Working of Human Eye:

Light waves from an item enter the eye first through the cornea, which is the
clear dome at the face of the eye. The light then progresses through the pupil, which is
the spherical opening in the center of the colored iris. Fluctuations in incoming light
change the amount of the eyes pupil. When the light entering the eye is adequately
intense, the pupil will get smaller, because of the pupillary light response. The light
waves are bent first by the cornea, and then added by the crystalline lens located
immediately behind the iris and the pupil to a nodal point located immediately behind the
back surface of the lens. Within the layers of the retina, light impulses are changed into
the electrical signals. Then they are sent throughout the optic nerve along the visual
pathway, to the occipital corte at the posterior of the brain. !ere, the brain interprets the
electrical signals as a visual image.
There are certain people who are said to be "colour blind". The reason is that they
can#t differentiate between colours. This happens as they don#t have cone shaped cells that
respond to certain specific colour only.
About Human Eye:
The orbit is surrounded by layers of soft and fatty tissues. These layers protect
the eye and make it to turn easily. $fter traversing the fatty tissue there are three pairs of
extraocular muscles, which regulate the movement of each eye, the medial & lateral
rectus muscles, the superior & inferior rectus muscles, and the superior & inferior
oblique muscles.
%everal different kinds of structures are combined to form the human eye. From
the several structures most important anatomical components are the cornea,
conjunctiva, iris, crystalline lens, vitreous humor, retina, macula, optic nerve, and
extraocular muscles.
Introductio to working of human eye:
The human eye is the organ that gives us the sense of sight, and thus allows us
to observe and learn more about this colourful world than we do with any of the other
four sense organs. We use our eyes in almost every activity, whether it is reading,
working, watching television, writing a letter, driving a car, and in countless ways. &ost
people agree that sight is the sense everybody values more than all the rest senses.
The eye allows us to see and infer the shapes, colors, and dimensions of
ob'ects in the world by processing the light. The eye is able to sense bright light or dim
light, but it cannot intellect ob'ects when light is absent.
Introduction to Human eye and the Colourful World:
(ye is one of the important organ of human body. !uman eyes helps us to see this
colorful world. (ye enables us to see by stimulating the creation of images in our brain.
The eyes gather light from whatever we are looking at. )efle mechanisms control the
amount of light entering the eye, and enable the eye to focus on ob'ects whether they are
near or distant.
*arts of human eye+
(yelid
(yeball
*upil
Lens
,ris
-ornea
)etina
Tear gland or lacrimal gland
%clera
.ptic nerves
-horoid
Functions of each art of Human Eye in Assisting
!ision of Colourful World
(yelid + ,t protects the delicate outer surface of the eye.
(yeball + (yeball is a sphere measuring /.01 cm 20.1 inches3 in diameter. (yeballs
contain sensory cells that when stimulated by light, send messages to the brain
that are interpreted as images. &a'or part of the eye is protected within an orbit, a
bony socket in the skull.
*upil+ ,t is an opening that channels light. ,n dim light, pupil widens and in
brighter light, pupils get smaller.
Lens + ,t fine focuses light on the retina to produce an upside4down image.
,ris + ,t controls the amount of light entering the eye. &uscles in the ,ris alter the
si5e of the pupil.
-ornea+ ,t is transparent and present in the front of the eye which helps to focus
light as it enters.
)etina + ,t is membrane at the back of the yes.6 ,t has cells called rods and cones
which respond to light by sending nerve impulses along the optic nerve to the
brain.
)ods + There are about 708 million rods in the retina. )ods work best in dim light.
-ones+ There are about 9 million cones in the retina. -ones are responsible for
color vision and enables us to see things in detail.
Tear gland + They are also known as lacrimal gland. Tears are released by this
gland to moisten and protect out eyes. When we blink our eyes, tear spreads over
the eye#s surface which keeps the cornea moist, washes away dust, and kills
germs. $fter flowing over the eye, tears drain through two small openings at the
side of the eye into the lacrimal duct and then into the nose.
%clera+ ,t is the tough, white outer coat of the eye.
.ptic nerves+ These nerves sends messages from retina to brain.
-horoid + ,t supplies blood inside the eye.
Two liquids, aqueous and vitreous humour maintain the shape of the eyeball.
-iliary muscles ad'ust the focus of the lens.
.ur eyes move constantly, even when we are staring. %i muscles move each eyeball
and hold it in place inside its skull socket. (ach muscle pulls the eye in a different
direction, enabling the eyeball to move up and down, from side to side, and diagonally.
.ur brain controls these movements to make sure that both the eyes move together.
Human Eye and the Colourful World : How do we see
Colors:
The retina of our eye has a large number of light sensitive cells. The cells on the retina
are of two shapes + rod shaped and cone shaped.The rod shaped cells of our retina
respond to the intensity of light . ,n other words, the rod shaped cells respond to the
brightness of the light. The cone shaped cells of our retina respond to colors. ,n other
words, the cone shaped cells make us see colors and make us distinguish between various
colors. Thus cones make color perception possible.
