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Edited by Elizabeth smis, Shadi Bartsch, and Martha C. Nussbaum
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Te Uni.ersity of Chicago Press cnic~co ~xb ioxbox
:ivi ~: cvivvix is prolcssor cmcritus ol classics at
xlord Univcrsity. Shc is thc author ol Seneca: Philosopher
in Politics, among scvcral othcr books. nv~b ixwoob is
prolcssor in thc cpartmcnts ol Classics and Philosophy and
Canada Rcscarch Chair in Ancicnt Philosophy at thc Univcr
sity ol Toronto. Hc is thc author ol Feading Seneca: Stoic
Philosophy at Fome, in addition to othcr books.
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Matcrials, ~xsi z..a.
ontents
Scncca and His Vorld
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Translators !ntroduction / z
On Benets
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vii
Seneca and His !orld
vii z~nv:n ~s:is, sn~bi n~v:scn, ~xb :~v:n~ c. xussn~u:
Scncca oncc rcmarkcd ol Socratcs that it was his dcath by hcm
lock that madc him grcat (Letter ...). Vith rcason: Socratcs dcath
dcmonstratcd thc stcadlastncss ol his philosophical principlcs and
his bclicl that dcath ocrcd nothing to lcar. Vhcn Scncca himscll,
thcn, was ordcrcd to commit suicidc by Ncro in 6 cv, wc might wcll
bclicvc Tacituss account in his nnals (..6) that thc Roman Stoic
modclcd his dcath on that ol Socratcs, discoursing calmly about phi
losophy with his lricnds as thc blood draincd out ol his vcins. !n
Tacituss dcpiction wc scc, lor oncc, a muchcriticizcd gurc living
up to thc principlcs hc prcachcd.
Scnccas lilc was mircd in political advanccmcnt and disappoint
mcnt, shapcd by thc cccts ol cxilc and rcturn, and compromiscd
by his rclationship with thc cmpcror Ncrorst his pupil, thcn his
adviscc, and nally his murdcrcr. 8ut his many writings say littlc
about his political carccr and almost nothing about his rclationship
with Ncro cxccpt lor what can bc glcancd lrom his cssay On Clem-
ency, lcaving us to turn to latcr sourccs lor inlormationTacitus,
Suctonius, and io Cassius in particular. Vc know that Scncca was
born to a promincnt cqucstrian lamily in Corduba, Spain, somc timc
bctwccn and . ncv. Hc was thc sccond ol thrcc sons ol Hclvia and
Lucius Annacus Scncca (thc youngcst son, Annacus Mcla, was thc
lathcr ol thc poct Lucan). Thc cldcr Scncca had spcnt much ol his
lilc in Romc, and Scncca himscll was brought to Romc as a young
boy. Thcrc hc was cducatcd in rhctoric and latcr bccamc a studcnt ol
thc philosophcr Scxtius. 8ut his cntry into political lilc was dclaycd,
and whcn hc did cntcr upon thc cursus honorum latc in Tibcriuss
rcign, his ill hcalth (hc had asthma and possibly tubcrculosis) was
a sourcc ol di culty. !n any casc his carccr was cut short. Hc sur
vivcd Caligulas hostility, which thc sourccs tcll us was thanks to his
talcnts in oratory, but was scnt into cxilc on Corsica by Claudius
shortly altcr Caligulas dcath in . cv. Thc chargc, almost ccrtainly
lalsc, was adultcry with Caligulas youngcr sistcr, Julia Livilla. Scncca
spcnt his timc in cxilc in philosophical and natural study and wrotc
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thc Consolations to Hclvia (his mothcr) and to Polybius (Claudiuss
lrccdman sccrctary), rcvcaling in thc lattcr how dcspcratcly hc hopcd
to bc rccallcd to Romc.
Vhcn Scncca did rcturn in cv, it was undcr dicrcnt auspiccs.
Claudius had rcccntly rcmarricd, to Gcrmanicuss daughtcr Agrip
pina, and shc urgcd him to rccall Scncca as tutor to hcr son, thc
twclvcycarold Ncro. Claudius alrcady had a youngcr son, 8ritan
nicus, but it was clcar that thc wily Agrippina wishcd to scc hcr own
csh and blood on thc thronc. Vhcn Claudius dicd vc ycars latcr,
Agrippina was ablc to mancuvcr Ncro into position as cmpcrorand
8ritannicus was dispatchcd by poison shortly altcr, in cv.
From until his inucncc wancd at thc cnd ol thc dccadc, Scncca
actcd as Ncros adviscr, togcthcr with thc practorian prclcct Scxtus
Alranius 8urrus. Vc know hc wrotc a spccch on clcmcncy lor Ncro
to dclivcr to thc Scnatc soon altcr his acccssion, and Scnccas own
cssay On Clemency may contain somc inkling ol his stratcgy to kccp
thc young cmpcror lrom running amok. Scnccas usc ol thc tcrm rex,
or king, applicd to Ncro by analogy in this piccc, is surprising lrom
a Roman scnator, but hc sccms to havc hopcd that attcring Ncro
by pointing to his limitlcss powcr and thc valuc ol clcmcncy would
bc onc way to kccp him lrom abusing that powcr. 8oth Scncca and
8urrus also hclpcd with thc civil and judicial administration ol thc
cmpirc.
Many historians, ancicnt and modcrn, lccl that this carly part ol
Ncros rcign, modcratcd by Scncca and 8urrus, rcprcscntcd a pcriod
ol comparativc good rulc and harmony (thc quinquennium Neronis).
Thc dcclinc startcd in cv with Ncros murdcr ol Agrippina, altcr
which Scncca wrotc thc cmpcrors spccch ol scllcxculpationpcr
haps thc most lamous cxamplc ol how thc philosophcr lound himscll
incrcasingly compromiscd in his position as Ncros chicl counscl.
Ccrtainly as a Stoic, Scncca cuts an ambiguous gurc ncxt to thc oth
crs who madc thcir opposition to Ncro clcar, such as Thrasca Pactus
and Hclvidius Priscus. His participation in court politics probably
lcd him to bclicvc that hc could do morc good lrom whcrc hc stood
than by abandoning Ncro to his own dcviccsil hc cvcn had this
choicc.
!n any casc, Scnccas inucncc ovcr Ncro sccms to havc bccn
considcrably ctiolatcd altcr thc dcath ol 8urrus in 6a. According
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to Tacitus, Scncca tricd to rctirc lrom his position twicc, in 6a and
6. Although Ncro rcluscd him on both occasions, Scncca sccms
to havc largcly abscntcd himscll lrom thc court altcr 6. !n 6 cv
camc thc Pisonian conspiracy, a plot to kill Ncro and rcplacc him
with thc ringlcadcr, C. Calpurnius Piso. Although Scnccas ncphcw
Lucan was implicatcd in this assassination attcmpt, Scncca himscll
was probably innoccnt. Noncthclcss, Ncro scizcd thc opportunity to
ordcr his old adviscr to kill himscll. Scncca cut his own vcins, but (so
Tacitus tclls us) his thinncss and advanccd agc hindcrcd thc ow ol
blood. Vhcn a dosc ol poison also lailcd to kill him, hc nally sat in
a hot bath to makc thc blood ow lastcr. His wilc, Pompcia Paulina,
also tricd to commit suicidc but was savcd on ordcrs lrom Ncro.
8ccausc ol his cthical writings, Scncca larcd wcll with thc carly
Christianshcncc thc latcr lorging ol a lakc corrcspondcncc with
St. Paulbut alrcady in antiquity hc had his lair sharc ol critics,
thc main chargc arising lrom thc apparcnt contradiction bctwccn
his Stoic tcachings on thc unimportancc ol cxtcrnals and his own
amassing ol hugc wcalth. Pcrhaps lor this rcason hc ncvcr gaincd
thc rcspcct accordcd thc Roman Socratcs, thc Stoic C. Musonius
Rulus, banishcd by Ncro in 6, cvcn though Scnccas writings havc
had lar morc inucncc ovcr thc ccnturics. !n Scnccas own lilctimc
onc P. Suillius attackcd him on thc grounds that, sincc Ncros risc
to powcr, hc had pilcd up somc cc million scstcrccs by charging
high intcrcst on loans in !taly and thc provinccsthough Suillius
himscll was no angcl and was banishcd to thc 8alcaric !slands lor
bcing an cmbczzlcr and inlormcr. !n Scnccas dclcnsc, hc sccms to
havc cngagcd in ascctic habits throughout his lilc and dcspitc his
wcalth. !n lact, his cssay On the Happy Life (De .ita beata) takcs
thc position that a philosophcr may bc rich as long as his wcalth
is propcrly gaincd and spcnt and his attitudc to it is appropriatcly
dctachcd. Vhcrc Scncca nally ranks in our cstimation may rcst on
our ability to tolcratc thc various contradictions poscd by thc lilc ol
this philosophcr in politics.
A Short Introduction to Stoicism
Stoicism is onc ol thc worlds most inucntial philosophical movc
mcnts. Starting lrom thc works and tcaching ol thc thrcc original
hcads ol thc Grcck Stoic schoolZcno ol Citium (a6 ncv),
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Clcanthcs (.aa ncv), and Chrysippus (ca. acac, ncv)it bc
camc thc lcading philosophical movcmcnt ol thc ancicnt Grcco
Roman world, shaping thc dcvclopmcnt ol thought wcll into thc
Christian cra. Latcr Grcck Stoics Panactius (ca. ..c ncv) and
Posidonius (ca. .. ncv) modicd somc lcaturcs ol Stoic doctrinc.
