Introduction to Magnetic Particle Inspection

Magnetic particle inspection is a nondestructive testing method used for defect detection.
MPI is a fast and relatively easy to apply and part surface preparation is not as critical as
it is for some other NDT methods. These characteristics make MPI one of the most
widely utilized nondestructive testing methods.
MPI uses magnetic fields and small magnetic particles, such as iron filings to detect flaws
in components. The only reuirement from an inspecta!ility standpoint is that the
component !eing inspected must !e made of a ferromagnetic material such iron, nickel,
co!alt, or some of their alloys. "erromagnetic materials are materials that can !e
magnetized to a level that will allow the inspection to !e effective.
The method is used to inspect a variety of product forms such as castings, forgings, and
weldments. Many different industries use magnetic particle inspection for determining a
component#s fitness$for$use. %ome e&amples of industries that use magnetic particle
inspection are the structural steel, automotive, petrochemical, power generation, and
aerospace industries. 'nderwater inspection is another area where magnetic particle
inspection may !e used to test items such as offshore structures and underwater pipelines.
Basic Principles
In theory, magnetic particle inspection (MPI) is a relatively simple concept. It can !e
considered as a com!ination of two nondestructive testing methods* magnetic flu&
leakage testing and visual testing. +onsider a !ar magnet. It has a magnetic field in and
around the magnet. ,ny place that a magnetic line of force e&its or enters the magnet is
called a pole. , pole where a magnetic line of force e&its the magnet is called a north
pole and a pole where a line of force enters the magnet is called a south pole.
-hen a !ar magnet is !roken in the center of its length, two complete !ar magnets with
magnetic poles on each end of each piece will result. If the magnet is .ust cracked !ut not
!roken completely in two, a north and south pole will form at each edge of the crack. The
magnetic field e&its the north pole and reenters the at the south pole. The magnetic field
spreads out when it encounter the small air gap created !y the crack !ecause the air
cannot support as much magnetic field per unit volume as the magnet can. -hen the field
spreads out, it appears to leak out of the material and, thus, it is called a flu& leakage
field.
If iron particles are sprinkled on a cracked magnet, the particles will !e attracted to and
cluster not only at the poles at the ends of the magnet !ut also at the poles at the edges of
the crack. This cluster of particles is much easier to see than the actual crack and this is
the !asis for magnetic particle inspection.
The first step in a magnetic particle inspection is to magnetize the component that is to !e
inspected. If any defects on or near the surface are present, the defects will create a
leakage field. ,fter the component has !een magnetized, iron particles, either in a dry or
wet suspended form, are applied to the surface of the magnetized part. The particles will
!e attracted and cluster at the flu& leakage fields, thus forming a visi!le indication that
the inspector can detect.
History of Magnetic Particle Inspection
Magnetism is the a!ility of matter to attract other matter to itself. The ancient /reeks
were the first to discover this phenomenon in a mineral they named magnetite. 0ater on
1ergmann, 1ecuerel, and "araday discovered that all matter including liuids and
gasses were affected !y magnetism, !ut only a few responded to a noticea!le e&tent.
The earliest known use of magnetism to inspect an o!.ect took place as early as 2343.
+annon !arrels were checked for defects !y magnetizing the !arrel then sliding a
magnetic compass along the !arrel#s length. These early inspectors were a!le to locate
flaws in the !arrels !y monitoring the needle of the compass. This was a form of
nondestructive testing !ut the term was not commonly used until some time after -orld
-ar I.
In the early 25678s, -illiam 9oke realized that magnetic particles (colored metal
shavings) could !e used with magnetism as a means of locating defects. 9oke discovered
that a surface or su!surface flaw in a magnetized material caused the magnetic field to
distort and e&tend !eyond the part. This discovery was !rought to his attention in the
machine shop. 9e noticed that the metallic grindings from hard steel parts, which were
!eing held !y a magnetic chuck while !eing ground, formed patterns on the face of the
parts which corresponded to the cracks in the surface. ,pplying a fine ferromagnetic
powder to the parts caused a !uild up of powder over flaws and formed a visi!le
indication. The image shows a 2563 :lectyro$Magnetic %teel Testing Device (MPI) made
!y the :uipment and :ngineering +ompany 0td. (:+;) of %trand, :ngland.
In the early 25<78s, magnetic particle inspection (MPI) was uickly replacing the oil$and$
whiting method (an early form of the liuid penetrant inspection) as the method of choice
!y the railroad to inspect steam engine !oilers, wheels, a&les, and the tracks. Today, the
MPI inspection method is used e&tensively to check for flaws in a large variety of
manufactured materials and components. MPI is used to check materials such as steel !ar
stock for seams and other flaws prior to investing machining time during the
manufacturing of a component. +ritical automotive components are inspected for flaws
after fa!rication to ensure that defective parts are not placed into service. MPI is used to
inspect some highly loaded components that have !een in$service for a period of time.
"or e&ample, many components of high performance race cars are inspected whenever
the engine, drive train and other systems are overhauled. MPI is also used to evaluate the
integrity of structural welds on !ridges, storage tanks, and other safety critical structures.
Magnetism
Magnets are very common items in the workplace and household. 'ses of magnets range
from holding pictures on the refrigerator to causing torue in electric motors. Most
people are familiar with the general properties of magnets !ut are less familiar with the
source of magnetism. The traditional concept of magnetism centers around the magnetic
field and what is know as a dipole. The term =magnetic field= simply descri!es a volume
of space where there is a change in energy within that volume. This change in energy can
!e detected and measured. The location where a magnetic field can !e detected e&iting or
entering a material is called a magnetic pole. Magnetic poles have never !een detected in
isolation !ut always occur in pairs and, thus, the name dipole. Therefore, a dipole is an
o!.ect that has a magnetic pole on one end and a second eual !ut opposite magnetic pole
on the other.
, !ar magnet can !e considered a dipole with a north pole at one end and %outh Pole at
the other. , magnetic field can !e measured leaving the dipole at the North Pole and
returning the magnet at the %outh Pole. If a magnet is cut in two, two magnets or dipoles
are created out of one. This sectioning and creation of dipoles can continue to the atomic
level. Therefore, the source of magnetism lies in the !asic !uilding !lock of all
matter...the atom.
The Source of Magnetism
,ll matter is composed of atoms, and atoms are composed of protons, neutrons and
electrons. The protons and neutrons are located in the atom#s nucleus and the electrons
are in constant motion around the nucleus. :lectrons carry a negative electrical charge
and produce a magnetic field as they move through space. , magnetic field is produced
whenever an electrical charge is in motion. The strength of this field is called the
magnetic moment.
This may !e hard to visualize on a su!atomic scale !ut consider electric current flowing
through a conductor. -hen the electrons (electric current) are flowing through the
conductor, a magnetic field forms around the conductor. The magnetic field can !e
detected using a compass. The magnetic field will place a force on the compass needle,
which is another e&ample of a dipole.
%ince all matter is comprised of atoms, all materials are affected in some way !y a
magnetic field. 9owever, not all materials react the same way. This will !e e&plored
more in the ne&t section.
Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic, and Ferromagnetic
Materials
-hen a material is placed within a magnetic field, the magnetic forces of the material#s
electrons will !e affected. This effect is known as "araday#s 0aw of Magnetic Induction.
9owever, materials can react uite differently to the presence of an e&ternal magnetic
field. This reaction is dependent on a num!er of factors such as the atomic and molecular
structure of the material, and the net magnetic field associated with the atoms. The
magnetic moments associated with atoms have three origins. These are the electron
or!ital motion, the change in or!ital motion caused !y an e&ternal magnetic field, and the
spin of the electrons.
In most atoms, electrons occur in pairs. :ach electron in a
pair spins in the opposite direction. %o when electrons are
paired together, their opposite spins cause there magnetic
fields to cancel each other. Therefore, no net magnetic
field e&ists. ,lternately, materials with some unpaired
electrons will have a net magnetic field and will react
more to an e&ternal field. Most materials can !e classified
as ferromagnetic, diamagnetic or paramagnetic.
Diamagnetic metals have a very weak and negative
suscepti!ility to magnetic fields. Diamagnetic materials
are slightly repelled !y a magnetic field and the material does not retain the magnetic
properties when the e&ternal field is removed. Diamagnetic materials are solids with all
paired electron and, therefore, no permanent net magnetic moment per atom.
Diamagnetic properties arise from the realignment of the electron or!its under the
influence of an e&ternal magnetic field. Most elements in the periodic ta!le, including
copper, silver, and gold, are diamagnetic.
Paramagnetic metals have a small and positive suscepti!ility to magnetic fields. These
materials are slightly attracted !y a magnetic field and the material does not retain the
magnetic properties when the e&ternal field is removed. Paramagnetic properties are due
to the presence of some unpaired electrons and from the realignment of the electron or!its
caused !y the e&ternal magnetic field. Paramagnetic materials include magnesium,
moly!denum, lithium, and tantalum.
Ferromagnetic materials have a large and positive suscepti!ility to an e&ternal magnetic
field. They e&hi!it a strong attraction to magnetic fields and are a!le to retain their
magnetic properties after the e&ternal field has !een removed. "erromagnetic materials
have some unpaired electrons so their atoms have a net magnetic moment. They get their
strong magnetic properties due to the presence of magnetic domains. In these domains,
large num!ers of atoms moments (27
26
to 27
2>
) are aligned parallel so that the magnetic
force within the domain is strong. -hen a ferromagnetic material is in the unmagnitized
state, the domains are nearly randomly organized and the net magnetic field for the part
as a whole is zero. -hen a magnetizing force is applied, the domains !ecome aligned to
produce a strong magnetic field within the part. Iron, nickel, and co!alt are e&amples of
ferromagnetic materials. +omponents with these materials are commonly inspected using
the magnetic particle method
Magnetic Domains
"erromagnetic materials get their magnetic properties not only !ecause their atoms carry
a magnetic moment !ut also !ecause the material is made up of small regions known as
magnetic domains. In each domain, all of the atomic dipoles are coupled together in a
preferential direction. This alignment develops as the material develops its crystalline
structure during solidification from the molten state. Magnetic domains can !e detected
using Magnetic "orce Microscopy (M"M) and images of the domains like the one shown
!elow can !e constructed.
Magnetic "orce Microscopy
(M"M) image showing the
magnetic domains in a piece
of heat treated car!on steel.
During solidification a trillion or more atom moments are aligned parallel so that the
magnetic force within the domain is strong in one direction. "erromagnetic materials are
said to !e characterized !y =spontaneous magnetization= since they o!tain saturation
magnetization in each of the domains without an e&ternal magnetic field !eing applied.
:ven though the domains are magnetically saturated, the !ulk material may not show any
signs of magnetism !ecause the domains develop themselves are randomly oriented
relative to each other.
"erromagnetic materials !ecome magnetized when the magnetic domains within the
material are aligned. This can !e done !y placing the material in a strong e&ternal
magnetic field or !y passing electrical current through the material. %ome or all of the
domains can !ecome aligned. The more domains that are aligned, the stronger the
magnetic field in the material. -hen all of the domains are aligned, the material is said to
!e magnetically saturated. -hen a material is magnetically saturated, no additional
amount of e&ternal magnetization force will cause an increase in its internal level of
magnetization.

'nmagnetized Material Magnetized Material
Magnetic Field Characteristics
Magnetic Field In and Around a Bar Magnet
,s discussed previously a magnetic field is a change in energy within a volume of space.
The magnetic field surrounding a !ar magnet can !e seen in the magnetograph !elow. ,
magnetograph can !e created !y placing a piece of paper over a magnet and sprinkling
the paper with iron filings. The particles align themselves with the lines of magnetic force
produced !y the magnet. The magnetic lines of force show where the magnetic field e&its
the material at one pole and reenters the material at another pole along the length of the
magnet. It should !e noted that the magnetic lines of force e&ist in three$dimensions !ut
are only seen in two dimensions in the image.
It can !e seen in the magnetograph that there are poles all
along the length of the magnet !ut that the poles are
concentrated at the ends of the magnet. The area where the
e&it poles are concentrated is called the magnet#s north pole
and the area where the entrance poles are concentrated is
called the magnet#s south pole.
Magnetic Fields in and around
Horseshoe and Ring Magnets
Magnets come in a variety of shapes
and one of the more common is the
horseshoe (') magnet. The horseshoe
magnet has north and south poles .ust
like a !ar magnet !ut the magnet is
curved so the poles lie in the same
plane. The magnetic lines of force
flow from pole to pole .ust like in the
!ar magnet. 9owever,
since the poles are located
closer together and a more
direct path e&ists for the
lines of flu& to travel !etween the poles, the magnetic
field is concentrated !etween the poles.

