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^4 2!! 94.
... He described Pharaoh as (the lord) of the stakes. This statement received various
interpretations. Ibn Abb s said: It means the lord of the secure building. Al!"ah"h"k said:
He o#ned man$ buildings% buildings are called a#td. Also according to Ibn Abbs as
#ell as &atdah and At" _: He o#ned stakes and ropes and pla$grounds #here he #as
entertained. According to al!"ah"h"k also (it means): the one #ho has strength and
strong hand. Al'alb( and )u*til said: He used to torture people #ith the stakes. +hen
he got angr$ #ith someone, he #ould la$ him do#n on the ground and fasten him to four
stakes. Then he #ould release scorpions and snakes onto him until he died. It #as also
said: he #ould stretch the tortured bet#een four pillars, each of his limbs #ould be nailed
to that pillar #ith an iron stake and he #ould be left to die. It #as also said: the lord of the
stakes means the lord of man$ soldiers #here the soldiers #ere called stakes because
the$ uphold his command like the stakes uphold the house. Ibn &uta$bah said: The
Arabs sa$, -their po#er has got stable stakes-, meaning that it is strong and permanent.
The meaning #hich #e are concerned #ith here is the description of the Pharaoh being
-of the buildings-. The &ur.an.s choice of this phrase could not have been more
accurate. This is #hat distinguishes /amesses II from all other Pharaohs. /amesses II
#as involved in more building pro0ects than an$ other Pharaoh throughout the histor$ of
ancient 1g$pt. 2ommenting on /amesses II.s incredible obsession #ith building, 'itchen
notes that:
He desired to #ork not merel$ on the grand scale #itness the /amesseum, 3u4or, Abu
5imbel, and the no# vanished splendours of Pi/amesse but on the #idest possible
front as the $ears passed.... 6ut certainl$ in his building #orks for the gods the entire
length of 1g$pt and 7ubia, /amesses II surpassed not onl$ the 1ighteenth !$nast$ but
ever$ other period in 1g$ptian histor$. In that realm, he certainl$ fulfilled the d$nast$.s
aim for satiet$.89:;
5imilarl$, 2la$ton ackno#ledges /amesses II as a preeminent builder among the
Pharaohs of ancient 1g$pt and states that his greatest feat #as the building of t#o
temples at Abu 5imbel, especiall$ the <reat Temple.
As a monument builder /amesses II stands preeminent amongst the pharaohs of
1g$pt. Although 'hufu had created the <reat P$ramid, /amesses. hand la$ over the
#hole land. True, he thought nothing of adding his name to other kings. monuments and
statues right back to the )iddle 'ingdom, so that no#ada$s the ma0orit$ of cartouches
seen on almost an$ monument proclaim his throne name =sermaatre (.the 0ustice of
/e is strong.). >et his genuine building achievements are on a Herculean scale. He
added to the great temples at 'arnak and 3u4or, completed his father 5eti.s mortuar$
temple at <ourna (Thebes) and also his Ab$dos temple, and built his o#n temple nearb$
at Ab$dos. ?n the #est bank at Thebes he constructed a giant mortuar$ temple, the
/amesseum. Inscriptions in the sandstone *uarries at <ebel el5ilsila record at least
@::: #orkmen emplo$ed there cutting the stone for the /amesseum alone. ?ther ma0or
mortuar$ temples rose in 7ubia at 6eit el+ali, <erf Hussein, +adi es 5ebua, !err and
even as far south as 7apata.
/amesses. greatest building feat must be counted not one of these, but the carving out
of the mountainside of the t#o temples at Abu 5imbel in 7ubia. The grandeur of the
larger, the <reat Temple, is over#helming, fronted as it is b$ four colossal 9:ft (ABm)
high seated figures of the king that flanked the entrance in t#o pairs. It is strange to
reflect that #hilst the smaller temple, dedicated to Hathor and /amesses. favourite
*ueen 7efertari, has lain open for centuries, the <reat Temple #as onl$ discovered in
ABA@ b$ the 5#iss e4plorer Cean 3ouis 6urckhardt and first entered b$ <iovanni 6elDoni
on A August ABAE. A miracle of ancient engineering, its orientation #as so e4act that the
rising sun at the e*uino4 on FF Gebruar$ and FF ?ctober flooded directl$ through the
great entrance to illuminate three of the four gods carved seated in the sanctuar$ over
F:: ft (9: m) inside the mountain (the fourth of the seated gods, Ptah, does not become
illuminated as, appropriatel$, he is a god associated #ith the under#orld).89A;
It is also #orth noting that the phrase -Pharaoh, 3ord of the a#td- is mentioned along
#ith Iram #hich had loft$ pillars, most likel$ cut from rocks, and people of Thamud #ho
built houses in the mountains. This suggests that Pharaoh /amesses II also did
something similar, i.e., built structures out of rocks. Indeed /amesses II built t#o
temples at Abu 5imbel in 7ubia #hich #ere cut in the living rock of the mountainside
8Gigure B;. ?ne is called the <reat Temple, a huge building #ith four colossal statues of
seated figures of /amesses II, about F: meters high, flanking its entrance. The other is
the 5mall Temple dedicated to Hathor and 7efertari, about one hundred meters
northeast of the <reat Temple of /amesses II and #as dedicated to the goddess Hathor
and /amesses II.s chief consort, 7efertari. These temples are considered to be
/amesses II greatest building achievements. 5ince /amesses II #anted to eternaliDe
himself, he also ordered changes to the methods used b$ his masons. =nlike the
shallo# reliefs of previous Pharaohs #hich could easil$ be transformed, #ith their
images and #ords easil$ erased, /amesses II had had his carvings deepl$ engraved in
stone, #hich made them less susceptible to alterations.
Gigure B: The <reat Temple (left) and the 5mall Temple (right) at Abu 5imbel.
To understand the importance of the t#o temples at Abu 5imbel, it is #orth#hile adding
that the =7152? made an international appeal bet#een AH9: and AHB: to save the
monuments in 7ubia #hen the$ #ere threatened b$ submergence as a result of the
As#an High !am. The response to the appeal came fast and the international
communit$ contributed mone$ and effort to relocate the historic sites. To create a
#orld#ide a#areness for saving the 7ubian monuments, a philatelic campaign featuring
the temples at Abu 5imbel, /amesses II and his *ueen 7efertari #as launched in #hich
numerous countries participated 8Gigure H;.89F; The operation, inter alia, included
dismantling Abu 5imbel Temple, and moving it to another area to be reassembled once
again. Abu 5imbel Temple #as completel$ dismantled to A:@9 pieces, each #ith average
of E to @: tons, as the$ #ere rebuilt on the top of the mountain overlooking the genuine
spots, dra#n b$ the ancient 1g$ptians @,::: $ears ago. It is not surprising that the
operation of saving the 7ubian monuments #as described as the greatest in the histor$
of saving monuments.
Gigure H: A philatelic melange sho#ing the campaign to create #orld#ide a#areness to
save the anti*uities of 7ubia. /amesses II and his temples at Abu 5imbel #ere
prominentl$ featured on the stamps in man$ countries. 5ome stamps also sho# his
*ueen 7efertari. In the above figure, the are stamps from (from top ro#, left to right)
1g$pt (=A/), 5omalia, )onaco, the Iatican, Ira*, 7igeria, <hana, /epublic of 2entral
Africa, &atar, Pakistan and Argentina. ?ther countries such as )orocco, 2Jte d.Ivoire
(Ivor$ 2oast), <uatemala, <abon, )aladive Islands, /epublic of <uinea among others
also issued stamps.89@;
Apart from the <reat Temple at Abu 5imbel, the cit$ of Pr/amesses founded b$
/amesses II must stand out as one of the most ambitious construction efforts the #orld
has ever kno#n. Previousl$ Pr/amesses had been variousl$ placed at Tell er/etabeh,
Pelusium, Tanis and Tehel in 3o#er 1g$pt.89K; Ho#ever, archaeological e4cavations b$
the 1g$ptian scholars 3abib Habachi and )ahmoud HamDa identified modern da$ cit$
'hatana&antir as the prime candidate 8Gigure A:;.89L; 5ubse*uentl$ due to the 0oint
cooperation of the 1g$ptian Anti*uities ?rganisation, the Austrian mission headed b$
)anfred 6ietak of the universit$ of Iienna and the <erman mission headed b$ 1dgar
Pusch of the PeliDaeus )useum, modern archaeological investigations also converge on
the cit$ of &antirMTell el!abNa899; #hich is in agreement #ith the descriptions of Pr
/amesses gathered from the literar$ evidence and other primar$ and secondar$ sources
from that period.
