following algebra
(15.35)
(15.36)
1r D-1
[Ln, Lml = (n - m)Ln+m + 2(n - m)5
n
+
m
,o + - 1)5
n
+
m
,o
(15.37)
If nand m 0, two last terms in (15.37) vanish and the algebra of Ln is
closed. This enables one to impose the following conditions on the physical
state vectors
= 0, n = 1,2, ... , = , (15.38)
where a(O) is a constant that can be introduced into the classical expression
(15.36) in passing to the quantum theory. As L_
n
= the conditions
(15.38) are sufficient for all the constraint equations to be satisfied in the
quantum case for matrix elements of Ln, n = 0, 1, ... over the physical
states.
In the model under consideration there appear only the space-like vec-
tors an, therefore the problem of state vectors with a negative norm does
not arise here. Hence, the mechanism that fixed the dimension of space-
time D and the constant a(O) in the covariant quantum theory of the free
relativistic string
24
does not work here. The constant a(O) in our case can
be determined only from physical considerations.
In paper 120 the attempt was made to fix the constants and a(O) in this
problem demanding the fulfilment of the Poincare algebra at the quantum
level. But this approach is obviously inconsistent because the formulation
of the model of the relativistic string with fixed ends immediately assumes
the loss of Lorentz invariance.
String with MCU6e6 at End6. Charged String 95
The same constant a(O) can be introduced into the quantum expression
for the string energy
(15.39)
For the potential (3.4) we obtain
Vquan(R) = V,..,2R2 - 21r,..,a(O) (15.40)
In principle, this formula could be used for determining the constant a(O)
if the function Vquan (R) is known experimentally.
In papers115-120,122 devoted to the calculation of the string potential
the second term in (15.40) turns out to be dependent on the dimension of
space-time D. A formal consideration leading to this result is as follows .
The constant a(O) that appears in (15.38)-(15.40) can be interpreted, ac-
cording to paper, 67 as a contribution of the zero-point fluctuations of har-
monic oscillators with amplitudes On . Really, taking these fluctuations into
account one should replace the classical expression
00 D-l
+ii
a-mOm - 2 ma
m
am ,
(15.41)
m;>/'O m = l i=l
by the operator
00 D-l ( ) 00 00 D-l
2 L m L + i = (D - 1) L m + 2 L L a!,. .
m=l i=l m=l m=l i=l
(15.42)
Here, the following notation is used,
Om = vrn8m ,a-
m
= , m = 1,2, ... , (15.43)
= oiiomm, = = O.
In (15.42) it is supposed that all the oscillators are independent of each
other. But in the case under consideration the amplitudes On are subjected
to the constraints (15.26) and (15.27). Therefore, at fixed m we have (D- 2)
independent amplitudes, instead of D - 1. Thus,
D - 2 00
a(O) = - -2 - L m .
(15.44)
m=l
96 Introduction to the Relatiui.tic String Theor"
The divergent series in (15.41) should be regularized by the Riemann
function (see Eqs. (9.41)-(9.44)). As a result, one gets
D-2
0:(0) = --.
24
(15.45)
This procedure of renormalization of the divergent series (15.44) turns out
to be in agreement with the requirement that in the noncovariant quan-
tum theory of the free relativistic string the Poincare algebra is fulfilled
in the 26-dimensional space-time (see Sec. 9). However, for the string
with fixed ends this consideration is absolutely formal. The substitution of
(15.45) into (15.40) leads to the static quark-antiquark potential obtained
in papersllS-120
(15.46)
This formula can be used only at positive values of the expression under
the radical sign.
So, using the time-like gauge we have shown in this section that the
relativistic string connecting the quark-antiquark generates between them
a static potential of the form
where the constant eo is a free parameter of the theory to be determined
from experiment (see also Refs. 131-132) . The proposed method of quanti-
zation of the relativistic string with fixed ends does not lead to restrictions
on the space-time dimension, and there are no tachyon states. An impor-
tant point in this approach is the fulfilment of the constraints and gauge
conditions in quantum theory only as the matrix elements of Ln over phys-
ical state vectors.
16. Open Strings in a Background Electromagnetic Field
The theory of superstrings with the Planck dimension permits probably
to unify all the fundamental interactions.
4o
-
44
The characteristic peculiar-
ities of the string dynamics should be displayed on the Planck scales. In the
energy region accessible to experiment now and in the nearest future, the
string theory is reduced to an infinite set of the local fields, the mass of the
corresponding quanta rising from zero to infinity. It is this field-theoretic
String with MQ,8,e, at End.. Charged String 97
content of the string theories that is interesting first of all for the contem-
porary elementary particle physics. For the investigation of the local fields
which arise in the low energy limit in the interacting string field theory, the
background-field method appears to be convenient.l33-l35 In particular, it
has been shown that the requirement of the conformal invariance in quan-
tum theory of the string propagating in external fields results in proper
equations of motion for these fields.l33.l34
It turns out that the investigation of the classical dynamics of the string
in background fields enables one to obtain some results on the local fields
generated by interacting strings.
The relativistic string in an external electromagnetic field as a model for
hadrons has been considered in Refs. 136-140. Recently, the interest in this
problem has arisen due to the modern string approach to the unification of
all the fundamental interactions in elementary particle physics.14l-l44
These two sections are devoted to the classical and quantum theory
of an open bosonic string propagating in a constant homogeneous electro-
magnetic field in D-dimensional space-time. Open strings of two types
are considered: neutral strings with charges at ends obeying the relation
ql + q2 = 0 and charged strings for which ql + q2 =I O. It will be shown
that in order to obtain the consistent string theory for some configurations
of an external electromagnetic field F,...,(x)' the strength of the electric
field should be less than its critical value. This condition is satisfied au-
tomatically when the background electromagnetic field is described by the
Born-Infeld Lagrangian instead of the Maxwell Lagrangian.l35.l42
A critical value of the external electric field The world sheet swept
out by the string in the D-dimensional space-time is described by string
coordinates x,. (uO, ul), J1. = 0,1, ... , D - 1; uO = 1', u
l
= a. The
reparametrization-invariant action for the open bosonic string propagat-
ing in a background electromagnetic field A,. (x) is
(16.1 )
(16.2)
where T is the string tension. The trajectories of the string ends on the
(1', a)-plane are labelled by C
a
, a = 1,2. They are specified by two functions
aa(1'), a = 1,2. In the embedding space-time the metric with signature
(+, -, -, ... ) is used. According to (16.1)' with the electromagnetic field
98 Introduction to the Relativi,tic String Theor"
only the string ends interact, the electric charges of which are q1 and q2
respectively. As a consequence, the external electromagnetic field alters
only the boundary conditions in the string dynamics.
As in the free string case, one can choose the orthonormal gauge
{5: X/)2 = 0, 5: = Brx, x' = Bax . (16.3)
The string coordinates obey the equation of motion
- = 0, p. = 0, 1, ... , D - 1 ,
and the boundary conditions
I /1'" ( . /1 III) 0
+ + + J.'IIX U = ,
(16.4)
(16.5)
(16.6)
The variation of functions U a (T), a = 1, 2 in action (2.1) does not lead to
new equations as compared with (16.3)-{16.5). Therefore, without loss of
generality one can put, as in the free string case, U1 = 0 and U2 = 1r. This
essentially simplifies the boundary conditions (16.5)
I /1 ' " 0 0 I /2'" 0 (167)
+ J.'IIX = , U = , - = , u = 11"
However, as it will be shown further, it is convenient to use the boundary
conditions in the form (16.5) when we are looking for the light-like gauge
which should be consistent with the boundary conditions.
In addition to Eqs. (16.3), (16.4) and (16.7) the following condition
should be satisfied at any point of the string world surface: the vector
must be time-like 5:
2
> 0 and by virtue of (16.3) the vector must
be space-like x/2 < O. It means that in the hyperbolic boundary problem
(16.4)' (16.3) and (16.7) T is the evolutionary parameter and u is the space-
like parameter which labels the points along the string. These conditions
ensure the absence of superlight velocities in the theory.
By the 0{1, D - I)-transformation the matrix can be put in the
block diagonal form
b
diag ( F, F, ... , F) ,
Foil =
W
(1) (2) (d)
if D is even,
{
(I) (2) (d)
diag{ F , F, ... , F , 0), if D is odd.
(16.8)
b A special configuration of the background electromagnetic field, the so-caUed isotropic
electromagnetic field, that cannot be transformed to the form (1608) will be considered
in Sec. 17.
String with M(ulel at Endl. Charged String
99
(A)
Here, d is an integer of (D/2) and F, A = 1,2, ... , d are the (2 X 2)-
matrices
w = (0 -E) (l+a) = ( 0
-E 0 , F -Ha
Ha)
o '
a = 1,2, ... ,d - 1 .
(16.9)
Further, we put for definiteness that D is an even number.
Let us define the matrix F2 with the elements
(16. 10)
From (16.8) and (16.9) one gets
The quantities E and H a in (16.9) can be expressed in terms of invari-
ants of the tensor F: . If D = 4, one gets
(16.12)
where
4ft = F,wF/JI/, 212 = F/JI/F/JI/ .
In the general case it is easier to represent E and H a III terms of the
eigenvalues of the tensor F;:' which are roots of the equation
detllF: - ) . . 5 ~ II = 0 .
(16.13)
These eigenvalues are obviously Lorentz-invariants. The relation between
E, Ha and>' is given by
d - l
(>.2 _ E2) II (>.2 + ~ ) = 0 .
(16.14)
a=l
For simplicity, we shall further use E and H a instead of the correspond-
ing Lorentz-invariant expressions.
It is easy to show now that the boundary conditions (16.7) immediately
lead to the following restriction on the external electric field E
~ Ef < 1, a = 1,2.
(16.15)
100 Introduction to the &lativi.tic String Theorll
In reality, from (16.7) it follows that
12 __ (qa) 2 F FI-'v' P .
x - T PI-' X Xv,
a = 1,2 . (16.16)
In (16.16) one should put u = 0 if a = 1 and u = 11" if a = 2. In the left-hand
side of (16.16) x/2 can be substituted according to (16.3) by _:i;2
(16.17)
Taking into account (16.11) we obtain
[1 - Ef] [(:i;0)2 - (:i;1)2]
= 'f [1 + Ha f] [(:i;a)2 + (:i;a+l)2], a = 1,2.
(16.18)
As noted above, at any inner point of the string world sheet the condition
:i;2 > 0 should be satisfied. On boundaries we can impose, as in the free
string case, a more general condition
(16.19)
If
i=2,3, ... ,D-1, a=1,2. (16.20)
Then Eq. (16.19) gives (:i;0)2 - (:i;1)2 > O. As a result, we get from (16.18)
the restriction (16.15). The string motions obeying (16.20) cannot be elim-
inated by any physical considerations because 'in this way the motion of the
string as a whole in directions perpendicular to the external electric field
should also be forbidden. Hence, the consistent classical theory of the open
bosonic string without superlight velocities can be formulated only in the
case when the external electric field obeys the condition (16.15) . It should
be noted that this result is obtained without any assumption about the
dependence of the background field F,.v on x.
The light-like gauge In Chap. 2, it has been shown that only by using
the light-like gauge one can solve the orthonormal gauge conditions (9.24)
in the free string theory to represent the dependent string coordinates as
squared functions of the independent (transverse) variables. In particular,
101
the squared mass being positive in the free string theory can also be shown
in the light-like gauge. It turns out that in the presence of an external
electric field the light-like gauge cannot be imposed in a way similar to the
free string theory
n",x'" = const :f 0, n",x'''' = 0 , (16.21)
where n'" is a constant light-like vector
(16.22)
Indeed, using (16.7) and (16.21) one gets
n"'fl Xli = 0 a = 0, n"'f2 Xli = 0 a = 11'"
",II' ",II'
(16.23)
Equations (16.23) by virtue of (16.8) and (16.22) give
(16.24)
It means that the vector X'" (T, a) on the boundary is not time-like but
is space-like. Hence, the gauge conditions (16.21) cannot be used in the
presence of an external electric field .
If the charges at the string ends obey the condition ql = -q2 = q,
then the light-like gauge can be generalized consistently to the case when
an external electric field is different from zero. The action of a string like
that propagating in the background electromagnetic field can be written
as136-140
S = -T !! d
2
uv'19T + q !! .
(16.25)
E E
An open bosonic string with charges at the ends obeying the condition
ql + q2 = 0 will be called the neutral string. In the opposite case when
ql + q2 :f 0, we shall say that the string is charged.
The boundary conditions (16.5) for the neutral string takes the form
(16.26)
102 Introduction to the Relatiuiltic String Theorll
To obtain consistent light-like gauge conditions for the neutral string
in an external electromagnetic field, we project the boundary conditions
(16.26) onto a constant light-like vector n"
nx' + nix + (nx + n I x')iT = 0 , a = a a ( r) , a = 1, 2 . ( 16.27)
For simplicity, the Lorentz indices are suppressed. Now, we choose the
gauge imposing the following conditions
nx' + nix = 0, nx + nix' = nP/(T1r) ,
where P" is the total canonical momentum of the string
P" = fo'''' dap"( r, a) ,
p"(r,a) = - a ~ = T(x" + V x ~ .
ax,.
(16.28)
(16.29)
(16.30)
Here, C is the Lagrangian density for the action (16.25). Now, we assume
that F,.v(x) = const. In this case, P" in (16.29) is a conserved Noether
invariant corresponding to the symmetry of the action (16.25) under the
boosts
x" -+ x" + 6x", 6x" = const. (16.31)
It should be noted that such a conserved vector exists only in the theory of
the neutral string (ql + q2 = 0). If the string has a net charge (ql + q2 =1= 0),
then the action (16.1) is not invariant under the transformations (16.31).
It is easy to show that the drawback discussed above does not arise in the
gauge (16.28). Furthermore, it follows from (16.27) that iTa(r) = 0, a = 1,2,
when nP =1= o. It was shown in Ref. 137 that imposing the gauge conditions,
(16.28) is equivalent to passing to new parameters: T (j = tP (r a).
Neutral-string dynamics in the light-like gauge in an external
constant homogeneous electromagnetic field In this case, the string
dynamics is determined by the equations of motion
x,. - x",. = 0, J1. = 0, 1, . . . , D - 1 , (16.32)
the orthonormal gauge conditions
(x x')2 = 0 , (16.33)
Strirl9 with MlU.e. at EniU. Charged Strirl9 103
and by the light-like gauge conditions
'I' fliP' '1' fliP I nl'PI'
nl'x + nil Xp = 0, nl'x + nil Xp = ----y;;- ,
(16.34)
nl'nl' = 0, nO = n
l
= 1, n
2
= n
2
= . . . = n
D
-
l
= 0 .
In addition, the string coordinates must obey the boundary conditions
I f '11 0
xI' + I'IIX = ,
a = 0,11' .
Let us introduce new variables
x
O
xl
x = --=--
..;2'
e
a
= x
2a
+ ix2a+l, Q = 1,2, ... , d - 1 = (D/2) - 1 .
The light-like gauge conditions (16.34) now take the form
1- .-
X = ex ,
P-
. - I-
X = ex + Tlr '
e - !IE
- T .
The boundary conditions (16.35) can be written as
x
'
ei = 0,
e
a
- i h ~ = 0 ,
Q = 1,2, ... ,(D/2) -1,
In (16.39) there is no summation over Q.
(16.35)
(16.36)
(16.37)
(16.38)
(16.39)
The light-like gauge (16.37) enables one to solve Eq. (16.33) for i and
x
'

. + Tlr (' 2 12 . ')
X = 2P- X..L +X..L - 2ex..Lx..L ,
1+ Tlr [ (' 2 12) . I 1
x = - 2P- e X..L +X..L - 2X..Lx..L ,
( 16.40)
where x..L{r,a) are transverse coordinates of the string
(
2 3 D-l)
X..L = x , x , ,x (16.41)
104 Introduction to the Relatiuiltic String Theo'1l
Equations (16.40) are in ,agreement with the equations of motion (16.32)
and with the boundary conditions (16.38)' (16.39) in the following sense:
if the transverse components x.l. (r, u) obey Eq. (16.32) and boundary con-
ditions (16.39), then the longitudinal components ::i; and x' expressed
in terms of X.l. and according to (16.40) satisfy Eqs. (16.32) and the
boundary conditions (16.38). To prove this, it should be taken into account
that the product vanishes on the boundaries due to (16.39) . This
enables us to consider the transverse components X.l. (r, u) as independent
dynamical variables and longitudinal coordinates as dependent ones.
The equations of motion (16.32) and the edge conditions (16.39) for
the independent variables X.l. (r, u) represent d - 1 independent boundary
eigenvalue problems. To obtain the whole solution, it is enough to consider
only one of these problems
e - e" = 0, e = e( r, u) ,
-00 < r < +00 , 0 u 11' ;
f - ihe = 0, u = 0,11' .
(16.42)
(16.43)
For simplicity, the index Q: is suppressed. It follows from (16.42) that
(16.44)
The boundary conditions (16.43) at u = 0 give,
( r)( 1 - i h) = ( ... ( r )( 1 + i h) . (16.45)
To satisfy (16.45), it is sufficient to put
= w(r}(l ih) . (16.46)
After substituting (16.46) into the boundary conditions (16.43) at u = 11'
we obtain
w(r + 11') =w(r-7r) . (16.47)
Therefore, the function w(r) is periodic with a period 211' . It allows one
to expand w(r) in the Fourier series and to get for e(r, u) the following
representation
+00
e(r,u) = ar+ihau+c+ 2::' e-mren(cosnu+hsinnu) , (16.48)
V
7rT
n
=_00 n
String with M/U.e. at End.. Charged String 105
where a, c and en are complex quantities. It should be noted here that
there is no usual relation en = e-n, where the bar denotes the complex
conjugation. The prime of the sum in (16.48) means that the term with
n = 0 is absent.
Let us introduce the momentum variables in a way analogous to (16.36)
"a (7", u) = p2a + ip2a+l, a = 1,2, ... , d - 1 .
(16.49)
Here, (p2,p3, ... ,pD-l) = P.l are transverse components of the canonical
momentum density (16.30). Substituting (16.30) and (16.48) into (16.49)
we obtain
"a(r,u) = T(e
a
- ihae'a)
+00
= Ta
a
(l + + (1 + L:'
-inr ca
e <"n cos nu .
n=-oo
From (16.50) it follows that
p2a + ip2a+l
aa = ( 2)' a = 1,2, ... , (D /2) - 1 ,
7rT 1 + ha
(16.50)
(16.51)
where (P2, p3, .. . , pD-l) = P.l are transverse components of the total
momentum of the string (16.29).
Now, we define the squared mass of the string in the usual way
(16.52)
where pI-' is the conserved total momentum of the string (16.29). Using
(16.29) and (16.30) we obtain the following expression for p+ in terms of
the independent transverse variables
p+ = (1 - e
2
) fa" (xl + x1)du
2 "(D/2)-1
= (1- e
2
) r du L: (Ua + fa e
a
) .
10 a=l
(16.53)
The substitution of (16.48) and (16.53) into (16.52) gives
(D/2)-1 2 h
2
+00, (D/2)-1
M2 _ e + a p2 T ( 2) ( 2 )-a a
-- l+h2 a.l+ 7r l-e l+ha enen,
a=l a n=-oo a=l
(16.54)
106 Introduction to the Relatiui6tic String Theory
where = (p2a)2 +
From (16.54) one immediately gets two peculiarities of the mass spec-
trum of the neutral open string in an external electromagnetic field.
i) if the electric field exceeds the critical value e
2
> 1, then M2 < 0,
ii) the motion of the string as a whole in the transverse direction gives
the tachyonic contribution to M2 (the first term in the right-hand side of
(16.54)). Probably, this tachyonic contribution to M2 is analogous to the
new instability of the bosonic string in the dilaton background field found
in Ref. 145.
In Refs. 137, 138 an attempt has been made to redefine the mass of the
string in the external electromagnetic field in the following way
(16.55)
where p' = (1 - j2)-1 P. It allowed to remove the tachyonic contribution
from the motion of the string as a whole in the transverse directions. But
the physical basis for this definition of the string mass has not been found.
Therefore, we shall further use Eqs. (16.52) and (16.54).
Let us compare (16.54) with the squared mass spectrum of the free open
bosonic string
(16.56)
n=1 i=1
{
i -j} _ dj c
en, em - -to 0Rm, i, i = 1,2, .. . , D - 2 , (16.57)
where { ... , ... } are the Poisson brackets. For this purpose, we introduce,
into (16.54), new Fourier amplitudes instead of e::. These new amplitudes
should obey the same Poisson brackets as in (16.57) . The expansions (16.48)
and (16.50) can be inverted
r (T) 1/2
en = ei nr 10 dcrcosncr{ -; [ea(r,cr) + ea(r,-cr)]
1 (11")1/2 }
T '7
a
(r,cr) ,n>O .
The variables e
a
(r, cr) and '7
P
(r, cr) have the usual Poisson brackets
{ea(cr), eP(cr')} = {'7
a
(cr), '7
P
(a')}
= {ea (cr), '7
P
(cr')} = {e" (cr), 1i
P
(cr')} = 0,
{e"(cr), '7
P
(cr')} = {ea(cr), 1i
P
(cr')} = 2o
a
pO(cr - cr') .
(16.58)
(16.59)
String with MIU.e. at End". Charf1ed String 107
The argument T, which is the same in all the functions in (16.59), is dropped
for simplicity. From (16.58) and (16.59) it follows that
n,m> o.
Let us introduce new amplitudes
a a (:a
(
1 + h2 ) 1/2
a n = ~ <'n'
(D/2)-l+a = ~ ?
(
h
2 ) 1/2
an 2n <'-n ,
n> 0, O! = 1,2, ... ,(D/2) - 1 ,
with the Poisson brackets
{ a ~ a!.} = - iO'iOnm, i,j = 1,2, . . . ,D - 2.
Substituting (16.61) into (16.54) one obtains
where
CXJ D -2
M2 = -Mt
2
r + 21rT(I- /:2) L L n ~ a ~ ,
n=1 .=1
(D/2)-1 2 h
2
M2 _ '" /: + a p2
tr - ~ 1 + h2 a.l.
a = 1 a
(16.60)
(16.61)
(16.62)
(16.63)
(16.64)
Thus, the distance between mass levels decrease (1 - e
2
) times as compared
with the free string case.
Now, we consider the reference frame in which the total canonical mo-
mentum of the string has a vanishing projection onto the electric field
pI = o.
(16.65)
In this reference frame the energy of the string po turns out to be
( 16.66)
108
Introduction to the Relativi.tic String Theorll
Thus, in the classical theory when e
2
< 1 the energy of the neutral string in
an external constant homogeneous electromagnetic field is strictly positive.
In quantum theory in Eq. (16.66) the tachyonic contribution appears
which is caused by zero point fluctuations of the harmonic oscillators
17. The Open String With a Net Charge in an External
Electromagnetic Field
(16.67)
In this section, we consider the open bosonic string with a net charge
(ql + q2 i= 0) propagating in a background electromagnetic field. In this
case, the action (16.1) is not invariant under transformations (16. 31) . As
a consequence, the total canonical momentum of the string pp. is not con-
served. Hence, the squared mass of the string M2 is not conserved too.
In addition, it is not known how the light-like gauge conditions of the free
string theory should be generalized to the case of the charged string prop-
agating in an external electric field.
At first, we consider as a background field , a constant homogeneous
magnetic field. Without loss of generality, one can choose a gauge for the
electromagnetic potential Ap.(x) such that Ao(x) = Adx) = O. In this case,
the components pO and pI of the total canonical momentum of the string
are obviously conserved. Instead of the squared mass of the string we shall
consider the total energy of the string in the reference frame where pI = O.
Thus, we will now analyse the basic equations in the problem under
consideration. The equations of motion (16.32) and orthonormal gauge
conditions (16.33) remain unchanged. The boundary conditions (16.7) are
written as
X'O = x'I = 0, (j = 0, 7r ,
e'a - ihIae
a
= 0, (j = 0 ,
'a + ih
2a
e
a
= 0, (j = 7r ,
Q = 1,2, . . . , (D/2) - 1, h
l a
= qIHa/T , h
2a
= q2Ha/T .
In (17.2) and (17.3) there is no summation over Q.
(17.1)
(17.2)
(17.3)
The light-like gauge is defined in the same way as in the free-string case
np.x'P. = 0, np.xp. = np.PP./(T7r) , (17.4)
StriRIJ with MIU.e. at End". Charged StriRIJ 109
where n"P" is projection of the total canonical momentum of the string
onto the constant light-like vector n", n"n" = 0, nO = n
1
= 1, n
2
= n
3
=
... = n
D
-
1
= o. As it was noted above, this projection is conserved in the
case under consideration. The gauge conditions (17.4) are written in terms
of light-front variables as follows
x'- = 0, x
P-
T1f
(17.5)
Solution of the orthonormal gauge conditions (16.33) with the help of
(17.5) gives
. + _ T1f (.2 + 12)
X - 2P- X .L X.L'
'+ T1f. 1
X = -X.LX.L
P-
(17.6)
It is easy to show in the same way as in the preceding section that Eqs. (17.6)
are consistent with the equations of motion (16.32) and boundary condi-
tions (17.1) . Therefore the transverse coordinates of the string X.L (T, a) can
again be considered as independent dynamical variables.
To find solutions to the boundary conditions (17.2) and (17.3) we put
(17.7)
where C1 and C2 are constants. Substitution of (17.7) into (17.2) and (17.3)
results in the relation between the constants C1, C2,
and in the equation defining the string frequencies
where
From (17.9) one gets
sin(.A + e)1f = a ,
1
lei < - .
2
.An = n - e, n = 0, 1, 2, ....
(17.8)
(17.9)
(17.10)
(17.11)
Thus, the eigenfunctions of the boundary value problem under considera-
tion are proportional to the following expression
En(r, a) = e'(n- .)T cos[(n - e)a + ed, n = 0, 1, . . . ,
(17.12)
110 Introduction to the Relatiui.tic String Theorll
where tg 1 = hI'
For e
a
(r, u) we have the expansion
Let us write the analogous expression for the density of the canonical
momentum
'1
a
(r,u) =p2a(r,u) +ip2a+l(r,u) , a= 1,2, ... ,(D/2) -1,
ae . 2
U) = - = - L - Ua) . (17.14)
a=1
The potential for the constant homogeneous electromagnetic field
= = const can be taken in the form
= . (17.15)
From (17.13)-(17.15) we obtain
The eigenfunctions
(17.17)
obey the following orthogonality relations
f" 2
(An + Am) if) duun(u)um(u) - L haun(ua)Um(Ua) = Onm
1r
(n - e:) .
o a=1
(17.18)
Multiplying (17.18) by exp [i(An - Am)r] we get the orthogonality relation
for functions en (r, u)
(17.19)
String with Ma86e6 at Endl. Charged String 111
The bar means the complex conjugation and the usual notation
(17.20)
is used. Also, every un(u) and en(r,u) is orthogonal in this inner product
to a constant mode
(17.21)
Now we can use the orthogonality relations (17. 18)' (17.19) and (17.21)
to invert the expansions (17.13) and (17.16) and express the Fourier
amplitudes e:: in terms of ea(r,u) and pa(r,u)
(
T) 1/2 {fr -a {
= -; 10 duen(r, u) T-
1
'7
a
(r, u)
+i ea(r,u)} ,
Qa= a 1 a
hI + h2 10 t 2 a=1
a = 1,2, ... , (Dj2) - 1 .
(17.22)
From (16.59) and (17.22) we get the Poisson brackets for the Fourier am-
plitudes
{e:, = , n, m = 0, 1, 2, ... ,
(17.23)
-a P} _ -0 2i 1
{Q ,Q - ap T h
a
+ ha
1 2
The other Poisson brackets are equal to zero.
In quantum theory we have the following commutators
(17.24)
112 Introduction to Relativi6tic String Thea",
It is convenient to introduce the following creation and annihilation oper-
ators
= \/2(n + en = \h(n - b: , n > 0 ,
e
a
_ { ag , > 0 ,
o - .j _ ag, < 0 ,
a!] = = SapSnm, [ag, ag] = SaP, n, m > 0 .