If a !ar magnet was placed across the end of a horseshoe
magnet or if a magnet was formed in the shape of a ring,
the lines of magnetic force would not even need to enter
the air. The value of such a magnet where the magnetic
field is completely contained with the material pro!a!ly has limited use. 9owever, it is
important to understand that the magnetic field can flow in loop within a material when
the concept of circular magnetism is later covered.

General Properties of Magnetic Lines of Force
Magnetic lines of force have a num!er of important properties, which include*
They seek the path of least resistance !etween opposite magnetic poles. In a
single !ar magnet as shown to the right, they attempt to form closed loop from
pole to pole.
They never cross one another.
They all have the same strength.
Their density decreases (they spread out) when they move from an area of higher
permea!ility to an area of lower permea!ility.
Their density decreases with increasing distance from the poles.
They are considered to have direction as if flowing, though no actual movement
occurs. They flow from the south pole to the north pole within the material and
north pole to south pole in air.
Electromagnetic Fields
Magnets are not the only source of magnetic fields. In 2367, 9ans +hristian ;ersted
discovered that an electric current flowing through a wire caused a near!y compass to
deflect. This indicated that the current in the wire was generating a magnetic field.
;ersted studied the nature of the magnetic field around the long straight wire. 9e found
that the magnetic field e&isted in circular form around the wire and that the intensity of
the field was directly proportional to the amount of current carried !y the wire. 9e also
found that the strength of the field was strongest close to the wire and
diminished with distance from the conductor until it could no longer !e
detected. In most conductors, the magnetic field e&ists only as long as the
current is flowing (i.e. an electrical charge is in motion). 9owever, in
ferromagnetic materials the electric current will cause some or all of the
magnetic domains to align and a residual magnetic field will remain.
;ersted also noticed that the direction of the magnetic field was dependent
on the direction of the electrical current in the wire. , three$dimensional representation
of the magnetic field is shown !elow. There is a simple rule for remem!ering the
direction of the magnetic field around a conductor. It is called the righthand rule. If a
person grasps a conductor in ones right hand with the thum! pointing in the direction of
the current, the fingers will circle the conductor in the direction of the magnetic field.
A !ord of caution a"out the righthand rule
"or the right$hand rule to work, one important thing that must remem!ered a!out the
direction of current flow. %tandard convention has current flowing from the positive
terminal to the negative terminal. This convention is credited to 1en.amin "ranklin who
theorized that electric current was due to a positive charge moving from the positive
terminal to the negative terminal. 9owever, it was later discovered that it is the
movement of the negatively charged electron that is responsi!le for electrical current.
?ather than changing several centuries of theory and euations, "ranklin#s convention is
still used today.
Magnetic Field Produced by a Coil
-hen a current carrying conductor is formed into a loop or several loops to form a coil, a
magnetic field develops that flows through the center of the loop or coil along
longitudinal a&is and circles !ack around the outside of the loop or coil. The magnetic
field circling each loop of wire com!ines with the fields from the other loops to produce a
concentrated field down the center of the coil. , loosely wound coil is illustrated !elow
to show the interaction of the magnetic field. The magnetic field is essentially uniform
down the length of the coil when it is wound tighter.
The strength of a coil#s magnetic field increases not only with increasing current !ut also
with each loop that is added to the coil. , long straight coil of wire is called a solenoid
and can !e used to generate a nearly uniform magnetic field similar to that of a !ar
magnet. The concentrated magnetic field inside a coil is very useful in magnetizing
ferromagnetic materials for inspection using the magnetic particle testing method. Please
!e aware that the field outside the coil is weak and is not suita!le for magnetize
ferromagnetic materials.
Quantifying Magnetic Properties
Magnetic Field !trength, Flu" Density, #otal Flu" and
Magneti$ation%
'ntil now, only the ualitative features of the magnetic field have !een discussed.
9owever, it is necessary to !e a!le to measure and e&press uantitatively the various
characteristics of magnetism. 'nfortunately, a num!er of unit conventions are in use as
shown !elow. %I units will !e used in this material. The advantage of using %I units is
that they are tracea!le !ack to an agreed set of four !ase units $ meter, kilogram, second,
and ,mpere.
@uantity
%I 'nits
(%ommerfeld)
%I 'nits
(Aennelly)
+/% 'nits
(/aussian)
"ield H ,Bm ,Bm oersteds
"lu& Density
(Magnetic Induction)
tesla tesla gauss
"lu& we!er we!er
Magnetization M ,Bm $ erg.;e$2.cm$<
The units for magnetic field strength H are ampereBmeter. , magnetic field
strength of 2 ampereBmeter is produced at the center of a single circular
conductor of diameter 2 meter carrying a steady current of 2 ampere.
The num!er of magnetic lines of force cutting through a plane of a given area at a right
angle is known as the magnetic flu# densit$ B. The flu& density or magnetic induction
has the tesla as its unit. ;ne tesla is eual to 2 NewtonB(,Bm). "rom these units it can !e
seen that the flu& density is a measure of the force applied to a particle !y the magnetic
field. The /auss is +/% unit for flu& density and is commonly used !y '% industry. ;ne
gauss represents one line of flu& passing through one suare centimeter of air oriented 57
degrees to flu& flow.
The total num!er of lines of magnetic force in a material is called magnetic flu# . The
strength of the flu& is determined !y the num!er of magnetic domains that are aligned
within a material. The total flu& is simply the flu& density applied over an area. "lu&
carries the unit of a we!er, which is simply a tesla$suare meter.
The magnetization is a measure of the e&tent to which an o!.ect is magnetized. It is a
measure of the magnetic dipole moment per unit volume of the o!.ect. Magnetization
carries the same units as a magnetic fieldC amperesBmeter.
%on&ersion "et!een %GS and SI magnetic units'

#he Hysteresis &oop and Magnetic Properties
, great deal of information can !e learned a!out the magnetic properties of a material !y
studying its hysteresis loop. , hysteresis loop shows the relationship !etween the induced
magnetic flu& density B and the magnetizing force H' It is often referred to as the 1$9
loop. ,n e&ample hysteresis loop is shown !elow.
The loop is generated !y measuring the magnetic flu& B of a ferromagnetic material
while the magnetizing force H is changed. , ferromagnetic material that has never !een
previously magnetized or has !een thoroughly demagnetized will follow the dashed line
as H is increased. ,s the line demonstrates, the greater the amount of current applied
(H)*, the stronger the magnetic field in the component (B)*. ,t point =a= almost all of
the magnetic domains are aligned and an additional increase in the magnetizing force will
produce very little increase in magnetic flu&. The material has reached the point of
magnetic saturation. -hen H is reduced !ack down to zero, the curve will move from
point =a= to point =!.= ,t this point, it can !e seen that some magnetic flu& remains in the
material even though the magnetizing force is zero. This is referred to as the point of
retentivity on the graph and indicates the remanence or level of residual magnetism in the
material. (%ome of the magnetic domains remain aligned !ut some have lost there
alignment.) ,s the magnetizing force is reversed, the curve moves to point =c=, where the
flu& has !een reduced to zero. This is called the point of coercivity on the curve. (The
reversed magnetizing force has flipped enough of the domains so that the net flu& within
the material is zero.) The force reuired to remove the residual magnetism from the
material, is called the coercive force or coercivity of the material.
,s the magnetizing force is increased in the negative direction, the material will again
!ecome magnetically saturated !ut in the opposite direction (point =d=). ?educing H to
zero !rings the curve to point =e.= It will have a level of residual magnetism eual to that
achieved in the other direction. Increasing H !ack in the positive direction will return B
to zero. Notice that the curve did not return to the origin of the graph !ecause some force
is reuired to remove the residual magnetism. The curve will take a different path from
point =f= !ack the saturation point where it with complete the loop.
"rom the hysteresis loop, a num!er of primary magnetic properties of a material can !e
determined.
2. Retenti&it$ $ , measure of the residual flu& density corresponding to the
saturation induction of a magnetic material. In other words, it is a material#s
a!ility to retain a certain amount of residual magnetic field when the magnetizing
force is removed after achieving saturation. (The value of B at point 1 on the
hysteresis curve.)
6. Residual Magnetism or Residual Flu# $ the magnetic flu& density that remains
in a material when the magnetizing force is zero. Note that residual magnetism
and retentivity are the same when the material has !een magnetized to the
saturation point. 9owever, the level of residual magnetism may !e lower than the
retentivity value when the magnetizing force did not
reach the saturation level.
<. %oerci&e Force $ The amount of reverse magnetic
field which must !e applied to a magnetic material
to make the magnetic flu& return to zero. (The value
of H at point + on the hysteresis curve.)
D. Permea"ilit$+ , property of a material that
descri!es the ease with which a magnetic flu& is
esta!lished in the component.
>. Reluctance $ Is the opposition that a ferromagnetic
material shows to the esta!lishment of a magnetic
field. ?eluctance is analogous to the resistance in an
electrical circuit.
Permeability
,s previously mentioned, permea!ility is a material property that descri!es the ease with
which a magnetic flu& is esta!lished in the component. It is the ratio of the flu& density to
the magnetizing force and, therefore, represented !y the following euation*
= /
It is clear that this euation descri!es the slope of the curve at any point on the hysteresis
loop. The permea!ility value given in papers and reference materials is usually the
ma&imum permea!ility or the ma&imum relative permea!ility. The ma&imum
permea!ility is the point where the slope of the 1B9 curve for unmagnetized material is
the greatest. This point is often taken as the point where a straight line from the origin is
tangent to the 1B9 curve.
The relative permea!ility is arrived at !y taking the ratio of the material#s permea!ility to
the permea!ility in free space (air).
(relative) E (material) , (air)
where* (air) E 2.6>4 & 27
$4
9Bm
The shape of the hysteresis loop tells a great deal a!out the
material !eing magnetized. The hysteresis curves of two
different materials are shown in the graph.
?elative to the other material, the materials with the wide hysteresis loop has*
0ower Permea!ility
9igher ?etentivity
9igher +oercivity
9igher ?eluctance
9igher ?esidual Magnetism
The material with the narrower loop has*
9igher Permea!ility
0ower ?etentivity
0ower +oercivity
0ower ?eluctance
0ower ?esidual Magnetism.
In magnetic particle testing the level of residual magnetism is important. ?esidual
magnetic fields are affected !y the permea!ility, which can !e related to the car!on
content and alloying of the material. , component with high car!on content will have
low permea!ility and will retain more magnetic flu& than a material with low car!on
content.
In the two 1$9 loops a!ove, which one would indicative of a low car!on steelF ,nswer
Magnetic Field 'rientation and Fla( Detectability
To properly inspect a component for cracks or other defects, it is important to understand
that orientation !etween the magnetic lines of force and the flaw is very important. There
are two general types of magnetic fields that can !e esta!lished within a component.
, longitudinal magnetic field has magnetic lines of force
that run parallel to the long a&is of the part. 0ongitudinal
magnetization of a component can !e accomplished using
the longitudinal field set up !y a coil or solenoid. It can also
!e accomplished using permanent or electromagnets.
, circular magnetic field has magnetic lines of force that
run circumferentially around the perimeter of a part. ,
circular magnetic field is induced in an article !y either
passing current through the component or !y passing current
through a conductor surrounded !y the component.
The type of magnetic field esta!lished is determined !y the method used to magnetize the
specimen. 1eing a!le to magnetize the part in two directions is important !ecause the
!est detection of defects occurs when the lines of magnetic force are esta!lished at right
angles to the longest dimension of the defect. This orientation creates the largest
disruption of the magnetic field within the part and the greatest flu& leakage at the surface
of the part. ,s can !e seen in the image !elow, if the magnetic field is parallel to the
defect, the field will see little disruption and no flu& leakage field will !e produced.
,n orientation of D> to 57 degrees !etween the magnetic field and the defect is necessary
to form an indication. %ince defects may occur in various and unknown directions, each
part is normally magnetized in two directions at right angles to each other. If the
component !elow is considered, it is known that passing current through the part from
end to end will esta!lish a circular magnetic field that will !e 57 degrees to the direction
of the current. Therefore, defects that have a significant dimension in the direction of the
current (longitudinal defects) should !e detecta!le. ,lternately, transverse$type defects
will not !e detecta!le with circular magnetization.
-atch this short movie showing the effect of field direction on indication visi!ility (GG>
A1 mov)