Gigure A:: 3ocation of Pithom and Pi/amesses in the 7ile delta region.
=phill noted the follo#ing nine ke$ features of Pr/amesses from said sources including:
a cit$ containing monuments naming Pr/amesses, a central position for ro$al residence
and governance, access route to Asia for the armies, suitabl$ large area for
correspondingl$ large population, suitable for the core functions of the Arm$ such as
head*uarters etc., monuments of /amesses II, relevant deities present, scale of site and
monuments ade*uate and containing a river port.89E; In the timeline of the ancient near
east, the construction of Pr/amesses is certainl$ unprecedented as =phill informs us,
Per /amesses #as probabl$ the vastest and most costl$ ro$al residence ever erected
b$ the hand of man. As can no# be seen its kno#n palace and official centre covered an
area of at least four s*uare miles, and its temples #ere in scale #ith this, a colossal
assemblage forming perhaps the largest collection of chapels built in the preclassical
#orld b$ a single ruler at one time.89B;
+ith the use of a caesium magnetometer, the first geoph$sical measurements of Pr
/amesses took place in AHH9.89H; =sing the data gathered from the recent
magnetometer inspections, the latest pro0ections have sho#n the cit$ centreMro$al
residence comprised at least A: s*uare kms, around @.L s*uare kms more than had
been previousl$ estimated. It is hoped that continued magnetic investigation #ill
eventuall$ lead to a map of Pr/amesses covering at a minimum the cit$ centreMro$al
residence.8E:; +ith all the focus on the cit$ centreMro$al residence, one should also not
forget to consider the large suburban Done, #hich, #hen factored into the calculations,
sho#s the ancient cit$ of Pr/amesses comprised at least @: s*uare kms.8EA;
5ometimes numbers alone do not conve$ the sheer scale of the construction. If #e
consider the area of Pr/amesses in comparison to other celebrated cities in the ancient
near east such as the famous ancient )esopotamian cities of 'horsabad, 7imrud,
7ineveh and 6ab$lon, the area bounded b$ Pr/amesses easil$ eclipses them all.8EF;
2ommenting on such a gigantic feat of human engineering =phill further remarks,
The uni*ue feature about Per /amesses is that it is the onl$ cit$ of imperial siDe in the
ancient near east, rivalling Heliopolis, )emphis and Thebes in splendour, kno#n to have
been entirel$ planned, built and full$ completed under one 'ing.8E@;
Pr/amesses, #hich once had magnificent splendour, no# lies in ruins. )ost likel$, the
destruction of this magnificent cit$ is alluded to in the &ur.an E:A@E and <od kno#s best:
And +e made a people, considered #eak (and of no account), inheritors of lands in both
east and #est, lands #hereon +e sent do#n ?ur blessings. The fair promise of th$
3ord #as fulfilled for the 2hildren of Israel , because the$ had patience and constanc$,
and +e levelled to the ground the great #orks and fine buildings #hich Pharaoh and his
people erected (#ith such pride) 8m kna $as"na u fir a#na #a *a#humO #a m knO
$a rishOn;. 8&ur.an E:A@E;
<od sa$s that He levelled to the ground the great #orks and fine buildings #hich
Pharaoh and his people erected. It is interesting this verse is tied to the period of
#eakness of the 2hildren of Israel #hich the$ endured #ith patience and steadfastness%
the time #hen the$ #ere under Pharaoh, toiling for him. Grom the discussion, it is
undoubtedl$ clear that /amesses II fits the description of the Pharaoh of the a#td.
PTHI5 !A> 5HA33 +1 5AI1 >?= I7 TH1 6?!>, THAT >?= )A>15T 61 A 5I<7 T?
TH?51 +H? 2?)1 AGT1/ >?=...Q
+e took the 2hildren of Israel across the sea: Pharaoh and his hosts follo#ed them in
insolence and spite. At length, #hen over#helmed #ith the flood, he said: -I believe that
there is no god e4cept Him +hom the 2hildren of Israel believe in: I am of those #ho
submit (to Allah in Islam).- (It #as said to him): -Ah no#R 6ut a little #hile before, #ast
thou in rebellionR and thou didst mischief (and violence)R -This da$ shall +e save thee in
the bod$, that thou ma$est be a sign to those #ho come after theeR but veril$, man$
among mankind are heedless of ?ur 5ignsR- 8&ur.an A::H:HF;
The &ur.an and the 6ible 814odus AK:FA@: and 14odus AL:AHFA; state that the
Pharaoh #as dro#ned in the sea. Ho#ever, the &ur.an differs from the 6ible and it
makes a ver$ uni*ue statement that the bod$ of the dro#ned Pharaoh #as saved as a
sign for future generations. The &ur.anic statement about rescuing Pharaoh.s bod$
#ould be in total agreement #ith the fact that the bod$ of /amesses II has survived in a
mummified form. It #as discovered in ABBA among a group of ro$al mummies that had
been removed from their original tombs for fear of theft. Priests of the FAst !$nast$ had
reburied them in a cache at !eir al6ahari on 3u4or.s #est bank.8EK; The mumm$ of
/amesses II formed one of the cache and its resting place #as Tomb 'IE in the Ialle$
of 'ings. 7othing #hatsoever #as kno#n at the time of the revelation of the &ur.an
about the mumm$ of /amesses II.
A fe# #ords also need to be said about the preservation of the mumm$ of /amesses II
8Gigure AA;. In AHEK, 1g$ptologists at the 1g$ptian )useum, 2airo, noticed that the
mumm$.s condition #as #orsening rapidl$. The$ decided to fl$ /ameses II to Paris so
that a team of e4perts could give the mumm$ a medical e4amination. ?n 5eptember F9,
AHE9, a Grench Air Gorce plane touched do#n at 3e 6ourget airport 0ust outside Paris
carr$ing the mummified bod$. /amesses II ma$ have been dead for more than @,:::
$ears but his mummified bod$ #as #elcomed #ith a ceremon$ fit for an$ living head of
state.
(a)
(b)
Gigure AA: )umm$ of /amesses II sho#ing (a) top and (b) side vie#s.
The idea of bringing the mumm$ of /amesses II to Paris for an e4haustive scientific
investigation #as the brainchild of !r. )aurice 6ucaille. The pro0ect #as codirected b$
2hristiane !esroche7oblecourt, curator of 1g$ptian Anti*uities at the )usSe du 3ouvre,
and Professor 3ionel 6alout, !irector of the )usSe de l.Homme.8EL; ?ne of goals of the
pro0ect #as to stud$ the remains of the Pharaoh.s mumm$ for evidence that #ould
complement that from other archaeological and #ritten sources. Ho#ever, the main
mission #as to rescue the mumm$ from ph$sical deterioration caused b$ fungus,
bacteria and insects.8E9; !uring the e4amination, scientific anal$sis revealed battle
#ounds and old fractures, as #ell as other medical conditions. Grom the 4ra$ anal$sis, it
#as concluded that /amesses II #as suffering from atherosclerosis and an 4ra$ of his
pelvis sho#ed calcification of both femoral arteries.8EE; In the last decades of his life,
/amesses II #as apparentl$ crippled #ith arthritis and #alked #ith a hunched back.8EB;
It #as suggested that /amesses II suffered from ank$losing spond$litis, no# part of
rheumatologic folklore.8EH; All these led 6ucaille to infer that /amesses II could have not
pla$ed an$ role in the 14odus as he #as crippled.8B:; He claimed, using the biblical data
(14odus F:F@), that his son )erenptah #as the Pharaoh involved in the 14odus after
/amesses II.s death. Ho#ever, a recent stud$ using better 4ra$ imaging and
unpublished radiographs has concluded that the diagnosis of ank$losing spond$litis as
reported in the literature is unsupported. The authors prefer a diagnosis of diffuse
idiopathic skeletal h$perostosis8BA; (or !I5H) #hich is corroborated b$ the
archaeological and historical studies about the ph$sical attributes and e4ploits of
/amesses II.8BF; Thus, the possibilit$ cannot be re0ected out of hand that /amesses II
#as the Pharaoh #ho perished in the sea #hile chasing the 2hildren of Israel.8B@;
Ho#ever, it must be emphasiDed that the process of mummification itself convolutes the
information of actual cause of death. Therefore, the cause of death of /amesses II can.t
be verified from his mumm$.