The main components of the eye include+ -ornea, %clera, ,ris, *upil, $queous humor,
Lens, -horoid, -iliary muscles, )etina, macula, :lind spot, vitreous humor and .ptic
nerve.
Cornea" ,t is the outermost layer of the eye through which the light passes. ,t does not
contain any blood vessels but contain nerve fibers. The )efractive inde of the cornea is
;7.<997
#clera" ,t is made up of white non transparent tissue surrounding the cornea at the outer
surface of the eye. ,t is fibrous, protective outer layer of the eye made of collagen and
elastic fiber and the muscles that control the eye movement are connected to it.
Iris: The main purpose of iris is to control the amount of light that enters the eye. When
the amount of light entering is more the iris diaphragm contracts which causes less light
to enter the eye and prevent damaging the light receptors and thus avoid blindness and
when the light is very less the iris relaes and the pupil become larger so that more light
enters the eye.
upil: The pupil is located at the center of the iris of the eye which allows light to enter
the retina. ,t is empty space through which light enters. *upil is black since most of the
light entering the pupil is absorbed by the tissues inside the
eye .
A$ueous Humor: ,t is the clear liquid that lies between cornea and the lens. ,t is alkaline
and made mostly of water. ,t supplies nutrients to the eyes. ,t is continuously secreted and
absorbed at the constant rate of one teaspoon per day .The liquid after passing through the
drains out of the eye into the bloodstream.
Choroid: ,t is a vascular layer containing connective tissue having thickness of 8.1. ,t
provides nourishment and oygen to the outer layer of the retina.
Ciliary muscles: These are the ring of muscles which are smooth that are responsible for
changing the shape of the lens. When these ciliary muscles are relaed the lens are
stretched, enabling it focus on the distant ob'ects. When these ciliary muscles are
contracted the lens become rounder, enabling it focus on the nearby ob'ects.
%etina: ,t is one of the most important part without which we cannot view image. The
retina is the light sensitive tissue lining the inner surface of eye. ,t senses light and creates
impulses that are sent through optic nerve to brain which converts light energy to
electrical. )eceptor cells are present in retinas which are light sensitive. ,n retina there are
two types of receptor cells are present+ rods and cones. )ods function in dim light and
provide black and white vision while cones provide perception of color at daytime. There
are approimately 788 million rods and / million cones in one eye. . The retina is a thin
tissue that has many layers nerve cells that are sensitive to the brightness as well as to the
colors of light. The nerve cells carry the message about the image from the retina to the
brain in the form of special signals. The brain them interprets these signals we like at.
&escription of 'ens of the Eye
'ens: ,t is transparent and focus light on to the retina. :y changing its shape it focuses on
ob'ect at various distances. ,t is biconve, curved on both sides and attached to ciliary
muscles which change the shape of lens. The eye lens is held in its place by ciliary
attached to the eyeball. The ciliary muscles are attached to the eyeball. The celery
muscles contract or tighten up when we like at the things close to us. $s a result the eye
lens becomes thicker and shortens its focal length. This enables eyes to form image on
the retina of the ob'ects close to us
$ normal eyesight can clearly see both nearby and distant ob'ects,but some persons are
unable to see clearly either nearby or distant ob'ects or both.%uch defect in vision may
occur due to weakening action of celery muscles either due to various reasons
Human Eye &iagram : about Cornea( Eye 'ens
-ornea which is below iris is a thin membrane through which the light enters the eyes.
The crystalline lens provides the required focal length to focus ob'ects at different
distances on the retina. The iris is situated behind the cornea. This dark muscular
diaphragm controls the si5e of the pupil. The pupil regulates and controls the amount of
light that enters the eye.
The eye lens is composed of fibers which makes it fleible with the help of ciliary
muscles. The change in the curvature changes the focal length. When the lens becomes
thin the focal length increases thus enabling us to view distant ob'ects. When the lens
becomes thick the focal length decreases and enables us to see nearby ob'ects. This
fleibility of the length is called accommodation.
!uman eye is a delicate one which should be taken care. =amage to any part of the
human eye can lead to significant loss of vision. &easures should be taken to protect the
eyes which are the precious gift of the almighty.
ntroduction on human eye diagram:
The human eye is one of the sensitive sense organs. $mong all the sense organs, the
human eye is one of the most important one which helps us to see the beautiful world
around us. The structure of the eye is very interesting and surprising. The !uman eye
performs like a camera, where the ob'ects are captured and given out as a real picture.
The lens system in the structure of a human eye forms an image on a light sensitive
screen called the retina. This lens forms an inverted real image of the ob'ect on the retina.
