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COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS

FLUENT

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1 INTRODUCTION.......................................3
2COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS
(CFD)..............................................................7
3HEAT TRANSFER MODELLING............39
4TRANSIENT FLOW MODELLING.........46
5CFD EXERCISE.........................................51
Problem Specification..........................................................................................................72
Results76
Plot Velocity Vectors...........................................................................................................76

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1

FLUID DYNAMICS:
Fluid dynamics is the science of fluid motion. Fluid flow is commonly studied in one

of three ways:

Experimental fluid dynamics.

Theoretical fluid dynamics.

Numerically: computational fluid dynamics (CFD).

1. EXPERIMENTAL FLUID DYNAMICS (EFD)

Wind tunnels (subsonic, transonic, supersonic, low-turbulence, pressurized,


)

Towing tank, wave tank, large circulation channel, cavitation tunnel, flume,

2. THEORETICAL FLUID DYNAMICS


3. COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS (CFD)
Numerical algorithms, Computers, Graphics, Animations.

1.2 TYPES OF FLOWS:


In general, there are only two basic flows. They are: fluid flow, granular flow.

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1.2.1. FLUID FLOW:


Fluid flow deals with the flow of fluids(composititon of liquid and gas). A fluid
consists of a large number of individual molecules.These could in principle be modeled as
interacting solid particles.

Figure 1.1 Fluid Flow


1.2.2. GRANULAR FLOW:
It deals with flow of solid particles. The interaction between adjacent salt grains and
adjacent fluid particles is quite different.

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Figure1.2 Granular Flow

1.3

FLOW CLASSIFICATIONS:

1.3.1. LAMINAR FLOW:


It is the one in which the fluid particles move in layers (or lamina) with one layer of
fluid sliding smoothly over an adjacent layer. Fluid particles move in well defined paths and
they retain the same relative position at successive cross section of the flow passage. This
type of flow occurs generally in smooth pipes when the velocity of flow is low and also in
liquids of having high viscosity.
1.3.1.2. TURBULENT FLOW:
It is the one in which the fluid particles in an entirely haphazard or erratic manner.
Fluid particles move in an unpredictable path that results in a rapid and continuous mixing of
the fluid leading to momentum transfer as flow occurs. In such a flow, eddies or vortices are
present. These eddies and their random movement give rise to fluctuation in the velocity and
pressure at any point in the flow field. This type of occurs in rivers, canals, streams, water
supply pipes.
1.3.1.3. STEADY FLOW:
In steady flow, various characteristics of flowing fluids such as velocity, pressure,
density, temperature etc.. at a point do not change with time. In other words, a steady flow
may be defined as that in which the various characteristics are independent of time. Eg. p =
p(x,y,z) This kind of flow occurs when water flows through a pipe line due to centrifugal
pump run at uniform speed.
1.3.1.4. UNSTEADY FLOW:
Various characteristics of flowing fluid such as velocity, pressure, density etc.. at a
point change with respect to time. Eg. p = p(x,y,z,t). Wave movements in a sea resembles the
unsteady flow clearly.
1.3.1.5. NEWTONIANS FLUID:

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The fluid which obeys NEWTONS LAW OF VISCOSITY( shear stress is directly
proportional to shear strain) is called Newtonians fluids.
1.3.1.6. NON NEWTONIANS FLUID:
The fluid which does not obeys NEWTONS LAW OF VISCOSITY( shear stress is
directly proportional to shear strain) is called Non Newtonians fluids.
1.3.1.7. INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW:
A flow is said to be incompressible flow if the density is constant in a flow field. For
all practical purposes liquids can be regarded as incompressible, because the pressure and
temperature changes have little effect on their volume.
1.3.1.8. COMPRESSIBLE FLOW:
A flow is said to be compressible if the density changes from point to point due
pressure and temperature.
Mathematically, is not equal to constant.
1.3.1.9. SINGLE PHASE FLOW:
The flow in which there is no change of phase. In this, there is only one phase of
fluid flow(either liquid or gas).
1.3.1.10. MULTI PHASE FLOW:
The flow in which there is change of phase is called multiphase flow. In this, there is
a mixture of phase flows(liquid-gas, liquid-solid, gas-solid).

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CHAPTER 2

2 COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS (CFD)


1.4

COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS:


Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is the science of predicting fluid flow, heat

transfer, mass transfer, chemical reactions, and related phenomena by solving the
mathematical equations which govern these processes using a numerical process.
The result of CFD analyses is relevant engineering data used in:

Conceptual studies of new designs.

Detailed product development.

Troubleshooting.

Redesign.

CFD analysis complements testing and experimentation.

1.5

Reduces the total effort required in the laboratory.

CFD How it works:


Analysis begins with a mathematical model of a physical problem. Conservation of

matter, momentum, and energy must be satisfied throughout the region of interest. Fluid
properties are modeled empirically. Simplifying assumptions are made in order to make the
problem tractable (e.g., steady-state, incompressible, inviscid, two dimensional). Provide
appropriate initial and boundary conditions for the problem. CFD applies numerical methods
(called discretization) to develop approximations of the governing equations of fluid
mechanics in the fluid region of interest.

Governing differential equations: algebraic.

The collection of cells is called the grid.

The set of algebraic equations are solved numerically (on a computer) for
the flow field variables at each node or cell.

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System of equations are solved simultaneously to provide solution.

The solution is post-processed to extract quantities of interest (e.g. lift, drag,


torque, heat transfer, separation, pressure loss, etc.).

1.6

APPLICATIONS OF CFD:
Applications of CFD are numerous!

Flow and heat transfer in industrial processes (boilers, heat exchangers,


combustion equipment, pumps, blowers, piping, etc.).

Aerodynamics of ground vehicles, aircraft, missiles.

Film coating, thermoforming in material processing applications.

Flow and heat transfer in propulsion and power generation systems.

Ventilation, heating, and cooling flows in buildings.

Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) for integrated circuit manufacturing.

Heat transfer for electronics packaging applications.

1.7 ADVANTAGES OF CFD:


Relatively low cost

Using physical experiments and tests to get essential engineering data for
design can be expensive.

CFD simulations are relatively inexpensive, and costs are likely to


decrease as computers become more powerful.

Speed

CFD simulations can be executed in a short period of time.

Quick turnaround means engineering data can be introduced early in the


design process.

Ability to simulate real conditions

Many flow and heat transfer processes can not be (easily) tested, e.g.
hypersonic flow.

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CFD provides the ability to theoretically simulate any physical


condition.

Ability to simulate ideal conditions.

CFD allows great control over the physical process, and provides the
ability to isolate specific phenomena for study. Example: a heat transfer
process can be idealized with adiabatic, constant heat flux, or constant
temperature boundaries.

Comprehensive information.

Experiments only permit data to be extracted at a limited number of


locations in the system (e.g. pressure and temperature probes, heat flux
gauges, LDV, etc.).

CFD allows the analyst to examine a large number of locations in the


region of interest, and yields a comprehensive set of flow parameters for
examination.

1.8

LIMITATIONS OF CFD:
Physical models:

CFD solutions rely upon physical models of real world processes (e.g.
turbulence, compressibility, chemistry, multiphase flow, etc.).

The CFD solutions can only be as accurate as the physical models on


which they are based.

Numerical errors:

Solving equations on a computer invariably introduces numerical errors.

Round-off error: due to finite word size available on the


computer.Round-off errors will always exist (though they can be small
in most cases).

Truncation error: due to approximations in the numerical models.


Truncation errors will go to zero as the grid is refined. Mesh refinement
is one way to deal with truncation error.

Boundary conditions:

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As with physical models, the accuracy of the CFD solution is only as


good as the initial/boundary conditions provided to the numerical
model.

Example: flow in a duct with sudden expansion. If flow is supplied to


domain by a pipe, you should use a fully-developed profile for velocity
rather than assume uniform conditions.

1.9

DISCRETIZATION
The art of subdividing a structure into a convenient number of smaller

components is known as DESCRETIZATION Domain is discretized into a finite set of


control volumes or cells. The discretized domain is called the grid or the mesh. General
conservation (transport) equations for mass, momentum, energy, etc., are discretized into
algebraic equations. This is generally applied for a particular single control volume in an
unit body then it is followed for the other volumes in the whole body.

Figure 2.1 Discretized Element

2.6.1. GRID:

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The grid is nothing but the domain that is descretized into a finite set of control volumes
or cells. The degree of grid resolution is also necessary to find solution for a problem in each
region of the domain.
There are three different types of grids in general:

Formal

grids.(triangle,

tetrahedron,

pyramid,

prism,

hexahedron,

quadrilateral )

Hybrid grids.

Non formal grids.

2.6.2. TYPES OF CELL SHAPES OR GRIDS:

Figure 2.2 Types of Grids


2.6.2.1. TETRAHEDRON MESH:
The simplest tet mesh , which we term an order 4 or linear mesh, uses four
points ti define each tetrahedron. For complex geometries, quad/hex meshes show no
numerical advantage, and we can save meshing effort by using a tri/tet mesh.

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Figure 2.3 Tetra Mesh


2.6.2.2. QUADRILATERAL MESH:
For simple geometries, quad/hex meshes can provide high-qualitysolutions with
fewer cells than a comparable tri/tet mesh.