<od refers in the &ur.an to man$ peoples #hom He had punished, for e4ample, of TAd
and Thamud (&ur.an FH:@B, FE:LALF), and #hom He made signs for later generations.
Ho#ever, #ith the sole e4ception of Pharaoh, <od never stated that He #ould save the
bodies of those people and make their bodies signs for future generations. In the case of
Pharaoh.s bod$ being saved for future generations, this is a statement #hich is not 0ust
confined to the people of 1g$pt or to those #ho lived at that time, but to all people #ho
came after him. The mumm$ of /amesses II is available even toda$ for people from
ever$#here to see at the 1g$ptian )useum in 2airo.
)?/1 1<>PTIA7 )I52133A7I15 G/?) TH1 &=/.A7
There are other details too #hich the &ur.an mentions about the Pharaoh. Ho#ever, the
identification of these using the ancient 1g$ptian histor$ remains elusive or incomplete.
Gor e4ample, the &ur.an sa$s that the Pharaoh had companions called Haman and
&arun. The name Haman #as alleged to be a historical contradiction in the &ur.an
because the 6ible places it in the stor$ of 1sther. 7ot#ithstanding the fla#ed logic of
using a fictitious book to find a historical character, it #as noted that Haman ma$ be
simpl$ an ArabiDed version of the ancient 1g$ptian amana. The ancient 1g$ptian deit$
NI)7 (or amana) #as used in the title for a High Priest as #ell as an architect. It #ould be
akin to the king #ho ruled during the time of )oses being called fir a#n #hich is the
ArabiDed form of the ancient 1g$ptian #ord PperaaQ, the title used to refer to the king of
1g$pt from the 7e# 'ingdom Period on#ards. 5hould our proposed identification of
/amesses II be correct, a historical investigation has sho#n that 6akenkhons, the High
Priest of Amun during /amesses II reign, can be considered a good candidate for
Haman mentioned in the &ur.an.
Another interesting detail #hich the &ur.an mentions is the da$ of encounter bet#een
)oses and the magicians.
-6ut #e can surel$ produce magic to match thineR 5o make a tr$st bet#een us and thee,
#hich #e shall not fail to keep neither #e nor thou in a place #here both shall have
even chances.- )oses said: ->our tr$st is the !a$ of the Gestival 8$aum alD(na;, and let
the people be assembled #hen the sun is #ell up.- 8&ur.an F::LBLH;
The da$ of the encounter in the &ur.an is called $aum alD(na. U(na means a thing #ith
#hich or b$ #hich one is adorned, ornamented, decorated, etc.8BK; 5o, the phrase $aum
alD(na can mean a da$ #hen people are dressed up smartl$, or the cit$ is adorned or
perhaps both. It could even mean a da$ of pompous celebration or more precisel$ a da$
of festival.8BL; 2ould it refer to the Heb5ed (or simpl$ 5ed) festivalV The Heb5ed
Gestival,8B9; also called a 0ubilee, #as usuall$ celebrated @: $ears after a king.s rule and
thereafter, ever$ three $ears. /amesses II celebrated a record AA or AF of these after his
Heb5ed festival in $ear @:. It #as to rene# the potenc$ of the Pharaoh and to assure a
long reign in the afterlife. ?ne of the most important aspects of this festival is that it #as
probabl$ #itnessed b$ ordinar$ citiDens onl$ ver$ rarel$.
K. 2onclusions
Those 2hristian scholars #ho date the 14odus can be broadl$ divided into t#o groups:
one #hich believes that the 6ible should be the sole basis of dating and the other group
#hich uses ancient near eastern archaeolog$. 6oth these groups emplo$ certain
assumptions and overlook certain details in order to reach their conclusions. As #e have
observed, proving the efficac$ of the statements contained in the ?ld Testament is
problematic. The biblical account is inherentl$ contradictor$ as the information provided
simultaneousl$ points to#ards divergent time periods and thus divergent Pharaohs. The
2hristian scholars, #hom the missionaries and apologists depend upon, rush to e4plain
a#a$ these contradictions b$ making ingenious reinterpretations of the te4t and using
concepts such as -editorial updating- and its corollar$ -inspired te4tual updating-. Gor
e4ample, the number KB: does not actuall$ stand for KB: and the place name
/amesses does not actuall$ stand for the place name /amesses. !oes it reall$ matterV
/ealising the$ have no other choice, the missionaries and apologists have long since
approved -editorial updating- and its occurrence throughout the 6ible. ?ne such
missionar$ casuall$ states, -In the final an$lsis, I do not mind if the placeMperson names
#ere updated in 5criptures- W #hich begs the *uestion #hat other te4ts the missionaries
and apologists -do not mind- being updatedV It should be clear b$ no# that such
approval is integrated #ithin a fle4ible creedal s$stem of beliefs #here one can believe in
an undelineated 6ible that contains errors and still maintain ones right to -salvation-.
2onse*uentl$, the doctrines of biblical inspiration, infallibilit$ and inerranc$ become
confusing and ineffectual as numbers mean other different numbers and place names
mean other different place names.
Although certain assumptions must be formed in absence of information supplied,
interpreting the &ur.an does not re*uire one to depend upon -editorial updating-,
-inspired te4tual updating-X assigning different numerical values to m$sterious numbers
or deciding bet#een #hich t$pe of manuscripts and translations to rel$ upon to calculate
those numbers. The &ur.an does not mention the name of the Pharaoh #ho un0ustl$
oppressed )oses and the 2hildren of Israel. +hen combined, the information provided
b$ the &ur.an and the ancient 1g$ptian sources including the archaeological and
documentar$ evidence, there are a sufficient number of clues that point to#ards the 7e#
'ingdom period in general and to the Pharaoh /amesses II in particular #ho reigned for
about 99 $ears from AFEHWAFA@ 621. Although the scientific e4amination of /amesses
II.s mumm$ is inconclusive regarding the precise nature of his death, he did not, as #as
previousl$ thought, have a debilitating rheumatic condition that #ould have ph$sicall$
prevented him from engaging )oses and the 2hildren of Israel in the final stages of his
life. In conclusion, the &ur.anic presentation of the Pharaoh of the 14odus is internall$
consistent and fits #ell #ith the e4tant eg$ptological data. This is also in line #ith the
earlier studies b$ Hamidullah8BE; and Gatoohi et al.8BB; #ho have arrived at similar
conclusions, albeit using less e4haustive and sometimes shak$ evidence, that the
Pharaoh #ho ruled 1g$pt before the birth of )oses until the 14odus and his (i.e.,
Pharaoh.s) death #as /amesses II.
And Allah kno#s bestR
6ookmark and 5hare
/eferences Y 7otes
8A; ). !ZaDAndreu, A +orld Histor$ ?f 7ineteenth2entur$ Archaeolog$: 7ationalism,
2olonialism, And The Past, F::E, ?4ford =niversit$ Press Inc., 7e# >ork, pp. A@AA@K. It
#ould come as a surprise to man$ that even a scientific discipline such as archaeolog$
had to find its place amongst contemporar$ political events in 0u4taposition #ith #estern
imperial and nationalistic ideologies current in the nineteenth centur$. Hence, in the
#ords of !ZaDAndreu, -... archaeolog$ is not a valuefree and neutral social science as
previousl$ presumed.- 8ibid., p. K;. 5een b$ man$ as the archaeolog$ of the 3evant #ith
a (evangelical) 6iblical bias, it is of course an entirel$ different discussion if such a
discipline named biblical archaeolog$ is even appropriate. Gor some topical vie#s see P.
/. 5. )oore$, A 2entur$ ?f 6iblical Archaeolog$, AHHA, The 3utter#orth Press:
2ambridge (=')% ). 2. )oreland (1d.), 6et#een Te4t And Artifact: Integrating
Archaeolog$ In 6iblical 5tudies Teaching, F::@, 5ociet$ ?f 6iblical 3iterature: Atlanta% T.