Roman thinkcrs thcn took up thc causc, and Stoicism bccamc thc
scmio cial crccd ol thc Roman political and litcrary world. Ciccro
(.c6 ncv) docs not agrcc with thc Stoics on mctaphysical and
cpistcmological mattcrs, but his cthical and political positions lic
closc to thcirs, and cvcn whcn hc docs not agrcc, hc makcs a con
ccrtcd cort to rcport thcir positions sympathctically. Roman Stoics
Scncca, pictctus (midrst to carly sccond ccntury cv), Musonius
Rulus (ca. cca. .ca cv), and thc cmpcror Marcus Aurclius (.a.c
cv, cmpcror .6.c) produccd Stoic works ol thcir own (thc last
thrcc writing in Grcck).
Thc philosophical achicvcmcnt ol thc Grcck Stoics, and cspc
cially that ol Chrysippus, was cnormous: thc invcntion ol propo
sitional logic, thc invcntion ol thc philosophy ol languagc, unprcc
cdcntcd achicvcmcnts in moral psychology, distinction in arcas
ranging lrom mctaphysics and cpistcmology to moral and political
philosophy. Through an accidcnt ol history, howcvcr, all thc works
ol all thc major Grcck Stoics havc bccn lost, and wc must rccovcr
thcir thoughts through lragmcnts, rcports (particularly thc lcngthy
accounts in iogcncs Lacrtiuss Li.es of the Philosophers, in Ciccro,
and in Scxtus mpiricuss skcptical writings, sincc thc Stoics arc
his primary targct), and thc works ol thc Roman thinkcrswho
oltcn arc adjusting Stoic doctrincs to t Roman rcality and probably
contributing crcativc insights ol thcir own. This also mcans that wc
know somcwhat lcss about Stoic logic or physics than about Stoic
cthics, sincc thc Romans took a particular intcrcst in thc practical
domain.
Thc goal ol Stoic philosophy, likc that ol othcr philosophical
schools ol thc Hcllcnistic cra, was to givc thc pupil a ourishing
lilc lrcc lrom thc lorms ol distrcss and moral lailurc that thc Stoics
thought ubiquitous in thcir socictics. Unlikc somc ol thcir compcti
tor schools, howcvcr, thcy cmphasizcd thc nccd to study all parts ol
thcir thrcclold systcmlogic, physics, and cthicsin ordcr to un
dcrstand thc univcrsc and its intcrconncctions. To thc cxtcnt that a
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Roman such as Ciccro bclicvcd hc could uphold thc moral truths ol
Stoicism without a condcnt bclicl in a rationally ordcrcd univcrsc,
hc hcld a hcrctical position (onc sharcd many ccnturics latcr by !m
manucl Kant).
Stoic physics hcld that thc univcrsc is a rationally ordcrcd wholc,
and that cvcrything that happcns in it happcns lor thc bcst ol rca
sons. (!t is this position, in its Lcibnizian incarnation, that is pilloricd
in \oltaircs Candide.) Rcjccting traditional anthropomorphic rcli
gion, thc Stoics gavc thc namc Zcus to thc rational and providcntial
principlc animating thc univcrsc as a wholc, and thcy could nd cvcn
in thc most trivial or distrcssing cvcnts (such as carthquakcs and
thundcrbolts) signs ol thc univcrscs ovcrall good ordcr. This ordcr
was also a moral ordcr bascd on thc inhcrcnt dignity and worth ol
thc moral capacitics ol cach and cvcry rational bcing. Thc Stoics
bclicvcd that this ordcr was dctcrministic: cvcrything happcns ol nc
ccssity. 8ut thcy wcrc also compatibilists, bclicving that human lrcc
will was compatiblc with thc truth ol dctcrminism. Thcy cngagcd in
spiritcd dcbatcs with incompatibilist Aristotclians, making lasting
contributions to thc lrcc will controvcrsy.
Stoic cthics bcgins lrom thc idca ol thc boundlcss worth ol thc
rational capacity in cach and cvcry human bcing. Thc Roman Stoics
undcrstood this capacity to bc ccntrally practical and moral. (Thus,
unlikc Plato, thcy did not think that pcoplc who had a natural tal
cnt lor mathcmatics wcrc bcttcr than pcoplc who didnt, and thcy
bccamc morc and morc skcptical that cvcn thc study ol logic had
much practical valuc.) Thcy hcld that all human bcings wcrc cqual in
worth by virtuc ol thcir posscssion ol thc prccious capacity to choosc
and dircct thcir livcs, ranking somc cnds ahcad ol othcrs. This, thcy
said, was what distinguishcd human bcings lrom animals: this powcr
ol sclcction and rcjcction. (Unlikc most othcr ancicnt schools, thcy
had littlc conccrn lor thc morality ol animal trcatmcnt, sincc thcy
thought that only moral capacity cntitlcd a bcing to rcspcct and good
trcatmcnt.) Childrcn, thcy said, camc into thc world likc littlc ani
mals, with a natural oricntation toward scllprcscrvation but no un
dcrstanding ol truc worth. Latcr, howcvcr, a rcmarkablc shilt would
takc placc, alrcady sct up by thcir posscssion ol innatc human naturc:
thcy would bccomc ablc to apprcciatc thc bcauty ol thc capacity lor
choicc and thc way in which moral rcason had shapcd thc cntirc
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univcrsc. This rccognition, thcy said, should lcad pcoplc to rcspcct
both scll and othcrs in an cntircly ncw way. Stoics wcrc scrious about
(human) cquality: thcy urgcd thc cqual cducation ol both slavcs and
womcn. pictctus himscll was a lormcr slavc.
Stoicism looks thus lar likc an cthical vicw with radical political
conscqucnccs, and so it bccamc during thc nlightcnmcnt, whcn its
distinctivc cmphascs wcrc uscd to arguc in lavor ol cqual political
rights and morc ncarly cqual cconomic opportunitics. Howcvcr, thc
original Stoics maintain a claim ol grcat signicancc lor politics:
moral capacity is thc only thing that has intrinsic worth. Moncy,
honor, powcr, bodily hcalth, and cvcn thc lovc ol lricnds, childrcn,
and spouscall thcsc arc hcld to bc things that onc may rcasonably
pursuc il nothing impcdcs (thcy arc callcd prclcrrcd indicrcnts),
but thcy havc no truc intrinsic worth. Thcy should not cvcn bc sccn
as commcnsuratc with moral worth. So whcn thcy do not arrivc as
onc wishcs, it is wrong to bc distrcsscd.
This was thc contcxt in which thc Stoics introduccd thcir lamous
doctrinc ol apatheia, lrccdom lrom thc passions. cning thc major
cmotions or passions as all involving a high valuation ol cxtcrnal
goods, thcy arguc that thc good Stoic will not havc any ol thcsc dis
turbanccs ol thc pcrsonality. Rcalizing that chancc cvcnts lic bcyond
our control, thc Stoic will nd it unncccssary to cxpcricncc gricl,
angcr, lcar, or cvcn hopc: all ol thcsc arc charactcristic ol a mind
that waits in suspcnsc, awcstruck by things indicrcnt. Vc can havc
a lilc that truly involvcs joy (ol thc right sort) il wc apprcciatc that
thc most prccious thing ol all, and thc only truly prccious thing, lics
within our control at all timcs.
Stoics do not think that it is at all casy to gct rid ol thc cultural
crrors that arc thc basis ol thc rcjcctcd passions: thus a Stoic lilc is a
constant thcrapcutic proccss in which mcntal cxcrciscs arc dcviscd to
wcan thc mind lrom its unwisc attachmcnts. Thcir works dcpict pro
ccsscs ol thcrapy through which thc rcadcr may makc progrcss in thc
dircction ol Stoic virtuc, and thcy oltcn cngagc thcir rcadcr in just
such a proccss. pictctus and Marcus Aurclius dcscribc proccsscs ol
rcpcatcd mcditation, Scncca (in On nger) dcscribcs his own nightly
scllcxamination. Scnccas Letters show thc rolc that a wiscr tcachcr
can play in such a thcrapcutic proccss, but Scncca cvidcntly docs not
think that cvcn hc himscll is lrcc lrom crroncous attachmcnts. Thc
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wisc man is in that scnsc a distant idcal, not a worldly rcality, par
ticularly lor thc Roman Stoics. A largc aid in thc thcrapcutic proccss
is thc study ol thc horriblc dclormitics that socictics (including oncs
own) sucr by caring too much about cxtcrnal goods. !l onc sccs thc
ugly lacc ol powcr, honor, and cvcn lovc clcarly cnough, this may as
sist onc in making thc progrcss toward truc virtuc. Thus Scnccas On
nger is an cxamplc ol a gcnrc that wc know to havc bccn common
in Stoicism.
8ccausc ol thcir doctrinc ol valuc, thc Stoics actually do not pro
posc radical changcs in thc distribution ol worldly goods, as onc
might supposc cqual rcgard lor thc dignity ol all human bcings
would rcquirc. Thcy think that cqual rcspcct docs rcquirc dignicd
trcatmcnt ol cach pcrson, thus Scncca urgcs mastcrs not to bcat thcir
slavcs or usc thcm as scxual tools. About thc institution ol slavcry,
howcvcr, thcrc is silcncc, and worsc than silcncc: Scncca argucs that
truc lrccdom is intcrnal lrccdom, so thc cxtcrnal sort docs not rc
ally mattcr. Musonius, similarly, advocatcs rcspcctlul trcatmcnt lor
womcn, including acccss to a Stoic cducation. 8ut as lor changcs in
thc lcgal arrangcmcnts that conncd womcn to a domcstic rolc and
gavc malcs powcr ol lilc and dcath ovcr thcm, hc too is silcnt, arguing
that womcn will manilcst thcir Stoic virtuc in thc domcstic contcxt.
Somc Roman Stoics do appcar to havc thought that political libcrty
was a part ol dignity, and thus dicd supporting rcpublican institu
tions, but whcthcr this attcntion to cxtcrnal conditions was con
sistcnt with Stoicism rcmains unclcar. (Ccrtainly Ciccros prolound
gricl ovcr thc loss ol political lrccdom was not thc attitudc ol a Stoic,
any morc than was his agonizing gricl ovcr his daughtcrs dcath.)