Figure 2.4 Quad Mesh

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2.6.2.3. HYBRID MESH:


This is the combination of different types of formal grids for a volume of body. In this a
specific region is meshed with different grid or cell types. The efficiency and accuracy are
enhanced relative to tetrahedron and hexahedral mesh. It consists of both mesh routers and
mesh clients, in which both the types of nodes performing routing and forwarding
functionality. This kind of mesh is used in valve port of IC engine.

Figure 2.5 Hybrid Mesh for an IC Engine Valve Port

1.10 TERMINOLOGY:

Cell = control volume into which domain is broken up.

Node = grid point.

Cell center = center of a cell.

Edge = boundary of a face.

Face = boundary of a cell.

Zone = grouping of nodes, faces, and cells:


Wall boundary zone.
Fluid cell zone.

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Domain = group of node, face and cell zones.

Figure 2.6 2D & 3D Cell Terminology

1.11 MESH QUALITY:


For the same cell count, hexahedral meshes will give more accurate solutions, especially
if the grid lines are aligned with the flow. The mesh density should be high enough to
capture all relevant flow features. The mesh adjacent to the wall should be fine enough to
resolve the boundary layer flow. In boundary layers, quad, hex, and prism/wedge cells are
preferred over tris, tets, or pyramids.
There are three types of mesh quality:
SKEWNESS
SMOOTHNESS (CHANGE IN SIZE)
ASPECT RATIO
2.8.1. MESH QUALITY: SKEWNESS
Two methods for determining skewness:
1. BASED ON THE EQUILATERAL VOLUME:
Skewness = optimal cell size cell size

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optimal cell size


This is applicable only to triangles and tetrahedrons. This is the default method for
triangles and tetrahedrons.
2. Based on the deviation from a normalized equilateral angle:
Skewness (for a quad) = max [max-90 , 90-min ]
90
90
This can be applied to all cells and face shapes. This type mesh quality is
always used for prisms and pyramids.
2.8.2. MESH QUALITY : SMOOTHNESS
Change in size in an element should be gradual. If the meshing surface is
smooth, good accuracy can be made. Rough meshing surface element leads to
inaccuracy.

Figure 2.7 Smoothness in Meshing


2.8.3. MESH QUALITY : ASPECT RATIO
This is defined as the ratio of largest dimension of the element to the smallest
dimension. In many cases, as the aspect ratio increases, the inaccuracy of the solution

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increases. The conclusion of many researches is that the aspect ratio should be close to
unity as possible. Equal to 1 (ideal) for an equilateral triangle or a square.

Figure 2.8 Aspect ratio in Meshing

1.12 STRIVING FOR QUALITY:


A poor quality grid will cause inaccurate solutions and/or slow convergence. To get a
better quality, minimize local variations in cell size. For example adjacent cell should not
have size ratio greater than 20%.

If such poor quality exists , delete the meshing

geomentry, do necessary decomposition and /or pre mesh the edges and faces and remesh the
element.
MINIMIZE EQUI-ANGLE SKEW:

Hex and quad cells: skewness should not exceed 0.85.


Tris: skewness should not exceed 0.85.
Tets: skewness should not exceed 0.9.

Value of skewness Vs Cell Quality.

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1.13 GRID DESIGN:


2.10.1. GRID DESIGN GUILDLINES: RESOLUTION
The features of pertinent(relevant) flow should be adequately resolved. When the
flow is multi dimensional cell aspect ratio (ratio of largest dimension to the smallest
dimension) should be near one. Also Quad/hex can be stretched where the flow is fully
developed and essentially one-dimensional.

Figure 2.9 Design for Grid


2.10.2. GRID DESIGN SOLUTIONS:SMOOTHNESS
Change in size in an element should be gradual. If the meshing surface is smooth,
good accuracy can be made. Rough meshing surface element leads to inaccuracy.

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Figure 2.10 Smoothness for Grid


In an meshing element the maximum change in grid spacing must be less than 20%.

2.10.3. GRID DESIGN GUILDLINES: TOTAL CELL COUNT


If the number of grids or cells are more , then the accuracy of that meshing element
will be higher. At the same time it will increase memory usage and CPU time. There are two
ways used to keep cell count down, one is, Use a non-uniform grid to cluster cells only where
they are needed and other one is, Use solution adaption to further refine only selected areas.
Cell counts should be the order of following;

1E4 are relatively small problems.

1E5 are intermediate size problems.

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1E6 are large. Such problems can be efficiently run using


multiple CPUs, but mesh generation and post-processing may
become slow.

1E7 are huge and should be avoided if possible. However, they


are common in aerospace and automotive applications.

1E8 and more are department of defense style applications.

2.10.4. ADOPTION EXAMPLE: FINAL GRID AND SOLUTION

Figure 2.11 Final Grid for an Element

1.14 MAIN SOURCES OF ERRORS IN MESHING:

Mesh too coarse.

High skewness.

Large jumps in volume between adjacent cells.

Large aspect ratios.

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Interpolation errors at non-conformal interfaces.

Inappropriate boundary layer mesh.

1.15 GOVERNING EQUATION:


The governing equations include the following conservation laws of physics:

Conservation of mass.

Newtons second law: the change of momentum equals the


sum of forces on a fluid particle.

First law of thermodynamics (conservation of energy): rate of


change of energy equals the sum of rate of heat addition to and
work done on fluid particle.

The fluid which is treated as a continuum. For length scales of, say, 1m
and larger. The molecular structure and motions may be ignored.
2.12.1. LAGRANGIAN DESCRIPTION:
This approach is otherwise called as particle approach. A fluid flow field can be
thought of as being comprised of a large number of finite sized fluid particles which have
mass, momentum, internal energy, and other properties. Mathematical laws can then be
written for each fluid particle. Fluids in material volume (system) will move, distort, and
change size and shape, but always consists of the same fluid particles.
pathline

Figure

2.12 Lagrangian

Model
2.12.2.

EULERIAN
DESCRIPTION:
This is otherwise called as field approach. In this model individual are not labeled

and not distinguished from one another. In the Eulerian description of fluid motion, we

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consider how flow properties change at a fluid element that is fixed in space and time
(x,y,z,t), rather than following individual fluid particles.

Figure 2.13 Eulerian Model

1.16 CONTINUITY EQUATION:


The continuity equation is governed from the principle of conservation of mass. It
states that the mass of fluid flowing through the pipe at all cross section remains
constant if there is no fluid is added or removed from the pipe.
MASS BALANCE:
Rate of increase of mass in fluid element equals the net rate of
flow of mass into element. Rate of increase of mass is expressed as ;

1.17 MOMENTUM EQUATION:


This is nothing but Newtons Second Law of Motion (F=ma). The net force force acting in
any direction is equal to rate of change of momentum in that direction.
Linear impulse=change in linear momentum.

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In x-direction,

initial linear impulse_+linear impulse=final linear momentum. Rate of

increase of x-, y-, and z-momentum:

The following forces acting on fluid particles are;

Surface forces such as pressure and viscous forces.

Body forces, which act on a volume, such as gravity,


centrifugal, Coriolis, and electromagnetic forces.

1.18 NAVIER-STOKES EQUATION:


The equations of motions without considering

force due to turbulence and

considering the gravity, pressure and viscosity forces are known as navier-stokes equation.
Fx = (Fg)x + (Fp)x + (Fv)x, for x direction.
FY = (Fg)y + (Fp)y + (Fv)y, for y direction.
FZ = (Fg)z + (Fp)z + (Fv)z, for z direction.
where,

Fg gravity force.
Fp - pressure force.
Fv - viscous force.
Although, The Navier-Stokes equations form a coupled system of

nonlinear PDEs describing the conservation of mass, momentum and energy for a fluid. For
a Newtonian fluid in one dimension, they can be written as

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is the fluid density, u is the velocity, e is the total energy per unit volume, p is the pressure,
T is the temperature, is the coefficient of viscosity, and is the thermal conductivity. The
total energy e includes internal energy per unit volume e (where e is the internal energy
per unit mass) and kinetic energy per unit volume u2/2.

1.19 BOUNDRY CONDITIONS:


Boundary conditions are a required component of the mathematical model. The
boundaries direct motion of flow. This will be specify the fluxes into the computational
domain. E.g. mass, moment and energy. Here fluid and solid zones are represented by cell
zones. Boundary conditions are a required component of the mathematical model.
Boundaries and internal surfaces are represented by face zones. Boundary data are assigned
to face zones.

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Figure 2.14 Pipe flow with orifice plate.


2.16.1. NEUMANN AND DIRICHLET BOUNDARY CONDUTIONS:
When using a Dirichlet boundary condition, one prescribes the value of a variable at
the boundary, e.g. u(x) = constant.

When using a Neumann boundary condition, one

prescribes the gradient normal to the boundary of a variable at the boundary, e.g. nu(x) =
constant. When using a mixed boundary condition a function of the form au(x)+bu(x) =
constant is applied. Note that at a given boundary, different types of boundary conditions
can be used for different variables.

2.16.2. FLOW INLETS AND OUTLETS:


A wide range of boundary conditions types permit the flow to enter and exit the
solution domain. In general the entry portion indicates pressure inlet and exit portion
indicates pressure outlet. For incompressible flow entry portion will be mention as velocity
inlet and exit as outflow. In case of compressible flows, denoted as mass flow inlets and
pressure far-field. Inlet vent, outlet vent, intake fan and exhaust fan these are some of the
special cases. The boundary data required depends on physical model selected. Some of the
guidelines are mentioned below which is used for choosing inlet and outlet conditions.