+. !avis, 5hifting 5ands: The /ise And Gall ?f 6iblical Archaeolog$, F::K, ?4ford
=niversit$ Press Inc.: 7e# >ork% C. '. Hoffmeier Y A. )illard (1ds.), The Guture ?f
6iblical Archaeolog$: /eassessing )ethodologies And Assumptions, F::K, The
Proceedings ?f A 5$mposium August AFAK, F::A At Trinit$ International =niversit$,
+m. 6. 1erdmans Publishing 2o.: <rand /apids ()I) Y 2ambridge (=').
8F; ). !ZaDAndreu, A +orld Histor$ ?f 7ineteenth2entur$ Archaeolog$: 7ationalism,
2olonialism, And The Past, F::E, op. cit., p. A@E.
8@; '. 'itchen, -Ancient 7ear 1astern 5tudies: 1g$pt-, in C. +. /ogerson Y C. ). 3ieu
(1ds.), The ?4ford Handbook ?f 6iblical 5tudies, F::9, ?4ford =niversit$ Press Inc.,
7e# >ork, pp. BHH:.
8K; The 5ociet$ W Histor$ ?f The 5ociet$ (The 6eginnings), The 1g$pt 14ploration
5ociet$ (?fficial +ebsite), available online (accessed AKth 7ovember F::B).
8L; 1g$pt 14ploration Gund, /eport ?f Gourth Annual <eneral )eeting And 6alance
5heet, ABBLB9, TrZbner Y 2o.: 3ondon Y C. +. Arro#smith: 6ristol, p. K.
89; 1. 7aville, The 5tore2it$ ?f Pithom And The /oute ?f The 14odus, ABBL, 1g$pt
14ploration Gund 14cavation )emoirs W Iolume I, )essrs TrZbner Y 2o.: 3ondon, p. vii.
8E; Gor a ver$ recent e4ample see C. '. Hoffmeier, -)a0or <eographical Issues In The
Accounts ?f The 14odus-, in !. I. 6lock (1d.), Israel: Ancient 'ingdom ?r 3ate
InventionV, F::B, 6YH Publishing <roup: 7ashville (T7) pp. HEAFH.
8B; Gor some e4amples see '. A. 'itchen, ?n The /eliabilit$ ?f The ?ld Testament,
F::@, +m. 6. 1erdmans Publishing 2o.: <rand /apids ()I)% C. '. Hoffmeier, Israel In
1g$pt: The 1vidence Gor The Authenticit$ ?f The 14odus Tradition, AHHH, ?4ford
=niversit$ Press: ?4ford (=')% 2. C. Humphre$s, The )iracles ?f 14odus: A 5cientist.s
!iscover$ ?f The 14traordinar$ 7atural 2auses ?f The 6iblical 5tories, F::@,
2ontinuum: 3ondon.
8H; These are the t#o most accepted models although presentl$ a fe# others do e4ist.
Gor e4ample see <. A. /endsburg, -The !ate ?f The 14odus And The
2on*uestM5ettlement: The 2ase Gor The AA::s-, Ietus Testamentum, AHHF, Iolume
[3II, 7o. K, pp. LA:LFE.
8A:; 6. ). )etDger Y /. 1. )urph$ (1ds.), The 7e# ?4ford Annotated 6ible +ith The
Apocr$phal M !euterocanonical 6ooks, AHHA, ?4ford =niversit$ Press, Inc., p. K@F (I
'ings 9:A). 7. 6. The 7/5I translation has been used to allo# better comparison #ith
the 5eptuagint translation cited belo# #hich uses the 7/5I translation modif$ing the
1nglish as necessar$ according to the <reek. The same verse in the 7II reads:
In the four hundred and eightieth $ear after the Israelites had come out of 1g$pt, in the
fourth $ear of 5olomon.s reign over Israel, in the month of Uiv, the second month, he
began to build the temple of the 3?/!.
8AA; '. A. 'itchen, -Ho# +e 'no# +hen 5olomon /uled-, 6iblical Archaeological
/evie#, F::A, Iolume FE (5eptemberM?ctober), 7o. L, pp. @F@E, p. LB.
8AF; 5ee, for e4ample, +. H. 5hea , -14odus, !ate ?f The - in <. +. 6romile$ (<en.
1d.), The International 5tandard 6ible 1nc$clopedia, AHBF (Gull$ /evised, Illustrated),
Iolume II, +illiam 6. 1erdmans Publishing 2ompan$: <rand /apids ()I), pp. F@:F@B%
<. 3. Archer Cr., 7e# International 1nc$clopedia ?f 6ible !ifficulties, AHBF, Uondervan:
<rand /apids ()I), pp. AALAA9% <. 3. Archer, A 5urve$ ?f ?ld Testament Introduction,
AHHK, )ood$ Press: 2hicago, pp. F@HFLF% A. 1. Hill Y C. H. +alton, A 5urve$ ?f The
?ld Testament, F:::, Uondervan: <rand /apids ()I), p. BK. Hill and +alton -assumes-
the historical validit$ of the biblical numbers #hile recogniDing the -slipper$- nature of the
evidence gathered b$ earl$ and latedate models from the selective appeal to
e4trabiblical and archaeological data. Also see their e4cellent summar$ of both models
on pp. BLB9% 7. 3. <eisler Y /. ). 6rooks, +hen 5keptics Ask, F::A, 6aker 6ooks:
<rand /apids ()I), pp. AEAAE@ and pp. ABBAH9% 7. 3. <eisler, 6aker 1nc$clopedia ?f
2hristian Apologetics, F::F, 6aker 6ooks: <rand /apids ()I), pp. LBBLHA% 7. <eisler Y
T. Ho#e, +hen 2ritics Ask: A Popular Handbook ?n 6ible !ifficulties, F::K (Eth
Printing), 6aker 6ooks: <rand /apids ()I), pp. 9E9B% G. 7. Cones, 2hronolog$ ?f The
?ld Testament, F::L, )aster 6ooks, pp. KHL@.
8A@; A good refutation of those #ho take the position that there e4ists -the biblical- date
of the 14odus #as made b$ C. '. Hoffmeier, -/ameses ?f The 14odus 7arratives Is The
A@th 2entur$ 6.2. /o$al /amesside /esidence-, Trinit$ Cournal, F::E, Iolume FB (75),
7o. F, pp. FBAFBF.
8AK; P. !. )c3ean Y 6. A. Ta$lor (Trans.), -@ /eigns-, in A. Pitersma Y 6. <. +right
(1ds.), A 7e# 1nglish Translation ?f The 5eptuagint And The ?ther <reek Translations
Traditionall$ Included =nder That Title, F::E, ?4ford =niversit$ Press: 7e# >ork, p. @:@
(@ /eigns 9:A).
8AL; G. 2. Gensham, -Cudges, 6ook ?f-, in <. +. 6romile$ (1d.), The International
5tandard 6ible 1nc$clopedia, AHBF, Iolume T#o: 1C, Gull$ /evised, +m. 6. 1erdmans
Publishing 2o.: <rand /apids ()I), p. AALB.
8A9; C. '. Hoffmeier, -+hat Is The 6iblical !ate Gor The 14odusV A /esponse To 6r$ant
+ood-, Cournal ?f The 1vangelical Theological 5ociet$, F::E, Iolume L:, 7o. F, pp.
FFEFFB.
8AE; 5ee for e4ample, A. 1. 5teinmann, -The )$sterious 7umbers ?f The 6ook ?f
Cudges-, Cournal ?f The 1vangelical Theological 5ociet$, F::L, Iolume KB, 7o. @, pp.
KHAL::.
8AB; 1. Hornung, /. 'rauss Y !. A. +arburton, -2hronological Table Gor The !$nastic
Period- in 1. Hornung, /. 'rauss Y !. A. +arburton (1ds.), Ancient 1g$ptian
2hronolog$, F::9, Handbook ?f ?riental 5tudies 5ection A, The 7ear And )iddle 1ast
Iolume B@, 6rill: 3eiden Y 6oston, p. KHF.
8AH; C. !. Ha$s, -/econsidering The Height ?f <oliath-, Cournal ?f The 1vangelical
Theological 5ociet$, F::L, Iolume KB, 7o. K, pp. E:AEAK.
8F:; !. +. Parr$, -PHo# )an$ IesselsQV An 14amination ?f )T A 5am F:AK M K&5ama A
5am F:A9-, in P. +. Glint, 1. Tov Y C. 2. Iander'am (1ds.), 5tudies In The Hebre# 6ible,
&umran, And The 5eptuagint Presented To 1ugene =lrich, F::9, 'oninkli0ke 6rill 7I,
3eiden: The 7etherlands, pp. BKHL. These verses have $et to make an appearance in
the #hole host of volumes devoted to P6ible difficultiesQ.