(17.25)
Using Eq. (16.53) with e = 0 we obtain in the reference frame where pI = 0
". (D/2)-1
(pO)2 = T211" fa da ?; (( e
a
+ {a) . (17.26)
Substitution of (17.13) into (17.26) gives
+00 (D/2)-1
(pO)2 = TlI" L L (17.27)
n=-oo a=l
Thus, at the classical level, the squared energy of the string in the chosen
reference frame is strictly positive.
Let us write (17.27) in terms of the new Fourier amplitudes introduced
in (17.25)
(pO)' 2.T (Df,-' {1<'lagag + ';[(n + + (n - ea)b
a
6
al
}
(17.28)
Thus, the external magnetic field results in splitting of each level in the
free string spectrum into two new ones with eigenfrequencies (n ea). In
quantum theory, zero-point fluctuations have to be taken into account in
(17.28). Their contribution E5 to (17.28) is
(D/2)-1 [ 00 00 1
= TlI" Z;(n - ea) + Z;(n + ea) + leal
(17.29)
The regularized sum in (17.29) can be obtained with the help of the Rie-
mann zeta-function
68
00
dz,q) = L(q+n)-z . (17.30)
n=O
113
Taking into account that
1 1
d- l, q) = 2
q
(1 - q) - 12
(17.31)
we get for (17.29)
(17.32)
The charged string in background electric and magnetic fields
As it was noted above, the light-like gauge from the free string theory
cannot be generalized to this case. C Therefore, we may develop here a
formalism analogous to the covariant approach in the free string theory. For
this purpose, one has to construct the solution of the equations of motion
(16.4) which obeys the boundary conditions (16.7) and then to demand the
fulfilment of the orthonormal gauge conditions (16.3)' i.e., to construct the
Virasoro operators. In this subsection, we consider how these operators
are modified in the theory of a charged open bosonic string (ql + q2 'I 0)
propagating in background electric and magnetic fields.
The solution for the transverse variables X..L (r, a) obtained in the previ-
ous section remains obviously without changes. For the longitudinal com-
ponents x (r, a) we have the following boundary conditions
x'elX=O,O'=O, (17.33)
x' T e2x = 0, a = 11" , e
a
= qaE IT, a = 1,2 .
(17.34)
The eigenfunctions of this boundary value problem can be obtained
from (17. 12) by the replacement ha -+ ie
a
, a = 1,2 for x+ and ha -+ -ie
a
,
a = 1,2 for x-. This gives
;(r,O') = e-i(nip)r cos[(n ip)O' T iPl] ,
(17.35)
where
(17.36)
CIt should be noted that in the theory of a free closed bosonic string there is no complete
light-like gauge which enables one to eliminate all the unphysical degrees of freedom.
The condition of invariance with respect to the global translations of the parameter a
cannot be solved as an algebraic equation.
U6
114
Introduction to the Relativiltic String Theo'1l
The eigenfrequencies of the string in the case under consideration turn out
to be complex numbers
\=n':p n 012
An ., =, , , ...
This entails the expon-ential increase of the solution
when l' --+ oo.
Taking into account Eqs. (17.14) and (17.15) one obtains
p(1',O') = [pO(1', 0') pI( 1', 0')1/v'2
2
= T:i:(1',O') =f (E/2) L qaO(O' - O'a)x(1',O') .
a=1
(17.37)
(17.38)
(17.39)
The expansions (17.38) and (17.39) can be inverted and one can write
the amplitudes e;!' in terms of x( 1',0') and p (1',0'). For this purpose, the
orthogonality relation for eigenfunctions
(17.40)
should be used. This relation can be obtained from (17.18) by the substi-
tution ha --+ ie
a
, a = 1,2. The result is
Using (17.38), (17.39) and (17.41) one gets
= +
1 2
=f 2" L eao(O' - O'a)] x(1', O')}, n = 0, 1, ...
a=1
As (0') = (0') = u:! n (0'), one can easily verify that
e:!n = n = 0,1, ....
(17.42)
(17.43)
String with MIU,e, at Endl. Charged String
115
The bar denotes as before the complex conjugation.
We write here the Poisson brackets for the canonical variables x (T, cr)
and p(T,cr)
{xl'(cr)'pV(cr')} = -gl'V5(cr - cr') gl'V = diag(l, -1, - 1, ... ) ,
{x+(cr),p-(cr)} = {x-(cr),p+(cr')} = 5(cr- cr') , (17.44)
{x+(cr), p+ (cr')} = {x- (cr), p- (cr')} = 0 .
Now we can calculate the Poisson brackets for the amplitudes e;!= using
(17.42) and (17.44)
n,m=0,I,2, .... (17.45)
The other Poisson brackets vanish.
The transition to the quantum theory is accomplished in the usual way
e;;.] = e;;.} = n, m = 0, 1, 2,. .. .. (17.46)
It is convenient to introduce instead of e;!=, the ordinary creation and an-
nihilation Fock operators by the formulae
v'2e; = r
= n> 0 ,
v'2et = y'P(ao + ao) , v'2e
o
= iy'P(ao - ao), p > 0 ,
v'2et = iViP/(ao - ao) , v'2eo = ViP/(ao + ao), p < 0 ,
(17.47)
where new operators n = 1,2, ... and ao obey the following com-
mutation relations
= -5
nm
a:"] = 5
nm
,[ao, ao] = 1 ,
= = a:"] = a:"] = lao, ao] = lao, ao] = 0 ,
= = aolO) = 0, n,m = 1,2, ... . (17.48)
It is easy to verify that Eqs. (17.47) are in agreement with (17.43) and
(17.46).
The Virasoro operators Ln are introduced in the usual way
+00
(x x')2 = - L e-
in
(1"T<7) Ln, Ln = L_
n
. (17.49)
n=-oo
116 Introduction to tM Relativi.tic String Theory
In Ln we separate the contribution from the longitudinal components x
and transverse variables x
2
, x
3
, ,X
D
-
1
(17.50)
The first term in (17.50) can be represented due to (17.38) in the form
+00
= - L : .
(17.51)
m =- (X)
It is convenient to calculate the commutator of the Virasoro operators sep-
arately for and Lnl.' This commutator will differ from the correspond-
ing Poisson brackets
{Ln' Lm} = - i(n - m)Ln+m ,
(17.52)
only by the anomaly term. The straightforward way to obtain this anomaly
contribution is the calculation of the vacuum expectation value of this com-
mutator. For this purpose, the following formulae should be used
;;.IO) = - ,
= + ,
= bnObmO ;;.IO) = bnObmO ,
(17.53)
where 8(n) is the usual step function. Using the Wick theorem
8
and (17.53)
we get
1
= b
n
+
m
,0[6(n
3
- n) + np2] .
The transverse part of the Virasoro operators is defined by
(D/2}-1
Lnl. = L
a=1
(17.54)
(17.55)
According to (17.25) the nonvanishing vacuum expectation values of the
product of two operators are
(orenmIO) = -2(n + e)b
nm
[8(-n) + b
no
8(-e)] ,
(OIne-mID) = 2(n + e)b
nm
[8(n) + 8
n
,08(e)].
(17.56)
String with Mru.e. at End". Charged String
117
Taking into account (17.56) we obtain
(17.57)
This result differs slightly from the analogous expression obtained in Ref.
142 by a direct calculation of the commutator [ L ~ L ~ l .
Finally, the Virasoro algebra in the external electromagnetic field is
(17.58)
Transition to the normal ordering of operators in (17.51) and (17.55) results
in the appearance of a constant which is analogous to a(O) in the free string
theory. In the case under consideration this constant is equal to
(17.59)
The contribution to the anomaly term in the algebra (17.58) due to the
external electromagnetic field is linear in n. Therefore it can be eliminated
by the shift of the operator L
Q
As a consequence, there will be no longer
a massless photon in the theory under consideration. Instead we will get
a massive charged spin-1 particle propagating in external electromagnetic
field.
The isotropic background electromagnetic field A crucial point
in the consideration presented above was the reduction of the electromag-
netic strength tensor Fl'v to a special block-diagonal form by an appropri-
ate Lorentz transformation in the D-dimensional space-time. In the four-
dimensional space-time, a form like that of Fl'v corresponds to the parallel
electric and magnetic fields. But there are such configurations of Fl'v that
cannot be transformed to this block-diagonal form. For example, a configu-
ration of that sort arises in the four-dimensional case when the electric and
magnetic fields are equal in magnitude and perpendicular to each other (the
so-called isotropic configuration of the electromagnetic field). In this su b-
section we investigate the stability of the open bosonic string in the isotropic
background electromagnetic field in the D-dimensional space-time.
147
118
Introduction to the Relativi8tic String Theory
The operator M2 for the neutral string (ql + q2 = 0) in an isotropic
background electromagnetic field has been found in Ref. 136. It contains
also the tachyonic contribution from translational motions of the string as
a whole. Therefore a more direct method to study the string stability is the
analysis of the boundary conditions on the string coordinates in the case of
an external isotropic electromagnetic field, as well.
The open bosonic string in a background electromagnetic field is de-
scribed by the equations of motion (16.4), orthonormal gauge conditions
(16.3) and by the boundary conditions (16.7). We assume that the matrix
F
llv
has the following block-diagonal form
F=
'
(17.60)
where A is a (4 X 4)-matrix of the form
0 R 0 0
A=
-R 0 0 R
0 0 0 0
(17.61)
0 -R 0 0
and B is the block-diagonal (D - 4) X (D - 4)-matrix
(17.62)
Here, Bi, i = 1,2, . . . , (D /2) - 2 are (2 X 2)-matrices
B- -1
0
- Hi
-Hi 1
o .
(17.63)
We assume for definiteness that D is an even number.
As it has been shown in Sec. 16, the constraint on the external electric
field E in the case of parallel electric and magnetic fields results from the
violation of the conditions
at the string ends when
X'2 < 0
- ,
a=I,2.
(17.64)
(17.65)
String with Ma.ue. a.t Ew. Charged String 119
The condition (17.64) entails the absence of superlight velocities in the
string dynamics.
Let us show that in the case of isotropic background fields with the
tensor FI-'v of form (17.60)-(17.63) the condition (17.64) at the ends of the
string is not violated for the arbitrary values of R (x) and H; (x). For this
purpose, the explicit form of the matrix (F2)I-'v = FJ. Fpv is required. By
a direct calculation we get
2 I A2 0 I
F = 0 B2 ,
(17.66)
where
A= (17.67)
Using the boundary conditions (16.7) with (17.66) and (17.67) we obtain
12_ (Qa.R)2(.O . 3)2
X -- - x-x
T
2 (D/2)-2
- ~ ) L Ht[(:i;2i+2)2 + (:i;2i+3)2] < 0 ,
(17.68)
;=1
a=l,cr=Oj a=2,cr=1r.
Th us, in the case of isotropic fields the condition (17.64) at the string ends
is always satisfied. Hence, the velocities of the charges placed at the string
ends in this background electromagnetic field do not exceed the velocity of
light, and the constraints on the external field is absent here.
In conclusion, the following should be noted. All the pa-
pers
133
,l35,142-144,14S dealing with derivation of the effective action of the
Abelian field generated by strings do not take into account the isotropic
configuration of this field. Therefore, it is interesting to derive this effec-
tive action anew taking into consideration all the possible configurations of
the Abelian background field. It should be emphasized that the isotropic
configuration of the electromagnetic field takes place only in a space-time
with the Minkowski signature. In the Euclidean version of the theory, it
does not appear.
Chapter 4
GEOMETRICAL APPROACH IN THE RELATIVISTIC
STRING THEORY
18. Mathematical Introduction
Fundamental difficulties that arose in constructing quantum theory of
the relativistic string (nonphysical dimensionality of space-time, tachyon
states) stimulated a search for nonstandard approaches in that model. One
of the approaches, a geometrical approach, describes the world surface of
the relativistic string with the differential forms obeying the integrability
conditions, the Gauss-Petersson-Codazzi-Ricci nonlinear partial differential
equations.149 In the geometrical approach, these equations are considered
as equations of motion giving the string dynamics. a A remarkable property
of those equations is the possibility to construct their general solution.
150
The simplest equations of that sort are the Liouville nonlinear equation and
a simplified system of two Lund-Regge nonlinear equations. The Liouville
equation appears, besides in the relativistic string, also in the study of
instanton solutions in non-Abelian gauge theories; whereas the Lund-Regge
system, in a nonlinear two-dimensional sigma-model with the symmetry
group 80(4).
Before we proceed to quantization of the relativistic string within the
geometrical approach, it is necessary to study, at a classical level, the non-
linear equations describing the string dynamics in this approach, which is
just the subject of the present chapter.
UFirst such a consideration of the string model has been proposed in the paper: R.
Omnes, Nucl. Phil', B149 (1979) 269.
121
122
Introduction to the Relativiatic Stnng Theorll
Let there be an n-dimensional flat space with an arbitrary signature of
the metric, the coordinates of which will be denoted by xl-', J.L = 0, 1, ... ,n-I.
If in the space an m-dimensional surface (m :c:; n) is given, this means that
there given is a set of n functions of m variables 1.
1
, , urn,
(18.1)
with
rank II II == rank = m .
(18.2)
In this case, it is said that an m-dimensional surface is given parametrically,
and the parameters 1.1, 1.2, , urn represent curvilinear coordinates on it.
Functions (18.1) provide exhaustive information on the surface.
4S
, S2, 149
However, a number of cases do not require such a detailed description
of the surface, for instance, when we investigate the whole class of surfaces
specified by a common property or local properties of a surface around a
given point. In such cases it is convenient to define the surface through its
basic differential forms.
In the surface theory, quadratic and linear differential forms are em-
ployed. The first were introduced into geometry by Gauss, while the
second, by Darboux and Cartan. The latter forms naturally arise in con-
sidering a moving basis on the surface. lSI
To start with, let us at every point of the surface with coordinates
{u
1
,u
2
, .. ,urn} construct an orthonormalized basis formed of a set of n
vectors,
I-' (1 2 rn)
e
a
1. ,1. , ,1. , a = 1,2, .. . , n ; (18.3)
n-l
2: = eaCab, e
a
= 1, cl-' = 1 , (18.4)
1-"=0
(in (18.4) there is no summation over a), where the first m vectors er,
i = 1, ... , m are tangents to surface (18.1)' and the remaining n-m vectors
Q = m + 1, .. . , n are normals to the same surface. The factors cl-' and
e
a
in (18.4) allow for the metric signature of the enveloping space. We shall
put the origin of basis (18.3) at the point xl-'( 1. 1,1.2, , urn). Recall that
the set of m vectors tangent to surface (18.1) is given by partial derivatives
i = 1,2, .. . , m. In the general case, these vectors are not orthonormal,
Grometn'cal Approach in the Relativi$tic String Theory 123
but owing to (18.2) they are certainly independent at every point of the
surface. Therefore, one can always construct basis (18.3).
It turns out that if a basis like that is known at every point of a surface,
the surface may also be reconstructed from it. If we are interested in the lo-
cal properties of the surface, then it suffices to find the differential equations
that define the change of basis (18.3) when its origin xl'(u
1
, u
2
, . ,urn)
moves along the surface. These equations describe the change of a radius-
vector of the surface,
dxl' = W' .' 1 m
= , ... , , (18.5)
and of the basis unit vectors
(18.6)
when the basis {xl', a = 1, ... ,n} moves along the surface. Here wi and
0: are linear differential forms,
,_ '(1 fn)d i
w - Wi u , . .. ,u U, (18.7)
Ob Ob ( 1 fn)d k
a . = a . lk u , ... ,u u,
i, j, k = 1, ... ,m, a, b = 1, .. . ,n . (18.8)
Summation over repeated indices is meant in the relevant limits. Differen-
tiation of (18.4) gives
n b n a 0
"a. eb + "b ea = ,
a, b = 1, ... ,n,
(there is no summation over a and b).
Equations (18.5) and (18.6) are a system of linear first-order partial
differential equations of the following form
dBr(u) = L (u)B.(u)du' (18.9)
,=1
or, which is equivalent,
i=l, . .. ,m, (18.10)
where Br(u) is a set of variables {xl', The functions Br(u) are subject to
the conditions (18.4). Therefore, Eqs. (18.9)' (18.10)' and (18.4) represent a
124 Introduction to the Relatiui.tic String Theory
system of a mixed type.
152
The integrability conditions of equations (18.10)
are as follows,
()r ,ii = ()r,ii , i, j = 1, ... , m . (18.11)
These conditions result in the following constraints on the coefficient ma-
trices Wi in Eq. (18.10),
W:
i
- ~ ~ + [Wi, Wi] = 0, i, j = 1,2, ... , m . (18.12)
To rewrite the integrability conditions (18.11) in terms of the differen-
tial forms wi and n;." , it is convenient to apply the formalism of exterior
differentiation.
151
,153 We will only need the rule of exterior differentiation of
linear forms. Let a be a linear differential form in the basis {du
1
, . .. , dum},
a = adu)dui, i = 1,2, ... , m .
Then, the exterior differential of that form, da, is given by
. aadu). . L ..
da = da 1\ du' = --.-du' 1\ du' = (a - a ' )du 1\ du'
au' I " , , ' ,
(18.13)
i<i
where 1\ denotes the outer or wedge product,
( 18.14)
Exterior differentiation of the linear form a gives a second-order exterior
differential form, 2-form. Further, exterior differentiation produces higher-
order exterior forms. The function I (u
1
, ... , urn) is called the zeroth-order
differential form; its exterior differential coincides with the ordinary differ-
ential df = I ,idui.
Using (18.13) it is easy to verify that
d
2
f = ddl = 0, (18.15)
since I ,ii = I ,ii' Formulae (18.13) and (18.14) yield the rule of differentia-
tion of the outer product of two forms: If a and b are exterior differential
forms of order p and q, respectively, then
d(a 1\ b) = da 1\ b + (-l)Pa 1\ db. (18.16)
Geometrical Approach in the Relativi8tic String Theol'l/ 125
We will apply to the particular case of (18.16) when p = 1 and q = 0, i.e.,
b is merely the function f{ u
l
, . . . , u
m
),
d{aJ) = da . f - a 1\ df . (18.17)
The integrability conditions (18.11) of equations (18.9) are expressed in
terms of the exterior forms according to (18. 15) as follows,
(18.18)
Coming back to Eqs. (18.5) and (18.6) we may rewrite the integrability
conditions (18.18) for them in the form,
From (18.19)' with allowance for (18.5)' (18.6)' and (18.17)' we get
wi 1\ o oa = 0
] . ,
(18.19)
(18.20)
(18.21)
(18.22)
i,i,k, . . . = 1, ... ,m; a,b,c, .. . = 1, .. . ,n; a , {3" , . .. = m+ 1, . . . ,n.
Written for components, these equations read
inoa inoa - 0
wi "i olk - Wk"i oli - ,
i i inoi inoi
Wk,1 - W' ,k = w, "i olk - wk"i oll ,
n ob nob n oC n b noc n ob
"aoli ,k - uaolk ,i = "aolk"coli - uaoliuco lk .
(18.23)
(18.24)
(18.25)
Equations (18.23)- {18.25) in fact represent Eq. (18. 12) with the explicit
form of matrices '*'.
In handbooks of the differential geometry149,151,152 it is proved that
the system of equations of a mixed type (18.5), (18.6)' and (18.4)' pro-
vided that the integrability conditions (18.20)-{18.22) hold, has a solution
{x/J( u I, .. . , u
m
), ~ (u
l
, . .. , u
m
)} dependent on n{ n + 1) /2 integration con-
stants, where n is the dimensionality of the enveloping space. Different
choices of these constants correspond to translations and rotations of the
surface in the space as a whole. Thus, there is the following fundamental
126 Introduction to the Reiatiui3tic String Theor"
theorem (the D.-P. Bonnet theorem) in the surface theory: The differen-
tial forms wi and 0;' obeying the integrability conditions (18.23)-(18.25)
define the surface x"'(u
1
, ... ,u
m
) up to transformations from the group of
motions of the enveloping space.
Apart from linear forms in the surface theory, starting from the Gauss
works, use is made of quadratic differential forms . The first quadratic form,
gii' defines the intrinsic geometry of a surface,
i ,i::;::1
(18.26)
whereas the second differential forms bal
ii
define the external geometry of
the surface and are given by the formula
n
= L
(18.27)
a =m+l
where 'Vi is a covariant differentiation with respect to the metric gii,
(18.28)
Here, rf
i
are the Christoffel symbols for gii, 149
The first, gii' and second, b
alii
, quad.ratic forms define motion along the
surface of the basis formed of a set of m tangent vectors x"', i = 1, . . . ,m,
"
and n - m normals a = m + 1, .. . ,n from formula (18.3). Motion
of that basis is described by Eqs. (18.27) and analogous equations for the
normals a = m+ 1, .. . ,n, which are expressed in terms of gii and b
alii
as follows, b
a "'/a i - b ",,' k '" + '"
e
a
u - - x ,k LE:pVPaliep'
(18.29)
p
Here, in addition to the differential forms gii and b
alii
, we introduced the
so-called torsion vectors Vpali = -VaPli, a , f3 = m + 1, ... ,n; i = 1, .. . ,n.
bIn classical differential geometry52 Eqs . (18.27) and (18.29) are called the Gauss and
Weingarten derivative equations, respectively.
Geometrical Approach in the Relativistic String Theory 127
The integrability conditions of linear equations (18.27) and (18.29)
a
2
x" a e ~
aUjaU
i
' aU
i
aU
j
can be easily written if the known expression for the commutator of two
cova.riant derivatives is used,149
(18.30)
where Ak is an a.rbitra.ry cova.riant vector, and R
1
kij
IS the Riemann-
Christoffel curvature tensor for metric gij,
1
~ j k l = 2(9il ,jk + gjk,il - gik,jl - gjl ,ik)
+ gr. (r. ,jkrr,il - r .,j1rr,ik).
The integrability conditions a.re given by the Gauss equations
n
~ j k l = L t:a(balikbalil - ba lilbalik)'
a=rn+l
the Petersson-Codazzi equations
VI' kbalij - VI' jbal
ik
= L t:,8 (lI,8alkb,8lij - lI,8aljbalik)
,8
and by the Ricci equations
"/
(18.31)
(18.32)
(18.33)
Thus, if the set of functions gij, balij and lIa,8li obey Eqs. (18.31)-
(18.33)' it defines the surface x"(u
1
, . , urn) up to its motion in space
as a whole.
Equations (18.31)-(18.33) a.re completely equivalent to the integrability
conditions (18.23)-(18.25) and a.re actually those conditions in terms of
different variables.
128 Introduction to the Relativistic StnOng Theory
The linear and quadratic differential forms of a surface are related as
follows,
(18.34)
m
balii = - L ekwfO;:oli '
(18.35)
k=1
i,j,k,l, .. . =1, ... ,m (18.36)
0,/3", ... = m+ 1, .. . ,n.
The relativistic string model deals with two-dimensional surfaces em-
bedded into an n-dimensional pseudo-Euclidean space with the metric sig-
nature (+, -, -, . .. ). Therefore, in the case under consideration, el =
-E:. = 1, 8 = 2, . .. , n, Co = -C
r
= 1, r = 1, .. . , n - l.
Two-dimensional surfaces as compared to submanifolds of a higher di-
mensionality represent a distinguished case as the equations of embedding
(18.23)- (18.25) or (18.31)- (18.33) are the simplest equations. On a two-
dimensional surface it is always possible to take a curvilinear coordinate
system {1.l, 1.
2
} in which the metric tensor gii will be of a conformal-fiat
form
gIl = g22 , g12 = g21 = 0 ,
( 18.37)
and, which is more, the curvature tensor R;ikl for a two-dimensional surface
has only one essential component, R
1212

19. Minimal Surfaces
A specific feature of a minimal surface is that the mean curvatur e along
all normals ~ (1.
1
, 1.2), 0 = 3, .. . , n, to the surface at a given point (1. 1 , 1.2)
vanishes.
149
,154,155 The mean curvature ha along ~ is a trace of the cor-
responding tensor of the second quadratic form balii,
h
- b l
o
ogii
a - a OJ
(19.1)
In this way, for a minimal surface we have
ha = 0, 0 = m + 1, ... , n . (19.2)
The history of minimal surfaces dates back to the works by J.-1. La-
grange (1760). A century later, in 1864, a Belgian physicist, J. Plateau,
Geometrical Approach in the Relatiui6tic String Theory 129
established that soap films stretched on a closed wire frame composed a
surface whose area is minimal as compared to any other surface confined
by the same frame.
c
A mathematical problem of determining the minimal
surface covering a given frame was called the Plateau problem. Darboux
considered that problem as a great problem left by physics to geometry.
It is a difficult task to find another mathematical problem which would
attract attention of so many distinguished scientists. Among them were
L. Euler, J.-L. Lagrange, G. Monge, A.-M. Legendre, S.-D. Poisson, B.
Riemann, K.-Th. Weierstrass, O.-P. Bonnet, E. Beltrami, S. Lie, G. Dar-
boux, H. Schwarz, L. Bianchi, and many others. In our days, this field of
research remains still of interest for mathematicians.154- 156 It is probably
too early to speak about "a completed vigorous youth" of that problem and
the beginning of its "tired old age" .157
The problem of finding a minimal surface may be formulated as a vari-
ational problem for the functional
s = ! dmulgl 1/ 2 , (19.3)
where 9 = det Ilgiill, 9ii(u) is the induced metric (18.26) on the surface
xl'(u
1
, ... ,urn). Indeed, it can be shown
149
that the Euler equations for
(19.3) lead to conditions (19.2),
n
= ViYf L e a i i b a l i i e ~ = 0 .
a = m + l ( 19.4)
Here, the known rule of differentiation of the determinant,158
dg = dgikg
ik
9 = -gikdgik was used from which it immediately follows
that
ag ag
'm
1m
-- = --g g.
aXl' ,i aXl' ,i
Besides, we took account of equality (18.26) and definition (18.27)
for the coefficients of second quadratic forms balii ' Since normals
e ~ a = m + 1, . .. ,n, are linearly independent, we get
(19.5)
CPlateau, J ., Statique experimentale et theorique des liquides . Paris, 1873.
130
Introduction to the Relativi!tic StnOng Theory
From Eq. (19.4) it follows that coordinates of the minimal surface,
( u
1
, , U m ), are harmonic functions of the parameters u 1, , U m ,
m) - O
v v,X u, ... , u - , JJ = 0, 1, . . . , n - 1 , (19.6)
where
1
V'Vi = If:f-a V Iglg'J -a ,
V Igl u' u
J
(19.7)
is the Laplace-Beltrami operator for metric gii.
From (19.4) it is also seen that among n equations (19.6)' at least m
equations are corollaries of the others. The same conclusion can be made
by applying the second Noether theorem (see Refs. 159, 160 and Appendix
B) to the functional (19.3) that is invariant under the transformations
.,..,. Ii ( 1 m)
U = U , ,u , i = 1, ... ,m, (19.8)
with m arbitrary functions Ii. Actually, projecting (18.4) and (18.6) onto
we arrive at m Noether identities,
l"7il"7 - 0
viX = ,
j= 1, .. . ,m. (19.9)
Equation (19.6) for the coordinates of the minimal surface, ... ,
u
m
), are in general nonlinear partial differential equations of the second-
order since the metric tensor gii is expressed through by formula (18.26).
When the minimal surface is two-dimensional, it is possible on it, as on
any two-dimensional surface, to take a conformal-flat coordinate system
{u
1
, u
2
}, (18.37) , in which Eq. (19.6) get linearized,
= 0, JJ = 0, 1, ... , n - 1 . (19. 10)
In the relativistic string theory, one should, as shown in Chap. 1, consider
the hyperbolic metric gii, therefore, in (18.37) and (19.10) we take the lower
sign.
Thus, in our case the coordinates of the string world surface will obey
the following equations,
Geometrical Approach in the Relativistic String Theory 131
According to the previous section, the minimal surface may be described
either by its radius-vector xI'(u
1
,u
2
) subjected to Eqs. (19.11) and (19.12)
or by the set of variables 9ii, balii' and vaPli satisfying the conditions of
vanishing mean curvature (19.5) and the Gauss-Petersson-Codazzi-Ricci
Eqs. (18.31)-(18.33). Knowing solutions to Eqs. (19.11) and (19.12) we can
reconstruct 9ii, balii' and vaPli and obtain a solution to the corresponding
nonlinear partial differential Eqs. (18.31)-(18.33). The obtained solution
to the Gauss-Petersson-Codazzi-Ricci equations will be a general solution
if a representation for xI'(u
1
, 1.2) obeying (19.11) and (19.12) contains a
sufficient number of arbitrary functions.