Select boundary location and shape such that flow either goes in
or out. Not mandatory, but will typically result in better
convergence.

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Should not observe large gradients in direction normal to


boundary near inlets and outlets. This indicates an incorrect
problem specification.

Minimize grid skewness near boundary

.
2.16.3. PRESSURE BOUNDARY CONDITIONS:
Pressure boundary conditions require static gauge pressure inputs. The operating
pressure input is set separately. This boundary conditions will be useful when Neither the
flow rate nor the velocity are known (e.g. buoyancy-driven flows). And a free boundary in
an external or unconfined flow needs to be defined.

Figure 2.15 Pressure levels


2.16.4. VELOCITY INLETS:
Velocity inlets defines velocity vector and scalar properties of flow at inlet
boundaries. It will be very useful when velocity profile is known at inlet.thi is intended only
for incompressible flows. The total (stagnation) properties of flow are not fixed. This
stagnation properties vary to accommodate prescribed velocity distribution. Using in
compressible flows can lead to non-physical results. Dont keep a velocity inlet too close to a
solid obstruction. This will lead the solution to be non-physical.

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2.16.5. OUTFLOW BOUNDARY:


Outflow boundary conditions are used to model flow exits where the details of the
flow velocity and pressure are not known prior to solution of the flow problem. Appropriate
where the exit flow is close to a fully developed condition, as the outflow boundary condition
assumes a zero normal gradient for all flow variables except pressure. The solver extrapolates
the required information from interior.
2.16.6. POROUS MEDIA CONDITIONS:
Porous zone model is a special type of fluid zone. In this pressure loss in flow
determined via user inputs of resistance coefficients to lumped parameter model. This is used
to model flow through porous media and other distributed resistances, e.g: packed beds,
filter papers, perforated plates, flow distributors, tube banks.

1.20 MATERIAL PROPERTIES:


A material needs to be specified in each zone. For the material relevant properties
need to be specified such as density, viscosity, molecular weight, thermal conductivity,
diffusion coefficients. Which properties meed to be specified depends on the model. For
mixtures, properties may have to be specified as a function of the mixture composition.
2.17.1. FLUID DENSITY:
For incompressible flow density is constant (= constant). In case of compressible
density can be expressed as=
pabsolute/RT. Fluid density can also be defined as function of
temperature (polynomial, piece-wise polynomial, or the Boussinesq model where r is
considered constant except for the buoyancy term in the momentum equations) or be defined
with user specified functions. However, for high Mach number flows using the coupled
solver, set poperating to zero.

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1.21 SOLUTION METHODS:


2.18.1. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD:
This is a numerical method for solving problems of engineering and mathematical
analysis. In this method a body or a structure in which the analysis to be carried out is
subdivided into smaller elements of finite dimensions called finite elements. Then the body is
considered as an assemblage of these elements connected at a finite number of joints called
nodes or Nodal points. Based on application, the element problems are classified as
follows;

Structural problems.

Non-structural problems.

ADVANTAGES:

Highest accuracy on coarse grids.

Excellent for diffusion dominated problems, viscous and free surface


problems.

DISADVANTAGES:

Slow for large problems.

Not well suited for turbulent flow.

2.18.2. FINITE DIFFERENCE METHOD:


This method is useful for solving heat transfer fluid mechanics and structural
mechanics problems. It is applicable to any phenomenon for which differential equation
along with the boundary conditions available. It works well for two dimensional regions with
boundaries parallel to the coordinate axes.
The domain is discretized into a series of grid points. A structured mesh is required.
The governing equations (in differential form) are discretized (converted to algebraic form).
First and second derivatives are approximated by truncated Taylor series expansions. The
resulting set of linear algebraic equations is solved either iteratively or simultaneously. This
method is difficult to use when regions have curved or irregular boundaries and it is difficult
to write general computer programs.

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2.18.3. FINITE VOLUME METHOD:


The basic idea of a finite-volume method is to satisfy the integral form of the
conservation law to some degree of approximation for each of many contiguous control
volumes which cover the domain of interest. This method was attractive, because while
variables may not be continuously differentiable across shocks and other discontinuities
mass, momentum and energy are always conserved.
ADVANTAGES:

This method does not limit cell shape and mass, momentum, energy conserved
even on coarse grids.

DISADVANTAGES:

False diffusion when simple numerics are used.

2.18.4. GENERAL APPROACH CONVERGENCE:


The iterative process is repeated until the change in the variable from one iteration to
the next becomes so small that the solution can be considered converged. At convergence all
discrete conservation equations (momentum, energy, etc.) are obeyed in all cells to a
specified tolerance, the solution no longer changes with additional iterations. Mass,
momentum, energy and scalar balances are obtained. Residuals measure imbalance (or error)
in conservation equations. The following things should be considered while convergence;

Always ensure proper convergence before using a solution. unconverged


solutions can be misleading.

Solutions are converged when the flow field and scalar fields are no longer
changing.

2.18.5. MONITOR RESIDUALS:


If the residuals have met the specified convergence criterion but are still decreasing,
the solution may not yet be converged. If the residuals never meet the convergence criterion,
but are no longer decreasing and other solution monitors do not change either, the solution is

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converged. Final residuals are often higher with higher order discretization schemes than
with first order discretization. That does not mean that the first order solution is better.
Residuals can be monitored graphically also.

Figure 2.16 Monitor Residuals

1.22 PRESSURE VELOCITY COUPLING:


Pressure appears in all three momentum equations. The velocity field also has to
satisfy the continuity equation. So even though there is no explicit equation for pressure, we
do have four equations for four variables, and the set of equations is closed. So, pressurevelocity coupling algorithms are used to derive equations for the pressure from the
momentum equations and the continuity equation. The most commonly used algorithm is the
SIMPLE (Semi-Implicit Method for Pressure-Linked Equations). An algebraic equation for

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the pressure correction p is derived, in a form similar to the equations derived for the
convection-diffusion equations:
app' = anb p' + b'.
where, p pressure correction.
b continuity imbalance.
Each iteration, the pressure field is updated by applying the pressure correction. The
source term b is the continuity imbalance. The other coefficients depend on the mesh and the
flow field.
2.19.1. PRINCIPLE BEHIND SIMPLE:
The principle behind SIMPLE is quite simple. It is based on the premise that fluid
flows from regions with high pressure to low pressure. In this first, Start with an initial
pressure field then Look at a cell. If continuity is not satisfied because there is more mass
flowing into that cell than out of the cell, the pressure in that cell compared to the
neighboring cells must be too low. Thus the pressure in that cell must be increased relative to
the neighboring cells. The reverse is true for cells where more mass flows out than in. Repeat
this process iteratively for all cells. The trick is in finding a good equation for the pressure
correction as a function of mass imbalance.
2.19.2. IMPROVEMENTS ON SIMPLE:
SIMPLE is the default algorithm in most commercial finite volume codes. Improved
versions are,

SIMPLER (SIMPLE Revised).

SIMPLEC (SIMPLE Consistent).

PISO (Pressure Implicit with Splitting of Operators).

All these algorithms can speed up convergence because they allow for the use of larger under
relaxation factors than SIMPLE. All of these will eventually converge to the same solution.

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The differences are in speed and stability. Which algorithm is fastest depends on the flow and
there is no single algorithm that is always faster than the other ones.

2.20. SOLUTION PROCEDURE:


2.20.1. SEGREGATED SOLUTION PROCEDURE:

Figure 2.17 Segregated Solution Procedure

2.20.2. COUPLED SOLUTION PROCEDURE:


When the coupled solver is used for steady state calculations it essentially employs a
modified time dependent solution algorithm, using a time step,
t = CFL/(U/L).

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Where

t - time step.
CFL Courant-Friedrich-Levy number.
u - Local velocity.
L - size of the cell.

2.21. TURBULANCE MODELLING:

Characterization of Turbulent Flows

From Navier-Stokes Equations to Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) Models

Reynolds Stress Tensor and the Closure Problem

Turbulence Kinetic Energy (k) Equation

Eddy Viscosity Models (EVM)

Reynolds Stress Model

Near-wall Treatments Options and Mesh Requirement

Inlet Boundary Conditions

Summary: Turbulence Modeling Guidelines

Appendix

Characteristics of Turbulence

Inherently unsteady, three dimensional and aperiodic swirling motions (fluctuations)


resulting in enhancement of mixing, heat transfer and shear.

Instantaneous fluctuations are random (unpredictable) both in space and in time. But
statistical averaging of turbulence fluctuations results in accountable transport
mechanisms

Wide range of length scales (vortices or eddies) exist in all turbulent flows (from very
small to very large).

Very sensitive to (or dependent on) initial conditions.

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Unsteady, aperiodic motion in which all three velocity components fluctuate, mixing
matter, momentum, and energy. Decompose velocity into mean and fluctuating parts:
Ui(t) Ui + ui(t).
2.21.1. TRANSITION IN BOUNDARY LAYER FLOW OVER FLAT PLATE

Figure 2.18 Transitions in Boundary layer

Page 33 of 81

2.21.2. TRANSITION IN JET FLOW:

Figure 2.19 Transition in Jet Flow


2.21.3. TURBULENT FLOW CORRELATIONS:
EXTERNAL FLOWS:
Rex 5105, along a surface.
ReD 20,000, around an obstacle.
INTERNAL FLOWS:
ReD 12,200,
Where ReL = UL/
L = x, D, Dh, etc.
Where, Re Reynolds number.
Density of fluid.
U Velocity of fluid.
L Length of tube.
Viscosity of fluid.
D Diameter of tube.