8FA; 6. ). )etDger Y /. 1. )urph$ (1ds.), The 7e# ?4ford Annotated 6ible +ith The
Apocr$phal M !euterocanonical 6ooks, AHHA, op. cit., p. E: (14odus A:AA). The same
verse in the 7II reads:
5o the$ put slave masters over them to oppress them #ith forced labor, and the$ built
Pithom and /ameses as store cities for Pharaoh.
8FF; <. 3. Archer, -An 1ighteenth !$nast$ /ameses-, Cournal ?f The 1vangelical
Theological 5ociet$, AHEK, Iolume AE, 7o. A, pp. KHL:.
8F@; 5ee A. H. <ardiner, -The !elta /esidence ?f The /amessides-, Cournal ?f
1g$ptian Archaeolog$, AHAB, Iolume L, 7o. F, pp. AFEA@B (Parts I Y II)% idem., -The
!elta /esidence ?f The /amessides-, Cournal ?f 1g$ptian Archaeolog$, AHAB, Iolume
L, 7o. @, pp. AEHF:: (Part III)% idem., -The !elta /esidence ?f The /amessides-,
Cournal ?f 1g$ptian Archaeolog$, AHAB, Iolume L, 7o. K, pp. FKFFEA (Parts II, I Y II).
8FK; A. H. <ardiner, -The !elta /esidence ?f The /amessides-, Cournal ?f 1g$ptian
Archaeolog$, AHAB, op. cit., p. F99 (Parts II, I Y II). The impact of this *uotation has
not gone unnoticed. /ecentl$ utilised b$ Professor Hoffmeier of Trinit$ 1vangelical
!ivinit$ 5chool, he has cut off the first part of the first sentence of the *uotation and
capitalised TthereN as if it #ere the beginning of <ardiner.s sentence. He has also left out
the last t#o #ords of the final sentence retaining the full stop. Additionall$, he has
mistakenl$ cited <ardiner.s *uote as coming from Part II #hen it is in fact from Part I.
5ee C. '. Hoffmeier, -/ameses ?f The 14odus 7arratives Is The A@th 2entur$ 6.2.
/o$al /amesside /esidence-, Trinit$ Cournal, F::E, op. cit., pp. FBEFBB.
8FL; +. Helck, -Tk# =nd /amses5tadt-, Ietus Testamentum, AH9L, Iolume AL, pp. @L
KB.
8F9; 5ee for e4ample, -)oses- in ?. ?delain and /. 5Sguineau (Trans. ). C. ?.2onnell),
!ictionar$ ?f Proper 7ames And Places In The 6ible, AHBA, /obert Hale 3td.: 3ondon,
p. FE:% -)oses-, 1nc$clopaedia Cudaica, AHEA, Iolume AF, 1nc$clopaedia Cudaica
Cerusalem, col. @EA% -)oses-, The =niversal Ce#ish 1nc$clopedia, AH9H, Iolume B, 'tav
Publishing House, Inc.: 7e# >ork, p. K% P. Ale4ander and !. Ale4ander (1ds.), The 3ion
Handbook To The 6ible, AHHH, Third 1dition (/evised Y 14panded), 3ion Publishing Inc.:
?4ford (='), p. AL9% '. A. 'itchen, -)oses- in C. !. !ouglas (?rganiDing 1ditor), 7e#
6ible !ictionar$, AHBF, 5econd 1dition, InterIarsit$ Press: 3eicester (=') and T$ndale
House Publishers, Inc.: +heaton (I3), p. EHL% -)oses- in A. 2. )$ers (1d.), The
1erdmans 6ible !ictionar$, AHBE, +illiam 6. 1erdmans Publishing 2ompan$: <rand
/apids ()I), p. E@A% -14odus, The 6ook ?f- in P. C. Achtemeier, Harper.s 6ible
!ictionar$, AHBL, Harper Y /o# Publishers: 5an Grancisco, p. @AE% G. 6. Hue$, Cr.,
-)oses- in +. A. 1l#ell (<en. 1d.), 1nc$clopedia ?f The 6ible, AHBB, Iolume II, )arshall
Pickering: 3ondon, p. AKH:% /. G. Cohnson, -)oses- in <. A. 6uttrick (1d.), The
Interpreter.s !ictionar$ ?f The 6ible, AH9F (AHH9 Print), Iolume @, Abingdon Press,
7ashville, p. KKL% C. '. Hoffmeier, -)oses- in <. +. 6romile$ (<en. 1d.), The
International 5tandard 6ible 1nc$clopedia, AHB9 (Gull$ /evised, Illustrated), Iolume III,
+illiam 6. 1erdmans Publishing 2ompan$: <rand /apids ()I), p. KA9. Hoffmeier
provides a good overvie# of all possible datings proposed so far% P. )ontet, 3.Ig$pte 1t
3a 6ible, AHLH, 2ahiers !.ArchSologie 6ibli*ue 7o. AA, !elachau4 Y 7iestlS 5. A.:
7euch\tel (5#itDerland), pp. FK@E and pp. A@FA@F for chronological listing of biblical
events% '. A. 'itchen, Ancient ?rient And ?ld Testament, AH99, The T$ndale Press:
3ondon (='), pp. LE9:% idem., ?n The /eliabilit$ ?f The ?ld Testament, F::@, op. cit.,
p. F:E and p. L::% C. '. Hoffmeier, Israel In 1g$pt: The 1vidence Gor The Authenticit$ ?f
The 14odus Tradition, AHHH, op. cit., p. AF9.
8FE; '. A. 'itchen, ?n The /eliabilit$ ?f The ?ld Testament, F::@, op. cit., pp. @:E@:B.
8FB; 2. G. Aling, -The 6iblical 2it$ ?f /amses-, Cournal ?f The 1vangelical Theological
5ociet$, AHBF, Iolume FL, 7o. F, pp. AFHA@E, especiall$ pp. A@9A@E% 6. <. +ood, -The
/ise And Gall ?f The A@th2entur$ 14odus2on*uest Theor$-, Cournal ?f The
1vangelical Theological 5ociet$, F::L, Iolume KB, 7o. @, pp. KEBKEH% idem., -The
6iblical !ate Gor The 14odus Is AKK9 62: A /esponse To Cames Hoffmeier-, Cournal ?f
The 1vangelical Theological 5ociet$, F::E, Iolume L:, 7o. F, pp. FL:FLA.
8FH; ). A. <risanti, -Inspiration, Inerranc$, And The ?T 2anon: The Place ?f Te4tual
=pdating In An Inerrant Iie# ?f 5cripture-, Cournal ?f The 1vangelical Theological
5ociet$, F::A, Iolume KK, 7o. K, pp. LEELHB. <risanti gives no indication as to the
anti*uit$ of his vie#s. A paper delivered at the LHth national meeting of the 1vangelical
Theological 5ociet$ in F::E suggests that a basic conception of -Inspired Te4tual
=pdating- reaches at least as far back as Augustine (@LK 21 W K@: 21). 5ee +. !.
6arrick, -P=r ?f The 2haldeansQ (<en AA:FB@A): A )odel Gor !ealing +ith !ifficult
Te4ts-, F::E, 7ovember AK, 1T5 Annual )eeting, pp. F@.
8@:; P. 5chaff, The 2reeds ?f 2hristendom, +ith A Histor$ And 2ritical 7otes, ABEE,
Gourth 1dition /evised and 1nlarged, The 1vangelical Protestant 2reeds +ith
Translations, Iolume III, Harper Y 6rothers: 7e# >ork.
8@A; The Humble Advice ?f The Assembl$ ?f !ivines, 7o# 6$ Authorit$ ?f Parliament
5itting At +estminster, 2oncerning A 2onfession ?f Gaith, Presented 6$ Them 3atel$ To
6oth Houses ?f Parliament, A9K9, Printed for the 2ompan$ of 5tationers.: 3ondon, pp.