The retina is a delicate membrane having lots of light sensitive cells. This light sensitive
cell gets activated and generates electrical signals which are sent to the brain via optic
nerves. The brain interprets these signals and processes the information which allows
seeing ob'ects.
%ods and cones are the photoreceptor cells for vision and are situated in the retina of
human eye.The outer ends of both rods and the cones are in contact with the pigment
layer of retina of human eye and the inner ends are directed towards the centre of the
human eye.The outer part of cones are cone shaped and that of the rods are rod shaped
,that is why they are named as cones and rods respectively, but in the foveal cones the
outer part is rod shaped .
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Introduction:
&any of us may talk about the process of eye check up as a awkward eperience also
some others feels it as a day killer. %o you might be thinking why cant the
ophthalmologist check my eyes by using a bright light since its an easier method>
What is Eye &ilation
(ye dilation or pupil dilation is a response showed by the eyes that results in the varying
si5e of the pupil through iris dilator muscle. ,t is also a sort of regular eye checkup. !ere
all that a ophthalmologist do is to make you sit by opening you eyes for a while and pour
a few drops of medicine in to your eyes, so that you can open them without winking, so
in the mean time the doctor checks your eyes. This is done in order to view the back
portion of the eye.

&ost doctors prefer this method. ,f you are visiting a doctor for the first time, he will 'ust
use a bright light and a lens to check your eyes. (ven though he flashes light towards
your eyes that causes you some uneasiness, yet it is much better than the dilation. :ut
using the normal method, it only allows the doctor to eamine your corneas condition. ,t
is because, when the torch is lighted in your eyes the corneas will be eamined but the all
the other parts are left since the pupil will be dilated then.
When he follows the method of pupil dilation, he can have a clear view of the patients
pupil, blood vessels, optic nerve, retina etc which are in the back of the eye. &ost doctors
are advising the elder ones to have this test frequently. $lso those people who have high
risk of optical conditions of their eyes are also recommended for frequently take these
health checkups.
*upil dilation helps in diagnosing various eye problems that affect the eyes like cataract,
glaucoma etc. ,t also reveals the problems regarding hypertension.
)uestion **
)uestion: What do you mean by recomposition of white light>
Answer: )ecombination of the seven colours of the dispersed white light to get white
light is known as recomposition of light.
)uestion *+
)uestion: (plain the dispersion of white light by a prism.
Answer: (ven though all colours of the visible spectrum travel with same speed in
vacuum, the speed of the colours of the visible spectrum varies when they pass through a
transparent medium like glass and water. That is, the refractive inde of glass is different
for different colours.
When a polychromatic light like white light is incident on the first surface of the prism
and enters it, each constituent of the white colour is refracted through a different angle,
i.e., white light gets dispersed. When these colours are incident on the second surface of
the prism they again undergo refraction 2they get refracted from a denser to rarer
medium3 and the colours are separated further. Thus a beam of white light incident on a
prism splits into its constituent colours to form a spectrum.
(ach constituent of the white light is deviated towards the base of the prism. ?iolet
colour suffers the maimum deviation and red the least. The spectrum obtained is impure
as the colours in the spectrum do not have any sharp boundaries i.e., each colour merges
gradually into the ne
)uestion *,
)uestion: What is least distance of distinct vision>
Answer: The minimum distance upto which an eye can see clearly is called the least
distance of distinct vision.
)uestion *-
)uestion: @ame the part of the eye which is equivalent to 73 diaphragm 03
photographic plate, in a camera.
Answer: 73 ,ris of the eye is equivalent to the diaphragm
03 retina is equivalent to a photographic plate
)uestion *.
)uestion: What is the nature of the image formed on the retina> What kind of lens is
present in our eye>
Answer: )eal, inverted and diminished image is formed on the retina. $ conve lens
made of a transparent 'elly4like proteinous material is present in our eye.
)uestion */
)uestion: !ow is the amount of light entering the eyes controlled> What change is
made in the eye to enable it to focus the ob'ects situated at different distances>
Answer: The iris regulates the amount of light entering the eye by ad'usting the si5e of
the pupil.
)uestion *0
)uestion: What is the role of the ciliary muscles in the normal functioning of an eye>
Answer: The eye lens is held in position by ciliary muscles. The ciliary muscles help
the eye lens to change its focal length to form the image of the ob'ects placed at different
positions.
)uestion *1
)uestion: What is astigmatism> !ow is it rectified>
Answer: $stigmatism is one of the defects of the vision. !ere the eye is not able to
focus the light coming from the hori5ontal and vertical planes simultaneously. ,t is
rectified by using cylindrical lens.