Page 34 of 81

2.21.4. TURBULANT BOUNDARY LAYER:


In turbulent flow, the boundary layer is defined as the thin region on the surface of a
body in which viscous effects are important. The boundary layer allows the fluid to transition
from the free stream velocity U to a velocity of zero at the wall. The velocity component
normal to the surface is much smaller than the velocity parallel to the surface. The gradients
of the flow across the layer are much greater than the gradients in the flow direction. The
boundary layer thickness d is defined as the distance away from the surface where the
velocity reaches 99% of the free-stream velocity.

-y, where u/U = 0.99.


Where, -undar y later thickness.

u-Velocity of fluid.

Page 35 of 81

Figure 2.20 Turbulent Boundary Layer

Page 36 of 81

2.21.5. RANS Models Descriptions and Behavior Summary ;


Model
Spalart

Description
A single transport equation model solving directly for a modified turbulent viscosity.

Allmaras

Designed specifically for aerospace applications involving wall-bounded flows on a


fine near-wall mesh. FLUENTs implementation allows the use of coarser meshes.
Option to include strain rate in k production term improves predictions of vortical

Standard k

flows.
The baseline two-transport-equation model solving for k and . This is the default k
model. Coefficients are empirically derived; valid for fully turbulent flows only.
Options to account for viscous heating, buoyancy, and compressibility are shared with

RNG k

other k models.
A variant of the standard k model. Equations and coefficients are analytically
derived. Significant changes in the equation improves the ability to model highly
strained flows.

Additional options aid in predicting swirling and low Reynolds

number flows.
Realizable k A variant of the standard k model. Its realizability stems from changes that allow
certain mathematical constraints to be obeyed which ultimately improves the
Standard k

performance of this model.


A two-transport-equation model solving for k and , the specific dissipation rate ( / k)
based on Wilcox (1998). This is the default k model. Demonstrates superior
performance for wall-bounded and low Reynolds number flows. Shows potential for
predicting transition. Options account for transitional, free shear, and compressible

SST k

flows.
A variant of the standard k model. Combines the original Wilcox model for use
near walls and the standard k model away from walls using a blending function.
Also limits turbulent viscosity to guarantee that T ~ k. The transition and shearing

options are borrowed from standard k. No option to include compressibility.


Reynolds Stress Reynolds stresses are solved directly using transport equations, avoiding isotropic
viscosity assumption of other models.

Use for highly swirling flows.

pressure-strain option improves performance for many basic shear flows.

Model

Behavior and Usage

Page 37 of 81

Quadratic

Spalart

Economical for large meshes. Performs poorly for 3D flows, free shear

Allmaras

flows, flows with strong separation. Suitable for mildly complex (quasi-2D)
external/internal flows and boundary layer flows under pressure gradient

Standard k

(e.g. airfoils, wings, airplane fuselages, missiles, ship hulls).


Robust. Widely used despite the known limitations of the model. Performs
poorly for complex flows involving severe pressure gradient, separation,
strong streamline curvature. Suitable for initial iterations, initial screening

RNG k

of alternative designs, and parametric studies.


Suitable for complex shear flows involving rapid strain, moderate swirl,
vortices, and locally transitional flows (e.g. boundary layer separation,
massive separation, and vortex shedding behind bluff bodies, stall in wide-

angle diffusers, room ventilation).


Realizable k Offers largely the same benefits and has similar applications as RNG.
Standard k

Possibly more accurate and easier to converge than RNG.


Superior performance for wall-bounded boundary layer, free shear, and low
Reynolds number flows. Suitable for complex boundary layer flows under
adverse pressure gradient and separation (external aerodynamics and
turbomachinery). Can be used for transitional flows (though tends to predict

SST k

early transition). Separation is typically predicted to be excessive and early.


Offers similar benefits as standard k. Dependency on wall distance

makes this less suitable for free shear flows.


Reynolds Stress Physically the most sound RANS model. Avoids isotropic eddy viscosity
assumption. More CPU time and memory required. Tougher to converge
due to close coupling of equations. Suitable for complex 3D flows with
strong streamline curvature, strong swirl/rotation (e.g. curved duct, rotating
flow passages, swirl combustors with very large inlet swirl, cyclones).

Page 38 of 81

3 HEAT TRANSFER MODELLING


Energy Equation Introduction
Energy transport equation:

Unsteady

Conduction

Conduction

Species
Diffusion

Viscous
Dissipation

Enthalpy
Source/Sink

Energy E per unit mass is defined as:

Pressure work and kinetic energy are always accounted for with
compressible flows or when using the density-based solvers. For the
pressure-based solver, they are omitted and can be added through the
text command:
The TUI command define/models/energy? Will give more options
when enabling the energy equation.

Energy Equation for Solid Regions


Ability to compute conduction of heat through solids
Energy equation:

h is the sensible
enthalpy:

Anisotropic conductivity
in solids (pressure-based
solver only)

Page 39 of 81

Conjugate Heat Transfer


In CHT, heat conduction in solid regions is coupled to convective
heat transfer in fluid regions.
Makes use of the Coupled boundary condition on wall zones which
define fluid/solid interfaces.

Grid

Velocity Vectors

Temperature Contours

Coolant Flow Past Heated Rods

Wall Boundary Conditions


Five thermal conditions
Heat Flux
Temperature
Convection simulates an external convection environment which is not
modeled (user-prescribed heat transfer coefficient).
Radiation simulates an external radiation environment which is not
modeled (user-prescribed
external emissivity and
radiation temperature).
Mixed Combination of
Convection and Radiation
boundary conditions.

Wall material and thickness


can be defined for 1D or
shell conduction calculations.

heat transfer calculations.

Page 40 of 81

Conjugate Heat Transfer Example

Air outlet

Symmetry
Planes
Top wall
(externally cooled)
h = 1.5 W/m2K
T = 298 K

Air inlet
V = 0.5 m/s
T = 298 K

Electronic Component
(one half is modeled)
k = 1.0 W/mK
Heat generation rate of 2
watts (each component)

Circuit board (externally cooled)


k = 0.1 W/mK
h = 1.5 W/m2K
T = 298 K

Problem Setup Heat Source


An energy (heat) source is added to the solid zone to simulate the
heat generation by the heat-generating electronic components.

Page 41 of 81

Meshed Wall vs. Thin Wall Approach


Meshed wall approach

Energy equation is solved in a solid zone representing the wall.


Wall thickness must be meshed.
This is the most accurate approach but requires more meshing effort.
Always uses the coupled thermal boundary condition since there are
cells on both sides of the wall.

Wall zone
(with shadow)

Fluid zone

Solid zone

Wall thermal resistance directly accounted for in the


Energy equation; Through-thickness temperature
distribution is calculated.
Bidirectional heat conduction is calculated.

Meshed Wall vs. Thin Wall Approach


Thin wall approach
Artificially models models the thermal resistance of the wall.
Necessary data is supplied through wall boundary conditions (material
conductivity and thickness).
Uses the coupled thermal boundary condition only for internal walls.

Wall zone
(no shadow)

Fluid zone

Wall thermal resistance is calculated using artificial


wall thickness and material type. Through-thickness
temperature distribution is assumed to be linear.
Conduction is only calculated in the wall-normal
direction unless Shell Conduction is enabled.

Page 42 of 81

Shell Conduction Option


The shell conduction option is used to enable in-plane conduction
calculations.
Additional conduction cells
are created but cannot be
displayed and cannot be
accessed by
UDFs.
Solid properties of the
conduction zones must be
constant and cannot be
temperature-dependent.
Static Temperature
(cell value)
Virtual conduction cells

Natural Convection
Natural convection occurs when heat
is added to fluid and fluid density
varies with temperature.
Flow is induced by force of gravity
acting on density variation.
When gravity term is included,
pressure gradient and body force term
in the momentum equation are rewritten as:

where
This pressure transformation avoids round off error when gravity is
enabled.

Page 43 of 81

Natural Convection the Boussinesq Model


Boussinesq model assumes the fluid density is uniform except for the body
force term in the momentum equation along the direction of gravity, we have:

Valid when density variations are small (i.e., small variations in temperature).

The Boussinesq approximation provides improved convergence for many


natural convection flows than by using fluid density as function of
temperature.
Constant density assumptions reduces nonlinearity.
Suitable when density variations are small.
Cannot be used together with species transport or reacting flows.

Natural convection problems inside closed domains:


For steady-state solver, Boussinesq model must be used.
For unsteady solver, Boussinesq model or ideal gas law can be used.

User Inputs for Natural Convection


Define the gravitational acceleration done
in Operating Conditions panel.
Define density model (several options
are available).
Boussinesq model
Enable gravity.
Set Operating Temperature, T0.
Select Boussinesq as the Density
Method and assign constant
value, 0.
Set Thermal Expansion
Coefficient, .

If using a temperature dependent


model (ideal gas, AungierRedlich-Kwong, polynomial):
Specify Operating Density or,
Allow FLUENT to calculate 0
from a cell average (default,
every iteration).