Thcrc was also much dcbatc about whcthcr thc Stoic norm ol
apatheia cncouragcd pcoplc to dctach thcmsclvcs lrom bad political
cvcnts in a way that gavc aid and comlort to bad politics. Ccrtainly
Stoics wcrc known to counscl rctircmcnt lrom politics (a thcmc in
Scnccas own lilc as hc sought Ncros pcrmission lor rctircmcnt, un
succcsslully), and thcy wcrc thought to bclicvc that uphcaval was
worsc than lawlcss tyranny. Plutarch rcports that 8rutus (a Platonist)
qucstioncd potcntial coconspirators in thc assassination ol Julius
Cacsar by trying to dctcrminc whcthcr thcy acccptcd that Stoic
norm or bclicvcd, with him, that lawlcss tyranny was worsc than
civil strilc, only nonStoics wcrc sclcctcd lor thc group ol assassins.
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uring Ncros rcign, howcvcr, scvcral promincnt Stoicsincluding
Scnccas ncphcw Lucanjoincd rcpublican political movcmcnts
aimcd at ovcrthrowing Ncro, and lost thcir livcs lor thcir corts, by
politically ordcrcd suicidc.
Stoics bclicvcd that, lrom thc moral point ol vicw, national
boundarics wcrc as irrclcvant as honor, wcalth, gcndcr, and birth.
Thcy hcld that wc arc, rst and lorcmost, citizcns ol thc univcrsc as
a wholc. (Thc tcrm kosmou polites, citizcn ol thc univcrsc, was appar
cntly rst uscd by iogcncs thc Cynic, but thc Stoics took it up and
wcrc thc rcal lorclathcrs ol modcrn cosmopolitanism.) Vhat cos
mopolitanism mcant in practical tcrms was unclcar, lor thc rcasons
alrcady givcnbut Ciccro thinks, at any ratc (in On Duties, a highly
Stoic work), that our common human dignity cntails somc vcry strict
limits on thc rcasons lor going to war and thc sort ol conduct that is
pcrmissiblc in it. Hc thus adumbratcd thc basis ol thc modcrn law
ol war. Ciccro dcnicd, howcvcr, that our common humanity cntailcd
any duty to distributc matcrial goods bcyond our own bordcrs, thus
displaying thc unlortunatc capacity ol Stoic doctrinc to support thc
status quo. Ciccros On Duties has had such an cnormous inucncc on
postcrity in this that it is scarccly an cxaggcration to blamc thc Stoics
lor thc lact that wc havc wcll workcdout doctrincs ol intcrnational
law in thc arca ol war and pcacc, but no wcllcstablishcd undcrstand
ing ol our matcrial dutics to onc anothcr.
Stoicisms inucncc on thc dcvclopmcnt ol thc cntirc Vcstcrn
intcllcctual tradition cannot bc ovcrcstimatcd. Christian thought
owcs it a largc dcbt. Clcmcnt ol Alcxandria is just onc cxamplc ol a
Christian thinkcr stccpcd in Stoicism, cvcn a thinkcr such as Augus
tinc, who contcsts many Stoic thcscs, nds it natural to bcgin lrom
Stoic positions. vcn morc strikingly, many philosophcrs ol thc carly
modcrn cra turn to Stoicism lor guidancclar morc oltcn than thcy
turn to Aristotlc or Plato. cscartcs cthical idcas arc built largcly on
Stoic modcls, Spinoza is stccpcd in Stoicism at cvcry point, Lcib
nizs tclcology is csscntially Stoic, Hugo Grotius bascs his idcas ol
intcrnational morality and law on Stoic modcls, Adam Smith draws
morc lrom thc Stoics than lrom othcr ancicnt schools ol thought,
Rousscaus idcas ol cducation arc in csscncc bascd on Stoic modcls,
Kant nds inspiration in thc Stoic idcas ol human dignity and thc
pcacclul world community, and thc Amcrican loundcrs arc stccpcd
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in Stoic idcas, including thc idcas ol cqual dignity and cosmopoli
tanism, which also dccply inucncc thc Amcrican transccndcntalists
mcrson and Thorcau. 8ccausc thc lcading works ol Hcllcnistic Sto
icism had long bccn lost, all thcsc thinkcrs wcrc rcading thc Roman
Stoics. 8ccausc many ol thcm rcad littlc Grcck, thcy wcrc primarily
rcading Ciccro and Scncca.
Thc Stoic inucncc on thc history ol litcraturc has also bccn im
mcnsc. !n thc Roman world, all thc major pocts, likc othcr cducatcd
Romans, wcrc acquaintcd with Stoic idcas and alludcd to thcm oltcn
in thcir work. \irgil and Lucan arc pcrhaps particularly signicant
in this rcgard. Latcr uropcan litcrary traditions also show markcd
traccs ol Stoic inucnccin part via thc inucncc ol Roman litcra
turc, and in part through thc inucncc ol philosophcrs in thcir own
timc who wcrc thcmsclvcs inucnccd by Stoic thought, but oltcn
also through thcir own rcading ol thc inucntial works ol Ciccro,
Scncca, and Marcus Aurclius.
Senecas Stoicism
Scncca idcntics himscll as a Stoic. Hc dcclarcs his allcgiancc by
rcpcatcdly rclcrring to our pcoplc (nostri)thc Stoicsin his writ
ings. Yct hc cxcrciscs considcrablc indcpcndcncc in rclation to othcr
Stoics. Vhilc hc is committcd to upholding basic Stoic doctrincs,
hc rccasts thcm on thc basis ol his own cxpcricncc as a Roman and
a widc rcading ol othcr philosophcrs. !n this rcspcct hc lollows a
tradition ol Stoic philosophical innovation cxcmplicd most clcarly
by Panactius and Posidonius, who introduccd somc Platonic and Ar
istotclian clcmcnts whilc adapting Stoicism to Roman circumstanccs.
Scncca dicrs lrom prcvious Stoics by wclcoming somc aspccts ol
picurcan philosophy along with othcr inucnccs.
Scncca is conccrncd abovc all with applying Stoic cthical prin
ciplcs to his lilc and to thc livcs ol othcrs likc him. Thc qucstion
that dominatcs his philosophical writings is how an individual can
achicvc a good lilc. !n his cycs, thc qucst lor virtuc and happincss is
a hcroic cndcavor that placcs thc succcsslul pcrson abovc thc assaults
ol lortunc and on a lcvcl with god. To this cnd, Scncca translorms thc
sagc into an inspirational gurc who can motivatc othcrs to bccomc
likc him by his gcntlc humanity and joylul tranquility. Kcy topics arc
how to rcconcilc advcrsity with providcncc, how to lrcc oncscll lrom
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passions (particularly angcr and gricl ), how to lacc dcath, how to
discngagc oncscll lrom political involvcmcnt, how to practicc povcrty
and usc wcalth, and how to bcnct othcrs. All ol thcsc cndcavors arc
vicwcd within thc contcxt ol a suprcmc, pcrlcctly rational and virtu
ous dcity who looks with lavor on thc corts ol humans to attain thc
samc condition ol virtuc. !n thc cld ol politics, Scncca argucs lor
clcmcncy on thc part ol thc suprcmc rulcr, Ncro. !n human rclations,
hc pays spccial attcntion to lricndship and thc position ol slavcs.
vcrall, hc aims to rcplacc social hicrarchics, with thcir dcpcndcncc
on lortunc, with a moral hicrarchy arrangcd according to proximity
to thc goal ol bcing a sagc.
Scnccas own conccrns and pcrsonality pcrmcatc his writings. Thc
modcrn rcadcr lcarns much about thc lilc ol an aristocrat in thc timc
ol Claudius and Ncro, and much about Scnccas pcrsonal strcngths
and wcakncsscs. At thc samc timc, thcrc is also much in thc work
that transccnds thc immcdiatc conccrns ol Scncca and his pcriod.
Somc topics that rcsonatc cspccially with a modcrn audicncc arc his
vision ol humans as mcmbcrs ol a univcrsal community ol mankind,
thc rcspcct hc dcmands lor slavcs, his conccrn with human cmo
tions, and, in gcncral, his insistcncc on looking within oncscll to nd
happincss. Vhat is pcrhaps lcss appcaling to thc modcrn rcadcr is
thc rhctorical claboration ol his mcssagc, which lcaturcs an undcni
ablc tcndcncy toward hypcrbolc. Most ol all, Scnccas own charactcr
strikcs many rcadcrs as problcmatic. From his own timc on, hc was
pcrccivcd by somc as a hypocritc who was lar lrom practicing what
hc prcachcd. Somc ol Scnccas writings (in particular, his Consolations
to Polybius and to his mothcr Hclvia, and his cssay On the Happy
Life) arc obviously scllscrving. As Scncca himscll suggcsts (Letters
), hc has translormcd thc tcachings hc has cullcd, in thc manncr ol
bccs, into a wholc that rcccts his own complcx charactcr.
Thc Stoics dividcd logic into dialcctic (short argumcnt) and
rhctoric (continuous cxposition). Thcrc is not much to bc said on
dialcctic in Scnccas writings cxccpt that hc shuns it, along with lor
mal logic in gcncral. vcry so oltcn, howcvcr, hc cngagcs in a satirical
display ol ncgraincd Stoictypc rcasoning. Thc point is that carry
ing logical prccision to cxccss is lutilc: it docs not makc a pcrson any
bcttcr. Quibblcs ol all kinds should bc avoidcd, whcthcr thcy involvc
carrying through a minutc linc ol argumcnt, making ovcrly subtlc
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vcrbal distinctions, or indulging in abstrusc philological intcrprcta
tion. Vhilc making thc point, Scncca makcs surc thc rcadcr knows
hc could bcat thc quibblcr at his own gamc il hc wantcd to.
