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control theory
based on droop characteristics for the frequency control by using
parallel operated battery in isolated island. The PSO based design
of the robust fuzzy logic-based-PID controller for LFC in isolated
winddiesel hybrid power system is proposed in [100]. The design
of robust frequency controller of SMES in a hybrid winddiesel
power system by using loop shaping control technique and tuning
of controller parameters using GA is discussed in [127].
The time-domain simulation for small-signal analysis of a
hybrid power generation/energy storage system is presented in
[135]. The authors concluded that the power generation from the
WTG, PV, DEG, and FC with energy stored or released from the
FESS/BESS can effectively meet the variations in load power
demand. Also, the system frequency deviation can be properly
controlled within a very small range. The impact of wind power
generation on system frequency control is discussed in [130].
The LFC by coordination control of WTG and the double layer
capacitor in an autonomous hybrid renewable energy power
generation is presented in [137]. In the proposed method, the
S.K. Pandey et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 25 (2013) 318334 326
load variation is reduced in low and high frequency domain by FC
and capacitor, respectively. The GA based PID controller for LFC of
autonomous hybrid generation systems consisting different
renewable energy generation/storage systems such as three WTGs,
a DEG, FCs and a PV, a BESS, and an FESS is proposed in [40]. The
frequency control of wind energy storage system (BESS taken as
energy storage system) based on model predictive control
approach, having tested on real measurement from a power grid
is discussed in [138].
The authors [263] presented a stable active power control of
DFIG with wind power variations. Depending upon the rotor speed
condition, the DFIG can be controlled to trace operator's active
power command. The moving-average with K deviation method is
also introduced to preserve a certain amount of wind power
reserve for wind power frequency regulation in the study. The
LFC of two/three-area interconnected power system in the DFIG
based wind turbine using the model predictive control (MPC)
technique is proposed in [139]. The robust performance is demon-
strated against uncertainties due to governors and turbines para-
meters variation and load disturbances. The LFC of variable speed,
variable pitch wind generators are discussed in [144], in which
two control strategies are used. The rst one is based on over-
speeding, de-loading for wind speed control to avoid over loading
of the converter of DFIG, and second one uses pitch-controlled de-
loading fast LFC action. The dynamic participation of DFIG based
wind farm for LFC with coordinated control of TCPS and SMES is
proposed in [141], while in [142], the identical thermal intercon-
nected two-area power systemwith DFIG based WTs is considered
for LFC including frequency linked pricing. The LFC for three-area
interconnected power system with high penetration of WTs, using
fuzzy logic approach is proposed in [147]. The authors [134]
presented an integrated control approach for WF to control the
frequency deviations of winddiesel power system. In study, the
frequency control is achieved by load estimation and short-term
ahead wind speed prediction. The minimal-order observer as
disturbance observer is used for load estimation, while the least-
squares method is used for the prediction of short-term ahead
wind speed. The predicted wind speed adjusts the output power
command of the WF as a multiplying factor with fuzzy logic
concept. The authors [140] proposed mathematical modeling of
several types of wind generators taking into account their depen-
dence with respect to system frequency variations. These models
are then implemented in a Newton-based power ow algorithm
with frequency control devices to estimate their electrical
response after the action of the primary frequency regulation.
8.2. Other DG systems
Wayne et al. [287] presented transient stability analysis for
Sohio Prudhoe Bay emergency power system. A small-isolated
power system of such type is susceptible to stability problems.
These power systems, having two or more generator sets operat-
ing in parallel with remarkably different mechanical and control
characteristics, require transient stability analysis. These are
dened having unit ratings less than 100 kW. They are often
situated in remote communities or area. Douglas [288] described
the original research and development of microprocessor based
electronic load governor that incorporates three-phase balancing.
The combined study and testing of transient behavior of the
governor indicated the need for an improved control algorithm.
Doolla and Bhatti [97] presented a novel technique for LFC in an
isolated small-hydro plant. In general, the frequency is controlled
by using a dummy load, whose rating is equal to the rated output
power of the plant. The scheme proposed reduces the size of the
dummy load by controlling input power of the hydro power plant
using on/off control strategy. Kourosh et al. [98] discussed study of a
distribution system that has enough generation to track its load
without the help of a substation. Specically, it addresses the
presence of solid-oxide fuel cells in the DG mix. Two control loops
are proposed (i) to guarantee that the fuel cell is protected by
maintaining its cell utilization within its admissible range and (ii) to
track load changes and regulate the frequency. A distribution area
error is introduced to formulate the frequency-control problem.
In [289], the authors presented a method for cooperative
control of DC power feeding system with power producer and
supplier owned dispersed generators under the balancing rule. In
this work, FC, PV and ultracapacitor as dispersed generators are
introduced. Prakash et al. [112] proposed small-signal analysis of
isolated as well as interconnected autonomous hybrid DG system
for sudden variation in load demand, wind speed and solar
radiation. The hybrid systems compromise of different renewable
energy resources such as wind, PV, FC and DEG along with the
energy storage like battery and ywheel units. Further, in the
study, ultra-capacitors as an alternative energy storage element
and interconnection of hybrid system through tie-line are incor-
porated into the system for improved performance. Katiraei et al.