It turns out that for this purpose it is convenient to introduce, in the
enveloping space, a special basis
151
,161 composed of two isotropic vectors
'1i and '1: = 0, i = 1,2, ('11 '12) = 1, and (n - 2) space-like orthogonal
unit vectors '1::, = -1, provided ('11'1a) = ('12'1a) = 0, ('1a'1p) = 0,
Q =1= (:3, Q,(:3 = 3,4, ... ,n. In terms of this basis, nonlinear Eq. (19.12)
are algebraic equations for coefficient functions which can easily be solved.
Before constructing an expansion for xI'(u
1
, 1.2) in the basis {'1::}, we
take advantage of the invariance of Eqs. (19.11) and (19.12) under conformal
transformations of the parameters 1.1 and 1.2
(19.13)
with arbitrary functions f and impose on the string coordinates xl'(ul, 1.2)
the following conditions,150,161
(
I' I' )2 2
X,ll X, 12 = -q ,
( 19.14)
in addition to (19.12), where q1 are arbitrary positive constants. Instead of
(19.14), one may take other conditions, as well; one possibility is examined
in Sec. 22.
Now, we shall construct an expansion for xI'( 1.1,1.2) in the basis {'1::}.
Let
(19.15)
be a general solution to Eq. (19.11). Then, owing to (19.12) and
1/1'- (1.-) should be isotropic vectors
(19.16)
132 Introduction to the Relativi$tic String Theorv
The prime denotes differentiation with respect to the function argument .
To satisfy (19.14), one should require that
(19.17)
We will look for expansions of tP (u) in the following form,
n-2
= A(U)['71 + B(U)'72 L ir(U)'7r+2] . (19.18)
r=1
Inserting (19.18) into (19.16) and (19. 17) we get
In this way, we arrive at the following representation for vectors (u), 150
(19.20)
Using these formulae we can write the following expression for the metric of
a two-dimensional minimal surface in an n-dimensional pseudo-Euclidean
space,
exp<p = (911)-1 = -(922)-1 =
= _ 4_ == An _2 (U1, u2) .
q+q- L
p
=l[f+p(u+) + i_ p(u-)]2
(19.21)
As we can see, formulae (19.20) and (19.21) allows us to express differential
forms of the minimal surface through 2(n - 2) arbitrary functions of a single
variable.
Geometrical Approach in the Relativi$tic String Theo'll 133
20. Nonlinear Equations in the Geometrical Theory of the
String and their General Solutions
Now, we shall explicitly derive the nonlinear equations describing the
string dynamics in the geometrical approach. General solutions to them
will be constructed with the use of expansions (19.20) and (19.21) . We
note immediately that these equations are far from trivial, i.e., they do
not reduce by a substitution to linear partial differential equations. The
nonlinear Liouville equation
l50
,l6l is the simplest of them.
Consider Eqs. (18.31}-(18.33) for a two-dimensional minimal surface
in the conformal-flat coordinate system (19.12). The conditions (19.5) in
those coordinates are written as follows,
balll = b
al22
, O! = 3, ... ,n . (20.1)
With the use of some algebra, from the Petersson-Codazzi Eqs. (18.32) we
can obtain
a n
au L (balll ba ll2)2 = 0 .
(20.2)
a=3
On the other hand, owing to (18 .27)'
n
L(b
a lu
b
a
ld
2
= .
(20.3)
a =3
This equality may be further continued if we take account of the explicit
form of the Christoffel symbols for the metric (19.12)
(20.4)
Indeed, substitution of (20.4) into (20.3) and allowance for (19.14) gives
n
L(ba lll bald2 = = = q!. (20.5)
a=3
Thus, the condition (19.4) on the coordinates of the minimal surface,
xl'(u
l
, u
2
), is consistent with Eq. (18.32) .
We shall first examine the simplest case of a relativistic string in a
three-dimensional Minkowski space. The Petersson-Codazzi Eqs . (18.32)
gIve
bU,l - b
I2
,2 = 0, b
U
,2 - b
12
, 1 = 0 ,
b
ll
+ b
12
= q+(u+}; b
ll
- b
12
= q_(u-), u = u
1
u
2
.
(20.6)
134 Introduction to the Relatiui6tic String Theory
Without loss of generality, the functions q( u) may be considered con-
stant. The Gauss Eq. (18.31) reduces to the Liouville equation
(20.7)
Here, the following formula for the curvature tensor in metric (19.12) was
used (see, for instance, Ref. 162)
1 -v> ( )
RI212 = -Ze CP,l1 - CP,22 .
Formula (19.21) with n = 3 for the metric tensor of the minima.l
in the three-dimensional space-time gives the well-knownl5l ,163,164 genera
solution to the Liouville Eq. (20.6)
4 I'
eV> = Al = --.,..-=-+:'--'-..,.....-':"":""-..-'-:---'--
q+q- [I+(u+) + 1-(u-)]2
(20.8)
Equation (20.6) is to be supplemented with the relevant bounda.rY con-
ditions. For a free string, from formulae (3.24) and (19.12) we get
cp(r, 0) = cp(r, 11") = +00,
(20.9)
whereas for a closed string, according to (3.26) and (3.29) the function
cp( r, 0") should obey the following boundary conditions
cp(r, 0) = cp(r, 211") .
(ZO.10)
To establish the boundary conditions on cp(r, 0") for a string with ma.ssive
d
.. h d . 1 . b (1Z.7)
en s movmg mat ree- ImenslOna space-tIme, we su stItute mtO
the Gauss derivation formula (18.28),
jJ CP, I jJ CP,2 jJ b jJ
x = - -x - - x - lle .
, 11 2 , I 2 ,2
The projection of boundary conditions (12.7) onto ijJ vanishes, wherea.s the
projection onto the normal ejJ gives
bll(r,O"i) =0, i=1,2.
(ZO.l1)
This equality may be satisfied with (20.6) and q+(u+) q, q_ (u- ) ::::= q.
And finally, projecting (12.7) onto x
'jJ
we get
165
cp'(r, O) = - (21/md exp{ -cp(r, 0)/2} ,
cp'(r, 1I") = (21/m2) exp{ -cp(r, 11")/2} . (ZO.12)
Geometrical Approach in the Relativi3tic String Theory 1:1 5
From the boundary conditions (12.7) in the theory of the rclativisti
string with massive ends it follows directly that the curvatures of traj t -
ries of the string ends are constant and equal to ,Irrli, i = 1,2. On all
be easily convinced in this fact using Eq. (12.7) and the definition of t il .
curvature k of the parametrized curve xl"(r), J1. = 0,1, ... ,n - 1,
In the textbooks on geometryl5l it is proved that a curve in an n-dimen-
sional space is defined completely by its (n - 1) invariants one of which is
the curvature k. In case n = 3 the trajectories of the massive ends of the
string should be hyperbolae, i.e., "pseudo-circles" with the radius (ml,) .
Indeed, one gets from the solution (13.14) for u = 0, 1r
Thus, in the geometrical approach the classical dynamics of a relativistic
string moving in a three-dimensional space-time is described by one nonlin-
ear Liouville Eq. (20.7) for the scalar function rp( r, u) obeying the boundary
conditions (20.9), (20.10) or (20.12). This may be a basis for construction
of a quantum theory of the relativistic string on a single Eq. (20.7) rather
than on vector Eqs. (4.1)-(4.3) . Some relevant results are expounded in
the next section.
It should be noted that the nonlinear Liouville equation with boundary
conditions of type (20.9) and (20.12) was intensively studiedl66- l76 in the
context of the relativistic-string quantum theory in subcritical dimension
proposed by Polyakov (see Sec. 30) .
With growing dimensionality of the space-time in which a string is mov-
ing, the number of equations in the system (18.31)-(18.33) increases dras-
tically, the number of functions gii, bal
ii
' and VaPli exceeding that of the
equations. However, the system gets much simplified if one properly chooses
the moving basis on the minimal surface. Actually, the derivation of the
Gauss-Petersson-Codazzi-Ricci Eqs. (18.31)-(18.33) will not alter if the ba-
SlS
(20.13)
is changed to a new basis following from (20.13) through a rotation from
the group SO(I,I) x SO(n - 2) that does not mix a tangent space of the
surface with its normal space ...
136
Introduction to the Relativi$tic String Theory
If the dimensionality of the enveloping space n 2: 4, in the space normal
to the two-dimensional minimal surface there are two orthogonal space-like
vectors which are naturally connected with the minimal surface,150 V
and V
1
x"2' According to (18.27) and (20.1)' the vector coincides
with V From Eq. (20.5) at = = q2 it follows that '
(20.14)
Therefore, it is natural to direct two normals to the minimal surface along
the vectors V and V for instance, along V whereas along
V Then, from (18.27) we immediately obtain
b
3
112 = b
4
111 = b
4
122 = bal
ii
= 0, Q = 5, . . . ,n, i, j = 1,2 . (20. 15)
The condition (20.5) can be satisfied with
b
3
111 = qcos(e/2) , b
4
112 = qsin(e/2)
(20.16)
In this case, the Gauss Eq. (18.31) assumes the form
<P,11 - <P,22 = 2q2 e
IP
cos e ,
- IP _ 2 _ 2
e - X,1 - - X,2 ,
(20.17)
which is valid for any dimensionality of the space enveloping the string
world surface.
With the use ofthe Petersson-Codazzi Eq. (18.32) at Q = 3,4 the torsion
vector /.I341i, i = 1,2, is expressed through the function e( u 1, u
2
) as follows,
(20.18)
In a four-dimensional space-time the system (18.31)- (18.33) reduces to
two nonlinear equations
(20.19)
where the function <p(u
1
, u
2
) defines a conformal-flat metric on the minimal
surface, gl1 = -g22 = e-
IP
, g12 = 0, and e( ul, u
2
) gives second quadratic
forms, b
3
1ii and b
4
1ij (i, j = 1,2), and the torsion vector /.I341i by formulae
(20.15), (20. 16)' and (20.18) .
A special choice of the normals and to the minimal surface imme-
diately allows us to derive from the general system (18.31)- (18.33) a sys-
tem of two equations for two functions <P and e, in distinction to Ref. 162,
Geometrical Approach in the Relalilliltic String ~ O I 1 131
where the normals e ~ and e ~ have by no means been fixed. In this work,
the authors should introduce auxiliary functions Cl that entered into final
equations as a difference, 9 = Cl+ - Cl_.
A general solution to the system (20.19) is obtained with the use of
formulae (19.20) and (19.21) as follows,
e'P = A2 , (20.20)
b4 112 [('il
1
X,2)2] 1/2
9 = arctg-
b
- = arctg (" )2
31 11 v 1X,1
(20.21)
To express 9 through arbitrary functions f (u) explicitly, it is conve-
nient to use, instead of formulae (19.15), (19.20), and (20.21), the first of
Eqs. (20.19) with (20.20), which gives
(20.22)
where
In Ref. 177, a general solution to Eq. (20.19) was derived by reduc-
ing these equations to a single Liouville equation for a complex function
cp + i9 = w,
(20.24)
Thus, mathematically, dynamics of the relativistic string in a four-
dimensional space-time is described by a single nonlinear Liouville
Eq. (20.24) for the complex function w(u
1
, 1.2). For a finite string, that
equation is to be supplemented with appropriate boundary conditions. We
will not dwell upon this case
178
and proceed to considering the geometri-
cal theory of the string in an n-dimensional space-time. That study may
turn out useful, for instance, for constructing a lin-expansion in the string
model, by analogy with nonlinear sigma-models.
138
Introduction to the Relatiuiltic String Theorll
We will start with examining the relativistic string In a five-
dimensional space-time. Here, a new system of three nonlinear equations
arises, which has not yet been met in the literature and for which a gen-
eral solution can be constructed explicitly. Directing the normals e3 and
e4 along V'!X,l and 'V
1
X,2, respectively, as described above, we obtain for-
mulae (20.15), (20.16)' (20.18)' and Eq. (20.17) . In addition to the old
variables of a four-dimensional space-time, there appear two new torsion
vectors 11351' and 11451', i = 1,2. The Petersson-Codazzi Eq. (18.32) at 0: = 5
give
113512 cos(1J /2) = 114511 sin(1J /2) ,
114512 sin(1J /2) = 113511 cos(1J /2) .
These equations will be satisfied if we put
113512 = h sin(1J /2) ,
114512 = P cos( IJ /2) ,
114511 = hcos(IJ/2), h = h(u
1
, 1.2) ,
113511 = psin(IJ/2), p = p(u
1
, 1.2) .
The Ricci Eq. (18.33) are now written in the form
lJ , ll - 1J ,22 - (h
2
- p2) sin IJ = 2q2 e'P sin IJ ,
sin(1J /2)(h,l - p,2) + cos(1J /2)(hlJ,l - plJ ,2) = 0 ,
cos(1J /2)(P,l - h,2) + sin(1J /2)(hlJ ,2 - plJ,d = 0 .
The substitution
/C,l = psin
2
(1J/2), /C,2 = hsin
2
(1J/2) ,
makes (20.28) an identity, whereas (20.29) changes to
(/C,lctg2(1J/2)),l = (/C,
2
ct g2(8/2}} ,2 .
(20.25)
(20.26)
(20.27)
(20.28)
(20.29)
(20.30)
(20.31)
In a final form, the system (18.31}-(18.33) in the case of a five-
dimensional enveloping space reduces to three nonlinear equations,
<P, ll - <P,22 = 2q2 e'P cos 8 ,
cos( IJ /2) (2 2 2
lJ,ll - 1J,22 + 2 sin
3
(1J/2) /C,l - /C,2) = 2q e'P cos IJ ,
(/C,lctg2(1J/2)),1 = (/C,
2
ct g2(8/2)b . (20.32)
Geomet,;cal Approach in the Relativiltic St,;ng Theo'1l
139
It is interesting to note that the latter of Eq. (20.32) is much t he same as
the second equation of the nonlinear Lund-Regge system.
179
General solution to the system (20.32) is
[(.,:;(1i2)) J
[ (',:;[J2)),J
(20.33)
The quantities A3 and D,3 are defined by formulae (19.21) and (20.23),
whereas the covariant derivative V ~ l is to be constructed from expansions
(19. 15) and (19.20).
A system of (n - 2) nonlinear equations describing the relativistic string
in an n-dimensional space-time has been derived in Ref. 180 through a
complete elimination of the functional arbitrariness in the embedding Eqs.
(18.31)- (18.33) . This system is expressed in terms of the light-cone vari-
ables ViE = u
1
+ u
2
and Vi17 = u
1
- u
2
as follows
'Pe" = q
2
e'PV1 - 111/;112 ,
.I. a + (1/;1/;,,) .I.a = q2.'P. I1 - 111/;112.I.a 3 4 1
'f'e" 1 - 111/;1I
2
'f'e ~ V 'f' , a= " ... ,n - j
n-l
111/;11
2
= I)1/;a )2 . (20.34)
a=3
Equations (20.34) are reduced to the nonlinear equations obtained earlier
by the following substitutions,
n = 3, 1/;a = 0, the Liouville Eq. (20.7)
n = 4, 1/;1 = sinO, Eq. (20.19)
n = 5, 1/;1 = sin 0 . cos It, 1/;2 = sin 0 . sin It, Eq. (20.32) .
So, in the relativistic-invariant gauge (19.14), the string classical dYIHlIlli f "
in an n-dimensional Minkowski space is described by the system of II IIlill l' "
Eq. (20.34). To construct the quantum theory for those equatioll tl, it I"
necessary to determine whether or not the system (20.34) is c IIIpl t'l,\' 1
integrable at a classical level.
140
Introduction to t ~ JUlati"j,tic String Theory
It should be noted of a similarity in form of Eq. (20.34) describing the
relativistic string in an n-dimensional space-time with equations of mo-
tion in nonlinear two-dimensional sigma-models with the symmetry group
SO(n).181-183
Another method of reduction of the Gauss-Petersson-Codazzi-Ricci
equations for the string world surface in an n-dimensional space-time was
proposed in Ref. 184. The possibility for constructing general solutions
to equations of the string type (20.32) and (20.34) was analysed in the
framework of a pure group-theoretical approach in Refs. 185-187.
21. Investigation of Soliton Solutions to the Liouville Equation.
Semi-classical Quantization
We now turn to the analysis of the Liouville Eq. (20.7) for a real-valued
function IP( T, a) describing the relativistic string in a three-dimensional
space-time. A general solution to that equation found by Liouville in
1853
163
i8 given by formula (20.8).
Consider particular solutions to that equation, solitons, d of the form
IP(T, a) = F(a - tiT) , (21.1)
where ltil < 1. It is quite difficult to separate solutions of that sort in
formula (20.8); however, it is easier to insert (21.1) into (20.7),177 which
gives an ordinary differential equation for F,
For R > 0, we have
(
m a-tiT-ao)
8 ~ ,
(21.2)
where m is an arbitrary constant which is, as shown below, a mass of soliton
(21.2). When R < 0, we have solitons of two types,
m
2
2 (m a - tiT - ao)
eXPIP2(T,a) = -IRI cosech - ~ ,
32 8 1 - v
2
(21.3)
m
2
(m a - VT - ao)
eXPIP3(T,a) = -IRI cosec
2
- ~
32 8 1- v
2
(21.4)
dEquation (20.7) in variables ur has been studied by the inverse scattering method in
Ref. 188. However, the soliton solutions of this equation have not been discussed from
the viewpoint of particle physics .
Geometrical Approach in the Relativi$tic String Theo'1l 141
The solutions (21.2) and (21.3) represent . solitary waves moving with
a velocity smaller than 1, whereas the solution (21.4) is a periodic soliton
describing the "comb" of waves. It should be noted that (21.3) and (21.4)
have nonintegrable singularities, exp(rp.) - z-2 as z --+ 0, Z = (<7 - VT
i = 1,2 and thus do not comply with usual requirements on
soliton solutions.
19o
However, to avoid complications in the terminology, we
shall also call these soliton solutions and will show that their singularities
do not produce serious difficulties.
Apart from one-soliton solution, Eq. (20.7)' as follows from results of
Ref. 188, has an n-soliton solution too. A solution like that describes one
soliton moving with an arbitrary velocity and (n - 1) solitons moving with
a unit velocity. From the n-soliton solution when n = lone can obtain the
soliton (21.2) but not (21.3) and (21.4) . For simplicity, here we shall only
consider one-soliton solutions.
The Lagrangian for the Liouville equation is of the form
(21.5)
The potential energy in this Lagrangian, V( rp) = Re'P, is a monotone func-
tion of variable rpj as a rule, the solitons are treated in the models with spon-
taneous symmetry breaking where V(rp) has at least two minima.191-193 In
the given model, this difference from the above models results in some pe-
culiarities, for instance, no topological charge can be introduced for solitons
of Eq. (20.7) in a standard manner.
We will show that to solutions (21.2)-(21.4) we may put in correspon-
dence the energy, momentum, and mass in a correct relativistic relation.
The energy-momentum tensor for solitons will be taken in the form
(21.6)
where Ta{3 is the canonical energy-momentum tensor of a field rp( T, (7) cor-
responding to the Lagrangian density (21.5)
ct, f3 = 0, Ij 11
00
= -11
11
= Ij va is the velocity vector of a soliton,
v
O
= (1 - v
2
)-1/2, vI = v(l - v
2
)- 1/2. The terms added in (21.6) to Ta{3
142 Introduction to the Relativi8tic String Theorll
do not depend upon the coordinates r, a and give integrals of the soliton
energy and momentum convergent at infinity,
pa = ! oaO[rpdr, a)]da, i = 1,2,3 .
Inserting into (21.7) solutions of rpdr, a) ((21.2)-(21.4)) we get
where
-m

vl- v
2
E- _ mIl
,-
vl- v
2
P _ mv }

vl- v
2
mI,v. '
P,=
V 1- v
2
12 = 10
00
dx cosech
2
x, 13 = 1011'/2 dx(cot
2
x - 1) .
(21.7)
(21.8)
Thus, in the first case, the soliton mass may be taken equal to the con-
stant m, whereas for solitons (21.3) and (21.4) the mass equals
mI" i = 1,2. The integrals I, divergent at zero may be regularized e.g., by
a cut-off; however, in what follows it will be sufficient that E, and P, in
formulae (21.8) met a correct relativistic relation. It is just this fact that
even in the classical theory allows us to associate solitons with particles
with a nonzero rest mass.
Now, we will investigate stability of solitons. First, we analyse static
soliton solutions defined by formulae (21.2)-(21.4) at v = O. To this end,
we write the solution to Eq. (20.7) in the form
rp(r,a) = rp,(r,a} + e'WT1jJ(a) . (21.9)
Upon substitution of it into (20.7) we obtain in the linear approximation an
equation for 1jJ(a) of the form of the one-dimensional Schrodinger equation
with the potential V[rp, (a)] = -R exp(-rpda)),
( - + V[rp;(a)]) 1jJ(a) = w
2
1jJ(a) , (21.10)
where
(21.11)
(21.12)
(21.13)
Geometrical Approach in the Relativi.tic StnOng Theory
143
If in Eq. (21.10) w
2
> 0, the solution fP;{CT) is stable in the classical the-
ory and owing to the relativistic invariance in two-dimensional (r, CT) space
fP'(r,CT) is also stable. When w
2
< 0, the correction to fP.(CT) in (21.9) grows
exponentially in r and the soliton is unstable.
It should be noted that, from a mathematical point of view, the pro-
cedure of investigation of the stability of soliton solutions in the linear
approximation is not quite rigorous
19
\ however, we will not consider that
problem in detail.
Equation (21.10) with potentials (21.11)-(21.13) can be solved
exactly.195,196 For potential (21.11) w
2
has a single negative value,
wi = -m/64, and a continuous spectrum starting from a translation mode
wo = o. Since wi < 0, the soliton solution fP1 (r, CT) is unstable even in the
classical theory.
For potential (21.12) w
2
has a continuous spectrum w
2
> 0 and the
translation mode Wo = 0 which again adjoins the continuous spectrum, the
solution fP2 (r, CT) is stable.
Potential (21.13) reduces to the Poschl- Teller potential.
195
,196
Periodicity of that potential is unimportant for solutions to Eq. (21.10)
since the neighbouring potential wells are separated by impenetrable barri-
ers. Therefore, we may limit our consideration to one well of that sort .
In this case, there are only a discrete spectrum ~ = m
2
(n + 1)2/64,
n = 1,2, ... , and a translation mode Wo = o. The solution fP3 (r, CT) is
stable.
Thus, to a soliton fPdr, CT) in the classical theory there corresponds an
unstable particle with mass m and with a life-time of the order 8m -1.
Solitons fP2 (r, CT) and fP3 (r, CT) describe stable particles.
Now, we turn to semi-classical quantization of soliton solutions in the
geometrical theory of the relativistic string. Several approaches have been
proposed as to how to construct the quantum theory of field models having
particle-like classicalsolutions.
191
,197,19s At first glance, the approaches are
not similar to each other in their ideas, however, principal equations for the
spectrum of states are almost the same. Without going into details, we will
consider the so-called canonical quantization of soliton solutions, the most
close to the standard field theory approach, although somewhat formaP98
To start with, we represent the field fP(r,CT) in the form
(21.14)
where fP;(CT-CTO), i = 1,2,3, are soliton solutions (21.2)-(21.4) at v = o. As
144
Introduction to the Relatiui,tic String Theor1l
coordinates of the system, we take the position of the centre of the soliton
mass, 170 (T) = 170 + tJT, and the field, !J!( T, a), with conjugate momenta,
PO(T) and p(T, a), respectively.
Upon substituting (21.14) into (21.6), we split the total Hamiltonian
into a free part and an interaction Hamiltonian, H = Ho + HI, where
Ho = m + 1/2 J da(p2 +!J!2 - R!J!2 eV") is the Hamiltonian of a particle with
mass m and field !J!(T, a) placed into an external classical field, -ReV". The
Hamiltonian HI describing interaction of !J!(T, a) with a soliton depends on
170, Po, !J!, and Pi its explicit form is quite complicated,198 and thus we shall
not write it here.
From the Hamilton equations with Ho it follows that
Next, we use a standard method of quantization In an external field
48
through the expansions,
k
p(T, a) = -<L(Wk/2P/2[bk!J!k(a)e-iWkT - bt!J!t (a)e
iWkT
] ,
k
where !J!k(a) is a complete set of solutions to Eq. (21.10) without the zeroth
mode,
L !J!k (a)!J!t (a') = 6(17 - a') - ,
k
where the symbol of summation Ek also stands for the integration over k,
if necessary. We postulate the canonical commutation relations
and construct the Hilbert space of vectors Ip,{k
i
}) = rtbt.lp) specified
by a common momentum P and a set of "meson" momenta {kilo On that
basis we may develop the perturbation theory in a standard way.
Upon going to the normal product of operators b
k
the free Hamiltonian
becomes
Ho = m + LWkbtbk .
k
(21.15)
Geometrical Approach in the Relativiltic String Theory 146
Calculating matrix elements of Ho over the state vectors Ip, {k;}), we obtai ll
the energy spectrum of the system in the zero approximation of perturba-
tion theory. It is clear that this is completely determined by the spectrum
w in Eq. (21.10).
The soliton (21.2), unstable in classical theory, will undoubt edly be
unstable in quantum theory as the contribution to the energy (21.15) from
the discrete spectrum in this case is pure imaginary.
The solution (21.3) in quantum theory is associated with a stable par-
ticle with mass mj and the field ,p( r, (7), with massless "mesons". The
number of singularities in classical solutions to the Liouville equation is
time_invariant199.2oo therefore transitions of soliton particles into meson
states are to be forbidden.
The periodic soliton (21.4) gives the richest spectrum,
Eo = m, En = m + (m/8)(n + 1), n = 1,2, ...
It is interesting that this spectrum is equidistant unless low-lying states
with energies Eo and E1 are considered. The distance between energy
equations is defined by the soliton mass, m/8, and may assume any values.
States of that spectrum are stationary only when neglecting the interaction
HI which induces transitions between them, i.e., actually there is a series
of resonances.
It is natural to treat a periodic soliton and a spectrum it generates
within the theory of the closed relativistic string. In a conventional ap-
proach, that model has an equidistant spectrum of stationary states (see
formula (4.25)). The fact that energy levels in the dual-resonance approach
are of zeroth width is an essential drawback from a physical point of view.
In this regard, the mass spectrum obtained by taking into account the
soliton solutions in the theory of the relativistic string is more realistic.
In conclusion, the following comment is to the point :
The basis of the geometrical approach to the relativistic string theory
is just the use of a single function 'P( r, (7) = -In:i;2 instead of the vari-
ables xl' (r, (7). From a standpoint of mathematics, the string coordinates
xl' (r, (7) and the function 'P( r, (7) provide the same information on dynam-
ics of the system: integration of the derivation formulae (18.5)' (18.6) or
(18.27)' (18.29) with the function 'P(r,<7), which is a solution to the Liou-
ville Eq. (20.7), reproduces the variables xl' (r, (7) .161 However, that change
from xl' (r, (7) to 'P( r, (7) cannot be considered as the canonical transforma-
tion, and what is more, the quantization in the variables xl'(r, (7) and in
146 Introduction to the Relativiltic Stritl{/ Theorll
11'( T, u) leads to different results. In this connection, a question arises as to
which variables are to be used to quantize nonlinear models. In our opinion,
the governing criterion here may be a physical. estimate of final results.
22. Parametrization t = T in the String Theory
As already mentioned, in the relativistic string model, a description of
the two-dimensional minimal surface of the Minkowski space is of interest
in which one of the curvilinear coordinates T coincides with the time coor-
dinate of the embedding space, xO = t. This is the so-called gauge t = T.
e
Geometrical description of the minimal surface by differential forms in the
parametrization t = T results in new nonlinear equations whose general so-
lution can be found by a method analogous to that expounded in Sec. 20.