Vc havc only sparsc dctails about how thc Stoics vicwcd rhctoric.
Vhat is clcar about Scncca, howcvcr, is that hc uscd thc lull panoply
ol Roman rhctorical mcthods to pcrsuadc rcadcrs ol his philosophi
cal mcssagc. His writings arc lull ol vivid cxamplcs, stunning mcta
phors, pointcd sayings, ringing sound cccts. Hc knows how to vary
his tonc, lrom casual convcrsation to soaring cxhortation and bittcr
dcnunciation. Hc pcoplcs his tcxt with a varicd cast ol charactcrs:
thc addrcsscc, thc implicd audicncc, hypothctical objcctors, lricnds,
opponcnts, historical gurcs. Hc himscll hovcrs ovcr thc procccdings
as watchlul lricnd and somctimc loc. Following Clcanthcs, hc intcr
spcrscs poctry into his prosc to impcl thc rcadcr cvcn morc lorcclully
toward thc task ol scllimprovcmcnt.
Givcn Scnccas cthical aims, it is pcrhaps surprising that hc dc
votcs a largc work, Natural Questions, to physics. Yct thc cntirc work
has an ovcrarching cthical aim. As Scncca insists rcpcatcdly, thc mind
is upliltcd by vcnturing bcyond narrowly human conccrns to survcy
thc world as a wholc. Thc contcmplation ol thc physical world com
plcmcnts moral action by showing thc lull contcxt ol human action:
wc scc god in his lull glory, caring lor human livcs as hc administcrs
thc world as a wholc. !n thc spirit ol Lucrctius (who championcd a
rival philosophy), Scncca also intcrspcrscs cthical mcssagcs through
out his physical inquirics. Thus hc cmphasizcs that humans must
conlront natural cvcnts, such as dcath and natural disastcrs, with
couragc and gratitudc to god, and hc warns against human misusc
ol natural rcsourccs and thc dccadcncc that accompanics progrcss.
l all arcas ol inquiry, physics aords Scncca thc grcatcst scopc lor
making additions and corrcctions to Stoic doctrinc. Hc rangcs ovcr
thc wholc history ol physical inquirics, lrom thc Prcsocratics to his
own timc, to improvc upon thc Stoics.
Scncca writcs (Letters .) that whilc hc bclicvcs in thc judgmcnt
ol grcat mcn, hc also claims somcthing lor his own judgmcnt: prcvi
ous philosophcrs lclt somc things to bc invcstigatcd by us, which thcy
might indccd havc discovcrcd lor thcmsclvcs il thcy hadnt cngagcd
in usclcss quibblcs. Grantcd that Scncca shows spccial invcstigativc
lcrvor in his cosmological inquirics, his moral tcachings too arc a
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product ol his own judgmcnt and innovation. Vhat hc contributcs
is a ncw vision rathcr than ncw thcorics. Using ccrtain strict Stoic
distinctions as a basis, hc paints a ncw picturc ol thc challcngcs that
humans lacc and thc happincss that awaits thosc who practicc thc
corrcct philosophy. !n agrccmcnt with Stoic orthodoxy, Scncca is un
compromising about dicrcntiating bctwccn cxtcrnal advantagcs and
thc good, about thc nccd to cradicatc thc passions, about thc pcrlcct
rationality ol thc wisc pcrson, about thc idcntity ol god with Fatc.
Vhat hc adds is a moral lcrvor, joincd by a highly poctic scnsibility,
that turns thcsc distinctions into springboards lor action.
Thc Stoic sagc was gcncrally vicwcd by critics as a lorbidding
gurc, outsidc thc rcach ol human capabilitics and immunc to hu
man lccling. Scncca conccdcs, or rathcr cmphasizcs, that thc sagc
is indccd rarc, hc rcmarks that thc sagc is likc a phocnix, appcaring
pcrhaps cvcry vc hundrcd ycars (Letters a..). As hc sccs it, thc sagcs
cxccptional status is not a barricr to improvcmcnt, it inspircs. Scncca
givcs rcallilc immcdiacy to thc sagc by citing thc youngcr Cato, op
poncnt ol Julius Cacsar, as an cxamplc. Cato, indccd, is not just any
sagc, Scncca says hc is not surc whcthcr Cato might cvcn surpass him
(On Constancy ,..). !n this hc is not blurring Stoic distinctions, but
highlighting thc indomitablc moral strcngth ol a sagc. Through Cato
and numcrous othcr cxamplcs lrom thc Roman past, Scncca luscs thc
Stoic sagc with thc traditional imagc ol a Roman hcro, thus spurring
his Roman rcadcrs to lulll thcir dutics by cmulating both at oncc.
8clow thc lcvcl ol sagc, Scncca outlincs thrcc stagcs ol moral
progrcss, dcmarcatcd according to our vulncrability to irrational
cmotions (Letters ,). Thcrc is thc condition vcry ncar to that ol
bcing a sagc, in which a pcrson is not yct condcnt ol bcing ablc
to withstand irrational cmotions (thc socallcd passions, path). Just
bclow it is thc stagc in which a pcrson is still capablc ol lapsing, and
at thc lowcst lcvcl ol progrcss a pcrson can avoid most irrational
cmotions, but not all. 8clow thcsc arc thc innumcrablc pcoplc who
havc yct to makc progrcss. Scncca has nothing to say to thcm, hc
wants to avoid thcm, lcst hc bc contaminatcd. Vhat hc docs allow is
that pcrsons who arc still struggling to bccomc good may givc way to
gricl initially, but hc insists that this pcriod must bc bricl. Thc Stoics
talk big words, hc says, whcn thcy lorbid moans and groans, hcll
adopt a morc gcntlc tonc (Letters a.). Still, hc insists, thcsc words
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arc truc, and his aim is to lcad, as much as hc can, to thc goal ol
a dispassionatc attitudc toward cxtcrnals. Likc cvcryonc, thc wisc
pcrson is pronc to initial shocksrcactions that look momcntarily
likc irrational cmotionsbut thcsc arc involuntary rcsponscs to bc
succccdcd immcdiatcly by thc calmncss ol judgmcnt. Scnccas sagc
is kind to othcrs and is llcd with a scrcnc joy that has nothing to do
with thc cphcmcral plcasurc that othcr pcoplc takc in cxtcrnals.
Looking toward Roman hcroism, Scncca portrays moral progrcss
as an arduous strugglc, likc a military campaign or thc uphill storm
ing ol an cncmys position. Thc cncmy is lortunc, viciously attacking
hcr victim in thc lorm ol thc most crucl disastcrs. Hcr opponcnt
may succumb, but hc will havc conqucrcd lortunc il hc rcsists to thc
cnd. !n rcality, thc disastcrs comc lrom othcr pcoplc or simply lrom
circumstanccs. Scncca commonly citcs dcath (whcthcr oncs own or
that ol a lovcd onc), cxilc, torturc, and illncss. His own lilc is rich
with cxamplcs. Hc gocs so lar as to advocatc advcrsity as a mcans ol
making moral progrcss, but hc also allows (with a vicw to his own
wcalth) that lavorablc circumstanccs arc a hclp to thc pcrson who is
still struggling to makc progrcss.
To makc progrcss, a pcrson must not only conlront cxtcrnals but
also, abovc all, look within oncscll. rawing inspiration lrom Plato,
Scncca tclls us thcrc is a god insidc, thcrc is a soul that sccks to lrcc
itscll lrom thc dross ol thc body. Scncca invitcs thc rcadcr to with
draw into this inncr scll, so as to both mcditatc on oncs particular
condition and takc ight in thc contcmplation ol god. This with
drawal can occur in thc prcss ol a vcry activc lilc. 8ut its casicr whcn
onc is no longcr lully caught up in politics, and so Scncca associatcs
moral withdrawal with his own attcmpt to withdraw lrom politics
toward thc cnd ol his lilc. Hc insists that hc will continuc to hclp
othcrs through his philosophical tcachings, likc othcr Stoics.
Senecan Tragedy
From Scnccas hand thcrc survivc cight tragcdics (gamemnon,
Thyestes, Oedipus, Medea, Phaedra, Phoenissae, Troades, Hercules Fu-
rens), not including thc spurious Octa.ia and thc probably spuri
ous Hercules Oetaeus; ol thc Phoenissae thcrc rcmain only lragmcnts.
Thcsc dramas havc undcrgonc many vicissitudcs in lortunc through
out thc ccnturics, howcvcr, thcy arc no longcr criticizcd as bcing mcrc
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awcd vcrsions ol thc oldcr Grcck dramas in which much ol Scnccas
subjcct mattcr had alrcady bccn trcatcd. Vhilc Scnccas plays wcrc
oncc mincd only lor thc light thcy shcd on Roman Stoic philosophy,
lor cxamplcs ol rhctorical cxtravagancc, or lor thc rcconstruction
ol missing plays by Sophoclcs and his lcllow Attic pocts, thc traits
that oncc markcd thc dramas as unworthy ol critical attcntion now
cngagc us in thcir own right. !ndccd, thcy arc thc only cxtant vcr
sions ol any Roman tragcdy, thc writings ol othcr dramatists such
as Marcus Pacuvius (ca. aac.c ncv) and Lucius Accius (ca. .,c6
ncv) having bccn lost to postcrity. !t is thus only Scnccas vcrsion ol
Roman drama, translatcd into nglish as thc Tenne Tragedies in ..,
that so inucnccd thc tragcdians ol thc lizabcthan cra.