Magneti$ation of Ferromagnetic
Materials
There are a variety of methods that can !e used to esta!lish a
magnetic field in a component for evaluation using magnetic
particle inspection. It is common to classify the magnetizing
methods as either direct or indirect.
Magneti-ation .sing Direct Induction (Direct
Magneti-ation*
-ith direct magnetization, current is passed directly through
the component. ?ecall that whenever current flows a
magnetic field is produced. 'sing the right$hand rule, which
was introduced earlier, it is known that the magnetic lines of flu& form normal to the
direction of the current and form a circular field in and around the conductor. -hen using
the direct magnetization method, care must !e taken to ensure that good electrical contact
is esta!lished and maintained !etween the test euipment and the test component.
Improper contact can result in arcing that may damage the component. It is also possi!le
to overheat components in areas of high resistance such as the contact points and in areas
of small cross$sectional area.
There are several ways that direct magnetization is commonly accomplished. ;ne way
involves clamping the component !etween two electrical contacts in a special piece of
euipment. +urrent is passed through the component and a circular magnetic field is
esta!lished in and around the component. -hen the magnetizing current is stopped, a
residual magnetic field will remain within the component. The strength of the induced
magnetic field is proportional to the amount of current passed through the component.
, second techniue involves using clamps or prods, which
are attached or placed in contact with the component.
:lectrical current flows through the component from contact
to contact. The current sets up a circular magnetic field
around the path of the current.

Magneti-ation .sing Indirect Induction (Indirect Magneti-ation*
Indirect magnetization is accomplished !y using a strong e&ternal magnetic field to
esta!lish a magnetic field within the component. ,s with direct magnetization, there are
several ways that indirect magnetization can !e accomplished.
The use of permanent magnets is a low cost method of esta!lishing a magnetic field.
9owever, their use is limited due to lack of control of the field strength and the difficulty
of placing and removing strong permanent magnets from the component.
/lectromagnets in the form
of an ad.usta!le horseshoe magnet
(called a yoke) eliminate the pro!lems
associated with permanent magnets and
are used e&tensively in industry.
:lectromagnets only e&hi!it a magnetic flu& when electric current is flowing around the
soft iron core. -hen the magnet is placed on the component, a magnetic field is
esta!lished !etween the north and south poles of the magnet.
,nother way of indirectly inducting a magnetic field in a material is !y using the
magnetic field of a current carrying conductor. , circular magnetic field can !e
esta!lished in cylindrical components !y using a central conductor' Typically, one or
more cylindrical components are hung from a solid copper !ar running through the inside
diameter. +urrent is passed through the copper !ar and the resulting circular magnetic
field esta!lishes a magnetic field within the test components.
The use of coils and solenoids is a third method of indirect magnetization. -hen the
length of a component is several times larger than its diameter, a longitudinal magnetic
field can !e esta!lished in the component. The component is placed longitudinally in the
concentrated magnetic field that fills the center of a coil or solenoid. This magnetization
techniue is often referred to as a =coil shot.=
Magneti$ing Current
,s seen in the previous pages, electric current is often used to esta!lish the magnetic field
in components during magnetic particle inspection. ,lternating current and direct current
are the two !asic types of current commonly used. +urrent from single phase 227 volts,
to three phase DD7 volts are used when generating an electric field in a component.
+urrent flow is often modified to provide the appropriate field within the part. The type
of current used can have an effect on the inspection results so the types of currents
commonly used will !e !riefly reviewed.
Direct %urrent
Direct current (D+) flows continuously in one direction at a constant voltage. , !attery is
the most common source of direct current. ,s previously mentioned, current is said to
flow from the positive to the negative terminal when in actuality the electrons flow in the
opposite direction. D+ is very desira!le when performing magnetic particle inspection in
search of su!surface defects !ecause D+ generates a magnetic field that penetrates deeper
into the material. In ferromagnetic materials, the magnetic field produced !y D+
generally penetrates the entire cross$section of the componentC whereas, the field
produced using alternating current is concentrated in a thin layer at the surface of the
component.
Alternating %urrent
,lternating current (,+) reverses in direction at a rate of >7 or 47 cycles per second. In
the 'nited %tates, 47 cycle current is the commercial norm !ut >7 cycle current is
common in many countries. %ince ,+ is readily availa!le in most facilities, it is
convenient to make use of it for magnetic particle inspection. 9owever, when ,+ is used
to induce a magnetic field in ferromagnetic materials the magnetic field will !e limited to
narrow region at the surface of the component. This phenomenon is known as =skin
effect= and it occurs !ecause induction is not a spontaneous reaction and the rapidly
reversing current does not allow the domains down in the material time to align.
Therefore, it is recommended that ,+ !e used only when the inspection is limited to
surface defects.
Hiew a short video on the ,+ versus D+ (25> A1 mov)
Rectified Alternating %urrent
+learly, the skin effect limits the use of ,+ since many inspection applications call for
the detection of su!surface defects. 9owever, the convenient access to ,+, drive its use
!eyond surface flaw inspections. 0uckily, ,+ can !e converted to current that is very
much like D+ through the process of rectification. -ith the use of rectifiers, the reversing
,+ can !e converted to a one$directional current. The three commonly used types of
rectified current are descri!ed !elow.
Half 0a&e Rectified Alternating %urrent (H0A%*
-hen single phase alternating current is passed through a rectifier, current is allowed to
flow in only one direction. The reverse half of each cycle is !locked out so that a one
directional, pulsating current is produced. The current rises from zero to a ma&imum and
then returns to zero. No current flows during the time when the reverse cycle is !locked
out. The 9-,+ repeats at same rate as the unrectified current (>7 or 47 hertz typical).
%ince half of the current is !locked out, the amperage is half of the unaltered ,+.
This type of current is often referred to as half wave D+ or pulsating D+. The pulsation
of the 9-,+ helps magnetic particle indications form !y vi!rating the particles and
giving them added mo!ility. This added mo!ility is especially important when using dry
particles. The pulsation is reported to significantly improve inspection sensitivity. 9-,+
is most often used to power electromagnetic yokes.
Full 0a&e Rectified Alternating %urrent (F0A%* (Single Phase*
"ull wave rectification inverts the negative current to positive current rather than
!locking it out. This produces a pulsating D+ with no interval !etween the pulses.
"iltering is usually performed to soften the sharp polarity switching in the rectified
current. -hile particle mo!ility is not as good as half$wave ,+ due to the reduction in
pulsation, the depth of the su!surface magnetic field is improved.
Three Phase Full 0a&e Rectified Alternating %urrent
Three phase current is often used to power industrial euipment !ecause it has more
favora!le power transmission and line loading characteristics. This type of electrical
current is also highly desira!le for magnetic particle testing
!ecause when it is rectified and filtered, the resulting current very
closely resem!les direct current. %tationary magnetic particle
euipment wired with three phase ,+ will usually have the a!ility to
magnetize with ,+ or D+ (three phase full wave rectified),
providing the inspector with the advantages of each current form.
&ongitudinal Magnetic Fields
Distribution and Intensity
-hen the length of a component is several time larger than its diameter, a longitudinal
magnetic field can !e esta!lished in the component. The component is often placed
longitudinally in the concentrated magnetic field that fills the center of a coil or solenoid.
This magnetization techniue is often referred to as a =coil shot.=
The magnetic field travels through the component from end to end with some flu& loss
along its length as shown in the image to the right. Aeep in mind that the magnetic lines
of flu& occur in three dimensions and are only shown in 6D in the image. The magnetic
lines of flu& are much denser inside the ferromagnetic material than in air !ecause
ferromagnetic materials have much higher permea!ility than does air. -hen the
concentrated flu& within the material comes to the air at the end of the component, it
must spread out since the air can not support as many lines of flu& per unit volume. To
keep from crossing as they spread out, some of the magnetic lines of flu& are forced out
the side of the component.
-hen a component is magnetized along its complete length, the flu& loss is small along
its length. Therefore, when a component is uniform in cross section and magnetic
permea!ility, the flu& density will !e relatively uniform throughout the component. "laws
that run normal to the magnetic lines of flu& will distur! the flu& lines and often cause a
leakage field at the surface of the component.
-hen a component with considera!le length is magnetized using a solenoid, it is possi!le
to magnetize only a portion of the component. ;nly the material within the solenoid and
a!out the same width on each side of the solenoid will !e strongly magnetized. ,t some
distance from the solenoid, the magnetic lines of force will a!andon their longitudinal
direction, leave the part at a pole on one side of the solenoid and return to the part at a
opposite pole on the other side of the solenoid. This occurs !ecause the magnetizing force
diminishes with increasing distance from the solenoid, and, therefore, the magnetizing
force may only !e strong enough to align the magnetic domains within and very near the
solenoid. The unmagnetized portion of the component will not support as much magnetic
flu& as the magnetized portion and some of the flu& will !e forced out of the part as
illustrated in the image !elow. Therefore, a long component must !e magnetized and
inspected at several locations along its length for complete inspection coverage.
Solenoid $ ,n electrically energized coil of insulated wire, which produces a magnetic
field within the coil.
Circular Magnetic Fields
Distribution and Intensity
,s discussed previously, when current is passed through a solid conductor, a magnetic
field forms in and around the conductor. The following statements can !e made a!out the
distri!ution and intensity of the magnetic field.
The field strength varies from zero at the center of the component to a ma&imum
at the surface.
The field strength at the surface of the conductor decreases as the radius of the
conductor increases when the current strength is held constant. (9owever, a larger
conductor is capa!le of carrying more current.)
The field strength outside the conductor is directly proportional to the current
strength. Inside the conductor the field strength is dependent on the current
strength, magnetic permea!ility of the material, and if magnetic, the location on
the 1$9 curve.
The field strength outside the conductor decreases with distance from the
conductor.
In the images !elow, the magnetic field strength is graphed versus distance from the
center of the conductor. It can !e seen that in a nonmagnetic conductor carrying D+, the
internal field strength rises from zero at the center to a ma&imum value at the surface of
the conductor. The e&ternal field strength decrease with distance from the surface of the
conductor. -hen the conductor is a magnetic material, the field strength within the
conductor is much greater that it was in the nonmagnetic conductor. This is due to the
permea!ility of the magnetic material. The e&ternal field is e&actly the same for the two
materials provided the current level and conductor radius are the same.
The magnetic field distri!ution in and
around a solid conductor of a
nonmagnetic material carrying direct
current.
The magnetic field distri!ution in and
around a solid conductor of a magnetic
material carrying direct current.

-hen the conductor is carrying alternating current, the internal magnetic field strength
rises from zero at the center to a ma&imum at the surface. 9owever, the field is
concentrated in a thin layer near the surface of the conductor. This is known as the =skin
effect.= The skin effect is evident in the field strength versus distance graph for a magnet
conductor shown to the right. The e&ternal field decreases with increasing distance from
the surface as it does with D+. It should !e remem!ered that with ,+ the field is
constantly varying in strength and direction.



In a hollow circular conductor there is no magnetic field in the void area. The magnetic
field is zero at the inside wall surface and rises until it reaches a ma&imum at the outside
wall surface. ,s with a solid conductor, when the conductor is a magnetic material, the
field strength within the conductor is much greater that it was in the nonmagnetic
conductor due to the permea!ility of the magnetic material. The e&ternal field strength
decrease with distance from the surface of the conductor. The e&ternal field is e&actly the
same for the two materials provided the current level and conductor radius are the same.
The magnetic field distri!ution in and
around a solid conductor of a magnetic
material carrying alternating current.
The magnetic field distri!ution in and
around a hollow conductor of a
nonmagnetic material carrying direct
current.
The magnetic field distri!ution in and
around a hollow conductor of a
magnetic material carrying direct
current.