150
In the parametrization t = T, the two-dimensional minimal surface em-
bedded into an n-dimensional pseudo-Euclidean Minkowski space is de-
scribed by an (n -I)-dimensional Euclidean vector x = {xl, x2, ... , x
n
-
l
}
dependent on two parameters, u
l
= T = xO = t and u
2
= u. Equations for
the minimal surface are now as follows (see (3.19) and (6.41)),
X,I1 -X,22 = 0,
2 2 1
X,l +X,2 = ,
X,l . X,2 = o.
(22.1)
(22.2)
Equations (22.2) require the following form of the metric tensor on the
surface x(u
l
, u
2
),
2 .20 2 20
gIl = X,l = SIn , g22 = X,2 = cos , g12 = g2l = 0 . (22.3)
In what follows, we shall need the corresponding Christoffel symbols,
rll = r ~ = O,lctgO,
ril = r ~ = -8,2 tg 8,
(22.4)
The two-dimensional surface x( u
l
, u
2
) in the (n -I)-dimensional Euclidean
space defined by Eqs. (22.1) and (22.2) is not minimal with respect to that
space as it does not fulfil the conditions
g'ibal
ii
= 0, Q = 3,4, . .. , n - 1 . (22.5)
eThis parametrization is widely used, e.g., in the theory of cosmic strings (see Sec . 26).
Geometrical Approach in the Relatiui8tic String Theory 147
Nevertheless, Eqs. (22. 1) and (22.2) in terms of the quadratic forms 9ij and
balij lead to the same equalities as Eq. (20.1),
bal11 = bal22 , a = 3,4, ... ,n - 1 . (22.6)
The only essential component of the curvature tensor in metric (22.3) is of
the form
162
R12l2 = sin(29) (9,11 - 9,22) .
(22.7)
The Gauss equation (18.31) is rewritten as follows,
n-l
sin(29)(9,11 - 9,22) = L - .
a=3
(22.8)
Construction of general solutions to the system of Eqs. (22.8), (18.32)
and (18.33) will be based, like in Sec. 20, on writing solutions to Eq. (22.1)
obeying nonlinear conditions (22.2) in a special basis.
We start with the simplest case of a three-dimensional space-time into
which the minimal surface is embedded. In the parametrization t = T, the
coordinates xl(u
l
, 1.2) and x2(u
l
, 1.2) define a plane that is a projection of
the minimal surface from the space {xO, xl, x
2
} onto the coordinate plane
x
l
x
2
. In this case, balij = 0 and lIa.8li = O. The only nontrivial equation of
the system (18.32), (18.33)' and (22.8) is the Gauss Eq. (22.8) that reduces
to the d' Alembert equation
9,11 - 9,22 = 0 . (22.9)
For this simple case we shall expound the whole scheme of obtaining general
solutions to the system (18.31)-(18.33). So, we shall take a solution to
Eqs. (22.1) and (22.2) for the two-dimensional radius-vector x( 1.1,1.2) in
the form,
x(u
l
, 1.2) =.+(1.+) -._(1.-), = 1,u = 1.1 1.2,
(22.10)
(22.11)
According to (22.3) the function 9(1.1,1.2) is given by
(22.12)
148 Introduction to the Relati"i,tic Stn"ng Theorll
Inserting here (22.10) and (22.11) we arrive at the general solution to
Eq. (22.9)
[
1 - cos( tp+ + tp_)] 1/2 1
9(u
1
, u
2
) = arctan ( ) = -[tp+(u+) + tp_ (u- )] .
1 + cos tp+ + tp_ 2
(22.13)
Next, let us consider a four-dimensional pseudo-Euclidean space embed-
ding the minimal surface. In this case, Eqs. (18.32), (18.33), and (22.8) will
not be so trivial as Eq. (22.9).
In the parametrization t = T , the minimal surface is described by a
three-component Euclidean vector x( u
1
, u
2
) that defines the projection of
that surface from the four-dimensional Minkowski space into the conven-
tional three-dimensional Euclidean space. The system of Eqs. (18.32),
(18.33), and (22.8), with allowance for (22.4) and (22.6), can be shown
without difficulty to reduce to two nonlinear equations
(22.14)
where the function K( u
1
, u
2
) defines coefficients of the second quadratic
form
b
u
= b
22
= K,2 . cot 9, b
12
= K,l . cot 9 . (22.15)
The system of Eqs. (22.14) differs from the known Lund-Regge
equations
119
by the absence of the term sin 9 cos 9 in the first equation.
Equation (22.14) can be derived from system (20.32) in the limit tp -+ -00
and 9 -+ 29. However, how to obtain a general solution to Eqs. (22.14) on
the basis of the solution to system (20.32) is not yet clear. Therefore, we
will construct the general solution to the system of nonlinear Eq. (22.14)
anew.
We shall again take the vector x( u
1
, u
2
) in the form (22.10) and express
~ (u) in terms of spherical coordinates in the three-dimensional Euclidean
space
p ~ (u) = ~ {sinw cos tp, sin w sin tp, cosw} ,
v 2 .
(22.16)
w = w(u), tp == tp(u).
Geometricai Approach in the Relativi.tic String Theory 149
Then for the function 0(u
1
,u
2
) (22.12) we get
0(U
1
,U
2
)
{
1- [sinw+ . sinw_ . cos('P+ + 'P-) - cosw+ . cosw_J }1/2
= arctan . . .
1 + [smw+ . smw_ . cos('P+ + 'P-) - cosw+ . cosw_J (22.17)
By using the cosines law for a spherical triangle
201
it is easy to verify
that 20 in (22.17) is the angle in the spherical triangle opposite the side
'P+ + 'P- with adjacent angles w+ and w_ .
System (22.16) contains only partial derivatives of the function
IC(U
1
, u
2
). According to derivative formulae (18.27) they are defined as
follows,
(22.18)
It is obvious that expansions (22.10) and (22.16) allow us to express IC,i,
i = 1,2, in terms of the four arbitrary functions of a single variable, 'P (u)
and w(u), therefore we will not present these cumbersome formulae.
Thus, in the gauge t = r, the relativistic string is described either by
one D' Alembert Eq. (22.9) (three-dimensional space-time) or by the system
of two explicitly integrable nonlinear Eq. (22.14) (four-dimensional space-
time). For a finite string, Eqs. (22.9) and (22.14) should be supplemented
with appropriate boundary conditions.
23. Gauge Freedom in the Moving Frame on the
String World Surface
Description of the world surface of the string in terms of basic differen-
tial forms contains, as noted above, the gauge freedom due to the SO(l,l)
X SO(n - 2)-rotations of the moving frame at any point of this surface.
The group SO(1,1) acts in the tangent plane; and the group SO(n - 2), in
the normal space. Here n is the dimension of the space-time in which the
string moves. This gauge freedom can be used for imposing special gauge
constraints on the differential forms of the string world surface. As a result,
these forms are defined by one D' Alembert equation, instead of the non-
linear Liouville Eq. (20.7) or the simplified Lund-Regge system (22.14) .202
In the case of the Liouville equation this fact is a direct consequence of
the Backlund transformation relating the solutions of the Liouville and
150
Introduction to the Relatiui$tic String Theorll
D' Alembert equations. The solution of the D' Alembert equation deter-
mines the rotation angle of the moving frame on the world surface that
entails the transition to a new gauge fixing and the solution of the Liou-
ville equation specifies the metric on the string world surface in the usual
orthonormal gauge.
Let us consider the classical theory of the relativistic string at first in the
three-dimensional space-time where it is reduced, as shown in Sec. 20, to
the nonlinear Liouville Eq. (20.7) for a real function. Taking into account
Eqs. (18.8), (18.20)' (18.21) and the condition (19.5) according to which
the world surface of the string is a minimal surface, we can represent the
matrices 0;' in the form
0
a,2 btl
0
~
b
I2
a a a a
Ob
a ,2
0
b
I2
Ob
~
0
btl
aII =
a a
' a12 =
a a
b
ll
b
I2
0
b
I2
b
ll
0
a a a a
The integrability condition (18.24) is written obviously as
Putting a
2
= exp( - 'P) and substituting (23.1) into (23.2) we obtain
'P, ll - 'P,22 = 2q+(u+)q_ (u-) exp 'P ,
bll,l - b
I2
,2 = 0 ,
b
ll
,2 - b
12
, l = 0 ,
b
ll
+ b
12
= q+ (u+) ,
b
tl
- b
12
=q_(u-), u=u
l
u
2
.
(23. 1)
(23.2)
(23.3)
(23.4)
(23.5)
(23.6)
Without loss of generality one can choose the functions q ( u ) as
constants
177
(23.7)
Now, we use the gauge freedom in the theory and introduce instead of
the basis { e ~ } a new one { e ~ } such that
(23.8)
Geometrical Approach in the Relativi3tic String Theory
with the matrix
ch>' sh>' 0
g[>.(u
1
,u
2
)] = sh>' ch>' 0
001
The differential forms 0: are transformed as gauge fields
Let us write explicitly the matrices OJ,
o
-Pf - >',1
- >"1
o
-qexp ch>'
q exp sh>'
-qexp ch>' -qexp sh>' 0
o
- >' ,2
o
qexp sh>'
-q exp ch>'
qexp sh>' qexp ch>' 0
151
(23.9)
(23. 10)
(23.11)
Now we take into account the Backlund transformation that connects
the solutions of the Liouville and D' Alembert equations. It has the form
203
+ >',2 = -]q] exp . ch>' ,
+ >',1 = ]q] exp . sh>' .
Here, the function rp( u
1
, u
2
) obeys the Liouville equation
rp,ll - rp,22 = 2l . e'P j
while the function >.(u
1
, u
2
), the D' Alembert equation
>',11 - >',22 = 0 .
If
(23.12)
(23.13)
(23.14)
(23.15)
152 Introduction to the Relativi8tic Strinl} Theorll
is the general solution of the Liouville Eq. (23. 13)' then the solution of the
D'Alembert Eq. (23.14) entering into the Ba.cklund transformation (23. 12)
is expressed also in terms of the functions f+(u+) and f-(u-)
(23. 16)
Now, we take in matrices (23.11) as the transformation parameter
>.(u
1
, u
2
) the solution (23.16) . Then, by virtue of (23.12) it follows that
the transformed matrices 0: obey the conditions
where sign q is
- 1 . -2
00.!i = - sign q 0 1.!i , i = 1,2 ,
sign q =
{
+1,
- 1,
q > 0,
q < o.
(23.17)
(23.18)
It is easy to verify by Eqs. (23.1) and (23.2) that in terms of the
transformed differential forms the theory of the relativistic string in three-
dimensional space-time is defined by t he D' Alembert equation
a ,l1 - a ,22 = 0 .
(23.19)
Equation (23.13) with q < 0 are the Kamimura gauge conditions in the
r elativistic string theory moving in the three-dimensional space-time.
2 0 4
When we go over to the four-dimensional Minkowski space-time, as
shown in Sec. 20, the string theory is reduced to the nonlinear Liouville
equation for a complex-valued function . It is convenient to direct unit
normals at every point of the string world sheet along the vectors 'V lXl'l
and 'V again. As a result, the matrices 0 describing the comoving
a = 1, ... ,4 on the string world sheet take the form
0
_e.1.
-qexp cos 0
2
_ e.1.
0 0 -qexp sin
Ob
2
a -!1 =
-qexp cos
!LA.
0 0
2
0 qexp sin
_!LA.
0
2
Geometrical Approach in the Relativi6tic StriRIJ Theory
o
_E..l.
2
_E..l.
2
o
o - q exp cos
153
-qexp sin
o
O
b
a12 =
qexp cos 0

2
o
o
_!W.
2
o
-qexp sin
(23.20)
The compatibility conditions (23.2) with the matrices given by (23.20)
reduce to the Liouville Eq. (20.24) for the complex-valued function
w = rp + ifJ
(23.21)
The gauge freedom in the theory enables the transition from the comov-
ing frame a = 1, ... ,4 to a new basis a = 1, ... ,4 with the matrix
from the SO(I,I) X SO(2)-group


= 0
o

o
o
o
o
cos ,p
sin ,p
o
o
- sin,p
cos ,p
(23.22)
We now explicitly write the matrix elements IT:, obtained by Eq. (23.10)
+ = qexp + ifJ)] . + i,p) ,
-1 .-3 1. .
0.11 - t0
2
ll = -"2(rp,2 + tfJ ,2) - (A,1 + t,p,d ,
-2 -3 [1 ]
0
112
+ iO
o

12
= -qexp "2(rp + ifJ) . + i,p) ,
(23.23)
-1 - 3 1
0.12 - i0
2

12
= -"2(rp,1 + ifJ,d - P,2 + i,p,2) .
Extending the Backlund transformation (23.12) to the complex-valued
functions rp+ifJ and +i,p and taking into account (23.23) one can impose
the following conditions on the matrices {1
-1 .-3 . -2 .-3
00. - t0
2
. = -sIgn q (01 + tOo) . (23.24)
From here, the Kamimura gauge conditions in the theory of the relativistic
string moving in four-dimensional space-time follow directly204
-1 -2 - 3 -3
00. =
1
. , 02. = -
0
., q < 0 .
(23.25)
154
Introduction to the ReialiIJi8tic String Theory
When these conditions are satisfied, the embedding Eqs. (18.20)-(18.22)
for the world sheet of the string are reduced to the D' Alembert equation
for one complex-valued function.2
4
Thus, the Kamimura gauge in the theory of the relativistic string moving
in 3- and 4-dimensional space-time is a direct consequence of the Backlund
transformation for the Liouville equation. In paper205 it was shown that
the Kamimura gauge can be considered as a consequence of the confor-
mal invariance of the theory of the relativistic string moving in the three-
dimensional space-time.
One can give another interpretation of the result obtained: the nonlinear
Liouville equation with two independent variables is gauge-equivalent t o
the D' Alembert equation. Recall that in the theory of nonlinear evolution
equations integrable by the inverse scattering method two equations are
called gauge-equivalent
206
if their linear spectral problems are relat ed by
the gauge transformation (23.10).
The time-like gauge t = T In this case, the nonlinear embedding
equations for differential forms of the string world surface are reduced to
the Eqs. (22.14), the general solution of which has been constructed in
Sec. 22. Here, it will be shown that the world surface of the free relativistic
string in the gauge t = T can be specified completely by one D' Alembert
equation for the scalar function 1/;(T, a),
1/;,TT - 1/;,uu = 0 .
(23.26)
In this gauge Eqs. (19.11) and (19.12) for string coordinates transform
into (22.1) and (22.2) . The string world surface is determined now either
by Eqs. (22.3) and (22.6) for the quadratic differential forms gil and b
i
] or
in terms of the linear forms wi and Oab by equations resulting from (18.34),
(18.35) and (22.3), (22.6)'
+ wiwi + + = 0 ,
= 0,
=
(23.27)
(23.28)
(23.29)
The embedding equations of Gauss (18.31) and Petersson-Codazzi (18.32)
are reduced to the two nonlinear Eq. (22.14). However, the geometrical ap-
proach allows us to proceed in this problem to the simple linear Eq. (23.26).
At any point of the surface the moving frame {el, e2, e3} can be rotated
around the normal e3 at an arbitrary angle u
2
). Under this rotation,
G eometricaJ Approach in the Relativi,tic String Theo'1l 155
the basic Eqs. (18.20)-(18.22) determining the surface obviously keep their
form. We shall use this freedom and choose the angle A( u
1
, u
2
) so that the
matrix elements Oabli, j = 1,2 will satisfy certain conditions. It appears
to be very convenient to take these conditions in the following form
0121i = i0
23
1i , j = 1,2 .
(23.30)
Here the appearance of the imaginary unit should not confuse us because
the rotation of the moving frame is an auxiliary mathematical method that
only simplifies Eqs. (18.20)-(18.22).
Let us prove the possibility to impose conditions (23.30) . By the tran-
sition from the basis {e
a
} to the new one
with the matrix
cos A sin A 0
R[A(U\U
2
)] = - sinA COSA 0
001
the differential form 0 transforms as follows
0-+ n = ROR-
1
+ dR R-
1
Imposing the condition
0121i = i0231i , j = 1,2 ,
we get from (23.33)
dA = -0
12
+ i(023 . cos A - 0
13
. sin A) .
(23.31)
(23.32)
(23 .33)
(23.34)
(23.35)
This equation will define the angle A(ul, u
2
) if its integrability condition
(23.36)
is fulfilled. Taking the exterior differential of the right-hand side of Eq.
(23.35) and using Eq. (18.22) we are convinced of the validity of Eq. (23.34).
156
Introduction to the Relativi,tic String Theory
The change of the basis (23.31) leads to the following transformations of
the differential forms wi
-k i (R-i)
w = w ik,
i, k = 1,2 . (23.37)
Without loss of generality we can put
-1 .
wI = sm <p, w ~ = 0, wi = 0,
-2
w
2
= cos <p (23.38)
Indeed, it is easy to prove using (23.32) that the conditions (23.27) and
(23.28) are satisfied for wi obtained from (23.37) and (23.38) . Equations
(18.20) - (18.22) and conditions (23.29) obviously keep their form in new
variables wi, n.
From Eqs. (18.20), (18.21)' (23.29)' (23.34) and (23.38) it follows that
the matrices nabli, j = 1,2 have the form
o - <P,2 i<P,l ' ctg<p
<P,2
o
~ < P 2
-i<P,l ,ctg<p - 1<P,2 0
o - <P,l i<P,2 ' ctg<p
<P,l
o (23.39)
- i<P,2 . ctg<p - t<P,l 0
The compatibility conditions (18.22) for matrices (23.39) result in one equa-
tion which we write here in variables e = ",1 + ",2, " = ",1 - ",2
<P,e" + ctg<p . <P,e . <P,,, = 0 .
(23.40)
On substituting ,p = cos <P, Eq. (23.40) reduces to the D' Alembert equation
,p,ll - ,p,22 = 0 . (23.41)
So, the classical dynamics of the relativistic string in the t = T gauge is
described by one Eq. (23.41) for the scalar function ,p( t, ol If the string
Geometrical Approach in the Relativiltic String Theo'll
157
is either of a finite extension, or closed, or it has point masses at the ends,
then Eq. (23.41) must be supplemented with the corresponding boundary
conditions. We shall not consider these possibilities here believing for sim-
plicity that the string is infinite -00 < u
i
< +00, i = 1,2.
The reduction of the relativistic string theory to one Eq. (23.41) for
the scalar function "'( t, a) can be useful not only on the classical level but
also for the construction of the quantum theory of this object. An impor-
tant advantage of this approach as compared with the Liouville equation in
quantum theory of the relativistic string is a clear meaning of the evolution
parameter T = U
1
, that is time t of the Minkowski space. As a conse-
quence, the Hamilton theory of the relativistic string in our approach can
be formulated straightaway.
The possibility to describe the classical dynamics of the string by the
D' Alembert Eq. (23.41) does not mean that the quantum theory of this ob-
ject is trivial. The problem arising here is that the commutation relations
imposed on the function ",I' (T, a) must be coordinated with the commuta-
tors of the string coordinates xl' (T, a).
In the geometrical approach, we have considered here only the local
properties of the string world surface. Its topological peculiarities (self-
intersections, folds, holes, etc.) have not been touched. They are a subject
of the string field theory that describes the string interactions on the second
quantized level
40
(see Sec. 30).
24. Relativistic String in the de Sitter Space-time
The gravitation may probably play an important part in the elemen-
tary particle physics. Therefore, the elementary particle models should
admit generalization to a space-time with curvature. In this section, we
consider in the geometrical approach the relativistic string model in the
four-dimensional de Sitter universe.
207
The Nambu-Goto action (2.22) can easily be generalized to the curved
space-time
(24.1)
where xl'( u 1, u
2
) is a parametric representation of the string world surface,
G I'v(x) is the metric tensor of the curved space-time, gij (u) = G I'v (x ) Xl'. xv .
' .J
158
Introduction to the Relativi8tic String Theory
is the induced metric on the string world surface, 9 = det II gij II,
p.,1/ = 0, 1,2,3; i, j = 1,2; u
1
= T, u
2
= u.
The variation of action (24.1) leads to the problem of determining
a two-dimensional minimal surface in the four-dimensional Riemannian
space with the metric G,,,,,(x) . Using the rule of differentiation of the
determinant 158
(24.2)
we get from (24.1) the Euler equations
(24.3)
The last term in (24.3) with allowance for the symmetry of gii can be
rewritten as follows
Substituting (24.4) into (24.3) we obtain
(24.5)
where []X" = is the covariant Laplace-Beltrami oper-
ator with respect to the induced metric on the string world surface; (G)
are the Christoffel symbols for the metric tensor G,.,,(x). If the space-time
is flat, (G) = 0, we obtain 155 the well known result in the theory of
minimal varieties in the Euclidean space []X" = 0 (see Eq. (19.6)) .
Further, we suppose that the space-time has a constant curvature (de
Sitter universe
208
). The metric tensor can be taken in this case in the
Riemannian form 149
(24.6)
where 11,." = diag (1, -1, -1, -1); x
2
= X"X"11,.". The constant K enters
into the definition of the Riemann curvature tensor of the de Sitter space-
time
(24.7)
Geometrical Approach in the Relo.tiviatic String Theory 159
In terms of the Weierstrass coordinates ZI-', J.I. = 1,2,3,4,5, the de Sitter
universe can be represented as a hyperboloid in the five-dimensional pseudo-
Euclidean space
209
(24.8)
where f: = + 1 for the de Sitter space-time of the first kind and f: = -1 for
the de Sitter space-time of the second kind. The constant K is connected
with R by the formula
(24.9)
Instead of solving Eq. (24.5) for the string co ordinates xl-' ( u
1
, U
2
) with
a given space-time metric GI-'v(x) (24.6) we shall use the differential ge-
ometry technique which describes the string world surface by its funda-
mental quadratic forms 9ii(U
1
, u
2
), balii(u1, u
2
) and torsion vectors lIaJ3li (=
-IIJ3
a
li), i,j = 1,2; Q, f3 = 3,4. The theorem on the embedding of the Rie-
mannian manifolds tells that these quantities will define a two-dimensional
surface embedded in a space-time of a constant curvature up to its motion
as a whole if and only if the equations of Gauss, Petersson-Codazzi and
Ricci are satisfied. When the enveloping space is a space of a constant
curvature, the Gauss equation takes the form, 149
4
R;ikl = - L (balikbalil - balilbalik) + K(9ikgil - gilgik) .
(24.10)
a=3
The Petersson-Codazzi and Ricci equations remain the same as in the case
of a flat enveloping space (see Eqs. (18.32) and (18.33)). In Eqs. (24.10)'
(18.32) and (18.33) the Latin indices take values 1, 2; and the Greek indices,
3, 4. The left-hand side of Eq. (24.10)' R;iklJ is the Riemann curvature
tensor defined by the metric tensor of the world surface of the string gii.
For the two-dimensional surface R;ikl has only one essential component
1
R1212 =2(2912,12 - g11 ,22 - g22,l1)
+ g'm(r m,21r,,12 - r m,22
r
"l1) , (24. 11)
where ri ,ik are the Christoffel symbols corresponding to the metric
tensor gii
ri,ik = (1/2)(gik,i + gii,k - gik,i) .
(24.12)
160
Introduction to the Relativi6tic String Theorll
The covariant differentiation in (18.32) is taken with respect to the inner
. (1 2)
metnc 9ii 1. , 1.
The metric of space-time G,.,,(x) does not enter into Eqs. (24.10),
(18.32) and (18.33) explicitly. The only consequence of the constant cur-
vature of space-time is the second term in the right-hand side of the Gauss
Eq. (24.10) .
From the equation of motion (24.5) it follows that the world sheet of
the string has to be a minimal surface
149
iib - 0
9 alii - ,
Cl! = 3,4 . (24.13)
On the string world surface the isometric coordinates 1.1,1.2 can be chosen
911 = -922 = e-V>, 912 = 921 = 0 . (24.14)
In this coordinate system conditions (24.13) take the form
ba lll = b
a
1
22
' Cl! = 3,4.
(24. 15)
Eliminating from the Codazzi Eq. (18.32) the torsion vector Vi = {VI =
V4311, V2 = V4312} and taking into account (24.15) we obtain
8 4
8u L (b
a lll
b
a112
)2 = 0 ,
a=3
4
L (b
alll
b
a112
)2 = q(u) ,
a=3
where q are two arbitrary functions. As in the case of the flat space-time,
it is convenient to introduce the following variables
b
3
1ll b
3
112 = q(u)COSCl! ,
b
4
1ll b
4
112 = H( u) sin Cl! ,
Cl!+ - Cl!_ = 0 , 911 = -922 = e-V>
In terms of the new variables the Gauss Eq. (24.10) and the Ricci Eq. (18.33)
part from the system (24.10)' (18.32) and (18.33)'
CP,ll - CP,22 = 2q+(u+)q_(u-)e'P cos(J + 2Ke- 'P ,
(J,ll-(J,22 = 2q+(u+)q_(u-)e'Psin(J,K = ~ / R 2
(24. 16)
Geometrical Approach in the Relati"i.tic String Theof'JI
161
but the Petersson-Codazzi Eqs. (18.32) take the form
(24.17)
The arbitrary functions q(u) can be eliminated from Eq. (24.16) by
the following change of variables
u = I duV2q(u) ,
= ecp(u1,u') ,
(I(u\u
2
) = B(u
l
,u
2
)
Now Eqs. (24.16) become
<P, ll - <P,22 = cos (I + K ,
(I,ll - (1 , 22 = sin (I ,
in which the mark is omitted for the notation simplicity.
The change of variables
u = IKII/4u,
exp <p( u
l
, u
2
) = IKI
I
/
2
exp cp( u
l
, u
2
) ,
(I(u
l
,u
2
) = 8(u
l
,u
2
) ,
enables us to remove the constant K f- 0 from Eqs. (24.18)
<P, ll - <P,22 = cos (I + ,
(I , ll - (1 , 22 = sin (I, c = 1 .
(24.18)
(24.19)
Thus, the equations of motion which completely determine, in the given ap-
proach, the relativistic string dynamics in the de Sitter space-time are just
Eqs. (24.19). These equations have to be complemented with the boundary
conditions if the relativistic string is of finite extension. For example, for a
closed string, 0 u
2
11", we have
Now, we can conclude that in the string model at the classical level
there are no restrictions on the space-time curvature as the absolute value
162 Introduction to the Relativi8tic String Theorll
of K does not enter into final Eq. (24.19). (Compare with the background
electromagnetic field in Sec. 16.)
When the curvature K tends to zero, then system (24.18) transforms
into one nonlinear Liouville equation for the complex-valued function
W = cP + i9 (see Sec. 20)
w
W,ll - W,22 = t!
IT we put in (24.19) 9 = 0, we obtain
{
2shcp,
CP, ll - CP,22 = 2chcp,
K<O,
K> 0,
(24.20)
(24.21)
which describes the metric of the minimal surface in the three-dimensional
de Sitter space-time. Equation (24.21) is a generalization to the non-definite
metric of the known result in differential geometry concerning the embed-
ding of the minimal surfaces into the three-dimensional space of a constant
curvature.
210
It turns out that the nonlinear Eq. (24.18)' which describe the rela-
tivistic string in the de Sitter space-time, admit the Lax representation.
Therefore, the inverse scattering method
189
,190 can be applied to their in-
vestigation.
For constructing the Lax operators explicitly, we shall exploit the
geometrical origin of this system. In differential geometry,149 the Gauss-
Petersson-Codazzi-Ricci Eqs. (24.10)' (18.32) and (18.33) are derived as
compatibility conditions of two systems of partial differential equations of
the first order which describe a moving frame on the string world surface.