Scncca may havc turncd his hand to writing drama as carly as thc
rcign ol Caligula (,. cv), although thcrc is no way ol dctcrmin
ing cxactly whcn hc bcgan. ur rst rclcrcncc to thc plays comcs
lrom a lamous gra to lrom thc gamemnon prcscrvcd on a wall in
Pompcii, but wc can only dcducc that this was writtcn bclorc thc
cruption ol \csuvius in , cv, it is ol littlc actual usc in trying to datc
thc dramas. Stylistic analysis has not providcd us with a surc ordcr
ol composition, though scholars sccm to agrcc that thc Thyestes and
thc Phoenissae arc latc corts. Ccrtainly wc arc unablc to makc claims
about thcir dating in rclation to thc Essays and Letters, dcspitc thc
vcry dicrcnt toncs ol Scnccas prosc and his poctrya dicrcncc
that lcd somc rcadcrs, including thc lthccntury churchman and
orator Sidonius Apollinaris and altcr him rasmus and idcrot, to
spcculatc (crroncously) that thcrc might havc bccn two Lucius An
nacus Scnccas at work on thcm rathcr than onc.
This conlusion about thc authorship ol Scnccas writing may
sccm natural, givcn thc argumcnt that Stoicism lails as a way ol lilc
in thc dramas. Vhcthcr it lails bccausc its adhcrcnts arc too wcak to
rcsist thc pull ol dcsirc or cmotion, bccausc Stoicism itscll is too dil
cult to practicc succcsslully, bccausc thc univcrsc is not thc locus ol
a divinc Providcncc, or bccausc thc protagonists arc so cvil that thcy
lail to scc Providcncc in action, is opcn to argumcnt, a mctalitcrary
vicw might cvcn suggcst that plotlincs inhcritcd lrom mythology
providc thc lorcc that condcmns a Cassandra or a Polyxcna to dcath
at thc hands ol a Clytcmncstra or a Ulysscs, with Scncca taking
advantagc ol this dramatic lact to suggcst thc incxorablc workings
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ol Fatc and thc lutility ol strugglc against it. Considcr thc Thyestes
(a topic oltcn dramatizcd in thc Latc Rcpublic, though Scnccas vcr
sion is thc only onc wc havc). Vc mcct thc cponymous cxilc as hc
praiscs thc paupcrs lilc to his childrcnonly thc man who drinks
out ol carthcnwarc cups can bc truly happy and without lcar, hc
rcminds thcmbut whcn invitcd to rcturn to thc palacc at Argos
by his conniving brothcr Atrcus, thc sourcc ol his cxilc, hc allows
himscll to bc lurcd back altcr only a tokcn hcsitation about giving
up his ncwlound cquanimity. Scquor, hc says to his son, ! lollow
you, but in lollowing his appctitc lor thc luxurious lilc hc docs thc
oppositc ol thc good Stoic.
Thc rcst is, wcll, thc stu ol myth. rcsscd in royal rcgalia, Thycs
tcs sits down to cnjoy a hcarty stcw and somc nc rcd winc, but
his satiatcd bclchcs soon turn into howls ol horror as thc dclightcd
Atrcus inlorms him ol his dinncrs provcnancc: thc mcal is madc up
ol thc dismcmbcrcd bodics ol Thycstcs own sons. !s thcrc an cxplicit
cthical or philosophical mcssagc hcrc: !l wc lollowcd thc vicw ol
anothcr Stoic, pictctus (ca. ca. . cv), who dcncd tragcdy as
what happcns whcn chancc cvcnts bclall lools (Discourses a.a6.. ),
wc might concludc that thc story ol Thycstcs prcciscly illustratcs thc
lolly ol giving in to a dcsirc lor powcr (or hautc cuisinc). !n Scnccas
trcatmcnt, howcvcr, such a clcar objcct lcsson sccms undcrmincd
by a numbcr ol lactors: thc lact that Atrcus rcigns triumphant as
thc drama cnds, thc undcniablc cchocs ol Stoic cxhortation in thc
impotcnt counscls ol Atrcuss adviscr, and thc lragility ol civic and
rcligious valucsthc hcllish sccnc in which Atrcus sacriccs thc
childrcn rcprcscnts prcciscly a travcsty ol sacricc itscll, whilc xenia
(thc ancicnt tradition ol hospitality) larcs still worsc. Thc adviscr or
a nursc mouthing Stoic platitudcs without ccct is lcaturcd in many
ol thc plays: Phacdra, Clytcmncstra, and Mcdca all havc nurscs to
counscl thcm against thcir paths ol action, cvcn though thcir advicc
is invariably distortcd and thrown back in thcir laccs. Crcon plays a
similar rolc in thc gamemnon.
thcr Scnccan protagonists havc morc lasting doubts than
Thycstcs about thc valuc ol carthly succcss. cdipus asks: Joys any
man in powcr: And unlikc his morc condcnt Sophoclcan mani
lcstation, hc lccls thc answcr is clcarly no. From thc bcginning ol
thc play, thc Oedipus providcs striking contrasts to its Grcck prcc
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cdcnt, whosc cmphasis on thc discovcry ol idcntity yiclds hcrc to
thc ovcrwhclming scnsc ol pollution accting cdipus. Thc king,
anxious cvcn as thc drama opcns, worrics that hc will not cscapc
thc prophccy ol his parricidc, and suspccts hc is rcsponsiblc lor thc
plaguc ravaging Thcbcs. cspondcnt, hc hopcs lor immcdiatc dcath,
his cmotional statc is lar dicrcnt lrom that ol thc charactcr at thc
ccntcr ol Sophoclcs play. Scnccas vcrsion also lcaturcs Crcons rcport
ol thc long nccromantic invocation ol Laiuss ghost in a dark grovc,
somcthing abscnt in Sophoclcs. vcn thc scnsc that thc charactcrs
intcraction onstagc lails to drivc thc drama makcs scnsc in thc con
tcxt ol Scnccas lorbidding and incxorablc dramatic world. Causality
and anagnorisis (dramatic rccognition) arc put asidc in lavor ol thc
individuals hclplcssncss bclorc what awaits him, and thc charactcrs
spccchcs rcact to thc violcncc rathcr than motivatc it.
Thc pollution ol thc hcavcns by humans gocs against Stoic phys
ics but nds its placc in thc plays. Thc Stoics positcd a tcnsional
rclationship bctwccn thc cosmos and its parts, according to this vicw,
thc pneuma or vital spirit that subtcnds all mattcr rcsults in a cos
mic sympathy ol thc parts with thc wholc. All things arc unitcd
togcthcr . . . and carthly things lccl thc inucncc ol hcavcnly oncs,
as pictctus (Discourses ....) puts it. 8ut what wc scc in thc dramas
is a disquicting manilcstation ol this sympatheia: thc idca that thc
wickcdncss ol onc or a lcw could disrupt thc rational and harmonic
logos ol thc cntirc cosmos rcprcscnts a rcvcrsal ol thc morc orthodox
Stoic vicwpoint that thc world is acccssiblc to undcrstanding and to
rcason. Thus wc scc thc univcrsc trcmbling at Mcdcas words, and
thc law ol hcavcn in disordcr. !n thc Thyestes, thc sun hidcs its lacc
in rcsponsc to Atrcuss crimc, in thc Phaedra, thc chorus notcs an
cclipsc altcr Phacdras sccrct passion is unvcilcd. Horric portcnts
prcsagc what is to comc in thc Troades. !n Scnccas dramas, unlikc
in Grcck tragcdy, thcrc is no rolc lor civic institutions or thc city to
intcrvcnc in this rclationship. Thc trcatmcnt ol thc gods is similarly
unorthodox. Although Jason calls upon Mcdca to witncss that thcrc
arc no gods in thc hcavcns, thc vcry chariot in which shc ics away
is cvidcncc ol thc assistancc givcn hcr by hcr divinc lathcr. Thc gods
arc thcrc, thc problcm is that thcy arc unrccognizablc.
Scnccas grcat antihcrocs likc Mcdca and Thycstcs arc troubling
not only bccausc thcy oltcn triumph, but bccausc thc manncr ol
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thcir triumph can rcscmblc thc goal point ol thc aspiring Stoic: in
cxhorting thcmsclvcs to takc up a ccrtain stancc towards thc world,
in abandoning lamilial and social tics, in rcjccting thc moral ordcr
ol thc world around thcm, and in trying to livc up to a lorm ol scll
hood thcy havc judgcd to bc bcttcr, Scnccas tyrants, just likc his
sagcs, construct a privatc and autonomous world around thcmsclvcs
which nothing can pcnctratc. Not only do thcy borrow thc scll
cxhortations and scllrcproving ol thc Stoics arscnal, in which thc
dialoguc conductcd with thc scll suggcsts a split bctwccn a rstordcr
dcsiring scll and a sccondordcr judging scll, but thcy also adopt
thc considcration ol what bcts or is worthy ol thcm as a guiding
principlcalways with a ncgativc outcomc.
This lcads in turn to a mctathcatrical tingc in scvcral ol thc plays.
!n thc Medea, lor cxamplc, Mcdca sccms to look to prior vcrsions ol
hcr own story to discovcr what cxactly is appropriatc lor hcr pcrsona,
in thc samc way that cdipus, altcr putting out his cycs, rcmarks
that This lacc bcts (an) cdipus (Oedipus .ccc) or that Atrcus
says ol his rccipc, This is a crimc that bcts Thycstcsand bcts
Atrcus (Thyestes a,.). Such mctathcatricality sccms to draw upon thc
conccrn ol thc traditional Roman clitc to pcrlorm cxcmplary actions
lor an approving audicncc, to gcncratc oncs cthical cxcmplarity by
making surc that spcctators lor it cxist.