-hen ,+ is passed through a hollow circular conductor the skin effect concentrates the
magnetic field at the outside diameter of the component.





The magnetic field distri!ution in and
around a hollow conductor of a
magnetic material carrying alternating
current.

,s can !e seen in the field distri!ution images, the field strength at the inside surface of
hollow conductor carrying a circular magnetic field produced !y direct magnetization is
very low. Therefore, the direct method of magnetization is not recommended when
inspecting the inside diameter wall of a hollow component for shallow defects. The field
strength increases rather rapidly as one moves in from the ID so if the defect has
significant depth, it may !e detecta!le. 9owever, a much !etter method of magnetizing
hollow components for inspection of the ID and ;D surfaces is with the use of a central
conductor. ,s can !e seen in the field distri!ution image to the right, when current is
passed through a nonmagnetic central conductor (copper !ar) the magnetic field produced
on the inside diameter surface of a magnetic tu!e is much greater and the field is still
strong enough for defect detection on the ;D surface.
Demagneti$ation
$I,fter conducting a magnetic particle inspection, it is usually necessary to demagnetize
the component. ?emanent magnetic fields can*
affect machining !y causing cuttings to cling to a component.
interfere with electronic euipment such as a compass.
create a condition known as =ark !low= in the welding process. ,rc !low may
cause the weld arc to wonder or filler metal to !e repelled from the weld.
cause a!rasive particle to cling to !earing or faying surfaces and increase wear.
?emoval of a field may !e accomplished in several ways. This random orientation of the
magnetic domains can !e achieved most effectively !y heating the material a!ove its
curie temperature. The curie temperature for a low car!on steel is GG7 degrees + or 2<57
degrees ". -hen steel is heated a!ove its curie temperature, it will !ecome austenitic and
loose its magnetic properties. -hen it is cooled !ack down it will go through a reverse
transformation and will contain no residual magnetic field. The material should also !e
The magnetic field distri!ution in and
around a nonmagnetic central
conductor carrying D+ inside a hollow
conductor of a magnetic material .
placed with it long a&is in an east$west orientation to avoid any
influence of the :arth#s magnetic field.
It is often inconvenient to heat a material a!ove it curie temperature
to demagnetize it so another method that returns the material to a
nearly unmagnetized state is commonly used. %u!.ecting the
component to a reversing and decreasing magnetic field will return
the dipoles to a nearly randomly oriented throughout the material.
This can !e accomplished !y pulling a component out and away from
a coil with ,+ passing through it. The same can also !e
accomplished using an electromagnetic yoke with ,+ selected. ,lso, many stationary
magnetic particle inspection units come with a demagnetization feature that slowly
reduces the ,+ in a coil in which the component is placed.
, field meter is often used to verify that the residual flu& has !een removed from a
component. Industry standards usually reuire that the magnetic flu& !e reduced to less
than < gauss after completing a magnetic particle inspection.
Measuring Magnetic Fields
-hen performing a magnetic particle inspection, it is very important to !e a!le to
determine the direction and intensity of the magnetic field. ,s discussed previously, the
direction of the magnetic field should !e !etween D> and 57 degrees to the longest
dimension of the flaw for !est detecta!ility. The field intensity must !e high enough to
cause an indication to form, !ut not too high or nonrelevant indications may form that
could mask relevant indications. To cause an indication to form, the field strength in the
o!.ect must produce a flu& leakage field that is strong enough to hold the magnetic
particles in place over a discontinuity. "lu& measurement devices can provide important
information a!out the field strength.
%ince it is impractical to measure the actual field strength within the material, all the
devices measure the magnetic field that is outside of the material. There are a num!er of
different devices that can !e used to detect and measure an e&ternal magnetic field. The
two devices commonly used in magnetic particle inspection are the field indicator and the
9all effect meter, which is also often called a gaussmeter. Pie gages and shims are
devices that are often used to provide an indication of the field direction and strength !ut
do not actually yield a uantitative measure. They will !e discussed in a later section.
Field Indicators
"ield indicators are small mechanical devices that utilize a soft
iron vane that will !e deflected !y a magnetic field. The J$ray
image !elow shows the inside working of a field meter looking
in from the side. The vane is attached to a needle that rotates
and moves the pointer for the scale. "ield indicators can !e
ad.usted and cali!rated so that uantitative information can !e
o!tained. 9owever, the measurement range of field indicators
is usually small due to the mechanics of the device. The one
shown to the right has a range
from plus twenty gauss to minus
twenty gauss. This limited range
makes them !est suited for
measuring the residual magnetic
field after demagnetization.
, field indicator is shown
checking for residual magnetism
in this movie (25D M1 mov)

Hall/ffect (Gauss,Tesla* Meter
, 9all$effect meter is an electronic device that provides a digital readout
of the magnetic field strength in gauss or tesla units. The meters use a
very small conductive or semiconductor element at the tip of the pro!e.
:lectric current is passed through the conductor. In a magnetic field, the
magnetic field e&erts a force on the moving electrons which tends to
push them to one side of the conductor. , !uildup of charge at the sides of the conductors
will !alance this magnetic influence, producing a measura!le voltage !etween the two
sides of the conductor. The presence of this measura!le transverse voltage is called the
9all$effect after :dwin 9. 9all who discovered it in 23G5.
The voltage generated 1h can !e related to the e&ternal magnetic field !y the following
euation.
1h 2 I B Rh , "
-here*
1h is the voltage generated.
I is the applied direct current.
B is the component of the magnetic field that is at a right angle to the direct current in the
9all element.
Rh is the 9all +oefficient of the 9all element.
" is the thickness of the 9all element.
Pro!es are availa!le with either tangential (transverse) or a&ial sensing elements. Pro!es
can !e purchased in a wide variety of sizes and configurations and with different
measurement ranges. The pro!e is placed in the magnetic field such that the magnetic
lines of force intersect the ma.or dimensions of the sensing element at a right angle.
Placement and orientation of the pro!e is very important and will !e discussed in a later
section.
Portable Magneti$ing E)uipment for
Magnetic Particle Inspection
To properly inspect a part for cracks or other defects, it is important to
!ecome familiar with the different types of magnetic fields and the
euipment used to generate them. ,s discussed previously, one of the
primary reuirements for detection of a defect in a ferromagnetic
material is that the magnetic field induced in the part must intercept the
defect at a D> to 57 degrees angle. "laws that are normal (57 degrees) to
the magnetic field will produce the strongest indications !ecause they
disrupt more of the magnet flu&.
Magnetic Fields3
A field of force that exists around a magnetic body or a current
carrying conductor.
Therefore, for proper inspection of a component, it is important to !e a!le to esta!lish a
magnetic field in at least two directions. , variety of euipment e&ist to esta!lish the
magnetic field for MPI. ;ne way to classify euipment is !ased on its porta!ility. %ome
euipment is designed to !e porta!le so that inspections can !e made in the field and
some is designed to !e stationary for ease of inspection in the la!oratory or
manufacturing facility. Porta!le euipment will !e discussed first.
Permanent magnets
Permanent magnets are sometimes used for magnetic particle inspection as the source of
magnetism. The two primary types of permanent
magnets are !ar magnets and horseshoe (yoke) magnets.
These industrial magnets are usually very strong and may
reuire significant strength to remove them from a piece
of metal. %ome permanent magnets reuire over >7
pounds of force to remove them from the surface.
1ecause it is difficult to remove the magnets from the
component !eing inspected, and sometimes difficult and dangerous to place the magnets,
their use is not particularly popular. 9owever, permanent magnets are sometimes used !y
a diver for inspection in an underwater environment or other areas, such as in an
e&plosive environment, where electromagnets cannot !e used. Permanent magnets can
also !e made small enough to fit into tight areas where electromagnets might not fit.

/lectromagnets
Today, most of the euipment used to create the magnetic field used in MPI is !ased on
electromagnetism. That is, using an electrical current to produce the magnetic field. ,n
electromagnetic yoke is a very common piece of euipment that is used to esta!lish a
magnetic field. It is !asically made !y wrapping an electrical coil around a piece of soft
ferromagnetic steel. , switch is included in the electrical circuit so that the current and,
therefore, also the magnetic field can !e turn on and off. They can !e powered with
alternating current from a wall socket or !y direct current from a !attery pack. This type
of magnet generates a very strong magnetic field in a local area where the poles of
magnet touch the part to !e inspected. %ome yokes can lift weights in e&cess of D7
pounds.
Portable yo*e (ith battery pac*
Portable magnetic particle *it
Hiew a short movie on porta!le magnetic yokes (G24 A1 mov)
Prods
Prods are handheld electrodes that are pressed against the surface
of the component !eing inspected to make contact for passing
electrical current through the metal. The current passing !etween
the prods creates a circular magnetic field around the prods that is
can !e used in magnetic particle inspection. Prods are typically
made from copper and have an insulated handle to help protect
the operator. ;ne of the prods has a trigger switch so that the
current can !e uickly and easily turned on and off. %ometimes the the two prods are
connected !y any insulator as shown in the image to facilitate one hand operation. This is
referred to as a dual prod and is commonly used for weld inspections.
If proper contact is not maintained !etween the prods and the component surface,
electrical arcing can occur and cause damage to the component. "or this reason, the use
of prods are not allowed when inspecting aerospace and other critical components. To
help to prevent arcing, the prod tips should !e inspected freuently to ensure that they are
not o&idized, covered with scale or other contaminant, or damaged.
The following applet shows two prods used to create a current through a conducting part.
The resultant magnetic field roughly depicted gives an estimation of the patterns e&pected
with magnetic particle on an unflawed surface. The user is encouraged to manipulate the
prods to orient the magnetic field to =cut across= suspected defects.
Porta"le %oils and %onducti&e %a"les
+oils and conductive ca!les are used to esta!lish a longitudinal magnetic field within a
component. -hen a preformed coil is used, the component is placed against the inside
surface on the coil. +oils typically have three or five turns of a copper ca!le within the
molded frame. , foot switch is often used to energize the coil. +onductive ca!les are
wrapped around the component. The ca!le used is typically 77 e&tra fle&i!le or 7777
e&tra fle&i!le. The num!er of wraps is determined !y the magnetizing force needed and,
of course, the length of the ca!le. Normally the wraps are kept as close together as
possi!le. -hen using a coil or ca!le wrapped into a coil, amperage is usually e&pressed
in ampere$turns. ,mpere$turns is the amperage shown on the amp meter times the
num!er of turns in the coil.
Portable Coil Conducti+e Cable
-atch these short movies showing a ca!le !eing used to esta!lish magnetic fields in
parts. +a!le wrapped around part (457 A1 mov). +a!le wrapped through the part (D6>
A1 mov).
Porta"le Po!er Supplies
Porta!le power supplies are used to provide the necessary electricity to the prods, coils or
ca!les. Power supplies are commercially availa!le in a variety of sizes. %mall power
supplies generally provide up to 2,>77 , of half wave direct current or alternating current
when used with a D.> meter 7777 ca!le. They are small and light enough to !e carried and
operate on either 267 H or 6D7 H electrical service. -hen more power is necessary,
mo!ile power supplies can !e used. These units come with wheel so that they can !e
rolled where needed. These units also operate on 267 H or 6D7 H electrical service and
can provide up to 4,777 , of ,+ or half$wave D+ when 5 meters or less of 7777 ca!le is
used.
The features of a porta!le power supply are e&plained in this short movie (377A1 mov)
!tationary E)uipment for
Magnetic Particle Inspection
%tationary magnetic particle inspection
euipment is designed for use in la!oratory
or production environment. The most
common stationary system is the wet
horizontal (!ench) unit. -et horizontal units
are designed to allow for !atch inspections
of a variety of components. The units have head and tail stocks, similar to a lathe !ut with
electrical contact that the part can !e clamped !etween for the production of a circular
magnetic field using direct magnetization. The tail stock can !e moved and locked into
place to accommodate parts of various lengths. To assist the operator in clamping the
parts, the contact on the headstock can !e moved pneumatically via a foot switch.
Most units also have a mova!le coil that can !e moved into place so the indirect
magnetization can !e used to produce a longitudinal magnetic field. Most coils have five
turns and can !e o!tained in a variety of sizes. The wet magnetic particle solution is
collected and held in a tank. , pump and hose system is used to apply the particle
solution to the components !eing inspected. :ither the visi!le or fluorescent particles can
!e used. %ome of the systems offer a variety of options in electrical current used for
magnetizing the component. The operator has the option to use ,+, half wave D+, or full
wave D+. In some units, a demagnetization feature is !uilt in, which uses the coil and
decaying ,+.
To inspect a part using a head$shot, the part is
clamped !etween two electrical contact pads. The
magnetic solution, called a !ath, is then flowed
over the surface of the part. The !ath is then
interrupted and a magnetizing current is applied to
the part for a short duration, typically 7.> to 2.>
seconds. (Precautions should !e taken to prevent
!urning or overheating of the part.) , circular field
flowing around the circumference of the part is
created. 0eakage fields from defects then attract
the particles forming indications.
-hen the coil is used to esta!lish a longitudinal
magnetic field within the part, the part is placed on
the inside surface of the coil. Kust as done with a
head shot, the !ath is then flowed over the surface
of the part. , magnetizing current is applied to the
part for a short duration, typically 7.> to 2.>
seconds, .ust after coverage with the !ath is
interrupted. (Precautions should !e taken to
prevent !urning or overheating of the part.)
0eakage fields from defects attract the particles
forming visi!le indications.