Page 44 of 81

Radiation
Radiation effects should be accounted for when
is of
comparable magnitude as the convection and conduction heat transfer rates.
is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 5.6710-8 W/(m2K4)

To account for radiation, radiative intensity transport equations (RTEs) are


solved.
Local absorption by fluid and at boundaries couples these RTEs with the energy
equation.
These equations are often solved separate from the fluid flow solution; however,
they can be coupled to the flow.

Radiation intensity, I(r,s), is directionally and spatially dependent.


Five radiation models are available in FLUENT
(see the Appendix for details on each model).

Discrete Ordinates Model (DOM)


Discrete Transfer Radiation Model (DTRM)
P1 Radiation Model
Rosseland Model
Surface-to-Surface (S2S)

Selecting a Radiation Model


Some general guidelines for
radiation model selection:
Computational effort
P1 gives reasonable accuracy
with the least amount of effort.

Accuracy
DTRM and DOM are the most
accurate.

Optical thickness
Use DTRM/DOM for optically thin
media (L << 1)
Use P1 for optically thick media.
Use S2S for zero optical thickness.

Scattering
Scattering is accounted for only with P1 and DO.

Particulate effects
P1 and DOM account for radiation exchange between gas and particulates.

Localized heat sources


DTRM/DOM with a sufficiently large number of rays/ ordinates is most appropriate.

Page 45 of 81

4 TRANSIENT FLOW MODELLING

Transient CFD Analysis


Simulate a transient flow field over a specified time period
Solution may approach:
Steady-state solution Flow variables stop changing with time
Time-periodic solution Flow veriables fluctuate with repeating pattern

Your goal may also be simply to analyze the flow over a prescribed time
interval.
Free surface flows
Moving shock waves
Etc.

Extract quantities of interest


Natural frequencies (e.g. Strouhal Number)
Time-averaged and/or RMS values
Time-related parameters (e.g. time required to cool a hot solid, residence
time of a pollutant)
Spectral data fast Fourier transform (FFT)

Origins of Transient Flow


Naturally occurring transients
transient flow due to growth of instabilities within the fluid or a non-equilibrium
initial fluid state
Examples: natural convection flows, turbulent eddies of all scales, fluid waves
(gravity waves, shock waves)

Forced transients
Time-dependent boundary conditions, source terms drive the transient flow field
Examples: pulsing flow in a nozzle, rotor-stator interaction in a turbine stage

Kelvin-Helmholtz Cloud Instability

Buoyant Box Falling Into a Pool of Water

Page 46 of 81

Transient Flow Modeling Workflow


Enable the transient solver.
Set up physical models and boundary conditions as usual.
Transient boundary conditions are possible you can use either a UDF or
profile to accomplish this.

Prescribe initial conditions


Best to use a physically realistic initial condition, such as a steady
solution.

Assign solver settings and configure solution monitors.


Configure animations and data output/sampling options
Select time step and max iterations per time step
Prescribe the number of time steps.
Run the calculations (Iterate)

Enabling the Transient Solver


To enable the transient solver, select the Transient button on the General
problem setup form:

Before performing iterations, you will need to set some additional controls.
Solver settings
Animations
Data export / Autosave options

Page 47 of 81

Selecting the Transient Time Step Size


Time step size, t, is set in the Run Calculation form.

t must be small enough to resolve time-dependent features; make sure


the convergence is reached within the number of Max Iterations per Time
Step
The order or magnitude of an appropriate time step size can be estimated
as:

Time step size estimate can also be chosen so that the transient
characteristics of the flow can be resolved (e.g. flow within a known
period of fluctuations)

To iterate without advancing in time, specify zero time steps. This


will instruct the solver to converge the current time step only.
The PISO scheme may aid in accelerating convergence for many
transient flows (set in the Solution Methods form).

Transient Flow Modeling Options


Adaptive Time Stepping
Automatically adjusts time-step size
based on local truncation error analysis
Customization possible via UDF

Time-averaged statistics
Particularly useful for LES turbulence
calculations

For the density-based solver, the Courant


number defines:
The global time step size for density-based
explicit solver.
The pseudo time step size for densitybased implicit solver
Real time step size must still be defined in
the Iterate panel

Page 48 of 81

Transient Flow Modeling Animations


You must set up any animations BEFORE performing iterations.
Animation frames are written/stored on-the-fly during calculations.

Creating Animations Alternate Method


Another method in FLUENT is
available which makes use of the
Execute Commands feature.
Text commands or macros can be
defined which are executed by the
solver at prescribed iteration or
time step intervals.
This approach is very useful in
creating high-quality animations
of CFD results.
A command is defined which
generates an animation frame
(contour plot, vector plot, etc.)
and then writes that frame to a
hard copy file.
Third-party software can then
be used to link the hard copy
files into an animation file
(AVI, MPG, GIF, etc.)

Page 49 of 81

Performing Iterations
The most common time advancement
scheme is the iterative scheme.
The solver converges the current time
step and then advances time.
Time is advanced when Max
Iterations/Time Step is reached or
convergence criteria are satisfied.
Time steps are converged sequentially
until the Number of Time Steps is
reached.

Solution initialization defines the initial


condition and it must be realistic.
Sets both the initial mass of fluid in the
domain and the initial state of the flow
field.

Non-iterative Time Advancement


(NITA) is available for faster
computation time.

Convergence Behavior
Residual plots for transient simulations are not always indicative of a
converged solution.
A residual plot for a simple transient calculation is shown here.
You should select the time step size such that the residuals reduce
by around three orders of magnitude within one time step.
This will ensure accurate resolution of transient behavior.

Page 50 of 81

5 CFD EXERCISE
1.23 Fluid Flow and Heat Transfer in a Mixing Tee

Start in Workbench
If starting from a ready-made mesh file (*.meshdat),
start Workbench and import the file (see screenshot below)
and save the project

Alternatively, start in the Workbench project that generated the mesh

Welcome!
Introductory tutorial for FLUENT
starting from existing mesh (generated in earlier tutorial)
model set-up, solution and post-processing

Mixing of cold and hot water in a T-piece


how well do the fluids mix?
what are the pressure drops?

Its a good idea to identify


the key simulation
outcomes from the start.
You can use these to
monitor progress of
solution.

Page 51 of 81

Start a FLUENT case


Drag a FLUENT analysis into the project

Drag the existing mesh into the FLUENT analysis

You can see that the


mesh needs to be
updated, because its
status icon changes.

then Update the mesh (via Right-click) to convert the mesh format

Double-click on Setup to launch FLUENT


click OK on the FLUENT Launcher screen

FLUENT interface
The main commands
are reached from the
navigation pane

Each item in the


navigation pane brings
up a new task page.
A typical workflow will
tackle these in order

One or more graphics


windows will be
available (shown here
with reduced size)

The console window


displays text, and can
accept TUI (Text User
Interface) commands

Some useful
commands have
toolbar buttons

The Help button


brings up
contextsensitive help
pages

Page 52 of 81

Mesh scale and check


In the General task page, press Scale
select Mesh Was Created In to be in (inches)
press the Scale button (once only!) and Close

The mesh check ensures that each cell is in a


correct format, connected to other cells as
expected. It is recommended to check every
mesh immediately after reading it. Failure of any
check indicates a badly-formed or corrupted
mesh, which will need repairs.

Press Check and Report quality


review the text output

Mesh quality is very important to getting a


converged, accurate solution. The User Guide
suggests that maximum cell squish and
skewness should be below 0.95, which the mesh
here obeys. The maximum aspect ratio is 34,
which is high, but acceptable in inflation layers.
If the mesh quality is unacceptable, it is best to
remesh the problem before proceeding. There
are other possible remedies in FLUENT, such as
conversion to polyhedral cells.

Display geometry
Press Display
select Edge Type to be Feature, and press Display and then Close
mesh has scaled, so press Fit to Window

Adjust the view if you like


in rotation mode:
drag left-mouse-button
rotates
drag middle-mouse-button zooms

(to zoom in, drag down and right)


(to zoom out, drag up and left)
click middle-mouse-button centre on click

Page 53 of 81

Change units of temperature


Click Units
select Temperature to be c (Celsius)
press Close

FLUENT stores values in SI


units. Most postprocessing can
be converted to other units.

Activate models
Double-click (or click and press Edit...) these models:
Energy Equation: On
Viscous model: k-epsilon, Realizable

Activating the Energy


equation simply says
that temperature
changes should be
simulated in the model.

Turbulence modeling is a
complicated area. The choice of
model depends on the application.
Here, the Realizable k-epsilon model
is used. This is an improvement on
the well-established Standard
k-epsilon model. Accept the
remaining default settings.

Page 54 of 81

Cell Zone Conditions


In Cell Zone Conditions, double-click the zone called fluid
change the material it contains to water-liquid
accept all other settings
Alternatively, click once
on fluid to highlight it,
and then click Edit....

Throughout the problem


setup, there are many
options and default
settings that will not be
investigated in this
tutorial.

Define a new material


In Materials, click Create/Edit...
press FLUENT Database...
select water-liquid, press Copy, then close both windows

Page 55 of 81

Boundary Conditions
In Boundary Conditions, double-click the zone called inlet-y
Velocity Magnitude 5m/s
Hydraulic Diameter 0.15m

Turbulent Intensity 5%
Temperature 10C
Inlet flows bring
turbulence with them.
The quantities depend
on the upstream
conditions, so they are
user inputs. For flow in
pipes, turbulent
intensity is typically 5%
to 10%, and the lengthscale of the turbulence
can be deduced from
the pipe diameter.