And spcctators do cxistwc, thc thcatcr audicncc or thc rccita
tion audicncc. Scholars havc long dcbatcd thc qucstion ol whcthcr
Scnccas dramas wcrc stagcd in antiquity. !t is possiblc, as argucd
by thc ninctccnthccntury Gcrman scholar Fricdrich Lco, that thc
tragcdics wcrc writtcn lor rccitation only, intcr alia, it would bc un
usual (but not impossiblc) to rcprcscnt animal sacricc and murdcr
on stagc. Thc qucstion is unrcsolvablc, but whcthcr thc original au
dicnccs wcrc in thc thcatcr or in thc rccitation room, thcy sharcd
with us thc lull knowlcdgc ol how thc story would turn out, and in
this thcy uncomlortably rcscmblcd somc ol thc plotting antihcrocs
thcmsclvcs. !ndccd, our plcasurc in watching Scnccan tragcdy unlold
might sccm to assimilatc us to thc plcasurc thcsc charactcrs takc in
inicting sucring on onc anothcr. !n a lamous linc lrom thc Troades,
thc mcsscngcr who brings ncws ol Astyanaxs murdcr rcports ol thc
sccnc ol his dcathwhich hc has alrcady comparcd to a thcatcr
that Thc grcatcr part ol thc cklc crowd abhors thc crimcand
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watchcs it (..aa). Hcrc, in thc tcnsion bctwccn sadistic voycurism
and horror at what thc drama unlolds, wc can rccognizc thc uncom
lortablc position ol thc spcctator ol Scnccas dcspairing plays.
Senecan rama after the Classical Period
Thc lortuncs ol Scnccan drama havc crcstcd twicc: oncc during thc
lizabcthan pcriod, and again in our own day. Although Scncca him
scll ncvcr rclcrs to his tragcdics, thcy wcrc known in antiquity at
lcast until 8octhius (ca. ca cv), whosc Consolation of Philosophy
draws on thc thcmcs ol Scnccas choral odcs. Thc dramas thcn largcly
droppcd lrom sight, to rccmcrgc in .cc in a popular cdition and
commcntary by Nicholas Trcvct, a ominican scholar at xlord.
Trcvcts work was lollowcd by vcrnacular translations in Spain, !taly,
and Francc ovcr thc ncxt two ccnturics. !n !taly, an carly imitator was
Albcrtino Mussato (.a6..a), who wrotc his tragic drama Ecerinis
to alcrt his lcllow Paduans to thc dangcr prcscntcd by thc tyrant
ol \crona. !n ngland, thc Jcsuit pricst and poct Jaspcr Hcywood
(..) produccd translations ol thrcc ol thc plays, thcsc wcrc lol
lowcd by Thomas Ncwtons Seneca His Tenne Tragedies Translated into
English in ..ol which onc tragcdy was Ncwtons own Thebais.
Thc dramas wcrc considcrcd to bc no mcrc palc shadow ol thcir
Grcck prcdcccssors: Pctrarch, Salutati, and Scaligcr all hcld Scncca
inlcrior to nonc on thc classical stagc. !n Scaligcrs inucntial trcatisc
on poctry, thc Poetices libri septem (.6.), hc ranks Scncca as thc cqual
ol thc Grcck dramatists in solcmnity and supcrior to uripidcs in
clcgancc and polish (6.6).
Thc lizabcthan playwrights in particular took up Scncca as a
modcl lor translation or imitation. T. S. liot claimcd that No author
cxcrciscd a widcr or dccpcr inucncc upon thc lizabcthan mind or
upon thc lizabcthan lorm ol tragcdy than did Scncca, and thc
conscnsus is that hc was right. !t is pcrhaps littlc wondcr that Scncca
appcalcd to an agc in which tragcdy was sccn as thc corrcct vchiclc
lor thc rcprcscntation ol haughtincssc, arrogancy, ambition, pridc,
iniury, angcr, wrath, cnvy, hatrcd, contcntion, warrc, murthcr, cruclty,
rapinc, inccst, rovings, dcprcdations, piracycs, spoylcs, robbcrics, rc
bcllions, trcasons, killings, hcwing, stabbing, daggcrdrawing, ght
ing, butchcry, trcachcry, villainy, ctc., and all kind ol hcroyickc cvils
whatsocvcr ( John Grccnc, Fefutation of the pology for ctors, .6.,
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p.6). Kyd, Marlowc, Marston, and Shakcspcarc all rcad Scncca in
Latin at school, and much ol thcir drama shows his inucncc in onc
lorm or anothcr. Thc itincrant playcrs at lsinorc in Shakcspcarcs
Hamlet lamously opinc that Scncca cannot bc too hcavy nor Plautus
too light (a.a.ccc.), but it is Shakcspcarcs Titus ndronicus that
shows thc grcatcst Scnccan inucncc with its tastc lor rcvcngc, rapc,
dccapitation, human cookcry, and insanity. Richard !!! and Macbcth,
on thc othcr hand, cxcmplily thc prcscncc ol unrcstraincd, brooding
ambition in thc powcrhungry protagonist. Similarly, in such plays as
Thomas Kyds The Spanish Tragedy and John Marstons ntonios Fe-
.enge wc scc thc inucncc ol such Scnccan xturcs as ghosts spcak
ing lrom bcyond thc gravc, graphic violcncc, obscssion with rcvcngc,
and cvcn structural lcaturcs such as choruscs, usc ol stichomythia,
and division into vc acts.
Thc blcak contcnt ol thc dramas was oltcn ticd to thc notion ol
a moral lcsson. Alrcady Trcvcts prclacc to thc Thyestes argucd that
thc play taught thc corrcction ol morals by cxamplc, as wcll as simply
ocring thc audicncc cnjoymcnt. Thc Jcsuit Martn Antonio clrio
(...6c) dclcndcd thc usc ol Roman drama in a Christian cduca
tion by suggcsting that it providcd a maskcd instruction in wisdom,
as did Mussato bclorc him. Noncthclcss, altcr thc middlc ol thc
scvcntccnth ccntury Scnccas drama lcll largcly into disrcputc. Thc
Rcstoration poct John rydcn (.6..,cc) took thc opportunity in
thc prclacc to his own Oedipus to criticizc both Scnccas and Cor
ncillcs vcrsions, ol thc lormcr, hc wrotc that Scncca | . . . | is always
running altcr pompous cxprcssion, pointcd scntcnccs, and Philo
sophical notions, morc propcr lor thc Study than thc Stagc. Thc
Frcnch dramatist Jcan Racinc (.6.6) uscd Scncca as a modcl
lor his Phdre, but at thc samc timc claimcd that his main dcbt was
to uripidcs. Not surprisingly, thc Romantics did not nd much
to likc in Scncca. Rcccntly, howcvcr, an c orcsccncc ol intcrcst in
both thc litcrary and thc pcrlormancc aspccts ol Scnccan drama
has produccd ncw cditions, scholarly monographs, and thc staging
ol somc ol thc plays. Notcworthy hcrc arc Sarah Kancs adaptation
Phaedras Lo.e, pcrlormcd in Ncw York in May .6, Michacl lliot
Rutcnbcrgs May acc dramatization ol a postholocaust Oedipus at
Haila Univcrsity in !sracl, and a acc, Joannc Akalaitis production
ol thc Thyestes at thc Court Thcatcr in Chicago.
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A notc on thc translations: thcy arc dcsigncd to bc laithlul to
thc Latin whilc rcading idiomatically in nglish. Thc locus is on
high standards ol accuracy, clarity, and stylc in both thc prosc and
thc poctry. As such, thc translations arc intcndcd to providc a basis
lor intcrprctivc work rathcr than to convcy pcrsonal intcrprctations.
Thcy cschcw tcrminology that would imply a JudcoChristian moral
lramcwork (c.g., sin). Vhcrc nccdcd, notcs havc bccn supplicd to
cxplain propcr namcs in mythology and gcography.
Ior Iurther Information
n Scnccas lilc: Miriam T. Gri n, Seneca: Philosopher in Poli-
tics, and cd. (xlord: .,6, rcviscd with postscript .a), and Paul
\cync, Seneca: The Life of a Stoic, translatcd lrom thc Frcnch by
avid Sullivan (Ncw York: acc). n his philosophical thought:
8rad !nwood, Seneca: Stoic Philosophy at Fome (xlord: acc),
and Shadi 8artsch and avid Vray, Seneca and the Self (Cam
bridgc: acc). n thc dramas: A. J. 8oylc, Tragic Seneca: n Es-
say in the Theatrical Tradition (Ncw York and London: .,),
C. A. J. Littlcwood, Self-Fepresentation and Illusion in Senecan Trag-
edy (xlord: acc), and Thomas G. Roscnmcycr, Senecan Drama
and Stoic Cosmology (8crkclcy: .). n Scncca and Shakcspcarc:
Robcrt S. Miola, Shakespeare and Classical Tragedy: The Inuence of
Seneca (xlord: .a) and Hcnry 8. Charlton, The Senecan Tradition
in Fenaissance Tragedy (Manchcstcr: .6).
.
Introduction
:ivi ~: cvi vvi x ~xb nv~b i xwoob
The Theme
Thc thcmc ol bcncts (lavors or good dccds to othcrs) was impor
tant in thc ancicnt philosophical tradition and had bccn thc subjcct
ol numcrous trcatiscs bclorc Scnccas day. Thcorizing and advising
on thc topic lormcd part ol many works ol moral philosophy and
political thcory, but it was also a lcaturc ol many othcr kinds ol
litcraturc. All ol this providcs thc background to Scnccas trcatisc
On Benets, thc only complctc work on thc topic to survivc lrom
antiquity.
J
Thc subjcct was ol grcat importancc to Scncca. !n onc ol
thc Letters to Lucilius, writtcn somcwhat latcr, Scncca actually says
that philosophy tcachcs us, abovc all clsc, to owc and to rcpay bcncts
wcll (Ep. ,.).
Thc ccntral importancc ol bcncts in ancicnt socicty rcstcd on
thcir crucial lunction in promoting and maintaining social cohc
sion within social groups and across thcma lunction ol particu
lar importancc in an ancicnt socicty whcrc thc statc apparatus was
minimal and thcrc was littlc in thc way ol impcrsonal mcchanisms
ol cxchangc or wcllarc. oing somcthing good lor somconc clsc and
rcciprocating whcn on thc rccciving cnd ol such a good dccd was
widcly acknowlcdgcd as thc sinc qua non ol social stability.