Therefore, these last equations can be taken as a pair of the Lax opera-
tors. In the de Sitter space-time we introduce the Weierstrass coordinates
(24.8) and as a moving frame we take two tangent vectors Zi two unit
normals and vector ZI-'. In the theory of the vec-
tor has to be time-like, and vectors space-like. With this
fact and the choice of signs in the quadratic form (24.8), we obtain the
equati
ons
149
4
= - L - KgiiZI-' ,
a=3
= -baliigim Z::,. - L ,
(24.22)
a
i,j=1,2j 0,/3=3,4,
Geometrical Approach in the Relatiui$tic Strir19 Theory 163
that describe the motion of the basis
ZIJ
, (24.23)
along the string world surface. The contraction with gii of the first equation
in (24.22), by virtue of (24.13)' gives the known result
211
in the theory of
minimal varieties embedded in a space of a constant curvature, namely, the
action of the Laplace-Beltrami operator on vector ZIJ is
(24.24)
In contrast to Eq. (19.6) with m = 2 there is no curvilinear coordinate
system 1.1,1.2 in which Eq. (24.24) can be linearized. Therefore, its general
solution cannot be found, and as a consequence, the method of Sec. 20 for
obtaining the general solution of the corresponding embedding Eq. (24. 18)
is not applicable here.
Instead of vectors (24.23)' we introduce the orthonormal moving basis
(24.25)
Using (24.22) and (24.5) we obtain the following equations describing the
motion of basis (24.25) on the string world surface
5
ae
a
L
a, b = 1, . .. ,5, j = 1,2. (24.26)
au
i
= Wabeb,
b=1
Here, wi are 5 X 5 matrices from the Lie algebra of the SO(5) group,
0
i<p,2/
2 iQc 0
_ygR-
1
e'P/
2
-i<P,2/
2 0 0 -Q$ 0
wI =
-iQc 0 0
8,2/
2 0 , (24.27)
0
Q. -8,2/
2 0 0
_y'iR-
1
e
'P/
2
0 0 0 0
164 Introdudion to the Relatiui.tic String Theory
0 ir.p,I/2
0 -iQ. 0
-ir.p,I/2
0 - Qc 0
i.,fiR-
1
e'P/2
w
2
=
0 Qc
0
8,I/2
0
-iQ. 0 - 8,l/2
0 0
0
-i.,fiR-
l
e
'P/
2
0 0 0
{24.28}
where Qc = qe'P/2 cos{8/2}, Q. = qe'P/2 sin{8/2}.
We can reduce the dimension of the matrix Eq. {24.26} in the following
way. Generators of the SO{5} group admit the representation in terms of
4 X 4 matrices
212
1
11'1' = 4
h
l"')'1'], p.,v = 1, ... ,5,
{24.29}
where ')'1' are the Dirac matrices
{24.30}
In what follows, it is convenient to use the representation of ,),-matrices in
which ')'5 = ')'1 ')'2')'3')'4 is diagonal
i(Tk) (0 I)
o ,')'4 = I 0
, ')'5 =
(
-I 0)
o I '
{24.31}
where 17k, k = 1,2,3 are the Pauli matrices.
Now, we can correlate to Eq. {24.26} two systems of partial differential
equations each containing only four equations
j = 1,2 . {24.32}
Here, tPa{u
l
, u
2
) is a four-component function and oj are {4 x 4)-matrices
of the form
5
oj = 2 L wt1'')'1'')'1'' j = 1,2 .
(24.33)
1'>1'=1
Geometrical Approach in the Relativi8tic String Theo1ll
165
To write out these matrices explicitly, we introduce the notation,
(24.34)
where a ~ are again (2 X 2) matrices. Using Eqs. (24.26)-(24.33) we obtain
the following expansions of ~ in Eq. (24.34) in terms of the Pauli matrices
(24.35)
in which
Q = qel<, 2K = tp + ifJ , to = 1 .
The compatibility conditions of linear Eq. (24.32)
(24.36)
reduce to the system of two nonlinear Eq. (24.18). The transition to new
variables
(24.37)
enables us to introduce the spectral parameter ,\ into (24.32) . This change
of variables retains the form of system (24.18), while the matrix elements
O ~ b obtain factors (,\ ,\-1). We shall not perform here these simple
transformations.
In conclusion of this section we bring up basic results of other authors
concerning the dynamics of the relativistic string in a space-time with cur-
vature.
In Ref. 213 the equations of motion for a relativistic string in a curved
space-time (24.5) were derived from the gravitational field equation in the
same way as Einstein, Infeld and Hoffmann obtained the geodesic equation
of motion for the world-line singularity in Einstein's theory of gravity.
As in the flat space-time case, Eq. (24.5) can considerably be simplified
if we choose the parameters T, a on the string world surface so that the
equations
(24.38)
166
Introduction to the Relativiatic Stn"ng Theory
should be satisfied. Taking into account (24.38) one can rewrite Eqs. (24.5)
in the form
(24.39)
It must be noticed that purely left moving modes x = x"'(r + er) (or right
moving modes x'" = x"'(r - er)) are exact solutions to Eq. (24.39). But
in the general case right and left movers interact with each other and also
with themselves.
In Ref. 140, Eq. (24.39) have been solved for a closed relativistic string
when the gravitational field has the form of a monochromatic plane wave
G,..v(x) = '1,..v + f:,..f:ve
ik
%
f:2 = k
2
= f:k = 0, '1,..v = diag (1, -1, -1, -1)
(24.40)
In this case, the space-time is flat along the directions of vectors k'" and
f:"'. The solution has a resonance behavior analogous to the interaction of
an open string with an electromagnetic plane wave.
140
,214
In Ref. 215, the exact solution for an open string has been derived in
the space-time with the metric
where c is a constant. This is the metric of the Peres space-time that
describes strong gravitational waves with isotropic energy-momentum ten-
sor'!
In paper
217
a new method has been proposed to treat the relativistic
string in a curved space-time perturbatively. In this approach, the space-
time geometry is regarded exactly but string excitations are assumed to be
small as compared with the energy scales of the metric, i.e., lstr/ Rc 1.
Here, lstr stands for the typical length of the string lstr ,-1/2 and Rc is
the typical curvature radius of the space-time geometry.
25. Generalization of the Relativistic String Model in the
Geometrical Approach
Dealing with the N ambu-Goto string model we have to treat the minimal
world surfaces, i.e., those whose mean curvature equals zero. It is natural
'The string equations of motion are also exactly solvable
216
in the Aichelburg-Sexl
geometry (the gravitational field of an ultrareJativistic particle).
Gecmet,;caJ Approach in the JUlaJivi8tic St,;ng Theory
167
to consider more complicated world surfaces with a constant nonvani shi ng
mean curvature as a generalization of the string model.
2l 8
Here, we prese nt
the geometrical description of such world surfaces in the three- dimensional
space-time.
In the isometric co.ordinate system (19.12) on an arbitrary surface
xl-'(u
l
, (
2
) the first and second fundamental forms are
ifJl = ds
2
= )"du+du- ,
ifJ2 = hds
2
+ ()../2)[Q+(du+)2 + Q_(dU-)2] ,
(25 .1)
(25.2)
where 2Q = 2h = giib
ii
and light-cone variables u = u
l
u
2
are introduced. The coefficients of these forms)" = gl1,b
ii
, i,j = 1,2 as
functions of the coordinates on the surface u
l
, u
2
have to obey the Gauss
and Petersson-Codazzi Eqs. (18.31) and (18.32) .
The Petersson-Codazzi equations in the case under consideration read
as follows,
8h _
rl
8()..Q-) =0,
8u- 8u+
8h _
r1
8()..Q+)_
8u+ 8u- - 0.
(25.3)
Taking into account that for the surfaces under consideration h = const we
obtain
(25.4)
where f(u) are arbitrary functions. This fact frees us in choosing the co-
ordinate set on the surface as that the coordinate lines will be the curvature
lines
52
,152
b12 = , (25.5)
in addition to (19.12). Based on the invariance of Eqs. (19.12)' (25.3) and
(25.4) under conformal transformation u = f(u), we can easily show
that by a proper choice of the functions J condition (25.5) can always be
satisfied. Indeed, if we put
u = 2 ! du(q(u))1/2 , (25.6)
then Eqs. (25.1) and (25.2), by virtue of (25.4), become
ifJ1 = - (dU
2
)2] ,
4 q+q_
(25.7)
ifJ2 = (1 + h)" ) (dU
1
)2 + (1- h)" ) (dU
2
)2
4 vq+q- 4 V
q
+
q
-
(25.8)
168
Introduction to the ReiatitJi8tic String Theorll
In terms of new coordinates (25.6) the Gauss equation is
(25.9)
If the mean curvature h = 0, then by substituting 4A = Jq+q- e.'P into
(25.9) we get the Liouville Eq. (20.7). In the case under consideration
(h = const i= 0) Eq. (25.9) by the replacement hA = .jq+q_ e.'P is reduced
to the sh-Gordon equation
o '{> = h sh '{> (25.10)
Now fundamental forms (25.7) and (25.8) read as follows
<PI = :: [(du
l
)2 - (du
2
)2] , (25. 11)
1 1
<P2 = -(1 + e.'P)(du
1
)2 + -(1 - e.'P)(du
2
)2 . (25.12)
4 4
Thus, in the three-dimensional space-time the dynamics of a one-
dimensional relativistic object with a world surface of a constant curva-
ture is reduced to one nonlinear Eq. (25.10).
Let us here show how the given model can be treated in the usual
approach when the dynamical variable is the position vector of the world
surface x"'(uI, u
2
). Equation (25.10) is the compatibility condition of the
Gauss and Weingarten derivative Eqs. (18.27) and (18.29) . In the case
under consideration Eqs. (18.27) read
- 1(\. \") b
x = 2A AX + A X - lln,
., 1 (\'. \') b
X = 2A A X + AX - 12
n
,
(25. 13)
1 .
x" = -(AX + A'X') - b n
2A 22 ,
where n = [x X x']/v'19T in (25.13) is the unit space-like normal to the
world surface.
u
Subtracting in (25.13) the third equation from the first one
UThe cross product in the three-dimensional Minkowski space is defined by the formula
[axb] ,.. =."vPavb
p
, ""v,p =0,1,2; ~ v p is a completely antisymmetric tensor, 6" = 1,
Geometrical Approach in the lUiatitli6tic String '!'heO'll
169
and taking into account (19.5) one gets the well-known theory of surface
result 155
Ox + 2h[x x x'] = 0 . (25.14)
It is valid for any regular mapping xI"(u
1
, 1.2). In isometric coordinate set
(19.12), equations of motion (25.14) are the Euler equations for the action
functional
S = -It II d
2
u {F9 + X Xl])} .
(25.15)
It should be noted here that this model shows resemblance to a relativistic
string interacting with an external scalar field in a special way.179
The gauge conditions for xl"(u
1
, 1.2) that enable one to take the curva-
ture lines as the coordinate lines on the world surface can be treated as
a consequence of the conformal invariance of equations of motion (25. 14)
and subsidiary conditions (4.2) . To show this explicitly, we introduce new
variables t? (1.) according to Eq. (25.6) with
In terms of the new coordinates t? we have
x/[x x x'] = 0, (x + X")[X x x'] = x
2
/2 . (25.16)
Substituting expansions (25.13) into (25.15) we obtain condition (25.8) for
the second fundamental form.
Hence, the dynamics of a one-dimensional relativistic object with a
world surface of a constant mean curvature h is described in the usual
approach by equations of motion (25. 14) with subsidiary conditions (4.2)
and (25.16) .
Let us return to Eq. (25.10) and construct for it the Lax representation
using (25.13) and (18.29) . We rewrite these equations in terms of the unit
orthonormal basis
el e2 = - ix'/Jj"g;f, e3 = - tn. (25.17)
When the basis (25.17) is moving along the world surface xl"( U 1, u
2
), then
its alteration is reduced to rotation in the three-dimensional Euclidean
170 Introduction to the Relatiw8tic String Theo'1l
(25. 18)
The skew symmetric matrices in the right-hand sides of these equations
describe infinitesimal rotations in the three-dimensional Euclidean space.
These rotations of the moving trihadron {e
a
} can be described in terms of
the spinors ,p( u
l
, u
2
)57
a,p i .
au
i
= Z(w'u),p, j = 1,2 ,
(25.19)
where are the Pauli matrices and
For convenience in (25.19) the (1I"/2)-rotation is made around the x-axis in
the spinor space ,p(u
l
,U
2
). From the geometrical point of view the spinor
,p(u
l
, u
2
) is just an auxiliary quantity. Nevertheless, the compatibility con-
dition of spinor Eq. (25.19) as well as that of Eq. (25.18) give the Gauss
Eq. (25.10) for fundamental forms (25.11) and (25.12). To apply the inverse
scattering method, we have to introduce to spectral parameter "( into wi.
At this step, we may take advantage of the invariance of Eq. (25. 10) under
the transformations: u
l
u
2
= ,,(1(u
1
u
2
), "( = const . Equation (25.19)
are not invariant under this substitution, and they become
where
Ok = { 2i,,(+ v'h sh ,
= {2i"(_ v'h ,
1
"( = 4"h "(-1) .
j = 1,2 ,
-2"(_ v'h }
2,,(+ v'h ,
(25.20)
Geometrical Approach in the Relativi,tic Strirlfl Theo,""
171
As before, the compatibility condition of (25.20) gives (25. 10) . Owing t o
(25.20) the linear spectral problem for (25. 10) is
(25.21)
Then the inverse scattering method can be used here in the standard
way189- 191 for solving the Cauchy problem, introducing the action-angle
variables and for constructing an infinite series of conserved currents. But
these issues are not considered here.
The geometrical generalization of the relativistic string model proposed
above has the essential advantage as compared with other approaches to
this subject .
219
,22o In our consideration, the reparametrization invariance
on the world surface is preserved. Ultimately, it is just this circumstance
that enables one to reduce this model to one nonlinear Eq. (25.10) .
We did not dwell on the problem of the boundary conditions in the
model under consideration. Therefore, the relativistic one-dimensional ob-
ject has been treated as infinite. For physical applications it is interesting
either to explore in this model the boundary conditions with free ends or
to place massive points at the string ends. In the latter case, one can set
oneself the task of finding the potential that arises between two massive
points connected by such a modified string.
The extension of this approach to the four-dimensional space-time can
be found in Ref. 221.
Chapter 5
CONNECTION OF THE RELATIVISTIC
STRING WITH FIELD MODELS.
GENERALIZATION OF THE STRING APPROACH
TO THE ELEMENTARY PARTICLE PHYSICS
26. String-like Solutions in the Superconductivity
Theory. Cosmic Strings
The relativistic string defined by the Nambu-Goto action (2.11) comes
forward as a mathematical abstract rather than a real physical object . But
in quantum field theories there are situations that can be approximately
simulated by the relativistic string model. Here, we are speaking about
the vortex solutions of the classical equations of motion in sOlli e field mod-
els. In this case, the relativistic string can be treated as a field concen-
trated along the line. Solutions like that are well known ill t il e theory of
superconductivit
y
8,g and superfiuidity.8,222 A vivid present ation of t he lo-
calization of a magnetic field in one dimension may be as f Ilows: Take a
long cavity inside a superconductor and put two magnetic ' II ;lrges of oppo-
site signs. As the magnetic field does not penetrate into til int erior of th
superconductor, it will completely be localized inside the cavity.
A more realistic example, without hypotheticlI-l mag ll di c charges, is til "
penetration of a magnetic field into a type-II superc ndll ( t. or. As is know" ,
at a definite value of the intensity, the external IIl ;Q(III' I,ic field penetl' II I
the sample of a type-II superconductor, but only ill t il t forlll of thin blllld It
of magnetic-field lines. The central part of that hllll dlt- is not in a /1 111 " ,
conducting state, whereas the rest of the sampl t ill III a supercondll l 111' 11
173
174
introduction to the ReIaJ.iuiltic String Theorll
state.
Such static vortex solutions (" Abrikosov vortices") have been obtained
in the equations of superconductivity9 based on the following expression
for the free energy of a superconductor, I :
1 =/0 + a(T)I,p12 + f3(T) 1,p14
2
1 (h e*) 2 B2
+-1 -;-V--A ,pI +- ,
2m* ~ c 811"
(26. 1)
where 10 is the free energy of the ground state; the function ,p(r, t) repre-
sents the wave function of a Cooper pair of electrons; e* = 2e is the charge
of this pair; m*, its effective mass; B, an external magnetic field; T, the
temperature.
The variation of J drdt/(r, t) with respect to,p* results in the Ginzburg-
Landau equation
(26.2)
that should be supplemented by the Maxwell equation
c e*h (e*)2
-rotB = J= - . (,p*V,p- ,pV,p*) - -1,p12A.
411" 2m*l m*c
(26.3)
The static vortex solution describes the magnetic field directed along the
z-axis, and in the cylindrical coordinate set with the basis (z, r, B) it has
the form
(26.4)
where). is the penetration depth, ).2 = m*c
2
,B/411"(e*)2Ial, Ko is the Hankel
function of the imaginary argument and zero order,68 the constant o is the
flux associated with the vortex. The corresponding supercurrent circulates
around the z-axis. According to Eq. (26.3) one obtains
(26.5)
Both the magnetic field ~ d supercurrent vanish exponentially for r )..
Therefore, the energy per unit length of the vortex solution is finite.
Vortex solutions in the Higgs model The free energy defined by
(26.1) is in fact a nonrelativistic limit of the Higgs Lagrangian
(26.6)
Connection 01 the Relativi.tic String with Field Model ... . . 175
where = - a and b are positive constants. Therefore,
it is natural that string-like solutions localised in one dimension have
also been found for equations of motion corresponding to the Higgs
Lagrangian.
1O
-
14
,223 Let and tjJ0 be the static vortex solution in t his
model arranged along the z-axis
xl'
X2) = ,
r
tjJ(Xb X2) = ein(J Rn(r) ,
(26.7)
where Rn(r) is a real function, n is an integer. The asymptotic of this
solution when r -+ 00 is
(26.8)
where m. = m" = v'2e.A, .A = va/2b, c. and c" are constants. The
magnetic field directed along the z-axis is
1 d c
H(r) = --(rAr) _" e-
rn

r
r dr r-+oo fo
(26.9)
The transverse size of the vortex line is determined by the mass parameters
m;l and m;l .
If the field model possesses a string-like solution, it may be shown that a
Lagrangian appropriate to that solution is just the N ambu-Goto Lagrangian
for the relativistic string (2.11) . Indeed, field functions in this case are
nonzero only along the string, therefore,
S.tring '"" / dt / dsJ1- vi '
(26.10)
where t is the time, s is a parameter coincident with the string length
(ax (t, s)/as)2 = 1; the factor V1 - vi stands for the Lorentz contraction
through motion of the string with a transverse velocity v.l,
V.l = ax _ ax (ax . ax)
at as at as
(26.11)
Inserting the latter into (26.10) we get
13
, 224
(26.12)
176 Introduction to the Relativi8tic String Theory
Changing t and s in this formula by arbitrary parameters T and a on the
string world surface we arrive at the Nambu-Goto action (2.11) .
In the Higgs model (26.2), string-like solutions may either be infinite in
space, or closed, in the latter case, the radius of curvature of the string being
considerably larger than its transverse sizes. To obtain a finite string or a
vortex in that approach, it is necessary to introduce sources of the magnetic
field, magnetic charges or monopoles, at which magnetic-field lines of the
string could end.
There are some indications of the possibility of string-like solutions in
more realistic field theories, for example, in QCD.
15
,225 The deep relation
between string model and two-dimensional U(N) gauge theories as N -+ 00
has been traced in Ref. 226. The appearance of the string-like solutions in
scalar electrodynamics and in the Schwinger model has been discussed in
Ref. 227. Classical configurations of the non-Abelian gauge field that can
be simulated by the relativistic string with quarks at the ends has been
explored in Ref. 228.
A very important problem, that has not been explored completely up
to now, is the stability of the string-like solutions of the field equations at
the classical and in quantum theory.231
Cosmic strings The vortex-like solution similar to the one considered
above can arise in the Grand Unified Theories (GUT) which determine the
evolution of the early universe. The expansion of the universe after the Big
Bang entails its temperature falls. As a consequence, successive phase tran-
sitions take place here and the symmetry of the system is lowering. It turns
out that the phase with higher symmetry does not disappear completely
when the temperature of the universe becomes lower than the critical tem-
perature. Thus phase can exist in the form of the point-like monopoles,
one-dimensional cosmic strings or two-dimensional domain walls. The es-
timations show that it is the cosmic strings that can provide a mechanism
for producing a large-scale structure of the universe.232- 234 We do not con-
sider here the inflationary-universe models that give us other possibility to
explain the large-scale structure in the universe.
Cosmic strings in the form of linear topological defects can arise in
some, but not in all, gauge theories. In the general case, let G and H be
symmetry groups before and after the phase transition, respectively, H c
G. Strings are formed if the first homotopy group 11'1 (G / H) is nontrivial, or
equivalently, if the manifold of equivalent vacuum states after the symmetry
breaking is not simply connected.
235
For the Higgs model (26.6) we have
Connection of the Relativiatic String with Field Model ... . . 177
G / H = U(1) and 7rdU(1)) = Z.
Topologically stable domain walls are dangerous for cosmological models
and should be avoided. Walls bounded by strings (as well as monopol es
connected by strings) are presumably harmless: they rapidly break int o
pieces and decay practically without leaving anything.236 - 238
Depending on whether the symmetry that breaks during the phase tran-
sition is local or global, the corresponding topological defects are called
gauge or global strings. The vortex-like solution (26.7)-(26.9) in the Higgs
model (26.6) is the gauge string. The global string emerges, for example,
in the following model (the Higgs Lagrangian (26.6) with ~ = 0),
(26.13)
The static field configuration
rP = vf(r)e
i O
, (26.14)
obeys the equa.tion of motion if
(26.15)
Here 6-
1
= V),.1/2 is the core radius of the string. The function f(r)
grows linearly when r < 6 and exponentially approaches unity as soon as
r> 6. Therefore, the energy per unit length ofthe global string, in contrast
to the local string, diverges logarithmically. It is worthwhile to note the
resemblance of the global string with the vortex-like solution in the theory
of superfluidity.8,222 As shown in Ref. 223 global strings decay rapidly in the
Goldstone boson emission and probably are not important for cosmological
applications. (See also paper by A. Vilenkiu and T. Vachaspati, Phys. Rev.
DS5 (1987) 1138.)
The cosmic strings contain insignificant part of all the matter. But the
loops of cosmic strings serve as seeds of density fluctuations that exert a
gravitational attraction on nearby matter. These fluctuations evolve even-
tually into galaxies and clusters of galaxies. In this respect, cosmic strings
can be treated as if they were infinitely thin curves. It is assumed that
the width of a cosmic string is of the order of 10-
29
em or even smaller.
Therefore, its dynamics as a whole should be described, as shown above,
by t he Nambu-Goto action. Taking account of the transverse size of the
178
Introduction to the Relatiui6tic String Theorll
vortex-like solution when deriving the effective string Lagrangian results
in a very-small, additional to the N ambu-Goto, term that depends on the
extrinsic curvature of the string world surface.
346
This is the relativistic
string with rigidity or the smooth string (see Sec. 32). Up to now, there is
no practical use in cosmology of such a string model.
In cosmological applications, cosmic strings are considered to be classi-
cal and the problem of the space-time dimension does not emerge.
Cosmic-string theory has only a one-dimensional parameter, p., the en-
ergy or mass per unit string length (see Sec. 2 and Ref. 239). Relativistic
strings have no inherent length scale, and as a consequence, one can suppose
that an equal number of loops of all sizes will emerge. This results in a scale-
invariant spectrum of density fluctuations, which in turn leads to a scale-
invariant distribution of galaxies and clusters of galaxies. This distribution
is described by the correlation function. There is increasing observational
evidence
240
that the correlation function is scale-invariant and the same for
groups of galaxies, clusters of galaxies and for superclusters.241- 244 The
amplitudes of density fluctuations due to the cosmic strings also match
with the ones necessary for correct galaxy formation when the string ten-
sion corresponds to the symmetry-breaking scale in GUT's.
Numerical simulations show that the correlation function in the cosmic
string theory is in good agreement with observational results and it does not
depend on the string tension.
245
Once formed, cosmic string loops oscillate
and retain constant sizes in physical coordinates. Due to the oscillations
they lose energy via the gravitational radiation with the power kGp.2,
where k stands for a numerical constant, k 10
2
, G is the gravitational
constant and p. is the energy per unit string length.246.247 Eventually, the
cosmic string loops disappear.
27. Strings in the Dirac Monopole Theory
In the Dirac electrodynamics with magnetic charges,21 strings represent
an auxiliary mathematical concept; they do not carry energy, and all observ-
abIes do not depend upon their motion. The situation, however, changes
essentially if the electromagnetic field in the Dirac theory is replaced by a
massive vector field. In this field model, strings become physical objects
as they do carry energy and the Lagrangian of their motion almost coin-
cides with the Nambu-Goto Lagrangian (2.22); we shall consider this model
below.
Connection of the Relativi.tic String with Field M odel. ___ _ 179
In the Dirac electrodynamics with magnetic charges the Maxwell equa-
tions are generalised as follows,
a
v
F. = -J-(e)

avj = -J-(m)

(27.1)
(27.2)
where is a tensor dual to and are
currents generated by electric and magnetic charges, respectively,
(z) = L e ! d;: 5(4)(z - x(s))ds ,
e
(z) = L 9 ! d;: 5(4)(z - x(s))ds .
g
The difference from the conventional theory is that the r.h.s. of Eq.
(27.2) contains and not zero. If there are magnetic charges, the
electromagnetic-field tensor can no longer be defined in terms of the
vector potential in the usual way
(27.3)
because from the latter definition it follows that H = rotA and div H = 0,
whereas it is necessary that div H = p(m) where p(m) is the density of
magnetic charges.
Dirac has suggested that Eq. (27.3) at each instant of time is violated
at one point on a closed surface encircling the magnetic charge. As that
surface can be taken arbitrarily, the connection (27.3) does not hold actually
along the line or string either linking magnetic charges of opposite signs or
with one end going to infinity.a Every magnetic pole should be at the end
of such a string.
In the Minkowski space, the Dirac string covers a two-dimensional sur-
face on which Eq. (27.3) is not valid. Dirac added, to the r.h.s. of
that equation, a tensor field G (z) localised on the string world surface,
(27.4)
aOne should demand that the string does not enter the electric charges (the Dirac veto)_
180 Introduction to the Relatiui.tic String Theory
Substituting the latter into (27.2) we arrive at the equation for G,..v{z),
8
V
G,..v{z) = J ~ m (z) = L! d;: 6(4){z - x{s))ds ,
g
the solution of which is of the following form
(27.5)
where u,..v = 8{x,.., x
v
)/8{r, u) and d
2
1J = drdu. Motion of electric charges
is described by the same equation as in the Maxwell electrodynamics,
(27.6)
For magnetic charges an analogous equation is postulated,
(27.7)
The action in the Dirac theory defined by the expression
(27.8)
While varying this action, F,..v should be considered as a function of the
vector potential A,.. and string variables given by formulae (27.4) and (27.5).
Variation of S results in Eqs. (27.1)' (27.6) and (27.7)' whereas Eq. (27.2)
emerges from (27.4) and (27.5) in full analogy with the Maxwell theory.
It is important that no equation appear for string variables x,.. (r, u) which
reflects the unphysical nature of these variables.
Connection of a Dirac string with a dual string In Ref. 15, the
action (27.8) was considered for two magnetic charges
b
of opposite sign,
g, but, as distinct from the Dirac theory, the mass of the vector field was
put nonzero and equal to m". It may, for instance, be assumed that this
mass resulted from the Higgs mechanism when the field A,.. interacted with
bThe name "magnetic charges" is arbitrary and based only on the analogy of the con-
sidered model with the Dirac monopole theory.
Connection 0/ the Relativi8tic String with Field ModelL . . 181
a scalar field IjJ according to the Lagrangian (26.6). Equation (27.1) is now
replaced by the Klein-Gordon equation with the r.h.s.
(27.9)
where the field AlA is subjected to the Lorentz condition BIAAIA = o. From
(27.9) it follows that
(27.10)
where is the Green function of Eq. (27.9). Eliminating the field AlA
from (27.8) with the help of (27.10) we get the effective action dependent
only on the string variables xlA(r, cr),
I d
2
vCef I I - x)a:
IAV
2
+ II
I ,J = 1
(27. 11)
The first term represents the Yukawa interaction of two world surfaces,
xlA (r, cr) and :cIA (1', iT), mediated by the vector field AlA (x) . The second term
comes from the interaction of magnetic currents with each other and their
self-interaction. And finally, the third term is the kinetic term of magnetic
monopoles with masses m(i), i = 1,2.