Boundary Conditions
Still in Boundary Conditions:
Double-click the zone called inlet-z
Velocity Magnitude 3m/s
Hydraulic Diameter 0.10m

Turbulent Intensity 5%
Temperature 90C

Double-click the zone called outlet


for backflow:
Hydraulic Diameter 0.15m

Turbulent Intensity 5%
Temperature 30C

The simulation may predict that flow enters the model through
parts of the outlet. This backflow will bring turbulence and
energy back into the model, but the model cannot predict how
much (because the flow is coming from outside of the model).
So, it is necessary to specify backflow conditions.
Ideally, the geometry should be selected such that flow enters
the model only at well-defined inlets. The backflow settings then
do not affect the final solution (although they may be used in
intermediate iterations).

Page 56 of 81

Second-order discretization
In Solution methods
Discretization Second Order for pressure
Discretization Third Order MUSCL for all other quantities

Discretization schemes define how the solver calculates


gradients and interpolates variables to non-stored locations.
The default schemes are First Order generally more stable
but less accurate than other schemes. Often, users run First
Order discretization initially and switch to higher-order schemes
for the final solution. This case is simple enough to use higherorder schemes from the start.

Monitors
In Monitors, press Create... for a Surface Monitor
Name p-inlet-y
Area-Weighted Average

Plot in window 2
Pressure

Accept Static pressure


in the sub-category
menu.

inlet-y

By default, FLUENT reports values of the residuals, which are


indications of the errors in the current solution. These should
decrease during calculation. There are guidelines on the
reductions that indicate a solution is converged.
It is also recommended to observe other quantities, chosen to
be important in the simulation. In the current case, we will look
at pressure drops and temperature as monitors.

Page 57 of 81

Monitors
In Monitors, press Create... for a Surface Monitor
Name p-inlet-z
Area-Weighted Average

Plot in window 2
Pressure

inlet-z

In Monitors, press Create... for a Surface Monitor


Name tmax-outlet
Vertex maximum

Plot in window 3
Temperature

Not the default, 3 (which


puts the new monitor in a
new window).

Accept Static pressure


and Static temperature
in the sub-menu.

outlet

Here is an instance
where FLUENT does not
convert units. Click OK.

Initialization
In Solution Initialization
select Compute from to be inlet-y
press Initialize

This computes a value


for each variable, based
on average conditions in
the select zone. This
value is used in every
cell when you press
Initialize.

Initialization creates the initial solution that the solver will


iteratively improve. Generally, the same converged solution is
reached whatever the initialization, though convergence is
easier if they are similar. Basic initialization imposes the same
values in all cells. You can improve on this in various ways for
example, by patching different values into different zones.
Several features, including patching and post-processing, are
not available until after initialization.

Page 58 of 81

Calculating
While calculating, review residuals and monitors
change graphic windows using the drop-down box
An alternative way to
stop calculation is to
press CTRL-C.
In this case, 200
iterations (or fewer) are
enough to reach low
residuals and stable
values of monitors.
Most cases require
many more.

Calculate
In Run Calculation
press Check Case...
see No recommendations to make at this time

set Number of Iterations to 200


press Calculate
OK to Continue after replacing settings file

Problem setup has


changed the mesh for
example, the
coordinates changed by
scaling. There are many
other changes that
FLUENT can make for
example, adapting the
mesh to increase the
number of cells where
the solution requires it.
The link from Mesh to
FLUENT in Workbench
needs care are you
starting a new Problem
Setup with a new mesh,
or are you finding a new
Solution on the old
mesh?

Page 59 of 81

Preliminary post-processing
In Graphics and Animations, select Contours, press Set Up...
select Filled contours of Turbulence...Wall Yplus on wall-fluid
press Display note almost all values are between 30 and 200
Yplus is a measure of
whether mesh near the
walls captures the
turbulent effects. This
range is acceptable.

The plot appears in the last


active graphics window if you
dont see it, check the list.

Page 60 of 81

1.24 Laminar Pipe Flow - Problem Specification


Problem Specification

Consider fluid flowing through a circular pipe of constant radius as illustrated


above. The pipe diameter D = 0.2 m and length L = 8 m.
The inlet velocity z = 1 m/s. Consider the velocity to be constant over the
inlet cross-section.
The fluid exhausts into the ambient atmosphere which is at a pressure of 1
atm. Take density = 1 kg/ m3 and coefficient of viscosity = 2 x 10-3 kg/
(ms). The Reynolds number Re based on the pipe diameter is

where z is the average velocity at the inlet, which is 1 m/s in this case.
Solve this problem using FLUENT via ANSYS Workbench. Plot the centerline velocity, wall
skin-friction coefficient, and velocity profile at the outlet. Validate your results.
Note: The values used for the inlet velocity and flow properties are chosen for convenience
rather than to reflect reality. The key parameter value to focus on is the Reynolds number.
Define Solver Properties
In this section the various solver properties will be specified in order to obtain the
proper solution for the laminar pipe flow. First, the axisymmetric nature of the geometry
must be specified. Under General > Solver > 2D Space select Axisymmetric.
Next, the Viscous Model parameters will be specified. In order to open the Viscous
Model Options Models > Viscous - Laminar > Edit.... By default, the Viscous Model options
are set to laminar, so no changes are needed. Click Cancel to exit the menu.
Now, the Energy Model parameters will be specified. In order to open the Energy Model
Options Models > Energy-Off > Edit.... For incompressible flow, the energy equation is
decoupled from the continuity and momentum equations. We need to solve the energy
equation only if we are interested in determining the temperature distribution. We will not
deal with temperature in this example. So leave the Energy Equation set to off and click
Cancel to exit the menu.

Page 61 of 81

Define Material Properties


Now, the properties of the fluid that is being modeled will be specified. The
properties of the fluid were specified in the Problem Specification section. In order to create
a new fluid (Click) Materials > Fluid > Create/Edit...
In the Create/Edit Materials menu set the Density to 1kg/m^3 (constant) and set the
Viscosity to 2e-3 kg/(ms) (constant)
Click Change/Create. Close the window.
Define Boundary Conditions
At this point the boundary conditions for the four Named Selections will be specified. The
boundary condition for the inlet will be specified first.
Inlet Boundary Condition
In order to start the process (Click) Boundary Conditions > inlet > Edit...
Note that the Boundary Condition Type should have been automatically set to
velocity-inlet. Now, the velocity at the inlet will be specified. In the Velocity Inlet menu set
the Velocity Specification Method to Components, and set the Axial-Velocity (m/s) to 1 m/s,
Then, click OK to close the Velocity Inlet menu.
Outlet Boundary Condition
First, select outlet in the Boundary Conditions menu,
As can be seen in the image above the Type should have been automatically set to
pressure-outlet. If the Type is not set to pressure-outlet, then set it to pressure-outlet. Now,
no further changes are needed for the outlet boundary condition.
Centerline Boundary Condition
Select centerline in the Boundary Conditions menu,
As can be seen in the image above the Type has been automatically set to wall which
is not correct. Change the Type to axis,
When the dialog boxes appear click Yes to change the boundary type. Then click OK
to accept "centerline" as the zone name.

Page 62 of 81

Pipe Wall Boundary Condition


First, select pipe_wall in the Boundary Conditions menu,
Solution
Second Order Scheme
A second-order discretization scheme will be used to approximate the solution. In
order to implement the second order scheme click on Solution Methods then click on
Momentum and select Second Order Upwind.
Set Initial Guess
Here, the flow field will be initialized to the values at the inlet. In order to carry out the
initialization click on Solution Initialization then click on Compute from and select inlet.
Then, click the Initialize button,

. This completes the initialization.

Set Convergence Criteria


FLUENT reports a residual for each governing equation being solved. The residual is
a measure of how well the current solution satisfies the discrete form of each governing
equation. We'll iterate the solution until the residual for each equation falls below 1e-6. In
order to specify the residual criteria (Click) Monitors > Residuals > Edit...,
Next, change the residual under Convergence Criterion for continuity, x-velocity,and
y-velocity, all to 1e-6,
Lastly, click OK to close the Residual Monitors menu.
Execute Calculation
Prior, to running the calculation the maximum number of iterations must be set. To
specify the maximum number of iterations click on Run Calculation then set the Number of
Iterations to 100.

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1.25 Flat Plate Boundary Layer

Consider a fluid flowing across a flat plate, as illustrated above. Obtain the velocity
and pressure distribution when the Reynolds number based on the plate length is
10,000.
This Reynolds number is obtained by using the following settings.
o

The plate length is 1 m.

o The incoming fluid is flowing in the x-direction with a velocity of 1 m/s.


o

The density of the fluid is 1 kg/m^3 and the viscosity is 1 x 10 ^(-4) kg/(m-s).
Note that these values are not necessarily physical. They have been picked to
yield the desired Reynolds number.

Pre-Analysis and Start-Up


Pre-Analysis

For an external flow like this, one needs to determine where to place the outer
boundary. A rectangular domain will be used for this simulation.
The height of the rectangular domain will be determined by the expected boundary
layer thickness.
For a flat plate boundary layer, one can use the following approximation to find the
boundary layer thickness.

When x = L,

= 0.05m.

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The height of the domain will be set to ten times the boundary layer thickness. Thus,
the height of the boundary will be set to 0.5m. The following figure shows the
dimensions of the domain, and the boundary labels which will be used to set the
boundary conditions.