L9% A !eclaration ?f The Gaith And ?rder ?#ned And Practiced In The 2ongregational
2hurches In 1ngland% Agreed =pon And 2onsented =nto 6$ Their 1lders And
)essengers In Their )eeting At The 5avo$, ?ctob. AF. A9LB, A9LH, Printed for !. 3. And
are to be sold in Pauls 2hurch >ard, Gleet5treet, and +estminsterHall: 3ondon, pp. F
@% A 2onfession ?f Gaith. Put Gorth 6$ The 1lders And 6rethren ?f )an$ 2ongregations
?f 2hristians (6aptiDed =pon Profession ?f Their Gaith) In 3ondon And The 2ountr$,
A9EE, Printed for 6en0amin Harris, and are to be sold at his shop at the 5tationers Arms
in 5#eetings /ents, in 2ornhill, near the /o$al 14change: 3ondon, p. E.
8@F; /. 2. 5proul, 14plaining Inerranc$, AHH9, 3igonier )inistries: ?rlando (G3), p. L9.
7.6. This book #as previousl$ published in AHB: #ith the title 14plaining Inerranc$: A
2ommentar$, b$ the International 2ouncil on 6iblical Inerranc$.
8@@; ibid.
8@K; ibid., pp. A:AF.
8@L; !. ). /ohl, A Test ?f Time, AHHL, Iolume I: The 6ible Grom )$th To Histor$,
/andom House =' 3td.: 3ondon.
8@9; ibid., p. @@:.
8@E; 1. Hornung, /. 'rauss Y !. A. +arburton, -2hronological Table Gor The !$nastic
Period- in 1. Hornung, /. 'rauss Y !. A. +arburton (1ds.), Ancient 1g$ptian
2hronolog$, F::9, op. cit., p. KHF% '. A. 'itchen, -The Historical 2hronolog$ ?f Ancient
1g$pt, A 2urrent Assessment- in ). 6ietak (1d.), The 5$nchronisation ?f 2ivilisations In
The 1astern )editerranean In The 5econd )illennium 6.2., F:::, Proceedings ?f An
International 5$mposium At 5chlo ; Haindorf, ALthAEth ?f 7ovember AHH9 And At The
Austrian Academ$, Iienna, AAthAFth ?f )a$ AHHB, 2ontributions To The 2hronolog$ ?f
The 1astern )editerranean Iolume I, Qsterreichischen Akademie !er
+issenschaften: +ien, pp. KLK9 Y p. KH. This is a ne# revised version of 'itchen.s
article originall$ published in '. A. 'itchen, -The Historical 2hronolog$ ?f Ancient 1g$pt,
A 2urrent Assessment-, Acta Archaeologica, AHH9, Iolume 9E, pp. AA@.
8@B; !. ). /ohl, A Test ?f Time, AHHL, Iolume I: The 6ible Grom )$th To Histor$, op.
cit., p. @FE.
8@H; 6. <. +ood, -The /ise And Gall ?f The A@th2entur$ 14odus2on*uest Theor$-,
Cournal ?f The 1vangelical Theological 5ociet$, F::L, op. cit., pp. KELKBH% !.
Petrovich, -Amenhotep II And The Historicit$ ?f The 14odusPharaoh-, )aster.s
5eminar$ Cournal, F::9, Iolume AE, 7o. A, pp. BAAA:% /. >oung, -The Talmud.s T#o
Cubilees And Their /elevance To The !ate ?f The 14odus-, +estminster Theological
Cournal, F::9, Iolume 9B, pp. EAB@% /. I. IasholD, -?n The !ating ?f The 14odus-,
Presb$terion, F::9, Iolume @F, 7o. F, pp. AAAAA@% /. '. Ha#kins, -Propositions Gor
1vangelical Acceptance ?f A 3ate!ate 14odus2on*uest: 6iblical !ata And The /o$al
5carabs Grom )t. 1bal-, Cournal ?f The 1vangelical Theological 5ociet$, F::E, Iolume
L:, 7o. A, pp. @AK9% C. '. Hoffmeier, -+hat Is The 6iblical !ate Gor The 14odusV A
/esponse To 6r$ant +ood-, Cournal ?f The 1vangelical Theological 5ociet$, F::E, op.
cit., pp. FFLFKE% idem., -/ameses ?f The 14odus 7arratives Is The A@th 2entur$ 6.2.
/o$al /amesside /esidence-, Trinit$ Cournal, F::E, op. cit., pp. FBAFBH% 6. <. +ood,
-The 6iblical !ate Gor The 14odus Is AKK9 62: A /esponse To Cames Hoffmeier-,
Cournal ?f The 1vangelical Theological 5ociet$, F::E, op. cit., pp. FKHFLB% /. 2. >oung
Y 6. <. +ood, -A 2ritical Anal$sis ?f The 1vidence Grom /alph Ha#kins Gor A 3ate
!ate 14odus2on*uest-, Cournal ?f The 1vangelical Theological 5ociet$, F::B, Iolume
LA, 7o. F, pp. FFLFKK% /. '. Ha#kins, -The !ate ?f The 14odus2on*uest Is 5till An
?pen &uestion: A /esponse To /odger >oung And 6r$ant +ood-, Cournal ?f The
1vangelical Theological 5ociet$, F::B, Iolume LA, 7o. F, pp. FKLF99.
8K:; 5ir A. <ardiner, 1g$ptian <rammar: 6eing An Introduction To The 5tud$ ?f
Hierogl$phs, AHLE, @rd 1dition (/evised), ?4ford =niversit$ Press: 3ondon, p. EL.
8KA; 2. 6. /amse$, ). +. !ee, C. ). /o#land, T. G. <. Higham, 5. A. Harris, G. 6rock, A.
&uiles, 1. ). +ild, 1. 5. )arcus Y A. C. 5hortland, -/adiocarbon6ased 2hronolog$ Gor
!$nastic 1g$pt-, 5cience, F:A:, Iolume @FB, pp. ALLKALLE. Also see the comment on
this article b$ H. C. 6ruins, -!ating Pharaonic 1g$pt-, 5cience, F:A:, Iolume @FB, pp.
AKBHAKH:.
8KF; 2. 6. /amse$, ). +. !ee, C. ). /o#land, T. G. <. Higham, 5. A. Harris, G. 6rock, A.
&uiles, 1. ). +ild, 1. 5. )arcus Y A. C. 5hortland, -/adiocarbon6ased 2hronolog$ Gor
!$nastic 1g$pt-, 5cience, F:A:, op. cit., p. ALL9.
8K@; Gor the recorded effects of some of these pests in a late anti*ue setting #ith a
bearing on the rise of Islam see !. 2h 5tathakopoulos, Gamine And Pestilence In The
3ate /oman And 1arl$ 6$Dantine 1mpire: A 5$stematic 5urve$ ?f 5ubsistence 2rises
And 1pidemics, F::K, 6irmingham 6$Dantine And ?ttoman )onographs: Iolume H,
Ashgate Publishing 3td: Hampshire.
1ven in our modern advanced technological era hundreds of millions of dollars are spent
on locust control due to the #idespread devastation plagues of locusts can cause. Ho#
much more so the impact thousands of $ears agoR Gor a rigorous scientific stud$ on
modern methods of locust control one can consult 5. 'rall, /. Peveling Y !. 6a !iallo
(1ds.), 7e# 5trategies In 3ocust 2ontrol, AHHE, 6irkh user Ierlag: 6asel (5#itDerland).
8KK; The plots are dra#n using the latest data given in 1. Hornung, /. 'rauss Y !. A.
+arburton, -2hronological Table Gor The !$nastic Period- in 1. Hornung, /. 'rauss Y !.
A. +arburton (1ds.), Ancient 1g$ptian 2hronolog$, F::9, op. cit., pp. KHFKHK. Also see
'. A. 'itchen, -The Historical 2hronolog$ ?f Ancient 1g$pt, A 2urrent Assessment- in ).
6ietak (1d.), The 5$nchronisation ?f 2ivilisations In The 1astern )editerranean In The
5econd )illennium 6.2., F:::, op. cit., pp. KAKK. The dating here ma$ be slightl$
different but it should not make an$ impact on our argument.
8KL; 1. Hornung, /. 'rauss Y !. A. +arburton, -2hronological Table Gor The !$nastic
Period- in 1. Hornung, /. 'rauss Y !. A. +arburton (1ds.), Ancient 1g$ptian
2hronolog$, F::9, op. cit., pp. KHFKHK% '. A. 'itchen, -The Historical 2hronolog$ ?f
Ancient 1g$pt, A 2urrent Assessment- in ). 6ietak (1d.), The 5$nchronisation ?f
2ivilisations In The 1astern )editerranean In The 5econd )illennium 6.2., F:::, op.
cit., pp. @HKA.