The wet horizontal unit can also !e used to
esta!lish a circular magnetic field using a central
conductor. This type of a setup is used to inspect
parts that are hollow such as gears, tu!es, and other ring$shaped o!.ects. , central
conductor is an electrically conductive !ar that is usually made of copper or aluminum.
The !ar is inserted through the center of the hollow part and the !ar is then clamped
!etween the contact pads. -hen current is passed through the central conductor, a
circular magnetic field flows around the !ar and enters into the part or parts !eing
inspected.
Multidirectional E)uipment for
Magnetic Particle Inspection
Multidirectional units allow the component to !e magnetized in two directions,
longitudinally and circumferentially, in rapid succession. Therefore, inspections are
conducted without the need for a second shot. In multidirectional units, the two fields are
!alanced so that the field strengths are eual in !oth directions. These uickly changing
!alanced fields produce a multidirectional field in the
component providing detection of defects lying in more than
one direction.
Kust as in conventional wet$horizontal systems, the electrical
current used in multidirectional magnetization may !e
alternating, half$wave direct, or full$wave. It is also possi!le
to use a com!ination of currents depending on the test
applications. Multidirectional magnetization can !e used for
a large num!er of production applications, and high volume
inspections.
To determine adeuate field strength and !alance of the rapidly changing fields,
techniue development reuires a little more effort when multidirectional euipment is
used. It is desira!le to develop the techniue using a component with known defects
oriented in at least two directions, or a manufactured defect standard. @uantitative
@uality Indicator (@@I) are also often used to verify the strength and direction of
magnetic fields.
&ights for
Magnetic Particle Inspection
Magnetic particle inspection can !e performed using particles that are highly visi!le
under white lighting conditions or particles that are highly visi!le under ultraviolet
lighting conditions. -hen an inspection is !eing performed using the visi!le color
contrast particles, no special lighting is reuired as long as the area of inspection is well
lit. , light intensity of at least 2777 lu& (277 fc) is recommended when a visi!le particles
are used, !ut a variety of light sources can !e used.
-hen fluorescent particles are used, special ultraviolet light must !e used. "luorescence
is defined as the property of emitting radiation as a result of and during e&posure to
radiation. Particles used in fluorescent magnetic particle inspections are coated with a
material that produces light in the visi!le spectrum when e&posed to the near$ultraviolet
light. This =particle glow= provides high contrast indications on the component anywhere
particles collect. Particles that fluoresce yellow$green are most common !ecause this
color matches the peak sensitivity of the human eye under dark conditions. 9owever,
particles that fluoresce red, !lue, yellow, and green colors are availa!le.
.ltra&iolet Light
'ltraviolet light or =!lack light= is light in the 2,777 to D,777 ,ngstroms (277 to D77 nm)
wavelength range in the electromagnetic spectrum. It is a very energetic form of light that
is invisi!le to the human eye. -avelengths a!ove D,777 ,ngstroms fall into the visi!le
light spectrum and are seen as the color violet. 'H is separated according to wavelength
into three classes* ,, 1, and +. The shorter the wavelength, the more energy that is
carried in the light and the more dangerous it is to the human cells.
+lass
'H$,
'H$1
'H$+
-avelength ?ange
<,677LD,777 ,ngstroms
6,377L<,677 ,ngstroms
6,377L2,777 ,ngstroms
The desired wavelength range for use in nondestructive testing is
!etween <,>77 and <,377 ,ngstroms with a peak wavelength at a!out
<,4>7 ,. This wavelength range is used !ecause it is in the 'H$,
range, which is the safest to work with. 'H$1 will do an effective .o! of causing
su!stances to fluoresce, however, it should not !e used !ecause harmful effects such as
skin !urns, and eye damage can occur. This wavelength of radiation is found in the arc
created during the welding process. 'H$+ (2,777 to 6,377) is even more dangerous to
living cells and is used to kill !acteria in industrial and medical settings.
The desired wavelength range for use in NDT is o!tained !y filtering the ultraviolet light
generated !y the light !ul!. The output of a 'H !ul! spans a wide range of wavelengths.
The short wave lengths of <,267 , to <,<D7 , are produced in low levels. , peak
wavelength of <4>7 , is produced at a very high intensity. -avelengths in the visi!le
violet range (D7>7 , to D<>7 ,), green$yellow (>D47 ,), yellow (4667 ,) and orange
(4GG7 ,) are also usually produced. The filter allows only radiation in the range of <677
to D777 angstroms and a little visi!le dark purple to pass.
Basic .ltra&iolet Lights
'H !ul!s come in a variety on shapes and sizes. The more common types are the low
pressure tu!e, high pressure spot, the high pressure flood types. The tu!ular !lack light is
similar in construction to the tu!ular fluorescent lights used for office or home
illumination. These lights use a low pressure mercury vapor arc. Tu!e lengths of 4 to D3
inches are common. The low pressure !ul!s are most often used to provide general
illumination to large areas rather than for illumination of components to !e inspected.
These !ul!s generate a relatively large amount of white light that is a concern as
inspection specifications reuire less than two foot candles of white light at the inspection
surface.
"lood lights are also used to illuminate the inspection area as they provide even
illumination over a large area. Intensity levels for flood lamps is relatively low !ecause
the energy is spread over a large area. They generally do not generate the reuired 'H
light intensity at the given distance that specifications reuire.
%pot lights on the other hand provide concentrated energy that can !e directed to the area
of inspection. , spot light will generate a si& inch diameter circle of high intensity light
when held fifteen inches from the inspection surface. 277 watt mercury vapor lights are
most commonly used, !ut higher wattage#s are availa!le.
In the high pressure mercury vapor spot or flood lamps, 'H light is generated !y a uartz
tu!e inside the !ul!. This tu!e contains two electrodes that esta!lish an arc. The distance
!etween electrodes is such that a starting electrode must !e used. , resister limits the
current to the starting electrode that esta!lishes the initial arc that vaporizes the mercury
in the tu!e. ;nce this low level arc is esta!lished and the mercury is vaporized the arc
!etween the main electrodes is esta!lished. It takes appro&imately five minutes to =warm
up= and esta!lish the arc !etween the main electrodes. This is why specifications reuire
a =warm up time= !efore using the high pressure mercury vapor lights. "lood and spot
!lack lights produce large amounts of heat and should !e handled with caution to prevent
!urns. This condition has !een eliminated !y newer designs that include cooling fans.
The arc in the !ul! can !e upset when e&posed to an e&ternal magnetic field, such as that
generated !y a coil. +are should !e taken not to !ring the lamp close to strong magnetic
fields, !ut if the arc is upset and e&tinguished, it must !e allowed to cool !efore it can !e
safely restarted.
High Intensit$ .ltra&iolet Lights
The D77 watt metal halide !ul!s or =super lights= can !e found in some facilities. This
super !right light will provide adeuate lighting over an area of up to ten times of that
covered !y the 277 watt !ul!. Due to their high intensity, e&cessive light reflecting from
the surface of a component is a concern. Moving the light a greater distance from the
inspection area will generally reduce this glare. ,nother type of high intensity light
availa!le is the micro discharge light. This particular light produces up to ten times the
amount of 'H light conventional lights produce. ?eadings of up to 47,777 u-Bcm
6
at 2>
inches can !e achieved.
Magnetic Field Indicators
Determining whether a magnetic field is of adeuate strength and in the proper direction
is critical when performing magnetic particle testing. ,s discussed previously, knowing
the direction of the field is important !ecause the field should !e as close to perpendicular
to the defect as possi!le and no more than D> degrees from normal. 1eing a!le to
evaluate the field direction and strength is especially important when inspecting with a
multidirectional machine, !ecause when the fields are not !alanced properly a vector
field will !e produced that may not detect some defects.
There is actually no easy to apply method that permits an e&act measurement of field
intensity at a given point within a material. In order to measure the field strength it is
necessary to intercept the flu& lines. This is impossi!le without cutting into the material
and cutting the material would immediately change the field within the part. 9owever,
cutting a small slot or hole into the material and measuring the leakage field that crosses
the air gap with a /auss meter is pro!a!ly the !est way to get an estimate of the actual
field strength within a part. Nevertheless, there are a num!er of tools and methods
availa!le that are used to determine the presence and direction of a field surrounding the
component.
Gauss Meter or Hall /ffect Gage
, /auss meter with a 9all :ffect pro!e, is commonly used to measure the tangential field
strength on the surface of the part. ,s discussed in some detail on the =Measuring
Magnetic "ields= page, the 9all effect is the transverse electric field created in a
conductor when placed in a magnetic field. /auss meters, also called Tesla meters, are
used to measure the strength of a field tangential to the surface of the magnetized test
o!.ect. The meters measure the intensity of the field in the air ad.acent to the component
when a magnetic field is applied.
The advantages of 9all effect devices areC they provide a uantitative measure of the
strength of magnetizing force tangential to the surface of a test piece, they can !e used for
measurement of residual magnetic fields, and they can !e used repetitively. Their main
disadvantages are that they must !e periodically cali!rated, and they cannot !e used to
esta!lish the !alance of fields in multidirectional applications.
4uantitati&e 4ualit$ Indicator (44I*
The @uantitative @uality Indicator (@@I) or ,rtificial "law %tandard are often the
preferred method of assuring proper field direction and adeuate field strength. The use
of @@Is is also the only practical way of ensuring !alanced field intensity and direction
in multiple$direction magnetization euipment. @@Is are often used in con.unction with a
/auss meter to esta!lish the inspection procedure for a particular component. They are
used with the wet method only and, as other flu& sharing devices, they can only !e used
when continuous magnetization is used.
The @@I is a thin strip of either 7.776 or 7.77D inch thick ,I%I 277> steel. , photoetch
process is used to inscri!e a specific pattern, such as concentric circles or a plus sign.
@@Is are nominally <BD inch suare, !ut miniature shims are also availa!le. @@Is must !e
in intimate contact with the part !eing evaluated. This is accomplished !y placing the
shim on a part etched side down, and taping or gluing it to the surface. The component is
then magnetized and particles applied. -hen the field strength is adeuate, the particles
will adhere over the engraved pattern and provide information a!out the field direction.
-hen a multidirectional techniue is used, a !alance of the fields is noted when all areas
of the @@I produce indications.
%ome of the advantages of @@Is are* they can !e uantified and related to other
parametersC they can accommodate virtually any configuration with suita!le selectionC
and they can !e reused with careful application and removal practices. %ome of the
disadvantages are* the application process is somewhat slow, the parts must !e clean and
dryC shims cannot !e used as a residual magnetism indicator as they are a flu& sharing
deviceC they can !e easily damaged with improper handling and will corrode if not
cleaned and properly stored.
,!ove left is a photo of a typical @@I shim. The photo on the right, shows the indication
produced !y the @@I when it is applied to the surface a part and a magnetic field is
esta!lished that runs across the shim from right to left.
Pie Gage
The pie gage is a disk of highly permea!le material divided into four, si&, or eight
sections !y nonferromagnetic material. The division serve as artificial defects that radiate
out in different directions from the center. Diameter of the gage is M to 2 inch. The
divisions !etween the low car!on steel pie sections are to !e no greater than 2B<6 inch.
The sections are furnace !razed and copper plated. The gage is placed on the test piece
copper side up, and the test piece is magnetized. ,fter particles are applied, and e&cess
removed, the indications provide the inspector the orientation of the magnetic field.
The principal application is on flat surfaces such as weldments or steel castings where dry
powder is used with a yoke or prods. The pie gage is not recommended for precision
parts with comple& shapes, for wet$method applications, or for
proving field magnitude. The gage should !e demagnetized !etween
readings.
%everal of the main advantages of the pie gage are* it is easy to use
and it can !e used indefinitely without deterioration. The pie gage has several
disadvantages, which include* it retains some residual magnetism so indications will
prevail after removal of the source of magnetization, it can only !e used in relatively flat
areas, and it cannot !e relia!ly used for determination of !alanced fields in
multidirectional magnetization.
-atch this short movie to see a Pie field gage in action (477A1 mov).
Slotted Strips
%lotted strips, also known as 1urmah$+astrol %trips, are pieces of highly permea!le
ferromagnetic material with slots of different widths. They are placed on the test o!.ect as
it is inspected. The indications produced on the strips give the inspector a general idea of
the field strength in a particular area.
,dvantages of these strips are* they are relatively easily applied to the componentC they
can !e used successfully with either the wet or dry method when using the continuous
magnetizationC they are repeata!le as long as orientation to the magnetic field is
maintained and they can !e used repetitively. Disadvantages include* they cannot !e !ent
to comple& configurationC and they are not suita!le for multidirectional field applications
since they indicate defects in only one direction.
Magnetic Particles
,s mentioned previously, the particles that are used for magnetic particle inspection are a
key ingredient as they form the indications that alert the inspector to defects. Particles
start out as tiny milled (a machining process) pieces of iron or iron o&ide. , pigment