1.Define Solver Properties


In this section the various solver properties will be specified in order to obtain the
proper solution for the flat plate boundary layer flow.
First, the Energy Model parameters will be specified. In order to open the Energy
Model Options Models > Energy-Off > Edit..., as shown in the following image.
2.Define Material Properties
Now, the properties of the fluid that is being modeled will be specified. The properties of the
fluid were specified in the Problem Specification section. In order to create a new fluid
(Click) Materials > Fluid > Create/Edit... air
3.Define Boundary Conditions
At this point the boundary conditions for the four Named Selections will be specified.
Inlet > velocity>1m/s
outlet > pressure>o Pa
4.Solution
4.1 Second Order Scheme
A second-order discretization scheme will be used to approximate the solution. In order to
implement the second order scheme click on Solution Methods then click on Momentum
and select Second Order Upwind..

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4.2 Set Convergence Criteria


FLUENT reports a residual for each governing equation being solved. The residual is
a measure of how well the current solution satisfies the discrete form of each governing
equation. We'll iterate the solution until the residual for each equation falls below 1e-6. In
order to specify the residual criteria
(Click) Monitors > Residuals > Edit...,.
Next, change the residual under Convergence Criterion for continuity, x-velocity,and yvelocity, all to 1e-6, as can be seen below.
Lastly, click OK to close the Residual Monitors menu.
4.3 Set Initial Guess
Here, the flow field will be initialized to the values at the inlet. That is, the initial values of
all the cells will be set to 1 m/s and 0 Pa for x velocity and gauge pressure respectively. In
order to carry out the initialization click on Solution Initialization then click on Compute
from and select inlet as shown below.
5. Results
5.1Outlet Velocity Profile
In this section we will first plot the variation of the x component of the velocity along the
outlet. Then we will plot the Blasius solution to see how the numerical solution compares. In
order to start the process (Click) Results > Plots > XY Plot... > Set Up.. as shown below.

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We'll create a straight vertical line from (x0,y0)=(0.5,0) to (x1,y1)=(0.5,0.5). Select Line
Tool under Options. Enter x0=0.5, y0=0,x1=0.5, y1=0.5. Enter line1 under New
Surface Name. Your Line/Rake Surface menu should look exactly like the following image.

Next, click Create. Now, that the vertical line has been created we can proceed to the
plotting. Click on Plots, then double click XY Plot to open the Solution XY Plot menu. In the
Solution XY Plot menu, use the settings that were used from the section above, except select
line1 under Surfaces and deselect any other geometry sections. Make sure that Write to File
is not selected, then click Plot. You should obtain the following output.

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1.26 Steady Flow Past a Cylinder


Problem Specification

Consider the steady state case of a fluid flowing past a cylinder, as illustrated above.
Obtain the velocity and pressure distributions when the Reynolds number is chosen to
be 20.
In order to simplify the computation, the diameter of the pipe is set to 1 m, the x
component of the velocity is set to 1 m/s and the density of the fluid is set to 1
kg/m^3. Thus, the dynamic viscosity must be set to 0.05 kg/m*s in order to obtain the
desired Reynolds number.

Pre-Analysis & Start-Up


Prior to opening FLUENT, we must answer a couple of questions. We must
determine what our solution domain is and what the boundary conditions are.
Solution Domain
For an external flow problem like this, one needs to determine where to place the
outer boundary. A circular domain will be used for this simulation. The effects that the
cylinder has on the flow extend far. Thus, the outer boundary will be set to be 64 times as
large as the diameter of the cylinder. That is, the outer boundary will be a circle with a
diameter of 64 m. The solution domain
discussed here is illustrated below.

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Boundary Conditions
First, we will specify a velocity inlet boundary condition. We will set the left half of
the outer boundary as a velocity inlet with a velocity of 1 m/s in the x direction. Next, we
will use a pressure outlet boundary condition for the left half of the outer boundary with a
gauge pressure of 0 Pa. Lastly, we will apply a no slip boundary condition to the cylinder
wall. The aforementioned boundary conditions are illustrated below.
Setup (Physics)
Double Precision:Select Double Precision.
Solution: Second Order Upwind Momentum Scheme
Solution > Solution Methods > Spatial Discretization.Set Momentum to Second Order
Upwind
Convergence Criterion
Solution
>
Monitors
>
Residuals
>
Set the Absolute Criteria for , x-velocity and y-velocity all to 1e-6. Click ok
Solution > Monitors > Drag > Edit....
Then check Print to Console and Plot. Next, click
cylinderwall, which is located under Wall Zones.
Lastly, click ok
Results
Vorticity:Results > Graphics and Animations >
Contours > Set Up...

1.27 Unsteady Flow Past a Cylinder

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Edit....

Consider the unsteady state case of a fluid flowing past a cylinder, as illustrated
above. For this tutorial we will use a Reynolds Number of 120. In order to simplify
the computation, the diameter of the pipe is set to 1 m, the x component of the
velocity is set to 1 m/s and the density of the fluid is set to 1 kg/m^3. Thus, the
dynamic viscosity must be set to 8.333x10^-3 kg/m*s in order to obtain the desired
Reynolds number.
For this Unsteady Case, the governing equation becomes non linear due to the
addition of a time derivative term:

The methods implemented by FLUENT to solve a time dependent system are very
similar to those used in a steady-state case. In this case, the domain and boundary
conditions will be the same as the Steady Flow Past a Cylinder.

However, because this is a transient system, initial conditions at t=0 are required. To
solve the system, we need to input the desired time range and time step into
FLUENT. The program will then compute a solution for the first time step, iterating
until convergence or a limit of iterations is reached, then will proceed to the next time
step, "marching" through time until the end time is reached.

1. Setup (Physics)
Duplicate Steady Flow Project
First, complete the Steady Flow Past a Cylinder Tutorial. In the Workbench Project Page of
your steady flow project, (Right Click) Solution > Duplicate
Launch Fluent.
(Double Click) Setup in the duplicate project. Select Double Precision. Then click OK

Transient
In this step here we will, tell FLUENT to solve for the unsteady flow. As you can see, by
default FLUENT will solve for the steady flow.
Problem Setup > General. Set Time to Transient.
Specify Material Properties
Problem Setup > Materials > Fluid > Create/Edit.... Set the viscosity to 8.333*10^-3
kg/m*s. Click Change/Create then click close

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2. Solution
Convergence Criterion: Turn off Drag, Turn on Lift
Solution > Monitors > Drag > Edit.... Then uncheck Print to Console and uncheck Plot.
Click ok.
Solution > Monitors > Lift > Edit.... Then check Print to Console, Plot and Write. Click ok.
The last option writes the lift coefficient data to a file that is buried in one of the subfolders
that FLUENT creates in the working folder. You'll have to dig around to find it.
Solution Initialization
Adapt > Region.... Then set X Min to 0.5 m, set X Max to 32 m, set Y Min to 0 m, and set Y
Max to 32m. Click Mark then click Close.
Solution > Solution Initialization. Set Compute From to farfield1.. Click Initialize. Next,
click Patch. Complete the patching menu as shown below.

Click Patch,then click close.


Setting Up Data Export to Create Animation
We would like to create an animation of the vorticity magnitude after the solution has been
calculated. To do so, we will need to export data from FLUENT to CFD-Post, the post
processor used to view results. To do so, go to Solution > Calculation Activities > Execute
Commands > Create/Edit. Now, set up the window to appear as the image below. The
command entered is 'file export-to-cfd-post unsteady-%t.cdat x-velocity y-velocity velocitycurl q no no'. In this case, we will export the x and y components as well as the curl of the
velocity every time step.

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Advance Solution in Time


Solution > Run Calculation. Set Time Step Size to 0.2 seconds and set the Number Of Time
Steps to 200. Now, click Calculate. (You may have to hit Calculate twice.) Now, have a cup
of coffee. Continue the time-stepping until you get sinusoidal variation in the lift coefficient.

1.28 Supersonic Flow Over a Wedge

Problem Specification

Consider a 15 angle wedge at zero angle of attack. The incoming flow conditions
are: M1=3, p1=1 atm, T1=300 K.

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Use FLUENT to obtain the flowfield over the wedge. Compare the pressure
coefficient on the wedge surface with the corresponding analytical result for an
oblique shock.

Problem Setup > Models


Double click on Viscous - Laminar
Select Inviscid under Model.

Click OK. This means the solver will neglect the viscous terms in the governing equations.
Models > Energy
Double click on Energy - Off
In compressible flow, the energy equation is coupled to the continuity and momentum
equations. So we need to solve the energy equation for our problem.
To turn on the energy equation, check the box next to Energy Equation and click OK.
Problem Setup > Materials
Make sure air is selected under Fluid. Double click air, set Density to ideal-gas and
make sure Cp is constant and equal to 1006.43 j/kg-k. Also make sure the Molecular Weight
is constant and equal to 28.966 kg/kgmol. Selecting the ideal gas option means that FLUENT
will use the ideal-gas equation of state to relate density to the static pressure and
temperature.
Define > Operating Conditions

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To understand what the Operating Pressure is, read through the short-and-sweet
section 8.14.2 in the user's guide. We see that for all flows, FLUENT uses the gauge pressure
internally in order to minimize round-off errors. Any time an absolute pressure is needed, as
in the ideal gas law, it is generated by adding the operating pressureto the gauge pressure:
absolute pressure = gauge pressure + operating pressure
Round-off errors occur when pressure changes p in the flow are much smaller than
the pressure values p. One then gets small differences of large numbers. For our supersonic
flow, we'll get significant variation in the absolute pressure so that pressure changes p are
comparable to pressure levels p. So we can work in terms of absolute pressure without being
hassled by pesky round-off errors. To have FLUENT work in terms of the absolute pressure,
set the Operating Pressure to 0.
Thus, in our case, there is no difference between the gauge and absolute pressures. Click OK.
Define > Boundary Conditions
Set the boundary condition for the pressure_farfield surface (aka zone) to the
boundary type pressure-far-field by clicking on the drop-down list. Select Yesin the pop-up
window asking if it's "OK to change pressure_farfield's type from wall to pressure-far-field.