8K9; 1. Hornung, /. 'rauss Y !. A. +arburton, -2hronological Table Gor The !$nastic
Period- in 1. Hornung, /. 'rauss Y !. A. +arburton (1ds.), Ancient 1g$ptian
2hronolog$, F::9, op. cit., p. KHK% '. A. 'itchen, -The Historical 2hronolog$ ?f Ancient
1g$pt, A 2urrent Assessment- in ). 6ietak (1d.), The 5$nchronisation ?f 2ivilisations In
The 1astern )editerranean In The 5econd )illennium 6.2., F:::, op. cit., p. L:.
8KE; +. C. )urnane, -The 1arlier /eign ?f /amesses II And His 2oregenc$ +ith 5et$ I-,
Cournal ?f 7ear 1astern 5tudies, AHEL, Iolume @K, 7o. @, pp. AL@AH:% idem., Ancient
1g$ptian 2oregencies, AHEE, 5tudies In Ancient ?riental 2iviliDation 7o. K:, The
?riental Institute: 2hicago (I3), pp. LEBE% A. 5palinger, -Traces ?f The 1arl$ 2areer ?f
/amesses II-, Cournal ?f 7ear 1astern 5tudies, AHEH, Iolume @B, 7o. K, pp. FEAFB9.
8KB; '. A. 'itchen, -/amesses II- in !. 6. /edford (1d.), The ?4ford 1nc$clopedia of
Ancient 1g$pt, F::A, Iolume III, ?4ford =niversit$ Press: ?4ford (='), p. AA9.
8KH; !. P. 5ilverman,-!ivinities And !eities In Ancient 1g$pt- in 6. 1. 5hafer (1d.)
/eligion In Ancient 1g$pt: <ods )$ths, And Personal Practice, AHHA, /outledge:
3ondon, p. 9K.
8L:; Gor an e4haustive discussion please see 3. Habachi, Geatures ?f The !eification ?f
/amesses II, AH9H, Abhandlungen !es !eutschen Archa`logischen Instituts 'airo
ag$ptische /eihe Iolume L, Ierlag C. C. Augustin: <lZckstadt% idem., -'hat\Tna&ant]r:
Importance-, Annales !u 5ervice !es Anti*uitSs !e 3.Ig$pte, AHLK, Iolume LF, pp. KK@
LLH, Plates I[[[III. ?ther important #orks are <. /oeder, -/amses II Als <ott: 7ach
!en Hildesheimer !enksteinen Aus Horbet-, Ueitschrift GZr ag$ptische 5prache =nd
Altertumskunde, AHF9, Iolume 9A, pp. LE9E, Plates II and I% ). HamDa, -14cavations
?f The !epartment ?f Anti*uities At &ant]r (Ga*us !istrict) (5eason, )a$ FAst Cul$ Eth,
AHFB)-, Annales !u 5ervice !es Anti*uitSs !e 3.Ig$pte, AH@:, Iolume @:, pp. @A9B,
Plates III.
8LA; 3. Habachi, Geatures ?f The !eification ?f /amesses II, AH9H, op. cit., p. @F% <.
/oeder, -/amses II Als <ott: 7ach !en Hildesheimer !enksteinen Aus Horbet-,
Ueitschrift GZr ag$ptische 5prache =nd Altertumskunde, AHF9, op. cit., pp. 9F9@% 3.
Habachi, -'hat\Tna&ant]r: Importance-, Annales !u 5ervice !es Anti*uitSs !e 3.
Ig$pte, AHLK, op. cit., pp. L@EL@B.
8LF; Gor (a) see <. /oeder, -/amses II Als <ott: 7ach !en Hildesheimer !enksteinen
Aus Horbet-, Ueitschrift GZr ag$ptische 5prache =nd Altertumskunde, AHF9, op. cit.,
Tafel I(@)% 3. Habachi, Geatures ?f The !eification ?f /amesses II, AH9H, op. cit., p. @A%
Gor (b) see <. /oeder, -/amses II Als <ott: 7ach !en Hildesheimer !enksteinen Aus
Horbet-, Ueitschrift GZr ag$ptische 5prache =nd Altertumskunde, AHF9, op. cit., Tafel
I(K)% 3. Habachi, Geatures ?f The !eification ?f /amesses II, AH9H, op. cit., p. @A% Gor
(c) see 3. Habachi, -'hat\Tna&ant]r: Importance-, Annales !u 5ervice !es Anti*uitSs
!e 3.Ig$pte, AHLK, op. cit., p. LL:.
8L@; 3. Habachi, Geatures ?f The !eification ?f /amesses II, AH9H, op. cit., p. @A% <.
/oeder, -/amses II Als <ott: 7ach !en Hildesheimer !enksteinen Aus Horbet-,
Ueitschrift GZr ag$ptische 5prache =nd Altertumskunde, AHF9, op. cit., pp. 9F9@% 3.
Habachi, -'hat\Tna&ant]r: Importance-, Annales !u 5ervice !es Anti*uitSs !e 3.
Ig$pte, AHLK, op. cit., pp. L@HLK:.
8LK; 3. Habachi, Geatures ?f The !eification ?f /amesses II, AH9H, op. cit., Plate II(a).
8LL; H. Te Ielde, -2ommemoration In Ancient 1g$pt-, in H. <. 'ippenberg, 3. P. van den
6osch et al., Iisible /eligion: Annual Gor /eligious Iconograph$, AHBF, Iolume I
2ommemorative Gigures: Papers Presented To !r. Th. P. Ian 6aaren ?n The ?ccasion
?f His 5eventieth 6irthda$, )a$ A@, AHBF, 1. C. 6rill: 3eiden, p. A@9.
8L9; A. H. <ardiner, -The !elta /esidence ?f The /amessides-, Cournal ?f 1g$ptian
Archaeolog$, AHAB, op. cit. (Part III), p. ABE.
8LE; The inscription #as published in A. H. <ardiner, 3ate1g$ptian )iscellanies, AH@E,
6ibliotheca Aeg$ptiaca III, Idition de la Gondation Ig$ptologi*ue /eine Ilisabeth:
6ru4elles, p. AF% Translation #as done b$ /. A. 2aminos, 3ate1g$ptian )iscellanies,
AHLK, 6ro#n 1g$ptological 5tudies I, ?4ford =niversit$ Press: 3ondon, p. @E% Also see
A. H. <ardiner, -The !elta /esidence ?f The /amessides-, Cournal ?f 1g$ptian
Archaeolog$, AHAB, op. cit. (Part III), pp. ABEABB.
8LB; C. ). 2o#an (1d.), Hans+ehr !ictionar$ ?f )odern +ritten Arabic, AHB: (/eprint),
3ibrairie !u 3iban: 6eirut, p. K:B.
8LH; !. P. 5ilverman,-!ivinities And !eities In Ancient 1g$pt- in 6. 1. 5hafer (1d.)
/eligion In Ancient 1g$pt: <ods )$ths, And Personal Practice, AHHA, op. cit., p. 9F% Also
see '. A. 'itchen, Pharaoh Triumphant: The 3ife And Times ?f /amesses II, 'ing ?f
1g$pt, AHBF, )onumenta Hannah 5heen !edicata II, Aris Y Phillips 3td.: +arminster
(1ngland), pp. AEEAEB.
89:; '. A. 'itchen, Pharaoh Triumphant: The 3ife And Times ?f /amesses II, 'ing ?f
1g$pt, AHBF, op. cit., p. FFL.
89A; P. A. 2la$ton, 2hronicle ?f The Pharaohs: The /eign6$/eign /ecord ?f The
/ulers And !$nasties ?f Ancient 1g$pt, AHHK, Thames and Hudson 3td.: 3ondon (='),
pp. AL@ALK.
89F; '. A. 'itchen, Pharaoh Triumphant: The 3ife And Times ?f /amesses II, 'ing ?f
1g$pt, AHBF, op. cit., pp. F@KF@L. 14amples of stamps from various countries featuring
temples of Abu 5imbel, /amesses II and his *ueen 7efertari can be seen on p. F@9.
89@; ibid., p. F@9.