(somewhat like paint) is !onded to their surfaces to give the particles color. The metal
used for the particles has high magnetic permea!ility and low retentivity. 9igh magnetic
permea!ility is important !ecause it makes the particles attract easily to small magnetic
leakage fields from discontinuities, such as flaws. 0ow retentivity is important !ecause
the particles themselves never !ecome strongly magnetized so they do not stick to each
other or the surface of the part. Particles are availa!le in a dry mi& or a wet solution.
Dr$ Magnetic Particles
Dry magnetic particles can typically !e purchased in red, !lack, gray, yellow and several
other colors so that a high level of contrast !etween the particles and the part !eing
inspected can !e achieved. The size of the magnetic particles is also very important. Dry
magnetic particle products are produced to include a range of particle sizes. The fine
particles are around >7 m (7.776 inch) in size are a!out three times smaller in diameter
and more than 67 times lighter than the coarse particles (2>7 m or 7.774 inch), which
make them more sensitive to the leakage fields from very small discontinuities. 9owever,
dry testing particles cannot !e made e&clusively of the fine particles. +oarser particles are
needed to !ridge large discontinuities and to reduce the powder#s dusty nature.
,dditionally, small particles easily adhere to surface contamination, such as remanent
dirt or moisture, and get trapped in surface roughness features producing a high level of
!ackground. It should also !e recognized that finer particles will !e more easily !lown
away !y the wind and, therefore, windy conditions can reduce the sensitivity of an
inspection. ,lso, reclaiming the dry particles is not recommended !ecause the small
particle are less likely to !e recaptured and the =once used= mi& will result in less
sensitive inspections.
The particle shape is also important. 0ong, slender
particles tend align themselves along the lines of
magnetic force. 9owever, research has shown that
if dry powder consists only of long, slender
particles, the application process would !e less
than desira!le. :longated particles come from the
dispenser in clumps and lack the a!ility to flow
freely and form the desired =cloud= of particles
floating on the component. Therefore, glo!ular
particles are added that are shorter. The mi& of
glo!ular and elongated particles result in a dry
powder that flows well and maintain good sensitivity. Most dry particle mi&es have
particle with 0BD ratios !etween one and two.
0et Magnetic Particles
Magnetic particles are also supplied in a wet suspension such as water or oil. The wet
magnetic particle testing method is generally more sensitive than the dry !ecause the
suspension provides the particles with more mo!ility and makes it possi!le for smaller
particles to !e used since dust and adherence to surface contamination is reduced or
eliminated. The wet method also makes it easy to apply the particles uniformly to a
relatively large area.
-et method magnetic particles products differ from dry powder products in a num!er of
ways. ;ne way is that !oth visi!le and fluorescent particle are availa!le. Most
nonfluorescent particles are ferromagnetic iron o&ides, which are either !lack or !rown in
color. "luorescent particles are coated with pigments that fluoresce when e&posed to
ultraviolet light. Particles that fluoresce green$yellow are most common to take advantage
of the peak color sensitivity of the eye !ut other fluorescent colors are also availa!le. ("or
more information on the color sensitivity of the eye, see the penetrant inspection
material.)
The particles used with the wet method are smaller in size than those used in the dry
method for the reasons mentioned a!ove. The particles are typically 27 m (7.777D inch)
and smaller and the synthetic iron o&ides have particle diameters around 7.2 m
(7.77777D inch). This very small size is a result of the process used to form the particles
and is not particularly desira!le, as the particles are almost too fine to settle out of
suspension. 9owever, due to their slight residual magnetism, the o&ide particles are
present mostly in clusters that settle out of suspension much faster than the individual
particles. This makes it possi!le to see and measure the concentration of the particles for
process control purposes. -et particles are also a mi& of long slender and glo!ular
particles.
The carrier solutions can !e water$ or oil$!ased. -ater$!ased carriers form uicker
indications, are generally less e&pensive, present little or no fire hazard, give off no
petrochemical fumes, and are easier to clean from the part. -ater$!ased solutions are
usually formulated with a corrosion inhi!itor to offer some corrosion protection.
9owever, oil$!ased carrier solutions offer superior corrosion and hydrogen em!rittlement
protection to those materials that are prone to attack !y these mechanisms.
!uspension &i)uids
%uspension liuids used in the wet magnetic
particle inspection method can !e either a well
refined light petroleum distillate or water
containing additives. Petroleum$!ased liuids
are the most desira!le carriers !ecause they
provided good wetting of the surface of
metallic parts. 9owever, water$!ased carriers
are used more !ecause of low cost, low fire
hazard, and the a!ility to form indications
uicker than solvent$!ased carriers. -ater$
!ased carriers must contain wetting agents to
disrupt surface films of oil that may e&ist on
the part and to aid in the dispersion of
magnetic particles in the carrier. The wetting agents create foaming as the solution is
moved a!out, so anti$foaming agents must !e added. ,lso, since
water promotes corrosion in ferrous materials, corrosion inhi!itors
are usually added as well.
Petroleum !ased carriers are primarily used in systems where
maintaining the proper particle concentration is a concern. The
petroleum !ased carriers reuire less maintenance !ecause they
evaporate at a slower rate than the water$!ased carriers. Therefore,
petroleum !ased carriers might !e a !etter choice for a system that
only gets occasional use and ad.usting the carrier volume with each
use is undesira!le. Modern solvent carriers are specifically designed
with properties that have flash points a!ove 677 degrees " and keep
nocuous vapors low. Petroleum carriers are reuired to meet certain
specifications such as ,M% 64D2.
Dry Particle Inspection
In this magnetic particle testing techniue, dry particles are dusted onto the surface of the
test o!.ect as the item is magnetized. Dry particle inspection is well suited for the
inspections conducted on rough surfaces. -hen an electromagnetic yoke is used, the ,+
or half wave D+ current creates a pulsating magnetic field that provides mo!ility to the
powder. The primary applications for dry powders are unground welds and rough as$cast
surfaces.
Dry particle inspection is also used to detect shallow su!surface cracks. Dry particles
with half wave D+ is the !est approach when inspecting for lack$of$root penetration in
welds of thin materials. 9alf wave D+ with prods and dry particles is commonly used
when inspecting large castings for hot tears and cracks.
Steps in performing an inspection using dr$ particles
Prepare the part surface $ the surface should !e relatively clean !ut this is not as critical
as it is with liuid penetrant inspection. The surface must !e free of grease, oil or other
moisture that could keep particles from moving freely. , thin layer of paint, rust or scale
will reduce test sensitivity !ut can sometimes !e left in place with adeuate results.
%pecifications often allow up to 7.77< inch (7.7G4 mm) of a nonconductive coating (such
as paint) and 7.772 inch ma& (7.76> mm) of a ferromagnetic coating (such as nickel) to
!e left on the surface. ,ny loose dirt, paint, rust or scale must !e removed.
Appl$ the magneti-ing force $ 'se permanent magnets, a electromagnetic yoke, prods, a
coil or other means to esta!lish the necessary magnetic flu&.
Dust on the dr$ magnetic particles Dust on a light layer of magnetic particles.
Gentl$ "lo! off the e#cess po!der -ith the magnetizing force still applied, remove
the e&cess powder from the surface with a few gently puffs of dry air. The force of the air
needs to !e strong enough to remove the e&cess particle !ut not strong enough to dislodge
particle held !y a magnetic flu& leakage field'
Terminate the magneti-ing force If the magnetic flu& is !eing generated with an
electromagnet or an electromagnetic field, the magnetizing
force should !e terminated. It permanent magnets are !eing
used, they can !e left in place.
Inspect for indications 0ook for areas where the magnetic
particles are clustered.
,et !uspension Inspection
-et suspension magnetic particle inspection, or more commonly wet magnetic particle
inspection, involves applying the particles while they are suspended in a liuid carrier.
-et magnetic particle inspection is most commonly performed using a stationary, wet,
horizontal inspection unit !ut suspensions are also availa!le in spray cans for use with an
electromagnetic yoke. , wet inspection has several advantages over a dry inspection.
"irst, all the surfaces of the component can !e uickly and easily covered with a
relatively uniform layer of particles. %econd, the liuid carrier provides mo!ility to the
particles for an e&tended period of time, which allows enough particle to float to small
leakage fields to form a visi!le indication. Therefore, wet inspection is considered !est
for detecting very small discontinuities on smooth surfaces. ;n rough surfaces, however,
the particle (which are much smaller in wet suspensions) can settle in the surface valleys
and loose mo!ility rendering them less effective than dry powders under these conditions.
Steps in performing an inspection using !et suspensions
Prepare the part surface $ Kust as is reuired with dry particle inspections, the surface
should !e relatively clean. The surface must !e free of grease, oil and other moisture that
could prevent the suspension from wetting the surface and preventing the particles from
moving freely. , thin layer of paint, rust or scale will reduce test sensitivity, !ut can
sometimes !e left in place with adeuate results. %pecifications often allow up to 7.77<
inch (7.7G4 mm) of a nonconductive coating (such as paint) and 7.772 inch ma& (7.76>
mm) of a ferromagnetic coating (such as nickel) to !e left on the surface. ,ny loose dirt,
paint, rust or scale must !e removed.
Appl$ the suspension $ The suspension is gently sprayed or flowed over the surface of
the part. 'sually, the stream of suspension is diverted from the part .ust !efore the
magnetizing field is applied.
Appl$ the magneti-ing force $ The magnetizing force should !e applied immediately
after applying the suspension of magnetic particles. -hen using a wet horizontal
inspection unit, the current is applied in two or three short !usts (2B6 second) which helps
to improve particle mo!ility.
Inspect for indications 0ook for areas where the magnetic particles are clustered.
%urface discontinuities will produce a sharp indication. The indications from su!surface
flaws will !e less defined and loose definition as depth increases.
Inspection -sing Magnetic .ubber
The magnetic ru!!er techniue was developed for detecting very fine cracks and is
capa!le of revealing finer cracks than other magnetic techniues. ,dditionally, the
techniue can !e use to e&amine difficult to reach areas, such as the threads on the inside
diameter of holes, where the molded plugs can !e removed and e&amined under ideal
conditions and magnification if desired. The tradeoff, of course, is that inspection times
are much longer.
The techniues uses a liuid (uncured) ru!!er containing suspended magnetic particles.
The ru!!er compound is applied to the area to !e inspected on a magnetized component.
Inspections can !e performed using either an applied magnetic field, which is maintained
while the ru!!er sets (active field), or the residual field from magnetization of the
component prior to pouring the compound. , dam of modeling clay is often used to
contain the compound in the region of interest. The magnetic particles migrate to the
leakage field caused !y a discontinuity. ,s the ru!!er cures, discontinuity indications
remain in place on the ru!!er.
The ru!!er is allowed to completely set, which takes from 27 to <7 minutes. The ru!!er
cast is removed from the part. The ru!!er conforms to the surface contours and provides
a reverse replica of the surface. The ru!!er cast is e&amined for evidence of
discontinuities, which appear as dark lines on the surface of the molding. The molding
can !e retained as a permanent record of the inspection.
Magnetic ru!!er methods reuires similar magnetizing systems used for dry method
magnetic particle tests. The system may include yokes, prods, clamps, coils or central
conductors. ,lternating, direct current, or permanent magnets may !e used to draw the
particles to the leakage fields. The direct current yoke is the most common magnetization
source for magnetic ru!!er inspection.
Continuous and .esidual
Magneti$ation #echni)ues
In magnetic particle inspection, the magnetic
particles can either !e applied to the component
while the magnetizing force is applied, or after it
has !een stopped. +ontinuous magnetization
descri!es the techniue where the magnetizing
force is applied and maintained while the
magnetic particles are dusted or flowed onto the
surface of the component. In a wet horizontal
testing unit the application of the particles is
stopped .ust !efore the magnetizing force is
applied !ut since particles are still flowing over
and covering the surface, this is considered
continuous magnetization. ?esidual
magnetization, on the other hand, descri!es the techniue where the magnetizing force is
applied to magnetize the component and then stopped !efore applying the magnetic
particles. ;nly the residual field of the magnetized component is used to attract magnetic
particles and produce an indication.
The continuous techniue is generally chosen when ma&imum sensitivity is reuired
!ecause it has two distinct advantages over the residual techniue. "irst, the magnetic
flu& will !e highest when current is flowing and, therefore, leakage fields will also !e
strongest. "ield strength in a component depends primarily on two varia!les...the applied
magnetic field strength and the permea!ility of the test o!.ect. Hiewing the upper right
portion of the hysteresis loop !elow, it is evident that the magnetic flu& will !e strongest
when the magnetizing force is applied. If the magnetizing force is strong enough, the flu&
density will reach the point of saturation. -hen the magnetizing force is removed, the
flu& density will drop to the retentivity point. The two gray traces show the path the flu&
density would follow if the magnetizing force was applied and removed at levels !elow
that reuired to reach saturation. It can !e seen that the flu& density is always highest
while the magnetizing current is applied. This is independent of the permea!ility of a
material.