The string variables xlA(r, cr) vanish from the effective action (27.11) if
the vector field is massless, m" = 0, and the string becomes, as mentioned
above, an unphysical object.
From geometrical considerations it is clear that the first term in for-
mula (27.11)' with allowance made the delta-shaped Green function
is proportional to the area of the world surface of the string xlA (r, cr) con-
necting the monopoles. A more detailed calculation
15
,248 shows that this
term actually reduces to the string Lagrangian
(27.12)
182 Introduction to the Relativi$tic String Theory
where the constant, is
(
') -1 g2 2 I ( 1)
,= 27r0! = -mIl n 1 ~ ,
87r r .1m"
with r.1 representing transversal sizes of the string. As has been shown
above in considering the Higgs Lagrangian (26.6)' the string transverse
dimensions are specified by the quantity m:;l, where m. is the mass of a
Higgs scalar field, therefore, we may put r.1 - m:;1 (see Refs. 10-14).
When the distance between magnetic charges is large compared to m;; 1 ,
the string Lagrangian (27. 12) will dominate in formula (27.11); there the
first and third terms define the action of the relativistic string with massive
ends (12.1). At short distances, the leading becomes interaction between
monopoles described by the second term in formula (27.11). In the static
case, it is the Yukawa attraction potential, (-g2/47r)exp(-m"r)/r, that
acts between monopoles; it will, obviously, shift low-lying levels in the mass
spectrum of the string.
28. Born-Infeld Nonlinear Models and Relativistic String
The relativistic string is closely allied to Born-Infeld nonlinear models
in a two-dimensional space_time.
22
,51 A simple model of that type for a
scalar massless field <p( t, x) is given by the Lagrangian
(28.1)
where <Px = a<p(t, xl/ax, <Pt = a<p(t, xl/at, and K, is a constant of the
dimensionality of reciprocal length. In elementary particle physics, the La-
grangian (28.1) was considered by D. I. Blokhinstev249-252 as the simplest
example of the essentially nonlinear field model and by W. Heisenberg
253
in meso dynamics in studying meson showers. A field model is called essen-
tially nonlinear
251
if coefficients of higher-order, second, derivatives in its
equations of motion are not constant but depend on field variables and their
first derivatives. In mathematics,254 equations like that are called quasi-
linear. Characteristics, i.e., directions along which perturbations propa-
gate, for quasilinear equations are not rectilinear: Their shape at every
point depends upon values of the field variables and their gradients at that
point.
249
,250
Variation of that Lagrangian results in the nonlinear equation for the
field <p(t, x),
(28.2)
Connection 01 the Relativistic String with Field ModelL . . 183
If 1-,,-2(11'; - 11';) > 0, (28.2) is an equation of the hyperbolic type. When
" -+ 00, the Lagrangian (28.1) reduces to the Lagrangian of the free field
<p(t, x); and Eq. (28.2)' to the d'Alembert equation.
The problem described by Eq. (28.2) may be formulated in a different
way, parametrically. The function <p(t, x) describes a surface in a three-
dimensional space-time t, x, y = ,,-l<p(t, x). That surface may be defined
parametrically by introducing the Lorentz vector x'" (I-' = 0,1,2), depen-
dent on two parameters r, CT and having components
x"'(r,CT) = {t(r, CT), x(r,CT)'y(r,CT) = ,,-l<p(t(r,CT),x(r,CT))} . (28.3)
Considering that
yli - yt'
II' = ,,2 -=----;-=---
x x'i - :i:t' '
x'ii - :i:y'
,r, = ,,2 --=-;---=_
rt 't" t' ,
x - x
(28.4)
and that in passing to integration over the variables rand CT, the prod-
uct dtdx is to be changed to (x'i - :i:t/)drdCT, we get the following action
corresponding to the Lagrangian (28.1)'
S = _,,2 / dt / dx\h _ ,,-2(11'; - < p ~
= _ K.
2
/ dr / dCTV(xx'F - x
2
X'2 .
(28.5)
This is just the action of the infinite relativistic string (2.22) in the three-
dimensional space-time, x'" = (t, x, y) .
If in the Lagrangian of the Born-Infeld electrodynamics
255
, 256
f.
B
-
1
= - ,,2';1 + ,,-2F - ,,-4G2 ,
where F = (1/2)F,..vF"'v, G = (1/4)e-",vAU F,..VFAU' F,..v = a,..Av - avA,..
only plane waves are considered, this Lagrangian reduces to the relativistic
string Lagrangian. Let the wave propagates along the x-axis. The poten-
tial A,.. (x) then depends only on t and x. If we neglect the electric field
oriented along x, FOl = 0, the Born-Infeld Lagrangian will contain only two
components of the potential A,..(x): Ay(t, xl and Az(t, x),
184 Introduction t o the Relativistic String Theory
Change of variables (t, x) by (T, a) again leads to the relativistic-string
action (2.22) in a four-dimensional space-time
The most general Lagrangian of n fields of the Born-Infeld type in the
two-dimensional space-time (t, x), that can be reduced to the string La-
grangian in an (n + 2}-dimensional space by introducing the parameters T
and a, is given by
(28.6)
The Lagrangian (28.6) that describes both a system of Born-Infeld non-
linear scalar fields and an infinite relativistic string was thoroughly studied
in Ref. 22. There, the Cauchy problem was solved for the equations of
motion, and scattering of two plane waves was investigated in the classical
case. In the same works, the quantization method was proposed, in which
nonlinear auxiliary conditions were imposed on state vectors, and the alge-
bra of constraints was deduced, which included the Virasoro algebra (10.8)
as a particular case in the finite-string theory (however, the 8chwinger term
in that algebra dependent on the space-time dimensionality was not found).
Connection of the relativistic string with the Born-Infeld nonlinear mod-
els was also analysed in Refs. 257-259.
29. Relativistic String and Nonlinear Two-dimensional
Sigma-model
Here, it will be shown how the nonlinear two-dimensional sigma-model
with the 80(1,2)/80(1,1) symmetry group appears in the theory of the
relativistic string moving in a three-dimensional space-time.
26o
A natural candidate for the field variable in the nonlinear sigma-model
connected with the relativistic string is the normal to the world sheet of
the string ml-'(u
1
,u
2
), J.I. = 0,1,2. This normal maps the minimal surface
which is the world sheet of the string onto the hyperboloid of one sheet (the
Gauss map)
(29.1 )
Let us obtain a closed set of equations for the normal ml-'(ul, 1.2). For
this purpose we differentiate covariantly the left and right-hand side of
Connection of the Relativistic String with Field Model ... .. 185
Eq. (18.29)
(29.2)
Here, t;,. == V/il
i
is the Laplace-Beltrami operator for gij and we have used
the obvious equality Viml-' = m ~ as the normal ml-'( u
1
, u
2
) and the radius
vector of the surface xl-' (u
1
, u
2
) are scalars under the transformation of the
curvilinear coordinates on the surface u
1
, u
2
We transform the first term in
the right-hand side of (29.2) making use of Petersson-Codazzi Eq. (18.32)
and the second term with the Gauss derivative formulae (18.27). As a
result, we get
(29.3)
As the string world sheet is a minimal surface, then by virtue of (19.2)
b ~ ::::; o. Equation (29.3) now becomes
(29.4)
Making use of the Weingarten equations, (18.29) and Eq. (18.26) one
obtains easily
(29.5)
Finally, we have the following equations of the normal ml-' (u
1
, u
2
)
(29.6)
Recall that the covariant Laplace-Beltrami operator corresponds to the in-
ner metric on the world sheet of string (18.26). Therefore, Eq. (29.6) will
be a closed set of equations provided the metric of the minimal surface
(18.26) will be given. However, the dependence of Eq. (29.6) on the met-
ric tensor (18.26) is formal because on the world sheet of the string the
conformally-flat coordinate set
gll = -g22 , g12 = g21 = 0 ,
(29.7)
can always be chosen.
As a result, Eq. (29.6) takes the form
(29.8)
186 Introduction to the Relativi8tic String Theor1l
This is exactly the equation of motion for the n-field with the symmetry
group SO(1,2}/SO(1,1}.
In the n-field theory Eq. (29.8) is supplemented usually by the con-
ditions
181
,261
(
ml' ml' }2 = 1 .
, 1 ,2
(29.9)
That can always be made by virtue of the conformal invariance of (29.8),
i.e., the invariance under the transformations til ti
2
= f (1.1 u
2
). In the
relativistic string model we have other conditions on the first derivatives of
the normal ml' (1.1, u
2
)
(29.1O)
where Yii is the metric tensor on the hyperboloid of one sheet m
2
= -1, on
which the normal ml' (1.1, u
2
) maps the world sheet of the string. Conditions
(29.1O) follow directly from the derivative formulae of Weingarten (18.29)
in the conform ally-fiat metric (29.7) in the string theory.
Thus, in the theory of the relativistic string moving in the three-
dimensional space-time there arises naturally the nonlinear two-dimensional
sigma model with the SO(1,2}/SO(1,1}-symmetry given by Eq. (29.8) and
subsidiary conditions (29.10).
Sigma model in the string theory and the nonlinear Liouville
equation The connection of the usual SO(3}/SO(2}-nonlinear sigma model
with the sine-Gordan equation integrable by the inverse scattering method
is well_known.
261
The sigma model defined by (29.8), (29.10) encountered
in the relativistic string theory is related closely with another nonlinear
equation, namely, with the nonlinear Liouville equation, the general solu-
tion of which is well-known. Let us establish this relation. For this aim,
we turn to the Gauss Eq. (18.31) and to the Petersson-Codazzi Eq. (18.32)
and consider them for the hyperboloid
ml'ml' = -1 . {29.11}
The coefficients of the second quadratic form b
ij
for the hyperboloid (29.11)
are defined by Eq. {18.29} that in the case under consideration have the
form
(29.12)
Connection of the Relativistic String with Field Models .. .. 187
where V j means the covariant differentiation with respect to the metric
C
(29.13)
In Eq. (29.12) we take into account that the unit normal to the hyperboloid
(29.11) is the vector ml' itself. From (29.12) and (29. 13) we obtain
(29.14)
where gij is the metric tensor (29.10) on the hyperboloid.
Let us show that from the geometrical point of view Eqs. (29.8) and
(29.10) defining the sigma model are equivalent to one nonlinear Liouville
equation for a scalar function. For this purpose, we show that the Gauss
Eq. (18.31) and the Petersson-Codazzi Eq. (18.32) for the hyperboloid de-
fined by (29.1)' (29.8) and (29.10) are reduced to the Liouville equation.
The Petersson-Codazzi Eq. (18.22) for b
ij
from (29.14)
(29.15)
are satisfied by virtue of the Ricci lemma, Vig
kl
= 0, identically.
The only nontrivial equation in this case is the Gauss Eq. (18.31)
(29.16)
where R1212 is the curvature tensor for the metric gij ' Taking into account
(29.13) and (29.10) one transforms Eq. (29.16) to the form
(29.17)
Introducing the notation
(29. 18)
and making use of the obvious expression for R
ijkl
in terms of gij and its
derivatives (see Sec. 20) we get from (29.17) the nonlinear Liouville equation
'P,ll - 'P,22 = 2e'P . (29. 19)
Crn differential geometry52,152 {Jo; is called the tensor of the third squared form of the
surface x"(u1 , u'), i .e. , the metric tensor of Gauss's map.
188
Introduction to the Relativi8tic String Theory
General solution of this equation, defined by (20.8) enables one, due
to Eqs. (29.18) and (29.14)' to obtain general solutions for the first and
second fundamental forms of the surface ml'(u
1
, u
2
). According to the
basic theorem in the theory of the surfaces (see Sec. 18) this is equivalent to
the knowledge of the 'general solutions for the radius-vector of this surface
ml'(u
1
,u
2
). Thus, the classical dynamics of the nonlinear sigma-model
(29.8), (29.10) is defined completely by the nonlinear Liouville Eq. (29.19).
If the string is moving in a four-dimensional space-time, then at any
point of its world sheet there are two unit space-like normals. These normals
and two unit tangent vectors to the string world sheet form a moving basis.
It is important that the string theory admits the SO(l,l) X SO(2)-rotations
of this basis, the tangent space and the normal space being not mixed.
Therefore, the nonlinear two-dimensional sigma model on the symmetric
space SO(1,3)/[SO(1,1) x SO(2)1 has to appear here.
In Refs. 262-264 the relativistic string model in an n-dimensional space-
time has been represented at the classical level as a specific closed sector
of the two-dimensional SO(l,l) X SO(n - 2)-gauge field theory.
30. Polyakov's String Theory
The procedure of quantization of relativistic string proposed by A. M.
Polyakov
265
is interesting from two points of view. In the first place, in this
way one could construct the quantum theory of the relativistic string when
the dimension of space-time does not equal a critical dimension. In the
second place, the Polyakov string functional integral proves to be a basis
for the so-called first-quantized approach to the description of the creation
and annihilation of the strings and of their mutual conversions.
In Polyakov's approach, the Nambu-Goto action is substituted by an-
other action quadratic in the string coordinates xl' (T, 0')
s = -f II d2uylfgTgaP(u)aaXl'apxl' ,
o
(30. 1)
Here, gap (u) is an auxiliary field of a second-rank symmetric tensor given
in 0 ; T is the string tension. This action is invariant under arbitrary
Connection of the Relatiui8tic String with Field Model .. .. 189
nondegenerated transformations of the parameters uo and u 1 in t erms of
which x/J(uO, u
1
) are scalars
oua = a(uO, u
1
), ox/J = -a8
ax
/J ,
ogaP = C8..,gaP + g..,p8aC + ga..,8pC ,
(30.2)
under Weyl transformations
d
gaP(u) --+ exprp(u) . gaP(U) , (30.3)
and under global Poincare transformations
(30.4)
It should be noted that the Nambu-Goto action (3.1) does not have the Weyl
invariance (30.3) . For the first time, the action (30.1) was employed
266
for
studying a spinning string.
At the classical level, the action (30.1) is completely equivalent to the
Nambu-Goto action (3.1) . Variation of (30. 1) with respect to x/J(r, 0") gives
the equation
(30.5)
where Dg is the covariant Laplace-Beltrami operator for the metric tensor
gap, To write the equation of motion following from (30.1) by variation of
(30.1) with respect to gaP, we will make use of the known rule of differen-
tiation of a determinant
158
From this formula it immediately follows that
81g1
1
/
2
= ~ I 1 1 / 2 ~ = ~ I 1-
1
/
2
= ~ I 1
1
/
2
8gap 2 9 8gaP 2 9 ggap 2 9 gap ,
Using the latter we get
oS/oga
P
=(1/2)v'l9fT
ap
= -(T/2).;g(8ax/J8p
x/J
- (l/2)g
ap
8..,x/J8
o
x/Jg"'O) = 0 ,
(30.6)
(30.7)
(30.8)
d The string coordinates x" (T,,,.) do not change under these transformations as the COn -
formal weight of a scalar field in a two-dimensional space-time (T,,,.) equals two.
190
Introduction to the Relativi8tic String Theorl/
where Tap(u) is a symmetric "metric" energy-momentum tensor of fields
xl-' (1.).
For a two-dimensionl region fl,
(30.9)
and the solution to Eq. (30.5) is given by
(30.10)
Thus, the tensor field gap (1.) is proportional to the metric on the string
world surface induced by embedding the surface into the Minkowski space.
Inserting (30.10) into (30.5) we obtain the requirement that the string world
surface be minimal (see Eq. (19.6)). The action (30.1)' by virtue of (30.10)'
becomes the Nambu-Goto action (3.1).
It is of interest to see how orthonormal gauge conditions (3.15) arise
when we are dealing with the action (30. 1). Making use of the invariance
of (30.1) under generally covariant transformations (30.2)' we can always
put the metric field gap(u) into a diagonal form,
gap(U) = e'P(u)'7aP, '7ap = diag (1, -1) (30.11)
The equation of motion for gap(u), (30.8)' then reduce to (3.15) . The
metric field gap(u) in the classical string theory based on the action (30.1)
thus plays the role of Lagrange multipliers. At the classical level, actions
(30.1) and (3.1) are therefore completely equivalent. Upon quantization of
action (30.1)' however, as Polyakov
265
has shown, it becomes possible, in
principle to construct a noncontradictory quantum theory of the relativistic
string when D t 26.
This quantization of the relativistic string is essentially based on the
fact that at the quantum level conformal invariance of the theory is broken
when the dimension of space-time D is not critical. Quantization applies
to the following Euclidean functional integral
e
Z = !ldgapj[dXl-'] exp { ~ ! d2uyfggaPaaxl-'apxl-' - J . L ~ ! d
2
uyfg}
(30. 12)
e A rigorous mathematical treatment of this problem can be found in S. Albeverio et ai.,
Ph1/8. Lett. B114 (1986) 81. S. Paycha, Quantization 0/ b080niC cl08ed 8tring8 and the Liouville
model. Preprint BiBoS-300 (Bochum, 1988).
Connection of the Relatiui8tic String with Field ModeI8 .. . . 191
A correction to the classical action, -1-'5 f d
2
uyg, is introduced for renOf-
malization. Integrating by parts in the first term in the exponent we get
We shall integrate over [dx"j with due regard to the conformal anomaly.207
To this end we put
(30.14)
It is a generating functional of a system of D scalar massless fields (with the
index of internal symmetry, v) in a background gravitational field ga,8 (u) .
This standard trick is used in the single-loop approximation to find the
effective action of a quantized field in an external background gravitational
field.
69
Varying (30.14) with respect to ga,8, we obtain
In the conformal-flat metric
ga,8(u) = p(u)5
a
,8, p(u) = exp<p(u) ,
formula (30.15) becomes
(
a) _ 2 a,8 5F _ 5F _ ( ')
Ta - - ..Jig 5ga,8 - -2
6i
- DY u, u, t ,
where Y (u, u
/
, t) is defined by the "heat" equation,267
= -DgY(u,u/,t);
dt
Y(u, U/, 0) = U') .
(30.15)
(30.16)
(30.17)
(30.18)
(30.19)
Here, the "proper time" t represents a cut-off parameter to be set equal t o
zero once a divergent part is singled out and included into the renonllaliz -<I
interaction constant . The factor D on the r.h.s. of (30.17) is a result of Ll II'
192 Introduction to the Relatiui6tic Stn'ng Theory
presence of D scalar fields xl'(r, 0-). Solution of Eq. (30. 18) by expanding
Y(u, U', t) in a series in t gives
Y(u,u' , t) = ~ + J!:...- + O(t) ,
411"t 2411"
(30.20)
where the scalar curvature R in the conform ally flat metric (30.16) is defined
by the formula
whence it follows that
1 2
R = --8 lnp,
p
(Ta a) = J2.- R + const .
2411"
Inserting the latter into (30.17) we find
(30.21)
(30.22)
(30.23)
To take gauge (30.16) into account correctly, it is necessary to introduce
into the generating functional (30.12) the corresponding Faddeev-Popov
determinant
232
(30.24)
with the operator L given by
(30.25)
Considering all that , we arrive at the following expression for the generating
functional (30.12)'
(30.26)
In this way, the quantum theory of the relativistic string in a space-
time of dimensionality not equal to 26 reduces to the quantum theory of a
massless scalar field 'P( UO , u
1
) in a two-dimensional space-time. This field
obeys the nonlinear Liouville equation,
(30.27)
Connection of the Relativi!tic String with Field ModeI8 .. .. 193
A good deal of works are devoted to quantization of the latter equation;
however, a consistent and complete theory is not yet constructed. As the
list of papers is extremely long, it is impossible to discuss them all and we
shall only cite some of them.166-176 A key point of those studies was the
choice of correct boundary conditions for the Liouville equation.
17S
,176 For
a closed string, these are periodic boundary conditions (0 (r 211')
cp(r, 0) = cp(r, 211'), cp'(r,O) = cp'(r, 211') . (30.28)
For an open string, the Liouville equation is supplemented with nonlinear
boundary conditions
cp'(r,O) = PI exp[cp(r, 0)/2] j cp'(r,?r) = P2 exp[cp(r, 11')/2] (30.29)
It is interesting to note that conditions (30.29) only in sign differ from
the boundary conditions (20.12) in classical geometry of the relativistic
string with massive ends moving in a three-dimensional space-time. This
difference gets important in constructing solutions to the Liouville equation
obeying boundary conditions (30.29) and (20.12).
Volkov and Zheltukhin
268
have proposed yet another action for a closed
string, which is equivalent to the Nambu-Goto action (3.1) at the classical
level. This new action is also quadratic in the string coordinates and as a
consequence it allows a supersymmetric generalization (see also Ref. 267).
The string field theory Up to this point we have bp,en talking exclu-
sively about a first quantization of string models, i.e., about the quantum
mechanics of strings. A complete quantum theory of strings requires a de-
scription of their creation and annihilation and of their mutual conversions.
It means that one needs second-quantized field theory of the strings. 40 - 44
The first efforts in this direction were taken269-271 back in the early
1970s, when relativistic strings were regarded as the dynamical basis of
dual-resonance models in hadron physics. Attempts to reproduce dual loop
diagrams in the framework of the string models have shown that the inter-
action of strings should be exceedingly specific: The strings must interact
in a strictly local way, at one point. For example, the ends of an open string
can be join together, with the result that an open string becomes a closed
string, etc.
194 Introduction to the Relatilli6tic String Theorll
There are two approaches to the description of the string interactions:
the string field theory and the so-called first-quantization approach to the
interac ting strings.
In the string field theory one is dealing with the string functionals
W(x(a)). It is convenient to expand the string field w(x(a)) in the eigen-
states of the operator representing the squared mass of the string, M2. For
on open bosonic string we have
272
w[x(a)] = {rp(x) + + + + ... }IO) .
(30.30)
The coefficients of this expansion are ordinary local fields. The Virasoro
conditions (10.6), brought over to the string field theory
Lnw[x(a)]=On.Ow[x(a)]' n=0,1,2, ...
give us equations of motions for these fields
Lorp(x) = -0' p2rp(x) = o'a
2
rp(x) = rp(x) ,
(o'a
2
- 1 + = 0, a'" = 0,
(o'a
2
+ = 0 ,
(30.31)
(30.32)
etc. Accordingly, the scalar field rp(x) is a tachyonic field with a squared
mass-(o')-l
j
A",(x) is an electromagnetic field, etc. In a field theory of
open strings there is no symmetric, massless second-rank tensor field which
can be identified with the gravitational field. Gravitation is described by
closed strings.
Many attempts have been made273.274 to derive a covariant string field
theory in terms of the string functionals by the BRST formalism, i.e., to
carry out a second quantization of a string quantum mechanics constructed
in the BRST formalism (see Sec. 10) . The complete string field incorporates
dynamic and ghost fields and also some auxiliary fields which are required
to close the BRST algebra on the mass shell. Functionals of Grassmann
variables arise in this approach. A noncommutative geometry may prove
useful here.
275
Some other approaches to a string field theory can be found
in Refs. 276 and 277.
It turns out that particular calculations in the string perturbation the-
ory can be carried out more easily not in the operator formalism in the
string field theory but in the so-called first-quantized approach to the in-
teracting strings. In the latter approach analogs of Feynman diagrams in
Connection of the Relativistic String with Field ModelL .. 195
the string theory are two-dimensional surfaces (the world surfaces of the
strings), which may in general have a complicated topological structure.
In terms of the Feynman path integration it is necessary to carry out a
summation over all these surfaces for given initial and final configurations
of the strings. At first, Mandeistam
270
has used for this purpose the light-
like gauge and has carried out the functional integration only over physical
transverse variables of the string. A shortcoming of this approach is that
the explicit Lorentz invariance is lost.
Polyakov
265
proposed to use here the covariant string action (30.1)
and the corresponding functional integral (30.12). This step requires
determining the measure in the space of two-dimensional string world-
surfaces.278-2SO This problem has been solved
281
in a general form for
a surface of genus p in the theory of closed bosonic strings. This surface
is topologically equivalent to a sphere with p handles (the Riemann sur-
face of genus pl. It describes a p-Ioop string diagram (see Fig. 7). For
some values of p, explicit expressions have been derived for the Polyakov
string functional integra1.278-281 In this approach one must assign proper
weights to contributions from Riemann surfaces of various types to a string
amplitude or to a partition function . A guiding principle here should be
the requirement that the string amplitude be unitary.
Fig. 7. Two-loop string diagram for the string partition function (the Riemann surface
of genus 2).
31. Spinning String and Superstring
As has been shown in Chap. 2, a conventional string model based on
the Nambu-Goto action (2.22) may consistently be quantized by a standard
method only in a space-time of dimensionality D = 26. It is then hoped
that the introd uction of extra degrees of freedom into the string model
would lower the critical dimensionality of space-time, D. These degrees
of freedom will play the role of "superfluous" components of the string
radius-vector, x" (T, 0").
196 Introduction to the Relativi.tic String Theory
A relativistic string with extra fermionic degrees of freedom de-
scribing its spin properties was constructed as a dynamical basis of
the Neveu-Schwarz
282
and Ramond
283
dual-resonance models (see Appen-
dix A). Choice of the appropriate Lagrangian appeared a complicated
problem,266,282-286 though equations of motion and boundary conditions
in the spinning-string theory are quite simple. We shall first formulate the
dynamics of the open spinning string in the orthonormal gauge.
In a spinning string, the boson coordinates x"'(r, a) are supplemented
with spin variables (r, a), which are Grassmann (anticommuting) quanti-
ties even at the classical level. With respect to the index IJ, they transform
as Lorentz D-dimensional vectors; whereas with respect to the index A, as
two-dimensional spinors in (r, a) space. Physically, one can interpret the
variables (r, a) as variables describing the spin distribution along the
string.
Equations of motion of an open spinning string in orthonormal gauge
are of the form
(31.1)
The string coordinates x"'(r, a) obey the boundary conditions for a usual
open string,
(31.2)
Boundary conditions for the spin variables r, a), A = 1,2 may be of the
two types,
Si(r,O) = Sf(r, 0), Si(r,1I') = cSf(r, 11') . (31.3)
Here, c = -1 for a spinning string connected with the dual Neveu-Schwarz
model (N-S model) that describes mesons with integer spin; c = +1 for
a string in the Ramond dual model (R model) describing fermions with a
half-integer spin. The orthonormal gauge conditions are written as
(x + x')2 + + = 0 '}
(x - x')2 + iSi(Sl", + = 0 ,
(31.4)
(31.5)
Neither in the equations of motion, nor in the boundary conditions are
boson and fermion variables interacting with each other. It is just the
constraints (31.4) and (31.5) that unite them into a unique system.
Connection of the Relativi,tic String with Field Model, _ . .. 197
Equations of motion (31.1) are found from the following spinning-string
action in the orthonormal gauge
(31.6)
where pa, ex = 0, 1 are two-dimensional Dirac "( matrices for the space r, U
given by
I 5 a fJ + 5
P = UI, P = U3, P P = '1afJ P f!afJ ,
'1afJ = diag(l, -1), eOI = 1 . (31. 7)
The spin variables are two-component Majorana spinors (A = 1,2). In
the representation defined by (31. 7), a Majorana spinor is real, i.e., S; = S I'
and 81-' = S: pO = pO. Auxiliary conditions (31.4) and (31.5), which do
not follow from action (31.6), mean that the symmetric energy-momentum
tensor TafJ vanishes, i.e.,
(31.8)
as does the supercurrent density,
(31.9)
The solution of the equation of motion for xl-' IS given as before by
expansion (4.8); for the fermionic variables we have
k
(31.10)
Sf(r, u) = l/v'21rT L exp[-ik(r + u)l ,
k
'11-''-'= diag(l,-l,-l, ... (31.11)
For the Neveu-Schwarz model, summation over k in (31.10) runs over half-
integer k; whereas for the Ramond model, over integer k.
Constraints (31.4) and (31.5) are expressed in terms of the Fourier am-
plitudes as follows,
G
n
= 0, n = 0, 1, .. . , (31.12)
198 Introduction to the Relatiui8tic String Theory
Hr = 0,
{
... ,
r - 0, 1, ... , when e: - +1 .