Thc social phcnomcnon that conccrns Scncca is today callcd gilt
cxchangc, sociologists and anthropologists approach it, as did Scn
cca, by carclully distinguishing it lrom markct cxchangc and lrom
lcnding and borrowing by cmphasizing thc variability ol rcturn, thc
crcation ol bonds bctwccn thc partncrs to thc transaction, and so
cial disapproval as its only appropriatc sanction. 8ut whcrcas thc
sociologist or anthropologist claims to describe social proccsscs and
to cxplain thcm in tcrms ol thcir social lunctions, Scncca aims to
impro.e thc proccss ol cxchangc, urging pcoplc to bchavc in accor
dancc with what is in lact human naturc. So, not contcnt with an
ordcrly analysis ol such an important social phcnomcnon, Scncca
scts himscll thc practical aim ol cncouraging social gcncrosity by
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tcaching his pccrs how bcst to givc and rcccivc bcncts and by ar
guing insistcntly that thc prcvalcncc ol ingratitudc should not dis
couragc giving. This would bc a natural task lor any philosophcr
intcrcstcd in cthical and social issucs, but Scncca also draws hcavily
on spccically Stoic thcorics and stylcs ol analysis, and as hc docs so
thc work takcs on a signicant univcrsal aspcct. Not only was Stoic
thcory dcvclopcd initially in a social contcxt quitc dicrcnt lrom
Scnccas (Grcck socicty ol thc Hcllcnistic pcriod), but Stoicism itscll
was a rcvisionist philosophy, and nowhcrc morc so than in cthics and
political thcory. Stoicism was also dccply committcd to a vicw ol hu
man naturc which, whilc scldom challcnging thc actual social barricrs
and incqualitics ol thc ancicnt world, cmphasizcd thc most widcly
sharcd charactcristics ol human bcings as such: our rationality, our
social conncctcdncss, and our conccrn lor othcrs. Thc lorcignncss,
thc rcvisionism, and thc cgalitarianism (il that is not too strong a
tcrm lor thc valucs undcrlying Stoic social thcory) all lcnd Scnccas
On Benets thc dcgrcc ol univcrsality to which his rcadcrs havc scl
dom lailcd to rcspond.
At thc samc timc thc work rcmains lully cmbcddcd in Roman
social rcalitics (matcrial, idcological and political) ol thc rst ccn
tury cv. Scnccas trcatisc is a thcorctically inlormcd protrcptic lor
such bchavior within his own social contcxt, thc Roman clitc ol thc
JulioClaudian cra. Scncca undcrtakcs to analyzc thc social practicc
in thc contcxt ol Stoic thcory, which givcs his work a univcrsal aspcct
that it might othcrwisc havc lackcd. Hc is prcoccupicd with thc rolc
ol mutual aid in thc political, nancial, and social livcs ol thc clitc,
including thcir rclationships with thcir political associatcs (somc ol
thcm rcally clients), tcachcrs, doctors, childrcn and slavcs. Hc is also
conccrncd with thc rclativcly ncw challcngc ol managing social and
political intcractions with thc princepsthc cmpcror bcing mcrcly an
unusually wcalthy and inucntial mcmbcr ol thc scnatorial class and
at thc samc timc also, in ccct, a king with powcrs and a social stand
ing prcviously associatcd only with Hcllcnistic Grcck monarchs and
othcr lorcign potcntatcs.
2
!n his work On Clemency, Scncca was prc
parcd to call Ncro rex (king) by implication (...., ...,., cl. a..a), and
hc again comcs closc to assimilating principes and reges hcrc (..a,
6.a.), although hc is now morc conccrncd with thc social rolc ol thc
cmpcror. Thcrc arc contcmporary asscssmcnts ol thc JulioClaudian
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cmpcrors that rcvcal, largcly by countcrcxamplc, how Scncca thought

a good princeps should bchavc (c.g., ....6, a..a), and thcrc arc also
outbursts that rcvcal his thinking and cxpcricncc as Ncros adviscr.
Thus, having rccountcd how Tibcrius ordcrcd impovcrishcd scnators
to submit lists ol thcir crcditors, bclorc bcing inlormcd that hc had
paid thcm and trcatcd thcm to an ocnsivc admonition, Scncca rc
marks, Just to say in passing what ! think on this point too, it is not
rcally propcr cvcn lor thc cmpcror to givc a gilt in ordcr to humiliatc
(a...). Again, illustrating his vicw that rcciprocation in dcaling with
thc powcrlul can takc thc lorm ol candid advicc rathcr than thcir usual
dict ol attcry, hc tclls us that Augustus claimcd to rcgrct thc loss ol
his adviscrs Agrippa and Macccnas, and commcnts: !t is charactcr
istic ol thc royal attitudc to praisc what is lost, in contcmpt ol what is
prcscnt, and to attributc thc virtuc ol spcaking thc truth to thosc lrom
whom thcrc is no longcr any dangcr ol hcaring it (6.a.).
On Benets is, thcn, a work ol cnduring and gcncral philosophical
importancc and at thc samc timc a documcnt ol Roman social and
cultural history that wc can scarccly bcgin to undcrstand without
rclcrcncc to its immcdiatc cnvironmcnt.
The Treatise
Thc trcatisc is addrcsscd to Scnccas lricnd, Acbutius Libcralis, a
nativc ol thc Roman colony ol Lugdunum (thc modcrn Lyons), and
a man ol considcrablc wcalth who, according to Scncca, livcd up to
his cognomcn (...). !t was composcd altcr 6 cvwhcn Caninius
Rcbilus, maligncd at a.a..6, dicdand bclorc thc summcr ol 6, thc
dramatic datc ol Ep. ., which mcntions thc work. !t is thc longcst
ol Scnccas cxtant works that dcal with singlc topics. !ts scvcn books
lall into two groups distinguishcd cxplicitly by thc author himscll. !n
thc prclatory paragraph to book , Scncca announccs that in books
. through hc has complctcd thc task hc sct himscll, thc account ol
how to givc and rcccivc bcncts. 8ooks through ,, hc says, arc an
optional cxtcnsion ol thc booknot csscntial to it, but not a wastc
ol timc cithcr.
3
This rm dcmarcation bctwccn what is propcr to a
discussion and what arc somcwhat scllindulgcnt cxtcnsions ol it, lor
which mild apology is ocrcd, is not unusual in Scncca, but nowhcrc
clsc, wc think, docs an cnticing addcd thcmc cxpand to quitc such
an cxtcnt as hcrc.

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Thc protrcptic and pcdagogical purposc ol thc trcatisc is cxplicit,
and yct it is intcrwovcn with passagcs ol striking philosophical, his
torical, and litcrary intcrcst. A complctc synopsis and study is not
possiblc hcrc, but to illustratc thc varicd tcxturc ol thc work, a bricl
outlinc can bc givcn. !mmcdiatcly altcr his gcncral introduction
(which undcrlincs thc urgcncy ol lcarning how to handlc bcncts
wcll, and distanccs thc author lrom somc ol what hc sccs as thc
lrivolitics ol thc Grcck tradition), Scncca tclls thc rcadcr that a law
ol lilc must bc laid down (...a), that pcoplc must bc taught to givc
bcncts lrccly, rcccivc thcm lrccly, and rcturn thcm lrccly (...).
Thc languagc ol instruction, advicc, and command rccurs throughout
thc work, and indccd it dominatcs cxccpt in digrcssions and in thc
clcarly markcd discussions ol spccial problcms, or quaestiones.
Books r through
Thc rcal work ol thc trcatisc bcgins, Scncca says at ...., with thc
announccmcnt ol thc rst thing wc havc to lcarn. This lcads to
thc lormal dcnition ol a bcnct in ..6..: a wcllintcntioncd action
which conlcrs joy and in so doing dcrivcs joy, inclincd towards and
willingly prcparcd lor doing what it docs. This dcnition is thc kcy
to most ol thc important novcl claims in thc trcatisc. Thc lact that
gcnuinc joy lor both partics is an intcgral componcnt ol any bcnct
is a crucial lcaturc, onc that rcturns to inucncc dcbatc at various
points in thc work. vcn morc important, thc dcnition rclics on a
sharp distinction bctwccn thc matcrial objcct which may bc thc raw
matcrial ol a bcnct (such as moncy, a country cstatc, or a political
o cc with its privilcgcs and appurtcnanccs, scc ....) and thc action
which is thc actual bcnct.
n this issuc, a kcy point ol Stoic thcorizing lics in thc back
ground: thc idca that thc principal lactor which constitutcs an ac
tion is thc intcntion or attitudc ol thc agcnt, thc lully cngagcd sct
ol commitmcnts that lic bchind a rcsponsiblc action.
4
Vhat Scncca
most wants to drivc homc is thc claim that whcn it comcs to giving
bcncts and rcsponding to thcm with appropriatc gratitudc, only
thc attitudcs and accts ol thc participants rcally mattcr: Thc busi
ncss is carricd out with oncs mind (...a). Much ol book . is takcn
up with thc task ol making plausiblc to thc rcadcr this distinction
bctwccn thc rcal bcnct and what arc mcrcly signs ol thc bcnct.
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Scncca is, ol coursc, scnsitivc to thc risk that unscrupulous rccipicnts

might nd in such a doctrinc an cxcusc lor dcclining matcrial rcpay
mcnt as wcll, but that issuc is distinctly sccondary in thc trcatiscs
ovcrall argumcnt.
8ook . is marrcd by a substantial lacuna in .., a gap in thc trans
mittcd tcxt which shincs a spotlight on a striking lcaturc ol thc way
in which thc trcatisc is organizcd. Vhcn thc tcxt rcsumcs in ...a,
Scncca is clcarly in thc midst ol a long and vigorous digrcssion dcal
ing with thc moral corruption ol his socictyhcrc thc thcmcs arc
scxual corruption and nancial grccdthat wcll illustratcs Quintil
ians dcscription ol him as an outstanding lambastcr ol vicc (Inst.