9owever, the permea!ility of the material is very important. 9igh permea!ility materials
do not retain a strong magnetic field so flu& leakage fields will !e e&tremely weak or
none&istent when the magnetizing force is removed. Therefore, materials with high
magnetic permea!ility are not suited for inspection using the residual techniue. -hen
the residual techniue is used to inspect materials with low permea!ility, care should !e
taken to ensure that the residual field is of the necessary strength to produce an
indication. Defects should !e relatively large and surface !reaking to have a high
pro!a!ility of detection using the residual method.
The second advantage of the continuous techniue is that when current is used to
generate the magnetizing force, it can provide added particle mo!ility. ,lternating or
pulsed direct current will cause the particles to vi!rate and move slightly on the surface
of the part. This movement allows the particles to travel to leakage sites. More particles
mean !righter indications compared to those formed using the residual techniue.
;ne disadvantage of the continuous method is that heating of the component occurs when
using direct magnetization. "or e&ample, when prods are used, they may create areas of
localized heating when the continuous techniue is used. This may !e accepta!le on
components that will !e further processed removing this condition !ut machined or in$
service components may !e adversely affected !y this condition.
-hile generally not recommended, the residual techniue does have its uses. It is
commonly used in automated inspection systems to inspect materials with high
retentivity. To speed throughput, automated systems often magnetize the parts and then
su!merge them in a agitated magnetic particle !ath or pass them through a spray station.
+losely controlled automated systems provided good results using the residual
magField Direction and Intensity
Field Direction
,s discussed previously, determining the direction of the field is important when
conducting a magnetic particle inspection !ecause the defect must produce a significant
distur!ance in the magnetic field to produce an indication. It is difficult to detect
discontinuities that intersects the magnetic field at an angle less than D> degrees. -hen
the orientation of a defect is not well esta!lished, components should !e magnetized in a
minimum of two directions at appro&imately right angles to each other. Depending on the
geometry of the component, this may reuire longitudinal magnetization in two or more
directions, multiple longitudinal and circular magnetization or circular magnetization in
multiple directions. Determining strength and direction of the fields is especially critical
when inspecting with a multidirectional machine. If the fields are not !alanced a vector
field will !e produced that may not detect some defects.
Depending on the application, pie gages, @@Is, and a guass meter can !e used to check
the field direction. The PI: gage is generally only used with dry powder inspections. @@I
shims can !e used in a variety of applications !ut are the only method recommended for
use in esta!lishing !alanced fields when using multiderectional euipment.
Field Strength
The applied magnetic field must have sufficient strength to produce a satisfactory
indication, !ut not so strong that it produces nonrelevant indications or limits particle
mo!ility. If the magnetizing current is e&cessively high when performing a wet
fluorescent particle inspection, particles can !e attracted to the surface of the part and not
allowed to migrate to the flu& leakage fields of defects. -hen performing a dry particle
inspection, an e&cessive longitudinal magnetic field will cause furring. "urring is when
magnetic particles !uild up at the magnetic poles of a part. -hen the field strength is
e&cessive, the magnetic field is forced out of the part !efore reaching the end of the
component and the poles along its length attract particle and cause
high !ackground levels. ,deuate field strength may !e determined
!y*
performing an inspection on a standard specimen that is similar to the test
component and has known or artificial defects of the same type, size, and location
as those e&pected in the test component. @@I shims can sometimes !e used as the
artificial defects.
using a guass meter with a 9all effect pro!e to measure to the peak values of the
tangent field at the surface of the part in the region of interest. Most specifications
call for a field strength of <7 to 47 gauss at the surface when the magnetizing
force is applied.
looking for light furring at the ends pipe and !ar when performing dry particle
inspections of pipe, !ar and other uncomplicated shapes.
"ormula for calculating current levels should only !e used to estimate current
reuirements. The magnetic field strength resulting from calculations should !e assessed
for adeuacy using one of the two method discussed a!ove. 0ikewise, pu!lished current
level information should also !e used only as a guide unless the values have !een
esta!lished for the specific component and target defects of the inspection at hand.
.sing a PI/ Gage
, PI: gage is placed copper side up and held in contact with the component as the
magnetic field and particles are applied. Indications of the leakage fields provide a visual
representation of defect direction within the component. PI: gages work well on flat
surfaces, !ut if the surface is concave or conve& inaccurate readings may occur. The PI:
gage is a flu& sharing device and reuires good contact to provide accurate readings.
.sing 4uantitati&e 4ualit$ Indicator (44I* Shims
@uantitative @uality Indicator (@@I) flaw shims are used to esta!lish proper field
direction and to ensure adeuate field strength during techniue development. The @@I
flaw shim is the most efficient means of determining !alance and effectiveness of fields.
The @@I are also flu& sharing devices and must !e properly attach so as not allow
particle to !e trapped under the artificial flaw. ,pplication using super glue is the
preferred way of attaching the artificial flaw, !ut does not allow for reuse of the shims.
%hims can also !e attached with tape applied to .ust the edge of the shim.. It is
recommended that the tape !e impervious to oil, not !e fluorescent, and !e 2BD to 2B6 inch
in width.
The @@I must !e applied to locations on the component where the flu& density may very.
;ne e&ample would !e the center area of a yoke or N shaped component. ;ften times the
flu& density will !e near 7 in this area. If two legs of a N are in contact with the pad in
circular magnetization it must !e determined if current is flowing evenly through each
leg. , @@I on each leg would !e appropriate under such conditions.
@@I#s can !e used to esta!lish system threshold values for a defect of a given size. 1y
attaching a @@I shim with three circles (D7O, <7O and 67O of shim thickness) to the
threshold values for a specific area of the component can !e esta!lished. 1egin !y
applying current at a low amperage and slowly increasing it until the largest flaw is
o!tained. The flu& density sound !e verified and recorded using a 9all effects pro!e. The
current is then increased until the second circle is identified and the flu& density is again
recorded. ,s the current is raised more, the third ring is identified and the current values
are recorded.
9all :ffects /auss Meter
There are several types of 9all effects pro!es that can !e used to measure the magnetic
field strength. Transverse pro!es are the type most commonly used to evaluate the field
strength in magnetic particle testing. Transverse pro!es have the 9all effect element
mounted in a thin, flat stem and they are used to make measurements !etween two
magnetic poles. ,&ial pro!es have the sensing element mounted such that the magnetic
flu& in the direction of the long a&is of the pro!e is measured.
To make a measurement with a transverse pro!e, the pro!e is positioned such that the flat
surface of the 9all effect element is transverse to the magnetic lines of flu&. The 9all
effect voltage is a function of the angle at which the magnetic lines of flu& pass through
the sensing element. The greatest 9all effect voltage occurs when the lines of flu& pass
perpendicularly through the sensing element. If not perpendicular, the output voltage is
related to the cosine of the difference !etween 57 degrees and the actual angle. The peak
field strength should !e measured when the magnetizing force is applied. The field
strength should !e measured in all areas of the component to !e inspected.