[99] addressed real and reactive power management strategies of
electronically interfaced DG units in the context of a multiple-DG
micro-grid system. Prakash et al. [290] presented LFC of isolated
autonomous hybrid system consisting of different renewable
energy resources. The GA based loadfrequency PI controller
of an autonomous hybrid generation system is presented in
[291,292].
The supplementary LFC method by use of a number of both
electric vehicle and heat pump water heater as controllable loads
is proposed in [143]. The aggregate LFC of a wind-hydro autono-
mous micro-grid system is described in [145]. The LFC by PHEVs,
controllable loads, and a cogeneration unit is discussed in [146].
The authors [148] address the current AGC structure and its
drawbacks, and new AGC with cyber architecture to accommodate
intermittency of high penetration, non-dispatchable distributed
energy resources for smart power grids. The autonomous distrib-
uted vehicle to grid control scheme providing a distributed
spinning reserve for the unexpected intermittency of the renew-
able energy sources is proposed in [149]. The study presents a
droop control based on the frequency deviation at plug-in term-
inal. The aggregated electric vehicle-based battery storage repre-
senting vehicle to grid system, modeled for use in long-term
dynamic power system is proposed in [150].
9. Conclusion
The techniques and strategies of LFC for conventional and DG
systems attracted much discussion in the recent past. An effort has
been made to present critical and comprehensive revive on this
subject. Emphasis has been given how to tackle the LFC issues in
DG system. A detail survey has been done and presented. Light has
been thrown on categorizing various power system structure/
layout reported in the literature that focusses on LFC control
techniques adopted and their shortcomings. It has been observed
in this literature survey that most of the researchers have done
work on LFC problems conned to conventional power system.
Some of the statistical attributes in time domain are given in the
Appendix. Further, it can be said that there exists a lot of research
opportunities in DG systems on issues related to LFC. This survey
paper will serve as a valuable reference for researchers to work on
LFC problem in DG system.
Appendix
Please see Table A1.
S.K. Pandey et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 25 (2013) 318334 327
Table A1
Short summary of time domain performance.
Comparative results of Ref. [39,42] and [40].
Ref. no. Conguration of system Control approach Operating conditions Undershoot [pu] Settling time (s)
f
1
f
2
P
tie
f
1
f
2
P
tie
[39] Two-area reheat thermal power system
with governor dead zone(GDZ), GRC, and
coordination of SMES
Fuzzy logic controlled SMES stabilizer
and conventional PI SMES stabilizer
Without GDZ but with
SMES P
d1
0.02 pu
PI SMES 0.029 0.019 0.08 4.5 4.5 5
FL SMES 0.02 0.014 0.005 4.5 4.5 5
Without GDZ but with
SMES P
d2
0.02 pu
PI SMES 0.019 0.025 +0.008 (Overshoot) 5.5 5 5
FL SMES 0.012 0.02 +0.005 (Overshoot) 5 4.8 4.8
[42] Two-area with multi-units of three type
of systems with TCPS and SMES
Integral Controller and its gain and
parameters of TCPS and SMES
is optimized by CPSO
Hydro-Hydro 0.49 0.39 0.121 50 70 45
P
d1
P
d2
0.02 pu
Thermalthermal 0.18 0.22 15 20
Pd1Pd20.02 pu
Thermalhydro 0.19 0.55 50 50
P
d1
P
d2
0.02 pu
[40] Two-area reheat thermal power system
with boiler dynamic effect and SMES
Type-2 fuzzy logic controller P
d1
0.01 pu 0.015 0.012 0.003 12 12 15
P
d2
0.01 pu 0.013 0.013 +0.0005(Overshoot) 10 11 15
P
d1
P
d2
0.01 pu 0.013 0.017 0.0001 13 10 20
Comparative results of Ref. [52] and [61].
Ref. no. Conguration of system Controller design Control structure Operating conditions ACE
1
Avg [pu] ACE
2
Avg [pu] ACE
3
Avg [pu]
[52] Interconnected three-area thermal power systems GALMI based PI PI P
d1
100 MW, P
d2
80 MW P
d3
50 MW 0.0122 0.0096 0.0056
H
9th order P
d1
100 MW, P
d2
80 MW P
d3
50 MW 0.0104 0.0102 0.0103
[61] GA based PI PI P
d1
100 MW, P
d2
80 MW P
d3
50 MW 0.0104 0.0071 0.0063
P
d1
100 MW, P
d2
80 MW P
d3
50 MW 0.0103 0.0087 0.0114
Results of Ref. [57,58] and [5].
Ref. no. Conguration of system Controller design Operating conditions Undershoot [pu]
f1 f2 f3
[57] Interconnected three-area thermal power
systems with time delays
LMI based LFC Conventional AGC 0.001 0.001 0.005
AGC with full state LMI control 0.001 0.0012 0.004
AGC with LMI decentralized control 0.007 0.0098 0.0035
LMI controller with ACE delays and telemetry delays
to the control areas of 4 s, 2 s and 4 s, respectively
0.007 0.0013 0.004
[58] Multi-area connected systems
(four generating units as one control area)
Iterative LMI via H
2
/H
3
3
4
3
2
8
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S.K. Pandey et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 25 (2013) 318334 329
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