The super-Virasoro operators G
n
and Hr are now written as
Gn = L : Qn-mQm : L (r - : bn-rbr : ,
m r
(31.13)
m
Like in the bosonic case, the algebra of operators (31.12) is disclosed at
the quantum level because of the appearance of anomalous terms which
depend on the dimensionality of space-time. In the case of Ramond's string
(e: = +1) we have,
[G
n
, Gml- = (n - m)G
n
+
m
+ n
3
5
n
,_m ,
[Hn' Hml+ = 2Gn+m + n
2
5n,_m ,
[Gn, Hml- = - m) Hn+m .
(31.14)
The algebra of constraints for the Neveu-Schawrz string (e: = -1) is written
as
[G
n
, Gml- = (n - m)G
n
+
m
+ n(n
2
- 1)5
n
, -m ,
[Hn' Hml+ = 2Gn+m + (n2 - 5n,-m ,
[Gn, Hml- = m) Hn+m .
(31.15)
Due to commutators (10.5) and (31.11) the operators and
and with n > 0 are interpreted as creation (annihilation) operators.
Like in the bosonic case, is expressed in terms of the total momentum
of the string, = /..jT;. In the Ramond string there are distinguished
.
fermionic operators = that satisfy the Clifford algebra

bVl -
0' 0 + - -1] .
(31.16)
Therefore, can be represented in terms of the D-dimensional Dirac ma-
trices
/-L,I/ = 0, 1, ... ,D - 1 . (31.17)
Connection of the Relativi.tic String with Field Model ... .. 199
From (31.16) and (31.17) we obtain
(31.18)
The vacuum state Ip) in the N - S model is a bosonic state and it is
defined by
n > o. (31.19)
All the excited states
II , (31.20)
n>O m
are the space-time bosons also.
In the case of the R string, the definition of vacuum state (31.19) should
be supplemented with the condition
(31.21)
Hence, the ground state in the R sector of the spinning string has to be a
space-time spinor, and as a consequence, all other excitation levels are the
space-time fermions, as well.
Because of the appearance of '11-'''' in the commutation relations (10.5)
and (31.16) the space of states (31.20) and the same for the R string have
indefinite metrics.
The gauge conditions (31.12) have to be imposed on the space of states
to define physical states. This is done in the weak sense by
e = +1 : G
n
l1J1) = Hnl1J1) = 0, n 1
(Ho - JQ;:")I1J1) = 0,
(Go - C+)I1J1) + 0 ,
e = -1: G
n
l1J1) = 0, n 1, Hrl1J1) = 0,
(Go - C-)I1J1) = 0 .
1
r> -
- 2 '
(31.22a)
(31.22b)
(31.22c)
(31.23a)
(31.23b)
200 Introduction to the RelatitJi$tic String Theorll
Equations (31.22c) and (31.23b) define the mass spectra in both the sectors,
00 00
t: = +1: a'M
2
= 2: na;l'anl' + 2: nb;l'bnl' - C+
n=1 n=1 (31.24a)
00 00
t: = -1 : a'M
2
= 2: na;l'anl' + 2: rb;l'brl' - C_ ,
n=1 r=1/2 (31.24b)
a' = (21rT)-1 .
Like in the case of the covariant quantum theory of the bosonic string,
one has to make sure that no negative-norm states satisfy the gauge condi-
tions (31.22) and (31.23) for physical states. The no-ghost theorem for the
spinning string tells us that this is fulfilled if289-291
1
C_ = - .
2
(31.25)
Thus, introduction of the spin variables into the string theory does indeed
lower the critical dimensionality of space-time.
Noncovariant quantization In the theory of the spinning string one
can also separate the dynamic variables into groups of dependent and inde-
pendent ones, and one can construct a quantum theory in terms of exclu-
sively independent (transverse) degrees of freedom.
43
, 284 For this purpose,
the light-like gauge (5.5) should be extended to the fermionic variables
(31.26)
The possibility to introduce this gauge guaranteed by the invariance of
Eqs. (31.1), (31.4) and (31.5) under (pseudo) conformal transformations
ra= J(ra),
S ~ r , a ) = Si(r,a)(i+)-1/2,
xl'(r, a) = xl'(r, a) ,
-SI'(- -) SI'( )(/. )-1/2
2 r, a = 2 r, a - ,
and under supersymmetric transformations of a special type!
-I'
S1 = Si+t:/(r,a)(xl'+x'I'),
-I'
S2 = Sf + t:g(r, a)(xl' - x'l') ,
xl' = xl' - 2ie(f Sf + gSf) ,
(31.27)
(31.28)
! Models of relativistic strings with fermionic degrees of freedom were historically the
first examples of supersymmetric quantum-field theories.
43
, 286, 288
Connection 01 the Relaiivi.tic String with Field Model .. .. 201
where l(r,O') and g(r,O') anticommute with SI' and obey the equations
j - I' = 0 , 9 + g' = 0 . (31.29)
In terms of the Fourier amplitudes the light-like gauge conditions (31.26)
with nl' = (1,1,0,0, ... ) become
ni=O
= 0'- j
e:=-I, b;=O,
(31.30a)
(31.30b)
Equations (31.4), (31.5) and (31.26) can be used to express the depen-
dent variables x and S in terms of the transverse ones xi and Si,
j = 2,3, ... , D - 1, in complete analogy with (5. 12). The dynamics of
the independent variables is specified by the action in the light-like gauge
(31.31)
The solution of equations of motion (31.1) for the independent variables
consists of the transverse components J1. = 2,3" .. , D - 1 in (4.8) and
(31.10).
The Lorentz generators M+
i
are given by
where G; and H;; are the super-Virasoro operators (31.13) for the trans-
verse variables. The constants C+ and C_ from (31.22) and (31.23) should
be introduced also into G; and H;;. The Lorentz invariance requires
This condition holds only if
43
,284
D = 10,
1
C_ = -.
2
(31.33)
(31.34)
202 Introduction to the Relativi.tic String Theorll
These values for C-numbers C can also be obtained by a s'-function reg-
ularization. The constants C follow from normal ordering in Gc}. There-
fore,
D 2(00 00)
C+ = -T- L: n - L: n = 0 ,
n=l n>l
D_2(00 00) D 2[00 00 (1 )]
C-=--2- L:n- L: r =--T- L:n-L: Z+n
n=l r=1/2 n=O n=O
D-2 [ (1)] D-2
= --2- d-
1
,O) - s' -1, Z = ----w- .
(31.35)
Here, we have taken into account that the zero-point energy of fermionic
oscillator is equal to (-1/2) and have used Eqs. (17.30) and (17.31).
The mass operator of an open spinning string is
00 00
- l ' 'M
2
- +i i b+ib
i
C
C - + . a - L nan an + L n n n - +,
n=l n=l (31.36a)
00 00
c = -1 : a'M
2
= na+ia
i
+ rb+ib
i
- C
nn rr -
n=l r=1/2 (31.36b)
Because of the anticommutator = oii, t,J 2,3, ... ,9 the
ground-state in the R sector must be an (SO(D - 2) = SO(8)) spinor
10)1.. Due to (31.35) and (31.36a) it is massless and a space-time fermion.
All higher excitations are space-time fermions, as well. At the first excita-
tion level we have a'M
2
= 1 for i.e., a maSSive Rarita-
Schwinger state.
In ths NS sector the scalar vacuum state 10) is tachyonic due to
Eq. (31.36b) with aM2 = -1/2. The first excitation level with the
mass a'M
2
= (1/2 - C_) has only (D - 2) components. It must therefore
be a massless vector. This implies C_ = 1/2 and D = 10.
The degeneracy of states at every mass level is given by a generating
(or partition) function. For example, we have in the R sector
00
ZR(X) = L dR(n)xn = TrxNf; , (31.37)
n=O
Connection of the Relativi8tic String with Field ModeI8 .. . . 203
where
00 00
N
..l = na+'a' + nb+'b' ,; - 2 3 9
R L n n L n n' - , , .. , .
(31.38)
n=l n=l
Substitution of (31.38) into (31.37) gives
(31.39)
For the first multiplier in (31.39) we can use Eqs. (9.48) and (9.49) . The
second one can be transformed by the formula
n=O n=l
where p(D, n) is the number of partitions of an integer n into distinct integer
addends.
7o
Finally, we have
1 + xn 8 2 3
(
00 ) 8
ZR(X)= II-- = [8
4
(0,x)r = 1+16x+144x +960x + ... ,
1- xn
n=l
(31.40a)
where 8
4
is the Jacobi 8_function.
310
, 311
In the N - S sector the half-integer mass levels may be also populated.
The corresponding generating function is
00 1 00 1 + Xn/2
( )
8( )8
ZN-S(X) = g 1 - xn II 1 + xn .
(31.40b)
The mass spectrum of the spinning string in both the sectors can be
truncated so that the number of bosons and fermions is the same at every
mass level, i.e., the spectrum becomes supersymmetric.
292
The total covariant action for a spinning string
266
, 286 is found by intro-
ducing fermion fields in a supersymmetric fashion into (30.1). The metric
tensor gap(u) is "split up" in a standard way with the help of a moving
basis (zweibein) V:,
gap = V:V;'1ab ,
0:, (3, .. . ,a, b, ... = 0,1; '1ab = diag (1, -1)
204 Introduction to the &Iatiui.tic String Theorll
The action is given by
S = - ! d
2
uV [g"fl B"x"'Bpx,.. + iVa"S'" p"B"S,..
+ (BflX,.. + ] ,
(31.41)
where V = detllVa" II, and "'" (u) is a spin-3/2 field. This action is invariant
under local two-dimensional Lorentz transformations in the (T, cr) space,
under Weyl transformations,
and under local supersymmetric transformations
ox'" = oS = (B"x + is,,,,,)paVa''e(u) ,
oVa" = /"'fl, 0"'" = -D"e(u) ,
(31.42)
where D" is a covariant derivative of the spinor in two dimensions. The
Rarita-Schwinger field "'" (u) and the moving basis Va" (u) serve as auxiliary
variables. By virtue of the invariance of the theory under supersymmetric
transformations (31.42), we can always choose a gauge in which the relations
(31.43)
hold (a superconformal gauge). As a result, the equations of motion for x'"
and S,.. which follow from (31.41) reduce to (31.1); the equations of motion
for the moving basis Va" give us gauge condition (31.4) in form (31.8); and
the Euler equations oS/o"''' = 0 reduce to conditions (31.5) in the form of
(31.9).
In the Rohrlich approach, the spinning string was quantized in Ref. 293;
a quantum theory of the fermion string with a finite number of degrees of
freedom was constructed in Ref. 107 and on the basis of summation over
random surfaces the spinning string was studied in Refs. 294-296. The
possibility of compactification of extra six dimensions in the spinning string
theory was discussed in Ref. 297 and in Refs. 292, 298-300 the connection
of this model with ten-dimensional supersymmetric Yang-Mills theory and
with the Einstein action was analysed.
The superstring; action functional and dynamic variables The
possibility of space-time supersymmetric truncations in the fermionic string
Connection 01 the Relativiltic String with Field Modell .. .. 205
motivated Green and Schwarz to search for a formulation in which the su-
persymmetry is manifest. A superstring is a modification of a spinning
relativistic string. In this model, a different description is used for the
spin variables which are distributed along the string. In a spinning string,
the description is made by means of the Grassmann variables a),
J.L = 0,1, ... ,D - 1, A = 1,2, which constitute a Lorentz vector in a D-
dimensional Minkowski space and a Majorana spinor in a two-dimensional
space that is tangent to the world sheet of the string. The supersym-
metry in the spinning string actually refers to the two-dimensional space
1', a rather than to the enveloping ten-dimensional Minkowski space. One
may attempt to expand this supersymmetry. A direct construction of an
(N = 2)-supersymmetric string theory through a doubling of the number of
fields leads to a model with a critical dimensionality D = 2.287 This model
is obviously of no physical interest .
Another approach is to seek new representations of a fermion field spec-
ified along a string. For supersymmetry in the theory, the number of phys-
ical degrees of freedom of the fermion field is to be equal to the number
of boson degrees of freedom, i.e., to the number of transverse components
of the vector xl-'(r, a) (eight in the case of a ten-dimensional space-time).
The simplest way to construct a superstring theory is to work exclusively
with the independent dynamic variables in the light-like gauge. The Lie
algebra of the SO(8) group has three real nonequivalent, eight-dimensional
representations, one vector representation and two spinor representations.
A switch from a spinning string to a superstring is made by the substitution
-+ ,
i = 2,3, ... ,9; a = 1,2, ... ,8, A = 1,2 .
(31.44)
Here, a is an eight-digit spin index with respect to the SO(8) group. Both
the variables in the spinning string model and in the superstring
theory in the light-like gauge are the two-dimensional world-sheet spinors
(A = 1,2). The action of a superstring in the light-like gauge is of the
form
43
(31.45)
where Il, f3 = 0,1; pO are the Dirac gamma matrices in the two-dimensional
space 1',0' {see Eq. (31.7)).
206
Introduction to the Relativi.tic String Theory
All the formulae from the noncovariant quantum theory of a spinning
string are brought over to the superstring theory by substituting (31.44).
Again, there holds relativistic invariance only in a ten-dimensional space-
time, and the ground state of the theory is massless (there are no tachyons) .
Use is made of the boundary conditions as in the case of the Ramond
spinning string ((31.3) with = +1). Consequently, the expansion of the
Grassmann variables is carried out in terms of integer modes, k = 0, 1, ...
u) = L exp[-ik(r - u)],
V 21fT k
= L exp[-ik(r + u)] .
V 21fT k
(31.46)
In the quantum theory, the operators obey the anticommutation rela-
tions
(31.46a)
The operators Q':n' n > 0, are creation operators. When they act on boson
states, they convert the latter into fermion states; the numbers of boson
and fermion states are the same in each multiplet with a fixed mass.
To test the relativistic invariance of the theory, we should construct the
dependent operators x, Q and make sure that the Poincare algebra is
satisfied with D = 10.
43
Total action for a superstring A total action from which both dy-
namic equations and gauge conditions follow has been constructed for a
superstring301-303 by analogy with a spinning string.
266
, 286 The complete
set of dynamic variables for a superstring consists of the space-time coordi-
nates xl'(r, u) and two anticommuting space-time spinors (fA' A = 1,2. The
action is constructed in a ten-dimensional Minkowski space. The spinor in-
dex a takes on 2
s
= 32 values as the dimensionality of the Dirac matrices in
a D-dimensional space-time is 2k where k is the integer part of the number
D/2.
It is required that the variables (fA be a Majorana- Weyl spinor in the
index a,
(31.47)
where h represents the Weyl projection operator, 2h = 1 111. A con-
dition of this sort can be satisfied only in a space-time with D = 2 (mod
8), i.e., D = 2,10, . ... Under conditions (31.47)' we have two possibili-
ti es: Of and may have either the same chirality or opposite chiralities.
Oonnection 01 tM Relatiui,tic String with Field Model, .. ..
207
The complex variables 0A (T, (7), A = 1,2, contain 27 independent real func-
tions. Conditions (31.47) combined with the boundary conditions and the
Dirac equation for 0A reduce the number of independent fermion degrees
of freedom to 2
3
= 8.
The dynamics of a free superstring is determined by the action301-303
(31.48)
where
1 Q -
1 = - 211' = -
2 = - + ,
a, f:J = 0, 1; J.L = 0, 1, ... ,9 .
(31.49)
In addition to local reparametrization invariance, this action has global
N = 2 supersymmetry under the transformations
60
A
= + CA, = ,1
v
L,
4
= + + j 6g
ap
= .
(31.50)
The boundary conditions on 0A lower this symmetry to N = 1. Action
(31.48) is also invariant under local supersymmetric transformations. 301-303
The covariant superstring action (31.48) leads to the first-class and to
the second-class constraints in the phase space. An important point is
that it is not possible to separate these constraints by a Lorentz invariant
method.304-30s An analogous situation takes place for a supersymmetric
massless particle.
306
,319
The second term in the total superstring action (31.48)' generated by
2 is analogous to the auxiliary Wess-Zumino term in the action for non-
linear sigma models.
309
This increment leads to an additional local fermion
symmetry in superstring action (31.48) that is characteristic exclusively of
two dimensions.
Local supersymmetry and reparametrization invariance nevertheless
make it possible to go over to the light-like gauge x- = P- T, 1- 0 A = O.
In this gauge, the remaining independent variables satisfy free equations of
motion generated by action (31.6). It should be noted that in the light-cone
gauge the 0 A'S, which in the covariant action (31.48) are world-sheet scalars,
208
Introduction to the Relatiui,tic String Theory
have become the two components of the Majorana world-sheet spmors.
Green and Schwarz have shown that this is the consequence of combined
N = 2 supersymmetric and fermionic transformations.
302
To unify all the fundamental interactions on the basis of a superstring
theory (see Sec. 1), we should require that the dimensional constant T in
the superstring action (31.45) or (31.48)' satisfies the order-of-magnitude
relation, T-
1
/
2
...... 10-
33
cm, i.e., superstrings must have dimensions in the
Planck range.
32. Some Generalizations of the String Model. Relativistic
Membranes and p-branes, Null-strings, Rigid String
The relativistic string action (2.22) can easily be generalized to more
complicated extended objects like the membranes or in general, to the p-
branes.312-318 Coordinates of an object of that sort are represented by a
D-dimensional vector x"{O" = T, 0"1,0"2, ... ,O"P), J.' = 0,1, . .. ,D - 1, which
at p = 1 describes a string, at p = 2, a membrane,g at p = 3, a bulb {or
jelly),36 etc. By analogy with the relativistic string theory, the action can
be taken proportional to the world volume swept out by this object in the
course of its time evolution
(32.1)
where g = det Ilgapll, gap = aaX"apX"i It is a constant of dimensionality
L-p-1. Variation of (32.1) (see Sec. 19) results in the following equations
of motion,
O
"( 0 1 P) - x 0",0", ... ,0" - , (32.2)
where 0 = Va va is the invariant Laplace-Beltrami operator for the metric
gap {see formula (19.7)). Of physical interest are solutions to Eq. (32.2) that
describe a {p + I)-dimensional sub-manifold of space-time having one time-
like tangent vector x ~ x ~ o > 0 and p space-like tangent vectors x;., x ~ . < 0,
s = 1,2, ... -, p, at every point.
g At first the relativistic membrane with action (32 .1) appeared in the Dirac paper on
the extensible model of the electron.
312
The electron was assumed to have a charged
conducting surface. The surface (or membrane) tension prevented the electron from
flying apart under the Coulomb repulsion . Dirac suggested that the first excited state
in this model may be considered as a muon. By the Bohr-Sommerfeld quantization, the
mass relation m,.<::<S3m
e
was found .
Connection 01 the Relatilli4tic String with Field Model4 .. .. 209
As pointed out in Sec. 19, Eq. (32.2) can be linearized only at p = 1
(string theory). Linearization in the general case cannot be performed.
Indeed, according to the second Noether theorem (p+l) auxiliary conditions
can be imposed on x"'(u), whereas linearization of (32.2) requires (p2+3p)/2
conditions. Therefore, only particular solutions can be obtained in the
theory of relativistic membranes.
3I3
, 3I8
For the canonical conjugate momenta P", we get
p", = - :;'" = (-I)PK:V(-I)Pg . gOa. Bax"" ga{Jr/' = 6J ,
a, f3 = 0,1,2, ... , p. (32.3)
The phase space is restricted by constraints the number of which equals
p+l
CPo = p2 - (- I)PK:
2
det !!g .. !! = 0, CPr = Brx"'p", = 0,
r,8 = 1, 2, ... , p . (32.4)
The canonical Hamiltonian is identically equal to zero. The basic Poisson
brackets relations are the same as in (8.12) with the obvious substitution
_ {I 2 P}
a - 0' , 0' , ... ,0' (32.5)
All constraints (32.4) are the first-class constraints
(32.6)
where c
r4
are the cofactors of g ..
C" = det !!gtt,!!g", gr4 g"r' = 6;', r, r', 8, 8', t, t' = 1,2, ... , p, (32.7)
and
210 Introduction to the Relativiatic String Theol1l
It should be noted that the structure coefficients in algebra (32.6) are con-
stants only in the string case. But when p ~ 2, these coefficients are
functions of the canonical coordinates. As a consequence, in the last case
one has to introduce additional terms into the BRST-charge and Hamilto-
nian in the Fradkin-Vilkovsky formalism.
85
-
88
However, at the quantum
level, the constraints (32.4) are not in involution owing to the Schwinger
terms.
313
Neither choice of gauge conditions, nor fixing Lagrange multipli-
ers may produce linear equations in the phase space when p > 1. This is
a serious handicap to the construction of a quantum theory of extended
objects like membranes, i.e. , to find the spectrum of states, to prove rela-
tivistic invariance of the theory, and so on.
In the formalism where the metric ga{3 is an independent variable with
respect to the membrane coordinates x"', the action (32.1) may be written
in a form quadratic in x;a,
S = ~ ! dP+1uvrgr[ga{3aaX"'a{3X", - (p - 1)] ,
a, (3 = 0, 1, ... ,p.
(32.8)
By following considerations made in Sec. 30, it may be shown that action
(32.8) at the classical level leads to the same dynamics as (32.1).
In Ref. 320, the S-matrix was constructed for relativistic systems de-
scribed by action (32.8) by means of functional integration in the extended
phase space that contains also the ghost variables.
The membrane action given by (32.8) with p = 2 admits the supersym-
metric extension.321-323
The superstring theories have distinguished the space-time with D = 10.
On the other hand, the supersymmetric local field models can be con-
structed in the general case with D $ 11. Therefore, the following ques-
tion is to be investigated now; can the last constraint be considered as an
indication that one should take as the fundamental objects the superme-
mbranes instead of the superstrings in order to construct "the theory of
everything"? In this context, it is important whether the supermembranes
theory contains massless particles. Some progress has been made in this
direction.
318
,321-323
The Schild-Eguchi string model The Nambu-Goto action (2.22)
does not allow us to consider the isotropic world surfaces. These surfaces
are tangential at each point to the light-cone with a vertex at this point.
Connection of the String with Field Modela . . ..
211
Each point of this string moves with the speed of light. In this case, the
determinant of the metric tensor 9 vanishes, and equations of motion (3.18)
cannot be applied. To get rid of this difficulty, i.e., to consider the world
surfaces with 9 = 0, Schild
32 4
has proposed the follOWing string action,
S = _ M
4
! In drdalgl ,
(32.9)
where M is a constant of the mass dimensionality; 9 is the determinant of
the induced metric (2.20) on the world surface of the string.h We may also
consider string actions of a more general form, 116,325
1
v> -
2
In this case equations of motion (3.9) are rewritten as follows,
aa (Igl "" gaP a px") = 0 ,
Q, f3 = 0,1 ; J1. = 0, 1, . . . ,D - 1
Multiplying these equations by apx" we get
(32.10)
(32.11)
(32.12)
When v of 1/2, from (32.12) it follows that the Lagrange density in (32.10)
is constant on the solutions of equations of motion (32.11). If we assume
that
9 = const < 0 ,
(32.13)
equations of motion (32.11) will coincide with the EUler equations in the
Nambu-Goto string theory (19.6) written in a special parametrization where
condition (32.13) is satisfied. However, action (32.10) does allow us to
consider the case 9 = 0.'
h Another approach to the null strings see in : A. Karlhede and D. Linstrom Glau Quan-
tum Grau. 3 (1986) L73; A. A. Zheltukhin, Nucl . 48 ( 1988) 587; I. A. ' Band08 and
A. A. Zheltukhin, Nucl . 50 (1989) 893; Theor. Mat. Fiz. 81 (1989) 468.
i
Here
complete analogy takes place with isotropic world trajectories that cannot be
described by action (2.7) . These trajectories require point-like Lagrangians of the form,57
(X
2
) .... , v> 1/2.
212 Introduction to the Relativi8tic String Theo'1l
Strings models defined by (32.9) or (32.10) permit only such transfor-
mations of the parameters rand u which obey the condition
a(r,O')
--=1.
a(r,u)
(32.14)
Under these transformations the region {1 in the plane r, u is mapped into
a new region "0 with the same area (simplex transformations). By a mathe-
matical theorem,326 any two closed smooth curves encircling the same area
may always be transformed into each other by that mapping. Consequently,
action functionals (32.9) and (32.10) do not depend on the choice of the
region {1 of variation of the parameters rand u, and depend exclusively on
the area of that region. This fact, has allowed Eguchi
327
to put forward
a new quantized theory of the string with action (32.9) in which the area
of the region (1 represents the evolution parameter. It is, however, unclear
how this theory is connected with the standard quantization.
The transformations of parameters rand u obeying condition (32.14)
contain one arbitary function of two variables. Therefore, Lagrangians in
(32.9) and (32.10) are degenerate.
160
The phase space is limited by one
constraint,
p/(r,u)z'/(r,u) = o. (32.15)
In Ref. 328 the canonical quantization of the null string has been performed.
It was shown that the Lorentz invariance does not require any critical space-
time dimension and the mass spectrum of the null string is continuous.
It turns out that the Nambu-Goto (2.22), Schild-Eguchi (32.9), (32.10)
and Polyakov (30.1) string models are equivalent in the quasi classical
approximation.
325
These models in the (11 D)-approximation give the same
expression for the static quark-antiquark potential. 115
Gaussian curvature in the string action The area of a world sur-
face is a simplest, but not unique invariant with respect to reparameter-
ization of the surface and its bending. One more invariant of that sort
is an integral over a surface of the Gaussian curvature K = R12, where
R = ga
P
g
7P
R
a7PP
'
(32.16)
Here, a is a dimensionless constant. If we add S1 to action (2.22), equa-
tions of motion (3.18) will remain the same, but the boundary condi-
tions will change.
94
This is a consequence of the geometric Gauss-Bonnet
Connection of the Relativi8tic String with Field ModeI8 .. .. 213
theorem
151
,152 according to which the integral in (32.16) may be trans-
formed into an integral over a contour encircling the world surface of the
string in space-time,
8
1
= 0: f kgds + const ,
(32.17)
where kg is the geodesic curvature of the contour. Nonlinear boundary
conditions following from the action
(32. 18)
have been found in the general case in Ref. 329 and in the orthonormal
gauge (4.2) in Refs. 262 and 330,
(
2. I a I a
l
I ) I
0: x ~ + x ~ + x ~ - I X ~ = 0,
a a a
(32.19)
(
. I) .. a . a I
0: x ~ + x ~ + x ~ = 0 ,
2a 2a
a = 0, 7r ,
(32.20)
where a(r,a) = x
2
(r,a) = -x
/2
(r,a), XXI = O. An important feature of
these conditions consists in that they contain not only first but also second-
order derivatives of the radius-vector of the world surface of the string: as
a result the number of boundary conditions gets doubled.
Geometrically, conditions (32.19) and (32.20) are more attractive than
analogous conditions in the theory of a free string described solely by action
(2.22). Now, the metric on the string world surface a(r, a) must not vanish
at boundaries. Here, it should be equal to some constants independent of
1". This leads to nonsingular linear boundary conditions for the Liouville
equation describing the basic fundamental forms of the string world surface.
Static solutions of the Liouville equation of that sort were considered in
Ref. 263.
Rigid string The action functional in this model contains, in addi-
tion to the usual Nambu-Goto action, a term dependent on the external
curvature of the world sheet of the string,331-342
(32.21)
where 0: is the dimensionless constant which specifies the rigidity of the
string world sheet, balii are the coefficients of the second fundamental form
214
Introduction to the Relativi8tic String Theory
of the string world surface (see Eq. (18.27)); i, j, k, l = 0, 1; a = 2,3, .. . , D-
1. As noted in Sec. 18, the second differential form of the surface defines
its external curvature and if balii = 0, then the surface is a plane. Owing
to the Gauss Eq. (18.31) we have
(32.22)
Taking into account Eqs. (18.27)' (18.29)' (32.17) and (32.22) we can rewrite
the second term in (32.21) in the following forms
I d
2
uH E baliibalklgikgil = I d
2
UH"tl
a=2 a =2
= I d
2
uHOxl' o xI' ,
(32.23)
where a = 2,3, .. . , D - 1 are the unit space-like normals to the string
world surface, = oap; 0 is the Laplace-Beltrami operator (19.7) for
the metric tensor gii. In the last expression in (32.23) we have dropped the
boundary term. The second form of the additional action in (32.23) resem-
bles the two-dimensional nonlinear sigma-model on a Grassmann manifold
SO(D)jSO(2) x SO(D - 2) (see Sec. 29). It is easy to verify that the ex-
ternal curvature action taken in the last form in (32.23) is invariant under
the constant scale transformation xl' -+ cxl-' .