89K; 1. P. =phill, -Pithom And /aamses: Their 3ocation And 5ignificance-, Cournal ?f
7ear 1astern 5tudies, AH9B, Iolume FE, 7umber K, p. FHH.
89L; ). HamDa, -14cavations ?f The !epartment ?f Anti*uities At &ant]r (Ga*us !istrict)
(5eason, )a$ FAst Cul$ Eth, AHFB)-, Annales !u 5ervice !es Anti*uitSs !e 3.Ig$pte,
AH@:, op. cit., pp. @A9B, Plates III% 3. Habachi, -'hat\Tna&ant]r: Importance-, Annales
!u 5ervice !es Anti*uitSs !e 3.Ig$pte, AHLK, op. cit., pp. KK@LLH, Plates I[[[III.
899; 1. 6. Pusch Y A. Herold, -&antirMPi/amesses- in '. A. 6ard (1d.), 1nc$clopedia ?f
The Archaeolog$ ?f Ancient 1g$pt, AHHH, /outledge, Ta$lor Y Grancis 6ooks 3td: =',
pp. 9KE9KH% 1. 6. Pusch, -Piramesse- in !. 6. /edford (1d.), The ?4ford 1nc$clopedia
of Ancient 1g$pt, F::A, Iolume III, ?4ford =niversit$ Press: ?4ford (='), pp. KBL:.
89E; 1. P. =phill, -Pithom And /aamses: Their 3ocation And 5ignificance-, Cournal ?f
7ear 1astern 5tudies, AH9H, Iolume FB, 7umber A, p. @E. =phill records a ver$ useful
table allotting points to the above listed cities based on this concise list of nine attributes
re*uired for Pr/amesses as discerned from the primar$ and secondar$ sources.
89B; 1. P. =phill, The Temples ?f Per /amesses, AHBK, Aris Y Phillips, +arminster:
1ngland, p. A.
89H; 1. Pusch, -To#ards A )ap ?f Piramesse-, 1g$ptian Archaeolog$, AHHH, 7umber AK,
p. A@.
8E:; 1. 6. Pusch, -Piramesse- in !. 6. /edford (1d.), The ?4ford 1nc$clopedia of
Ancient 1g$pt, F::A, Iolume III, op. cit., p. L:.
8EA; 1. 6. Pusch Y A. Herold, -&antirMPi/amesses- in '. A. 6ard (1d.), 1nc$clopedia ?f
The Archaeolog$ ?f Ancient 1g$pt, AHHH, op. cit., p. 9KE.
8EF; 1. P. =phill, The Temples ?f Per /amesses, AHBK, op. cit., p. FFE. 7.6. The
comparative calculations made b$ =phill #ere based on the measurements of Pr
/amesses available to him at the time. As #e have observed, modern investigations
sho# the cit$ is no# considerabl$ larger than previousl$ imagined.
Perhaps due to the uncertaint$ surrounding the identification and e4act measurements,
some modern studies still maintain 7ineveh and subse*uentl$ 6ab$lon #ere the largest
cities in the ancient near east. Gor e4ample see, 2. <ates, Ancient 2ities: The
Archaeolog$ ?f =rban 3ife In The Ancient 7ear 1ast And 1g$pt, <reece, And /ome,
F::@, /outledge: ?4ford Y 7e# >ork, p. AEL.
8E@; 1. P. =phill, The Temples ?f Per /amesses, AHBK, op. cit., p. FFB.
8EK; 6. 6rier, 1g$ptian )ummies: =nraveling The 5ecrets ?f An Ancient Art, AHHK,
+illiam )orro# Y 2ompan$ Inc.: 7e# >ork: (=5A), pp. A:EA:B.
8EL; ). 6ucaille (Trans. A. !. Pannell Y ). 6ucaille), )ummies ?f The Pharaohs:
)odern )edical Investigations, AHH:, 5t. )artin.s Press: 7e# >ork, pp. vii44.
8E9; 5. Pain, -/amesses /ides Again-, 7e# 5cientist, F::K, Issue FKE@ (A@th
7ovember), p. LK.
8EE; -/amses II (/amses The <reat)-, in 6. 6rier, The 1nc$clopedia of )ummies, F::K,
5utton Publishing 3imited: <loucestershire (='), p. AL@.
8EB; ibid.
8EH; 1. Geldtkeller, 1). 3emmel, A. 5. /ussell, -Ank$losing 5pond$litis In The Pharaohs
?f Ancient 1g$pt-, /heumatolog$ International, F::@, Iolume F@, pp. AL.
8B:; ). 6ucaille, )oses And Pharaoh: The Hebre#s In 1g$pt, AHHL, 7TT )ediascope
Inc.: Tok$o (Capan), p. A:.
8BA; A. 2. Aufderheide Y 2. /odr ZgueD)art Zn, The 2ambridge 1nc$clopedia ?f
Human Paleopatholog$, AHHB. 2ambridge =niversit$ Press: =', pp. HEHH (!I5H) Y pp.
A:FA:K (Ank$losing 5pond$litis). 6efore a AHBA stud$ on 6ritish 5a4on and medieval
skeletons !I5H and ank$losing spond$litis #ere not separated 8ibid., p. HB;.
Paleopatholog$ is the stud$ of diseases in the remains of ancient peoples and animals.
8BF; /. '. 2hhem, P. 5chmit, 2. GaurS, -!id /amesses II /eall$ Have Ank$losing
5pond$litisV A /eappraisal-, 2anadian Association ?f /adiologists Cournal, F::K,
Iolume LL, 7o. K, pp. FAAFAE. Also see A. 5. /ussell, -Ank$losing 5pond$litis ?r !I5H
In Ancient )ummies-, 2anadian Association ?f /adiologists Cournal, F::K, Iolume LL,
7o. L, p. @@L% /. '. 2hhem, P. 5chmit, 2. GaurS, -Ank$losing 5pond$litis ?r !I5H:
/epl$-, 2anadian Association ?f /adiologists Cournal, F::K, Iolume LL, 7o. L, p. @@L%
5. Pain, -/amesses /ides Again-, 7e# 5cientist, F::K, op. cit., p. LK% C. 1. Adams Y 2.
+. Aslop, -Imaging In 1g$ptian )ummies- in !. A. /osalie (1d.), 1g$ptian )ummies And
)odern 5cience, F::B, 2ambridge =niversit$ Press, 7e# >ork, p. @B.
7. 6. Gor the latest facial reconstruction of /amesses II face using a three dimensional
computer model see 2. ). +ilkinson, -The Gacial /econstruction ?f Ancient 1g$ptians-
in !. A. /osalie (1d.), 1g$ptian )ummies And )odern 5cience, F::B, op. cit., pp. AE:
AEA.
8B@; 5ta$ing active and getting regular e4ercise are amongst the best #a$s of managing
the s$mptoms of diffuse idiopathic skeletal h$perostosis (!I5H). A recent stud$ suggests
that the people suffering from !I5H sho# improvement #ith e4ercise therap$. 5ee the
stud$ b$ A. AlHerD, C. 5nip, 6. 2larke, C. 1sdaile, -14ercise Therap$ Gor Patients +ith
!iffuse Idiopathic 5keletal H$perostosis-, 2linical /heumatolog$, F::B, Iolume FE, 7o.
F, pp. F:EFA:.
8BK; 1. +. 3ane, An Arabic1nglish 3e4icon, AH9B, Part @, 3ibrairie !u 3iban: 6eirut,
AFEHAFB:.
8BL; ibid., p. AFB:.
8B9; Gor detailed discussion of Heb5ed festival see H. Grankfort, 'ingship And The
<ods: A 5tud$ ?f Ancient 7ear 1astern /eligion As The Integration ?f 5ociet$ And
7ature, AHEB, =niversit$ of 2hicago Press: 2hicago (I3), pp. EHBB.
8BE; ). Hamidullah (Trans. A. /. )omin), -The 7ame ?f The Pharaoh +ho !ied 6$
!ro#ning-, Islamic And The )odern Age, AHBA (August), pp. ALAA9:.
8BB; 3. Gatoohi Y 5. Al!argaDelli, Histor$ Testifies To The Infallibilit$ ?f The &ur.an:
1arl$ Histor$ ?f 2hildren ?f Israel, AHHH, Adam Publishers Y !istributors: !elhi (India),
pp. HKALL.
6ack To /efutation ?f 14ternal 2ontradictions In The &ur.an