Particle Concentration and Condition
Particle %oncentration
The concentration of particles in the suspension is a very important parameter in the
inspection process and must !e closely controlled. The particle concentration is checked
after the suspension is prepared and continued regularly as part of the uality system
checks. ,%TM :$2DDD$72 reuires concentration checks to !e performed every eight
hours or ever shift change.
The standard process used to perform the check reuires agitating the carrier for a
minimum of thirty minutes to ensure even particle distri!ution. , sample is then taken in
a pear$shaped 277 ml centrifuge tu!e having a stem graduated to 2.7 ml in 7.7> ml
increments for fluorescent particles, and graduated to 2.> ml. in 7.2 ml increments for
visi!le particles. The sample is then demagnetized so that the particles do not clump
together while settling. The sample must then remain undistur!ed for a minimum of 47
minutes for a petroleum$!ased carrier or <7 minutes for a water$!ased carrier, unless
shorter times have !een documented to produce results similar to the longer settling
times. The volume of settled particles is then read. ,ccepta!le ranges are 7.2 to 7.D ml for
fluorescent particles and 2.6 to 6.D ml for visi!le particles. If the particle concentration is
out of the accepta!le range, particles or the carrier must !e added to !ring the solution
!ack in compliance with the reuirement.
Particle loss is often attri!uted to =dragout=. Dragout occurs !ecause the solvent easily
runs off components and is recaptured in the holding tank. Particles, on the other hand,
tend to adhere to components, or !e trapped in geometric features of the component.
These particles will !e =drug out= or lost to the system, and will eventually need to !e
replaced.
Particle %ondition
,fter the particles have settled, they should !e e&amined for !rightness and
agglomeration. "luorescent particles should !e evaluated under ultraviolet light and
visi!le particles under white light. The !rightness of the particles should !e evaluated
weekly !y comparing the particles in the test solution to those in an unused reference
solution that was saved when the solution was first prepared. The !rightness of the two
solutions should !e relatively the same. ,dditionally, the particles should appear loose
and not lumped together. If the !rightness or the agglomeration of the particles is
noticea!ly different from the reference solution, the !ath should !e replaced
!uspension Contamination
The suspension solution should also !e e&amined for evidence of contamination.
+ontamination primarily comes come from inspected components. ;ils, greases, sand,
and dirt will !e introduced to the system through components. If the area is unusually
dusty the system will pickup dust or other contaminates from the environment.
This e&amination is performed on the carrier and particles collected for concentration
testing. The graduated portion of the tu!e is viewed under ultraviolet and white light
when fluorescent particles are !eing used, and under white light when visi!le particles are
!eing used. The magnetic particles should !e e&amined for foreign particles, such as dirt,
paint chips and other solids. Differences in color, layering or !anding within the settled
particles would indicate contamination. %ome contamination is to !e e&pected !ut if the
foreign matter e&ceeds <7 percent of the settled solids, the solution should !e replaced.
The liuid carrier portion of the solution should also !e inspected for contamination. ;il
in a water !ath and water in a solvent !ath are the primary concerns. If the solution
fluoresces !rightly when fluorescent particles are !eing used, this can !e an indication
that dye is !eing dislodged from the particles !y the mi&ing pump. -hile not technically
contamination, this condition should !e further evaluated !y allowing the collected
sample !ath to set for 27 to 26 hours and viewing under ultraviolet light. If a !and that
fluoresces !righter than the !ulk of particles is evident on top of the settled solids, the
!ath contains e&cessive unattached fluorescent pigments and should !e discarded.
0ater Brea5 Test
, daily water !reak check is reuired to evaluate the surface wetting performance of
water$!ased carriers. The water !reak check simply involves flooding a clean surface
similar to those !eing inspected and o!serving the surface film. If a continuous film
forms over the entire surface, sufficient wetting agent is present. If the film of suspension
!reaks (water !reak) e&posing the surface of the component, insufficient wetting agent is
present and the solution should !e ad.usted or replaced.
Electrical !ystem Chec*s
+hanges in the performance of the electrical system of a magnetic particle inspection unit
can o!viously have an effect on the sensitivity of an inspection. Therefore, the electrical
system must !e checked when the euipment is new, when a malfunction is suspected, or
every si& months. 0isted !elow are the verification tests reuired !y ,%TM :$2DDD$72
Ma#imum .nit 6utput
, magnetic particle unit should !e checked regularly (daily) to verify that the ma&imum
current output of its electrical system has not changed over time. This check is performed
!y placing a large diameter (2 inch or more typical) copper or aluminum !ar !etween the
contacts and energizing the circuit with the current control set to the ma&imum value.
The ma&imum amperage as recorded !y the systems ammeter should !e noted and
compared to the value o!tained when the unit was last certified or cali!rated. ,
significant drop or gradual decay indicates a pro!lem with the unit that should !e
corrected.
Internal Short Test
The internal short circuit testing is reuired to determine the if current is =leaking past=
the test article. Internal electrical leakage will cause the test euipment to indicate current
is flowing through the component when it is actually !ypassing the component. The
process for checking euipment for this condition is to energize the system with nothing
!etween the contact heads and the amperage set to the highest output. If the ammeter
shows any current flow, internal shorting should !e suspected.
Ammeter %hec5
It is important that the ammeter provide consistent and correct readings. If the meter is
reading low, over magnetization will occur and possi!ly result in e&cessive !ackground.
If ammeter readings are high, flu& density could !e too low to produce detecta!le
indications. To verify ammeter accuracy, a cali!rated ammeter is connected in series with
the output circuit and values are compared to the euipment#s ammeter values. ?eadings
are taken at three output levels in the working range. The euipment meter is not to
deviate from the cali!rated ammeter more than IB$ 27 percent or >7 amperes, whichever
is greater. If the meter is found outside of this range, the condition must !e corrected. It
should !e noted that when measuring half$wave rectified current, the readings should !e
dou!led.
4uic5 Brea5 Test
, uick !reak circuit is primarily used in three$phase, full$wave rectified systems to
ensure longitudinal magnetic fields maintain their strength to the end of a component.
@uick !reak circuits cause the current to a!ruptly collapse or drop to zero at the end of
the activation cycle. 1y doing this, low freuency eddy currents are produced close to the
surface of a component. These eddy currents help e&tend the usea!le longitudinal field to
the ends of the component. To determine if a uick !reak system is functioning properly
an oscilloscope is often used. 1y o!serving the sine wave of the current, it can !e
determine if current drops a!ruptly when the circuit is interrupted.
Shot Timer %hec5
-hen a timer is used to control the shot duration, the timer must !e cali!rated. ,%TM :$
2DDD $72 reuires the timer !e cali!rated to within IB$ 7.2 second. , certified timer
should !e used to verify the euipment timer is within the reuired tolerances.
&ighting
Magnetic particle inspection predominately relies on visual inspection to detect any
indications that are formed. Therefore, lighting is a very important element of the
inspection process. ;!viously, the lighting reuirements are different for an inspection
conducted using visi!le particles than they are for an inspection conducted using
fluorescent particles. The lighting reuirements for each of these techniues, as well as
how light measurements are made, is discussed !elow.
Light Re7uirements 0hen .sing 1isi"le Particles
Magnetic particle inspections conducted using visi!le particles can !e conducted using
natural lighting or artificial lighting. -hen using natural lighting, it is important to keep
in mind that daylight varies from hour to hour. Inspector must stay constantly aware of
the lighting conditions and make ad.ustments when needed. To improve uniformity in
lighting from one inspection to the ne&t, the use of artificial lighting is recommended.
,rtificial lighting should !e white whenever possi!le and white flood or halogen lamps
are most commonly used. The light intensity is reuired to !e 277 foot$candles at the
surface !eing inspected. It is advisa!le to choose a white light wattage that will provide
sufficient light, !ut avoid e&cessive reflected light that could distract from the inspection.
Light Re7uirements 0hen .sing Fluorescent Particles
.ltra&iolet Lighting
-hen performing a magnetic particle inspection using fluorescent particles, the condition
of the ultraviolet light and the am!ient white light must !e monitored. %tandards and
procedures reuire verification of lens condition and light intensity. 1lack lights should
never !e used with a cracked filter as output of white light and harmful !lack light will !e
increased. The cleanliness of the filter should also !e checked as a coating of solvent
carrier, oils, or other foreign materials can reduce the intensity !y up to as much as >7O.
The filter should !e checked visually and cleaned as necessary !efore warm$up of the
light.
"or 'H lights used in component evaluations, the normally accepted intensity is 2777
microwatts per suare centimeter when measured at 2> inches from the filter face
(reuirements can vary from 377 to 2677). The reuired check should !e performed when
a new !ul! is installed, at startup of the inspection cycle, if a change in intensity is
noticed, or every eight hours if in continuous use. ?egularly checking the intensity of 'H
lights is very important !ecause !ul!s loose intensity over time. In fact, a !ul! that is near
the end of its operating life will often have an intensity of only 6> percent of its original
output. 1lack light intensity will also !e affected !y voltage variations, so it is important
to provide constant voltage to the light. , !ul! that produces accepta!le intensity at 267
volts will produce significantly less at 227 volts.
Am"ient 0hite Lighting
-hen performing a fluorescent magnetic particle inspection, it is
important to keep white light to a minimum as it will significantly
reduce the inspectors a!ility to detect fluorescent indications. 0ight
levels of less than 6 fc are reuired !y most procedures with some
procedures reuiring less than 7.> fc at the inspection surface. -hen checking !lack light
intensity at 2> inches a reading of the white light produced !y the !lack light may !e
reuired to verify white light is !eing removed !y the filter.
0hite Light for Indication %onfirmation
-hile white light is held to a minimum in fluorescent inspections, procedures may
reuire that indications !e evaluated under white light. The white light reuirements here
are the same as when performing an inspection with visi!le particles. The minimum light
intensity at the surface !eing inspected must !e 277 foot$candles.
Light Measurement
0ight intensity measurements are made using a radiometer. , radiometer is an instrument
that translates light energy into an electrical current. 0ight striking a silicon photodiode
detector causes a charge to !uild up !etween internal layers. -hen an e&ternal circuit is
connected to the cell, an electrical current is produced. This current is linear with respect
to incident light. %ome radiometers have the a!ility to measure !oth !lack and white
light, while others reuire a separate sensor for each measurement. -hichever type used,
the sensing area should !e clean and free of any materials that could reduce or o!struct
light reaching the sensor.
?adiometers are relatively unsta!le instruments and readings often change considera!ly
over time. Therefore, they must !e cali!rated regularly. They should !e cali!rated at least
every si& months. , unit should !e checked to make sure its cali!ration is current !efore
taking any light readings.
'ltraviolet light measurements should !e taken using a fi&ture to maintain a minimum
distance of 2> inches from the filter face to the sensor. The sensor should !e centered in
the light field to o!tain and record the highest reading. 'H spot lights are often focused
so intensity readings will vary considera!le over a small area. -hite lights are seldom
focused and depending on the wattage, will often produce in e&cess of the 277 fc at 2>
inches. Many specifications do not reuire the white light intensity check to !e conducted
at a specific distance.
Eye Consideration
/$e Adaptation
Kust as lighting is an important consideration in the inspection process, so is the eyes
response to light. %cientists have recently discovered that a special, tiny group of cells at
the !ack of the eye help tell the !rain how much light there is, causing the pupil to get
!igger or smaller. The change in pupil diameter is not instantaneous and, therefore, eyes
must !e given time to adapt to changing lighting conditions. -hen performing an
fluorescent magnetic particle inspection, the eye must !e given time to adapt to the
darkness of the inspection !ooth !efore !eginning to look for indications. Dark
adaptation time of at least one minute is reuired !y most procedures. %ome studies
recommend adaptation time of five minutes if entering an inspection area from direct
sunlight. Technicians should !e aware of, and adhere to, the adaptation time procedures
reuire as it is uite easy to overlook and !egin inspection !efore the eyes have ad.usted
to the darkened conditions.
/$e"all Fluorescence
-hen ultraviolet light enters the human eye, the fluid that fills the eye fluoresces. This
condition is called eye!all fluorescence, and while it is considered harmless, it is
annoying and interferes with vision while it e&ists. -hen working around ultraviolet
lights, one should !e careful not to look directly into lights and to hold spot lights to
avoid reflection. 'H light will !e reflected from surfaces .ust as white light will and,
therefore it is advisa!le to consider placement of lights to avoid this condition. %pecial
filtered glasses may !e worn !y the inspector to remove all 'H light from reaching the
eyes !ut allowing yellow$green light from fluorescent indications to pass. Technicians
should never wear darkened or photochromatic glasses as these glasses also filter or
!lock light from fluorescent indications.
E"amples of /isible Dry
Magnetic Particle Indications
/dd$ %urrent3
A current induced in a conductor situated in a changing magnetic field or moving in a
fixed one.
.ltrasonic3
The study and use of pressure waves that have a frequency in excess of 20,000 H
and therefore inaudible to the human ear.
;ne of the advantages that a magnetic particle inspection has over some of the other
nondestructive evaluation methods is that flaw indications generally resem!le the actual
flaw. This is not the case with NDT methods such as ultrasonic and eddy current
inspection, where an electronic signal must !e interpreted. -hen magnetic particle
inspection is used, cracks on the surface of the part appear as sharp lines that follow the
path of the crack. "laws that e&ist !elow the surface of the part are less defined and more
difficult to detect. 1elow are some e&amples of magnetic particle indications produced
using dry particles.
Indication of a crac* in a sa( blade
Indication of crac*s in a (eldment
Indication of crac*s originating at a fastener hole

Before and after inspection pictures of crac*s emanating from a hole
Indication of crac*s running bet(een attachment holes in a hinge
E"amples of Fluorescent ,et
Magnetic Particle Indications
The indications produced using the wet magnetic particles are more sharp than dry
particle indications formed on similar defects. -hen fluorescent particles are used, the
visi!ility of the indications is greatly improved !ecause the eye is drawn to the =glowing=
regions in the dark setting. 1elow are a few e&amples of fluorescent wet magnetic
particle indications.
Magnetic particle (et fluorescent indication of a crac*s in a dri+e shaft
Magnetic particle (et fluorescent indication of a crac* in a bearing
Magnetic particle (et fluorescent indication of a crac* in the crane hoo*
Magnetic particle (et fluorescent indication of a crac* at a sharp radius
Magnetic particle (et fluorescent indication of a crac* in casting
Magnetic particle (et fluorescent indication of a crac*s at a fastener hole