Set the Gauge Pressure to 101325. Set the Mach Number to 3. Under X-Component
of Flow Direction, enter a value of 1 (i.e. the farfield flow is in the X direction).
Next, click on the Thermal Tab. Change the temperature to 300K.

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Click OK. The pressure-far-field boundary type effectively imposes that there is no
upstream propagation of disturbances if the flow at the boundary is supersonic. See section
7.9 of the FLUENT help for more details about this boundary type.
Similarly, change the boundary condition for the symmetry surface to the symmetry boundary
type. No user input is required for the symmetry boundary type. At any boundary set to the
symmetry type, FLUENT internally sets

normal velocity = 0
normal gradients of all variables = 0

Solve:
Solve > Controls or Solutions > Solution Controls
Click on the Equations button and select Flow, then click OK. Also, set the Courant
Number to 0.1.
Solve > Methods or Solutions > Solution Methods
We'll use a second-order discretization scheme. Under Spatial Discretization, set Flow to
Second Order Upwind.

Solve > Initialization or Solutions > Solution Initialization


This is where we set the initial guess values for the iterative solution. We'll use the
farfield values (M=3, p=1 atm, T=300 K) as the initial guess for the entire flowfield. Select
farfield under Compute From. This fills in values from the farfield boundary in the
corresponding boxes. (Alternately, I could have typed in these values but I like to palm off as
much grunt work as possible to the computer.)

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Click Initialize. Now, for each cell in the mesh, M=3, p=1 atm, T=300 K. These values will
of course get updated as we iterate the solution below.
FLUENT reports a residual for each governing equation being solved. The residual is a
measure of how well the current solution satisfies the discrete form of each governing
equation. We'll iterate the solution until the residual for each equation falls below 1e-6.
Solve > Monitors
Select Residuals - Print and click Edit. Set Absolute Criteria for all equationsto 1e-6.

Also, click on Plot. This will plot the residuals in the graphics window as they are calculated;
giving you a visual feel for if/how the iterations are proceeding to convergence.
Click OK.
Main Menu > File > Write > Case...
This will save your FLUENT settings and the mesh to a "case" file. Type in
wedge.cas for Case File. Click OK.
Solve > Run Calculation...
Set the Number of Iterations to 1000. Click Calculate.
The residuals for each iteration are printed out as well as plotted in the graphics
window as they are calculated. The residuals after 1000 iterations are not below the
convergence criterion of 1e-6 specified before. So run the solution for 1000 more iterations.
The solution converges in about 1510 iterations; the residuals for all the governing equations
are below 1e-6 at this point.
Results
Plot Velocity Vectors
Display > Graphics and Animations or Results > Graphics and Animations
Select Vectors, click on the Set up button. Under Color by, select Mach Number in
place of Velocity Magnitude since the former is of greater interest in compressible flow. The
colors of the velocity vectors will indicate the Mach number. Use the default settings by
clicking Display.
This draws an arrow at the center of each cell. The direction of the arrow indicates the
velocity direction and the magnitude is proportional to the velocity magnitude (not Mach

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number, despite the previous setting). The color indicates the corresponding Mach number
value. The arrows show up a little more clearly if we reduce their lengths. Change Scale to
0.2. Click Display.
1.29 Compressible Flow in a Nozzle
Problem Specification

Consider air flowing at high-speed through a convergent-divergent nozzle having a


circular cross-sectional area, A, that varies with axial distance from the throat, x, according to
the formula
A = 0.1 + x2; -0.5 < x < 0.5
where A is in square meters and x is in meters. The stagnation pressure po at the inlet
is 101,325 Pa. The stagnation temperature To at the inlet is 300 K. The static pressure p at the
exit is 3,738.9 Pa. We will calculate the Mach number, pressure and temperature distribution
in the nozzle using FLUENT and compare the solution to quasi-1D nozzle flow results. The
Reynolds number for this high-speed flow is large. So we expect viscous effects to be
confined to a small region close to the wall. So it is reasonable to model the flow as inviscid.
Define Solver Properties
Define > Models > Solver...
We see that FLUENT offers two methods ("solvers") for solving the governing
equations: Pressure-Based and Density-Based. To figure out the basic difference between
these two solvers, let's turn to the documentation.
Main Menu > Help > User's Guide Contents ...
This should bring up FLUENT 12.0 User's Guide in your web browser. If not, access
the User's Guide from the Start menu: Start > Programs > ANSYS 12.0 > Help > FLUENT
Help. This will bring up the FLUENT documentation in your browser. Click on the link to
the user's guide.
In ANSYS FLUENT, two solver technologies are available:

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pressure-based
density-based

Both solvers can be used for a broad range of flows, but in some cases one formulation
may perform better (i.e., yield a solution more quickly or resolve certain flow features better)
than the other. The pressure-based and density-based approaches differ in the way that the
continuity, momentum, and (where appropriate) energy and species equations are solved, as
described in this section in the separate +Theory Guide.+The pressure-based solver
traditionally has been used for incompressible and mildly compressible flows. The densitybased approach, on the other hand, was originally designed for high-speed compressible
flows. Both approaches are now applicable to a broad range of flows (from incompressible to
highly compressible), but the origins of the density-based formulation may give it an
accuracy (i.e. shock resolution) advantage over the pressure-based solver for high-speed
compressible flows.
Since we are solving a high-speed compressible flow, let's pick the density-based solver.
In the Solver menu, select Density Based.
Under Space, choose Axisymmetric. This will solve the axisymmetric form of the governing
equations.

Then we will setup the models for the problem:


Define > Models > Energy > Edit
The energy equation needs to be turned on since this is a compressible flow where the
energy equation is coupled to the continuity and momentum equations.
Make sure there is a check box next to Energy Equation and click OK.

Define > Models > Viscous - Laminar > Edit


Select Inviscid under Model.

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Click OK.
This means the solver will neglect the viscous terms in the governing equations.
Define > Materials
Select air under Fluid materials and click the Create/Edit... button. Under
Properties, choose Ideal Gas next to Density. You should see the window expand. This
means FLUENT uses the ideal gas equation of state to relate density to the static pressure and
temperature.

Click Change/Create. Close the window.


Define > Operating Conditions
We'll work in terms of absolute rather than gauge pressures in this example. So set
Operating Pressure in the Pressure box to 0.

Click OK.
It is important that you set the operating pressure correctly in compressible flow calculations
since FLUENT uses it to compute the absolute pressure used in the ideal gas law.
Define > Boundary Conditions
Set boundary conditions for the following surfaces: inlet, outlet, centerline, wall.

Select inlet under Zone and pick pressure-inlet under Type as its boundary condition.
Automatically, the Pressure Inlet window should come up.
Set the total pressure (noted as Gauge Total Pressure in FLUENT) at the inlet to
101,325 Pa as specified in the problem statement. For a subsonic inlet, Supersonic/Initial
Gauge Pressure is the initial guess value for the static pressure. This initial guess value can
be calculated from the 1D analysis since we know the area ratio at the inlet. This value is
99,348 Pa. Note that this value will be updated by the code. After you have entered the
values check that under the Thermal tab, the Total Temperature is 300K. Then click OK to
close the window.

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Using the same steps as above, pick pressure-outlet as the boundary condition for the
outlet surface. Then, when the Pressure Outlet window comes up, set the pressure to 3738.9
as specified in the problem statement. Click OK.

Set the centerline zone to axis boundary type. Accept any prompts that might appear
and leave the name as centerline if you'd like.
Make sure that wall zone is set to wall boundary type.
Solution:
Under Solution > Solution Methods
We'll just use the defaults. Note that a second-order Upwind scheme will be used. Click OK.
Set Initial Guess
Main Menu > Solve > Initialization
As you may recall from the previous tutorials, this is where we set the initial guess
values for the iterative solution. We'll set these values to be the ones at the inlet, so under
Compute From select inlet.This will automatically set the initial values for all the cells. You
can also type the values by hand and the results will be equivalent.
Click Initialize. This completes the initialization.
Set Convergence Criteria
FLUENT reports a residual for each governing equation being solved during the
iterative process. The residual is a measure of how well the current solution satisfies the
discrete form of each governing equation. We'll iterate the solution until the residual for each
equation falls below 1e-6.
Main Menu > Solve > Monitors or Under Solution > Monitors select Residual > Edit
Change the residual under Convergence Criterion for continuity, x-velocity, y-velocity and
energy to 1e-6.
Also, under Options select Plot if is not selected yet. This will plot the residuals in the
graphics window as they are calculated.

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Results
Pressure Contour Plot
Let's look at how pressure changes in the nozzle.
Display > Graphics and Animations > Contours > Set up
Select Pressure... and Static Pressure under Contours of. Use Levels of 30

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