The equation of motion following from action (32.21) have the form
333
p.=0,1, . . . ,D-1.
(32.24)
Unlike the Nambu-Goto string, Eq. (32.24) cannot be linearized by the
appropriate choice of the coordinate set 'T, 0" on the string world sheet. Any
solution of the Nambu-Goto theory satisfies (32.24) but in the case of the
rigid string we have additional solutions defined by
Due to the second term in action (32.21) with a > 0 the contribution to
the physical quantities from the sharply curved world sheets is suppressed,
Connection 01 the Relatiui8tic String with Field Modell.. .. 215
and as a consequence, the smooth world sheets are favored.
331
,339,342 If
the second term in (32.23) has the same sign as the Nambu-Goto action
(a < 0), we have a model of crinkled strings. The Euclidean version of
this model has been considered in statistical physics by investigating the
biological membranes and microemulsions.340-342
While the statistical mechanics of action (32.21) is well-defined, the
quantum theory of the rigid or smooth string in space-time has an im-
mediate trouble with unitarity because of the second derivatives in (32.21).
These derivatives induce additional to the Nambu-Goto theory ghosts
(states with negative norms) that cannot be avoided by working in D = 26
dimensions.
333
,342 The appearance of the additional ghosts can be ex-
plained by the following simple example
(8
2
+ m
2
)8
2
!p = 0 , (32.25)
where 8
2
= - 8;, !p( T, a) is a scalar field in two dimensions.
function for this field in the momentum space is
1 1 (1 1)
G(k) = k2 (k2 _ m2 ) = m 2 k2 - m2 - k2
The Green
(32.26)
In the right-hand side of (32.26) we have the difference of two usual Gr (' 11
functions for the quanta with mass m and for the massless quanta. Tlli "
means that for one of these quanta we have a wrong sign on the right-lI.llld
side of the commutator for the corresponding creation and annihil.lLill 1l
operators. Thus, in model (32.25) the ghost states should be certaill . ' I' lli'
rigid string model when regarded as a D = 2 field theory on til , wlI lloi
sheet is presumably non-unitary. But it is unclear what implicatioll ll I.III M
has for space-time unitarity and it is the most important probl rlll III t.I".
rigid string theory.342,343 The critical dimension in the rigid strillll 111 11 .1 1' 1
is not known.
Only particular solutions of the classical equations of motioll III til ,
string model with rigidity were obtained and their stability ami till' 1011 11'
sponding Regge trajectories were explored.334-336 In paperR :1:1:1 1111.1 .I:I!)
the Hamiltonian formalism in this model was developed. 'I'll,' 1..11 11 111 -
terquark potential generated by a rigid string was obtained III II ,1 .1:17,
344 and 349.
In Polyakov's paper
331
the action (32.21) has been pORt,IILII"d , 1 Hil t it
can be derived, for example, as an effective action for a C !l 1l11I II I. i ' lf( 1 11,,:1<16
ilt has been argued by J . Ambjorn and B. Durhuus, Ph1/8. Lett. n I HH ( I \/H'I) n :1 LlIIIL
the bosonic strings need extrinsic curvature.
216
Introduction to the String Theory
that takes into account the finite-width corrections to the N ambu-Goto
action for the Nielsen-Olesen vortex solution (26.7). In this case, the second
term in (32.21) has the opposite sign as the Nambu-Goto action. Thus, the
cosmic strings are rigid strings. Near cusps on the string world surface
the extrinsic curvature becomes large. Therefore the curvature stiffness
prevents the cusps formation in the cosmic string dynamics.
It should be noted that the finite-width corrections to the effective action
for a cosmic string gives, in addition to (32.21)' the third term dependent
on the extrinsic torsion of the string world-sheet
346
D-l
1/2 ..
Storsion = 73 d Uy -g ).IaPli).laPlig",
a>p=2
(32.27)
where ).IaPli = -).Ipali are torsion vectors. Using (18.29) we can write
(32.28)
Now, Eq. (32.27) becomes
Storsion = 1 .
(32.27a)
The investigation of such a string model can be found in Ref. 343.
The external curvature of the string world sheet can arise also in the
effective superstring action after integration over fermionic variables.
347
Katanayev and Volovich proposed the string model with dynamical ge-
ometry and intrinsic torsion.
348
33. Baryon String Model
Theory of a finite relativistic string can describe only mesons consist-
ing of two quarks to be placed at the string ends. Baryons composed of
three quarks require more complicated string configurations (see Fig. 8).
(Qualitative analysis of such strings can be found in Refs. 55 and 350.)
There are four possibilities to arrange three quarks in order to obtain
a baryon (Fig. 8). In the model 8a, the baryon is made of a quark and a
diquark which plays the role of the antiquark.
351
,352
The second version (Fig. 8b) of the baryon string may differ from the
meson string only if a third quark placed at the midpoint of the string has
a nonzero mass. Owing to nonlinear boundary conditions at the point with
Connection 0/ the String with Field .. .. 217
the massive quark, the problem cannot be solved even at the classical level.
If, however, we tend the string ends to infinity, i.e., consider an infinite
string loaded with a point mass, then we can construct a general solution
of equations of motion and boundary conditions at the classical level (see
Sec. 14), but there is no quantum theory for this model as yet.
Closed string loaded by three quarks (Fig. 8c) was not investigated in
detail.
A series of papers353-356 was devoted to the string model of a baryon
as pictured in Fig. 8d: three finite strings has a common point (a gluon
triple vertex) and opposite ends are free. We shall briefly examine this
model in a special parametrization when all the three string world surfaces
x(.), i = 1,2,3 are described by the same parameters, T, (7: -00 < T <
+00, 0 (7 :5 11".354-356 In the general case
353
every string is described by
its own parameters, Ti(7i, 1 i 3, however, it is still impossible to solve
the equations of motion in a parametrization like this.
q q q q q

a
b
q q q
c
d
Fig. 8. String models of a baryon.
We will take the action of the baryon string as a sum of three terms,
(33.1)
where (i) = -,[(X(i)X(i))2 - The dot and prime mean, as
usual, differentiation with respect to T and (7, respectively. At the common
q
218
Introduction to the Relativi6tic StriWJ Theory
point of strings we have
(33.2)
To derive the equations of motion and boundary conditions, it is neces-
sary to vary action (33.1) and the variations (T, a) should obey the
following requirements: ox!,) (T1, a) = ox!,) (T2, a) = 0, (T, 0) are arbi-
trary, whereas OX(1)(T, 11") = oX(2)(T, 11") = oX(3)(T,1I"). Then, we arrive at
the equations of motion
8,. 8,._
8T P(,) + 8a1l"(,) - 0, i = 1,2,3,
(33.3)
and boundary conditions
(33.4)
3
L (T, 11") = 0 ,
(33.5)
,=1
where
(33.6)
Further analysis of the dynamics of a baryon string can be advanced by
introducing the orthonormal parametrization
(33.7)
on all three sheets of its world surface. As a result, the equations of motion
of boundary conditions assume the form
.. ,. ""-0
x(,) - x(i) - ,
= 0,
3
= O.
,=1
i = 1,2,3 j
i=l,2,3j
(33.8)
(33.9)
(33.10)
To derive explicit solution of the linear boundary value problem (33.8)-
(33.1O) and (33.2), we take advantage of the following representation for
the string coordinates,
X(i) =,p,. + >'i + >''';*, i = 1,2,3,
(33.11)
Connection 01 the Relativi$tic String with Field M odel$ .. .
219
where .AI = 1, .A2 = and .A3 = = .A;, f}. = 27r/3. A real function
(7) and a complex function <p(T, (7) both obey the d'Alembert equation.
The boundary conditions (33.9), (33.10) and (33.2) for them are rewritten
as follows,
= = 0,
7r) = 0, 7r) = o.
(33.12)
(33.13)
The function (7) can be expanded in the same Fourier series as the
coordinates of a free meson string,
()
i
1j! T,17 = -- --cosnl7+ --,
y37rj n 37rj
n;iO
(33.14)
whereas the Fourier expansion for the function <p( T, (7) contains half-integer
frequencies,
<p(T, (7) = e-
i
(n/2)T gn cos .
y37rj n 2
n=I.3 ....
(33.15)
Substitution of (33. 14) and (33.15) into (33.7) provides constraints on
amplitudes and gn that compose a closed algebra. However, when pass-
ing to the quantum theory, owing to normal ordering of operators, the
algebra becomes open. Like in the commutator of the Virasoro operators
in the meson string there also appear the Schwinger terms dependent on
the dimensionality of space-time. For this reason, authors of Ref. 354 could
not complete the construction of the quantum theory of the baryon string,
and specifically, prove the theorem of the absence of ghosts.
A somewhat different approach to the classical dynamics of the baryon
string was proposed in Ref. 356. However, in this approach, even at the
classical level there appeared, besides first-class constraints, second-class
constraints as a consequence of specific parametrization on the string world
surface.
Particular motions of the baryon string were analysed in Ref. 353. A
solution was there constructed describing a baryon string rotating in a given
plane as a unique object. Each branch of the string is a piece of a straight
line and makes an angle of 120
0
with its neighbours. The slope of the Regge
trajectory is equal to 2a' /3, a' = (27rj) -1. A second solution describes a
baryon string whose three branches are straight lines, superimposed on each
220 Introduction to the Relativi,tic String Theory
other and rotating with a constant velocity as a rigid rod. The slope of the
Regge trajectory equals (a
'
13). A physically more appropriate slope of the
baryonic Regge trajectory (- a
/
) is obtained with the solution describing
the baryon string in a six-dimensional space-time.
Limited class of motions of the baryon string pictured in Fig. 8d with
massive ends was considered in Ref. 355. By numerical computations, the
classical dynamics of the baryon string was studied in Ref. 357.
34. Relativistic Strings in Quantum Chromodynamics
Connection between the relativistic string and quantum chromodynam-
ics is not only phenomenological simulation of the string tube of a chromo-
electric field connecting quarks. It turns out that in the Yang-Mills theory
one may distinguish such objects whose dynamics is described by the same
equations as the string dynamics.
332
,35s-36o
Consider the Wilson functional (the Wilson loop6),
W(XI'(s)) = uPexp (I dXI'AI') ,
(34.1)
where AI'(x) is a vector potential in a non-Abelian gauge theory usually
defined as an anti-Hermitean matrix in an appropriate Lie algebra,
(34.2)
The curve XI' (s) represents a closed contour in space-time,
(34.3)
Functional (34.1) is gauge-invariant.
To derive an equation which is satisfied with functional (34.1) we con-
sider a variational derivative 5W I 5 x" ('1) at the fixed potential AI' (x) (this
derivative was, probably, first considered by Mandelstam in 1962,361),
(34.4)
where = dx"ld'1, GI''' = a"AI' - al'A" - [A", Al'l. Further variation
of (34.4) gives
=UP (I dx>.A>') 5(0)]
+ uP [(GI''' (X('1))X'" ('1))2 exp (I dX>.A>')] ,
(34.5)
Connection 01 the Relativi8tic String with Field ModelL ..
221
where Dp is the covariant derivative,
(34.6)
If AI'(x) obeys free field equation in the Yang-Mills theory
(34.7)
the singular term in the r.h.s. of (34.5) with 6(0) vanishes; as a result, we
obtain the equation for the Wilson functional
(34.8)
analogous to the condition imposed in the string dynamics on state vectors
(34.9)
if the operator PI' is taken to be a variational derivative,
(34.10)
Inserting (34. 10) into (34.9) we get
(34.11)
Derivation of (34.11) requires a detailed analysis of the renormalizations
in the Schwinger-Dyson equations for the Wilson functional (34.1) and a
definite approximation based on the operator expansion around the light
cone. We shall not dwell upon these problems (this may be, for instance,
found in Ref. 362), but only note that a basic parameter of the string theory,
the slope of the Regge trajectory a', is defined in QCD by the formula
(34.12)
where JJ. is the point of subtraction in the renormalization procedure and
arr is the first term in the expansion of the Calan-Simanzik ,a-function.
CONCLUSION
In this book, we have attempted to demonstrate a diversity of string
models and of their applications in theoretical physics. A good deal of
interesting problems slipped our exposition, which is natural if account is
taken of a rapid development of this branch of research.
In our opinion, a most important merit of the string models is that they
were the first to give a consistent. alternative to the conventional local-field
approach in the elementary particle physics. Superstring theories convinc-
ingly show the possibility of a consistent description of the interaction of
extended, rather than point-like, fundamental objects. In string models, we
can see a further unification of geometry and physics, which has repeatedly
been proved to be fruitful.
It may be stated that the string "boom" of the last years has significantly
added to the arsenal of means of theoretical physics by introducing extended
relativistic objects in a line with point-like particle and fields .
223
APPENDICES
Appendix A. Dual Models
Construction of dual-resonance models was initiated by the following
property of the hadron amplitudes discovered experimentally. Within an
accuracy of 10%, inelastic hadron amplitudes, for instance 11"- + P -+ 11"0 + n,
can be described either as a sum of resonance in the s-channel (.6., N*, ... )
or as a sum of the Regge poles (p, p', ... ) in the t-channel. This property
of hadron processes was called the duality23-29 (Fig. 9). This approach is
based on the approximation of infinitely narrow resonances and does not
take account of the unitary corrections. Nevertheless, this description turns
out to be much better than simultaneous summation of the contributions
from resonances and Regge poles made in the framework of the standard
field theory. That summation gives the result about twice as different as
the experimental one.
'Ir
'Ir - ~ t 'lr0
K
)
~
L
n n
p
n
p n
p n
Fig. 9. Duality principle for hadronic amplitudes.
The approximation of infinitely narrow resonances does not describe
the asymptotic behavior of elastic amplitudes caused by the Pomeranchuk
225
226
Introduction to the Relativi6tic String Theorll
singularity. It may happen that this singularity is generated by unitary
corrections, however, its origin is not yet clear.
It was Veneziano
363
who first proposed a particular analytic expression
for the meson-meson amplitude obeying the duality principle,
A(s, t, ti) = F(s, t) + F(t, u) + F(u, s) , (A. l)
where
2 f(-a(s))f(-a(t)) 2
F(s, t) = 9 f(-a(s) _ a(t)) = 9 B(-a(s), -a(t)) . (A.2)
Here, g2 is a constant; f and B are the Euler gamma and beta functions;
a(s) = a(O) + a's are linear Regge trajectories. As is known, the hadrons
composed of light u-, d-, and s-quarks are arranged on the linear Regge
trajectories, to a good approximation.
Using the properties of the beta function
68
,311 we can write
B(-a(s),-a(t)) = f r(n+l+a{t)) 1
n=O n!f(1 + a{t)) n - a(s)
fr(n+l+a(s)) 1
- n=O n!r(1 + a(s)) n - a(t) (A.3)
Thus, every term in the dual amplitude (A.l) can be represented as
an infinite series of the poles either in one or in another channel. It is
worthwhile to mention that the residual at these poles are polynomials in
the crossing variable
lr(n+l+a(t)) 1
.Bn(t) =, f( ()) = ,(n+a(t))(n-l+a(t)) ... (l+a(t)) . (A.4)
n. 1 + a t n .
The duality principle and Veneziano formulae (A.l)' (A.2) have been
generalized to N-particle processes. For this purpose, a special mathe-
matical technique, an operator formalism similar to the Feynman diagram
technique in quantum field theory,23-29 has been developed. It is just this
approach where the connection between dual models and relativistic string
is most simply traced.
Within the operator formalism, an infinite set of creation and anni-
hilation operators, a;r" and a m ~ is introduced which obey the following
commutation relations,
m, n = 1,2, ... ; j.L, v = 0,1, ... , D - 1 ,
Appendice6
227
where gl-'V = diag (1, -1, -1, ... )j D is the dimensionality of the pseudo-
Euclidean space in which the operators amI-' act . The Veneziano amplitude
BN having N external lines is associated with a tree diagram depicted in
Fig. 10. The amplitude BN is constructed by the following correspondence
rules. External lines with momenta PI and PN are made to correspond
to vacuum states (01 and 10) determined, as usual, by the requirement
aml-'IO) = = o.
( 0 I
Ll. 12
Ll.
IN
-
2 10)
Fig. 10. Thee-diagram for the N-point dual Veneziano aamputuue.
Every vertex is represented by a vertex operator V (Pi), i = 2, ... , N - l.
For the external tachyonic states the vertex operator is given by
(
00 pl-'a+) ( 00 pl-'a )
V (p) = exp i../2a' ,; lit exp i../2a' ,; inl-' ,
where a' is the slope of Regge trajectories. The internal lines in the diagram
are associated with a propagator flii'
where Sii = (pi + Pi+! + ... + p,-)2j a(O) is the Regge trajectory at zerOj
a(sii} = a(O) + a's'i; a'W = is a mass operator.
By these rules, we obtain for the N-point tachyon scattering amplitude
BN the following expression,
After calculating the vacuum expectation value in this formula, the am-
plitude BN can be transformed to a standard integral representation, for
228 Introduction to the Relativi.tic String Theory
example, in the Bardakci-Rllegg form,364
IL
(non cy c lic p ermutations)
1 N-2
BN = 1 II dXiX;a(a1;)-1 II (1- Xii)-2a'PiPj ,
o i=2
where Xii = XiXi+l ... Xi-I. We have put here a(O) = l.
(A.5)
The state vectors in this formalism are as usual constructed by action
of the creation operators on vacuum. However, in view of the metric
tensor gl"V in commutator (A.1) there appear vectors of negative norm. The
physical state vectors (with positive norm) are defined by the Virasoro
conditions
= 0, n = 1,2, ... ; [Lo - = 0,
where
1
Ln =--
2
m=- oo
a-k = at = ../kat, k = 1,2, . . . .
To eliminate ghost states, we should require that a(O) = 1 and the
dimensionality of the space-time, D, in which the operators anI" act equals
26.
Thus, it is seen that the operator formalism in the dual approach is
identical with the quantum theory of the bosonic relativistic string. The
constant "I in the Nambu-Goto action (2.22) turns out to be connected
with the universal slope of Regge trajectories, a' : "I = (211"a') -1. What is
more, it has been shown that the dual amplitude (A.5) may be obtained
as the quantum-mechanical transition amplitude in the interacting string
formalism.
27o
Apart from the Veneziano models, a number of other, more compli-
cated dual-resonance models have been constructed. Two models include
fermion variables. One of them describes mesons composed of quarks (the
Neveu-Schwarz model
282
), the other defines the fermion-fermion scattering
amplitude (the Ramond modeI
283
). Consistent formulation of these mod-
els turned out to be possible only in a ten-dimensional space-time. The
Appendice3 229
Virasoro-Shapiro dual mode1
366
,367 is based on the leading Regge trajectory
that can be related to the Pomeranchuk singularity, a(s) = 2 + (a' /2)s. It
should be noted that the integral representation of the dual amplitude (A.5)
and the analogous formula proposed by Koba and Nielsen
365
are used now
as a starting point for a p-adic extension of the string amplitude368-37o
(non-Archimedean strings). Basic characteristics of the dual models and
their connection with appropriate string and quantum-field models can be
found in Table 1.
Appendix B. The Noether Identities in the String Theory
Invariance of the action functional under transformations defined by
arbitrary functions of coordinates and time results in the second Noether
theorem
159
,160: if the action functional is invariant with respect to an in-
finite group transformations given by T arbitrary functions of coordinates
and time and their derivatives up to a kth order, there hold T identities
containing the left-hand sides of the Euler equations and their derivatives
up to the kth order.
Accoding to that theorem, invariance of the action of the relativistic
string (3.1) under the change of the parameters T and a- leads to identities
to be satisfied by the left-hand sides of the string equations of motion (3.9).
We will treat the string coordinates xl' (T, a-) as fields given in a two-
dimensional space T = u
O
and a- = u
1
. Let the Lagrangian of the system
be ..c(x, x,.), where x,. = ax/au' . We suppose that it is chosen so that the
action
8 = Il d
2
u..c(x, x,;) ,
is invariant with respect to the change of the parameters, u' -> u' = f' (u) .
A particular form of ..c is inessential. Under infinitesimal transformations
of the parameters u', e' (u),
u' = u' +e(u) ,
the action variation 58 equals to zero is of the form
58 = /" ( d
2
u [a..c axJ.4 + a: axJ.4 + ta.e']
10 a xl' ax,. "
= o. (B. l)
Denoting the left-hand sides of the Euler equations by
LJ.4 = :; - a ~ . : x ~ ) ,
...
c.>
0
Table l.
Dual model Basic Regge Spin of the Value of Critical Limit Corresponding
trajectory massless state 0/ M' = -Q(O) dimension
Q' --+ 0
string model
for the of the
tachyon state space-time
~
Veneziano 1 + Q'S -1 26 The scalar Nambu-Goto
a
"'-
field theory string
[
A.p3
o
os
c;-
Virasoro- 2 + :is 2 -4 26 Quantum Closed bosonic
~
2
Shapiro gravity string
~
-} + Q'S
1
g..
Ramond
"2
No 10 Massless Spinning string
~
electrodynamics
....
S:?
Neveu -Schwarz
1 + Q'S (p, f) Scalar Spinning string
~
1 1 10
electrodynamics
2" + Q'S (1T, w)
"2
2
I
p-adic dual
Nonlocal Non-Archimedean
amplitude scalar field string
Appendice8
231
and considering that 5xIA = x ~ e ; i we transform formula (B.l) as follows,
Let us first consider such variations e;i (u) of the independent variables u
i
that vanish at the boundary of the integration range O. Then, it is obvious
that the term in square brackets in (B.2) does not contribute to 5S; and as
a result, we arrive at the two identities
i = 0, 1. (B.3)
These are just the identities representing the second Noether theorem. So,
projections of the left-hand sides of the Euler equations onto the vectors
:iP and x'lA are identically equal to zero. Further identities can be derived,
as well.
160
The expression in parentheses in (B.2) is a parametric canonical
energy-momentum tensor
(B.4)
It corresponds to the invariance under translations in (u
O
, u
l
)-space. This
tensor as a function of x, ax equals zero identically,
(B.5)
Indeed, owing to the functions e;i (u) being arbitrary, in the integrand of
(B.2), coefficients of both these functions and their derivatives should iden-
tically and independently vanish.
Let us write identities (B.5) in an explicit form,
(B.6)
The first two identities imply that the Lagrangian density in the theory
under consideration should be a homogeneous function of the first degree
in each of the derivatives IA and x'lA. With the definition of the canonical
momentum density
(B.7)
232
Introduction to the Relativi8tic String Theory
we immediately find from (B.6) that the canonical Hamiltonian is in this
case identically equal to zero. The third identity in (B.6) represents the
constraint between the canonical variables xl'( u) and pI' (u),
(B.8)
An analogous relation between x and p can also be derived from the first
identity upon eliminating the velocities xl' from it with the use of definition
(B.7), explicit elimination requires knowledge of a specific form of t. For
the Nambu-Goto action (2.22) the canonical momentum PI' is defined by
(8.6) from which it follows that
.1' _ (xx'),1' -1 I' H
x - ~ x -1 P Tz
(B.9)
Inserting (2.22)' (B.9) and (B.7) into the first identity, (B.6)' we get, with
allowance made for (B.8),
(B.lO)
Thus, the Noether identities B ~ 6 ) provide two constraints on the dynamics
in the phase space.
All the above consideration is valid also for a k-dimensional parameter
space with k > 2; then we will have k identities of type (B.3) and k x k
identities (B.5) which result in k constraints in the phase space.
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SUBJECT INDEX
A brikosov vortices 174
action of the relativistic string 6
Aichelburg-Sexl geometry 166
algebra of constraints 43
algebra of the Poincare group 55
angular momentum of the string 19, 22
asymptotic behavior of the mass spectrum 59
Backlund transformation for the Liouville equation 149, 151
Bardakci-Ruegg formula 228
Baryon string model 216
basic differential forms of the surface (submanifold) 122
Beltrami equations 16
Bjorling problem 33
Bonnet theorem 126
Born-Infeld
electrodynamics 183
nonlinear models 182
boundary conditions 70, 98
for closed string (periodic boundary conditions) 21
for the string variables 134
BRST-charge 62
canonical Hamiltonian 42
canonical quantization of soliton solutions 143
Cauchy problem for string equations 29
245
246 Subject Index
closed relativistic string 18
conformal (for isometric) coordinates 15
conformally-flat metric 129
constraints 77
cosmic string 176, 215
covariant differentiation 126
covariant formalism 20
curvature lines 167
de Sitter
space-time 158
universe 158
Dedekind's '7-function 58
degeneracy of the string mass levels 56
differential forms 121
Dirac
brackets 51
monopole theory 178
equations of motion for a relativistic string 13
equations of motion in the phase space 44
exterior differentiation 124
external electromagnetic field 102
external geometry of the surface 126
extrinsic torsion 215
Faddeev-Popov determinant 192
first quadratic form 126
first-quantization approach 193
free boundary conditions 14
galaxy formation 178
gauge condition 47,48,49
gauge cosmic strings 177
gauge freedom in the moving frame 149
gauge t = T 77
Gauss and Weingarten derivative equations 126
Gauss-Petersson-Codazzi-Ricci equations 121, 127
Gaussian curvature 212
Subject Index 247
general solution to the Liouville equation 134
generalized Hamiltonian 44
generating function 57
ghost degrees of freedom in string theory 62
global cosmic strings 177
gluon-field tube model 1
Grassmannian sigma-model 214
graviton 62
harmonic functions 130
infinite relativistic string 18
integrability conditions 121, 124, 125, 127
inter-quark potential 87, 89
intrinsic geometry of a surface 126
intrinsic metric on the string world surface 11
Jacobi theta-function 203
Lagrangian constraints 42
Laplace-Beltrami operator 130, 158
Light-like gauge 27, 51
light-like gauge conditions 102
linear differential forms 122, 128
linearly growing potential 83
Liouville equation 121, 133, 134, 137, 187, 192
Lund-Regge nonlinear equations 121
magnetic charges 178
magnetic poles 179
Majorana- Weyl spinor 206
mass of the string 28
maximum temperature in the string theory 59
membranes 207
minimal surface 18, 128
moving basis on the surface 123, 126
N ambu-Goto action 11
Neveu-Schwarz dual model 195, 228, 230
Noether identities 41, 229
248
noncovariant formalism 25
noncovariant quantization 47
null string 211
orthornormal gauge 15
p-adic string 229, 230
p-branes 207
Peres space-time 166
Plateau problem 129
Poisson brackets 43
Polyakov's string theory 188
Pomeranchuk trajectory 62
Poschl- Teller potential 143
Subject Index
potential linearly rising with distance 88
primary constraints 42
quadratic differential forms 122, 128
Ramond dual model 195, 228, 230
Riemann
56
curvature tensor 159
-Christoffel curvature tensor 127
rigid string 213
rotating string with massive ends 81
second differential forms 126
secondary constraints 42
semi-classical quantization of soliton solutions 143
semi-infinite string 18
sh-Gordon equation 168
sigma-model 184
simplified Lund-Regge system 149
singular Lagrangian 33, 41
smooth string 178
soliton solutions to the Liouville equation 140
space-time dimensionality 55
spinning string 195
Subject Index
squared mass of the string 105
stability of solitons 142
string field theory 193
string ground state 55
string mass 54
string potential 95
string with massive ends 69
string with rigidity 178
superlight velocities 98
superstring 195, 204
tachyon 55
tension of the string 12
time-like gauge 90
time-like world surface 11
total linear momentum of the strill g 19
total angular momentum of the strill g 22
Veneziano
amplitude 226
model 230
vertex operator 227
Virasoro
algebra 60, 117
conditions 228
Virasoro-Shapiro model 62, 230
vortex solutions 173
Weyl transformations 188
Wilson loop 219
zero-point oscillations of the strill g "5