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,ntroduction to *arts of the eye and function
$ll the optical instruments are of no use without a god gifted natural optical instrument
given to all the human beings i.e. the human eye. Let us discuss the human eye in detail+
arts of Human Eye 2 3heir Functions:
The human eye is a ball about 0.1 cm in diameter. ,t consists of the following parts+
*4 #clerotic: %clerotic is the outer coating of the eye which is white in colour, that
protects the interior of the eye and provides the shape to the eye.
+4 Cornea: The front part of sclerotic is transparent to light and is termed as cornea. The
light coming from an ob'ect enters the eye through cornea.
,4 Iris: ,ris is 'ust at the back of cornea. This controls the si5e of the pupil. ,t acts like a
shutter of a photographic camer and allows the regulated amount of light to enter the eye.
arts of Human Eye 2 their Functions 5-614
-4 Eye 'ens: (ye lens is a double conve lens with the help of which image is formed at
retina by refraction of light.
.4 Ciliary 7uscles: The eye lens is held by ciliary muscles. -iliary muscles help the eye
lens to change its focal length.
/4 upil: $t the centre of the iris there is a hole through which light falls on the lens,
which is called pupil.
04 A$ueous humour : The space between cornea and eye lens is filled with a transparent
fluid called aqueous humour.
14 !itreous Humour: The space between eye lens and retina is filled with a 'elly like
transparent fluid called vitreous humour
7ore on arts of the Eye and their Function
84 %etins : )etina serves the purpose of a screen in the eye, wherethe images of the
ob'ects are formed. )etina is at the back of the eye lens. )etins is made of light sensitive
cells, which are connected to the optical nerve.
*94 :ptic ;erve: .ptic nerve carries the information to brain.
**4 rincipal A<is
*+4 =lind #pot : The region of eye containing the optic nerve is not at all sensitive to
light and is called blind spot. ,f the image of an ob'ect is formed in the blind spot, it is not
visible.
*,4 >ellow #pot : The central part of retina lying on the optic ais of eye is most
sensitive to light and is called yellow spot.
*-4 Eye 'ids: (ye lids are provided to control the amount of light falling on the eye.
They also protect the eye from dust particles etc.
Introduction to types of eye diseases:
There are a number of eye diseases known to affect vision ranging from infants to adults.
(ye diseases, not corrected within the earlier days of the disease leads to deleterious
effects on humans leading to low vision or even blindness in few cases.
7ost Common Eye &iseases:
The most common eye diseases that target adults greater than forty years of age are
7. -ataract+ The lens which is behind the iris and the pupil like a camera lens
focussing light onto the retina that is present at the back of the eye. -ondition in
which the clouding of the natural lens of the eye occurs is known as cataract.
-ataract is classified into three types depending upon the area that is affected+
7. %ubcapsular cataract+ Asually begins at the back of the lens.
0. @uclear cataract+ Forms in the center of the lens, the nucleus, occurring
because of natural aging process and is the most common.
<. -ortical cataract+ Formed in the corte of the lens etending the spokes
from the outer side of the lens to the center.
0. Blaucoma+ =iseases involving the optic nerve of the eye, with progressive
damage to the optic nerve leading to irreversible vision loss is called glaucoma.
The optic nerve carrying visual signals from eye to the brain is damaged, most of
the patients unaware of the situation since vision loss is causes only after a
significant amount of optic nerve damage.
<. $ge4related macular degeneration+ $ disease of the eye that involves the damages
caused to the eyes macula, which is located in the center of the retina. $ctivities
such as reading and driving are affected since they require sharp, central vision,
which is affected in age4related macular degeneration.
C. )etinal diseases+ !ereditary disorders involving the rod and cone cells of the
retina leading to impaired vision or loss of vision. =iabetic retinopathy and
)etinitis pigmentosa are the most common.
#ome more 3ypes of Eye &iseases:
$part from the above, various eye diseases involving the various structures of the eye are
known to cause severe impairment of vision or vision loss. !erpetic eye diseases are
commonly caused by the herpe group of virus, in the cornea of the eye causing herpe
simple keratitis.
Conclusion
(ye diseases are common amongst wide range age groups. $ number of eye diseases are
known to date that cause mild to severe impairment and complete vision loss in few
cases. =iseases caused by aging, inherited disorders, retinal disorders are the most
common.
3ravelling of 'ight through the Eye
We are not aware of it that the world which is around us has no color. $ll the surfaces of
the substances reflect the light came from the sun and thus we are able to see its color and
this reflection is varying in wavelengths. ,n the procedure of the light traveling in the eye
first of all light enters in the pupil of our eye and then it is focused by the cornea of the
eye onto the lens of the eye. Then the lens focuses and flips this light onto the back of the
retina. This all information is brought to the brain through several capillaries named as
the optic nerve and hence we are able to see an ob'ect.
Conclusion for 'ight 3ravelling through Eye
$s per the discussion made on travelling of light in our eye, we conclude that retina plays
an important role in passing the light through our eye and acts as the screen, where image
is obtained.