Orat. .c....a). Thcrc arc scvcral such digrcssions in thc work, and
thcy scrvc to punctuatc what would othcrwisc bc a rigorous march
through thc doctrinal program. At ...c Scncca bcgins to wind down
thc digrcssion by connccting it with thc thcmc that has cvidcntly
inspircd it: thc gravity ol ingratitudc as a vicc. That thcmc bcgan in
thc lost scction ol book ., pcrhaps trcating thc topic ol who should
givc,
5
and thc ncxt major topic bcgins abruptly at ......: how and what
thc bcnclactor is to givc. !n thc rcst ol book . thc what is addrcsscd,
book a takcs up thc how. Thc discussion ol what to givc is intcr
ruptcd in turn by a bricl digrcssion on thc lailings ol Alcxandcr thc
Grcat (...), who rccurs scvcral timcs in thc work as a ncgativc cxcm
plum lor conduct. Thc book concludcs with a passagc cmphasizing
thc importancc ol using good judgmcnt in thc granting ol bcncts.
8ook a addrcsscs thc idcal manncr in which bcncts should bc
givcn (a...,) and rcccivcd (a..a). Thc account ol how to givc is a
pcrsuasivc combination ol gcncral points ol thcory, vivid illustrativc
anccdotcs (drawn lrom Scnccas typical rangc ol sourccs: Roman his
tory, Grcck philosophical anccdotcs), and critical attacks on carlicr
Roman cmpcrors (cspccially Caligula) and on Alcxandcr thc Grcat.
Thc bricl dcclamatory digrcssion on pridc (a..) should not distract
thc rcadcr lrom thc undcrlying thcmc: that bcncts nccd to bc givcn
with judgmcnt and insight adaptcd to thc individuals circumstanccs
and thc contcxt (thc samc kind ol judgmcnt citcd in book . as thc
kcy to choosing .hat to givc). Scncca docsnt allow his rcadcr to losc
track ol thc Stoic origins ol this advicc, and hc concludcs thc scction
with a striking analogy (to ball playing) attributcd to Chrysippus,
thc lcadcr and dominant thcorctician ol thc Stoic school in thc third
6
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ccntury ncv. This comparison is particularly apt as a transition to
thc thcmc ol rccciving bcncts, it highlights thc coopcrativc and
rcciprocal naturc ol thc social practicc ol giving and rccciving, and
also thc scnsitivity to pcrsons and contcxts that is always rcquircd.
Thc Stoic origin ol this tcaching is rcinlorccd at a....a, whcrc an
othcr philosophical sourcc is namcd (Hccaton ol Rhodcs, a studcnt
ol Panactius known lor his work on kathkonta, a tcrm variously
translatcd as appropriatc actions or propcr lunctions),
6
thcrc is
hcavy cmphasis hcrc on thc nccd lor thc application ol critical intcl
ligcncc to thc giving and rccciving ol bcnctsas lor any practical
contcxt ol action.
!ngratitudc is thc natural conclusion ol this thcmc and ol thc book
(a.a6). nvy, grccd, and lack ol scllknowlcdgc arc thc kcy undcr
lying laults that Scncca highlights. !ngratitudc to thc gods lorms a
climax to thc book and lorcshadows latcr occasions on which divinc
gcncrosity is introduccd as a modcl or comparandum lor concrctc
social rclations (c.g., ...). Thc book concludcs (a..), howcvcr,
with a short though highly signicant passagc on a paradoxical claim
that lics at thc hcart ol thc trcatiscs practical mcssagc. Acccpting a
bcnct in thc appropriatc statc ol mind, with thc right bclicls, lccl
ings, and attitudcs, is all that is nccdcd to rcpay thc gilt. Thc paradox
is rcsolvcd, in part by rclying on thc lormal dcnition ol bcnct and
in part by a clcar but tcchnical scmantic distinction ol a kind that also
occurs latcr in thc work.
7
Thc ultimatc goal is to rcassurc rccipicnts
about rccciving bcncts, lcar that thcy may not bc ablc to rcciprocatc
should not hindcr thcm lrom building social bonds by rccciving bcn
cts any morc than apprchcnsion about possiblc ingratitudc should
dctcr thc donor lrom giving in thc rst placc.
l thc thrcc topics to bc covcrcd by thc law ol lilcgiving,
rccciving, and rcturning bcnctsbooks . and a havc covcrcd thc
rst two. 8ook announccs its conccrn with thc third, but trcats it
in a ncgativc vcin by continuing thc discussion ol ingratitudc. At .6
Scncca opcns up a discussion which, in our opinion, is rcminisccnt
ol thc hypothctical dcbatcs that charactcrizcd thc dcclamations so
important to thc rhctorical cducation ol thc Roman clitc. Should
ingratitudc bc an ocnsc punishablc by law: !n a Roman contcxt
this was not a complctcly unrcalistic conccrn,
8
but cvcn as Scncca
tclls it only thc Maccdonians cvcr grantcd lcgal rights to lrustratcd
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donors, and that is hardly an inspiring cxamplc. Thc surprisingly
long and claboratc rcjcction ol this notion is ncvcrthclcss ol grcat
intcrcst. !t hclps Scncca opcn thc issuc ol thc boundarics bctwccn
social and lcgal rclations, and bctwccn law and cthics. !t also lacili
tatcs cmphasis on thc distinctivc charactcristics ol giving and rccciv
ing bcncts, thc lact that thc bcncts arc propcrly asscsscd in tcrms
ol thc mcntal statcs ol thc agcnts involvcd, rathcr than thc matcrial
goods cxchangcd, and arc highly dcpcndcnt on ncgraincd contcx
tual considcrations would makc lcgal judgmcnt cxtrcmcly di cult.
Scncca now trcats thc qucstion ol bcncts within cxisting rc
lationships whcrc doing somcthing lor thc othcr pcrson might bc
construcd as mcrc lulllmcnt ol an obligation rathcr than a lrcc
gilt, as such bcncts arc mcant to bc. This issuc is particularly hard
to rcsolvc in cascs whcrc a lavor lrom a social inlcrior is involvcd,
notably child to parcnt (.a) or slavc to mastcr (..a). !n both
cascs Roman scnsibilitics arc vcry much on thc linc: il a slavc or a
child can conlcr bcnct on a mastcr or lathcr, thcn gratitudc will
bc owcd to thc slavc or child. wing somcthing to a social inlcrior
poscs a thrcat to thc social standing ol a mcmbcr ol thc clitc or ol
anyonc who thinks ol himscll as bcing in a supcrior social position.
Scnccas argumcnts hcrc highlight thc rclativcly progrcssivc Stoic
vicws on thc status and charactcr ol slavcs (scc cspccially ...a
and .ac, with thc dcnition ol slavcry attributcd to Chrysippus at
.aa..). Thc moral cgalitarianism ol Stoic doctrinc on this issuc is
inspiring, but it is worth rccalling that ncithcr Chrysippus (lor whom
a slavc is mcrcly a longtcrm cmploycc) nor Scncca (who wcnt
lurthcr, rcgarding thc slavc as bcing cntitlcd to cvcrything covcrcd
by mans duty to man) sccmcd inclincd to abolish thc social institu
tion ol pcoplc owning othcr pcoplc. \ivid anccdotcs lrom Roman
history prcparc thc way lor a morc asscrtivc cxhortation on thc issuc
(.a), but cvcn hcrc Scncca downplays its signicancc. As hc says at
.a.. in his introduction to thc much longcr discussion ol lathcrson
rclationships, hc had to say all this |about slavcs| in ordcr to bcat
down thc arrogancc ol pcoplc who arc dcpcndcnt on good lortunc
and to justily thc claim that slavcs can givc bcncts, so that the same
claim could be made for ones sons. Thc climax ol thc book and its most
important thcmc is clcarly thc qucstion ol whcthcr thcrc might bc
timcs whcn childrcn can givc thcir parcnts grcatcr bcncts than thcy

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havc rcccivcd. Scnccas judgmcnt about thc rclativc importancc ol
thcsc two issucs rcvcals a grcat dcal about his audicncc and its cul
tural anxictics.
9
His way ol arguing lrom slavcs to childrcn rcvcals a
lot about Roman habits ol thought, lor Scncca docs not nccd to spcll
out what cvcry Roman kncw: that thc patria potestas,
J0
with its powcr
ol lilc and dcath and powcr to inict corporal punishmcnt, madc
it hard to distinguish lcgally thc position ol childrcn lrom that ol
slavcs. Thc lathcr was thc hcad ol thc houschold, or paterfamilias, and
hc hcld this cxtraordinary powcr ovcr both slavcs and childrcn, cvcn
il lathcrs wcrc not cxpcctcd to usc thcsc powcrs normally against
childrcn.
JJ
Scncca argucs that sons can ccrtainly outdo thcir lathcrs in bcn
cts, and in doing so hc rclics on numcrous anccdotcs, not lcast thc
casc ol Scipio Alricanus (.). 8ut hc also cngagcs with thc issuc
on a morc philosophical lcvcl, by rcbutting thc argumcnt that a son
cannot outdo his lathcr on thc grounds that his lathcr is thc causc
ol his cxistcncc and so ol his ability to givc bcncts at all. Vhilc thc
issuc ol social and lamilial attitudcs is lorcmost in his mind, Scncca
is clcarly intcrcstcd in a morc tcchnical qucstion ol causation as wcll
(.a..c, cl. .). His philosophical cngagcmcnt with thc issucs
is illustratcd by thc claim at ... that hc is about to add somc ar
gumcnts coincd . . . in our own mint. This lcads not just to morc
anccdotcs and rcbuttals, but also to Scnccas cmbracc ol thc idca that
a compctitivc approach to dcmonstrating virtuc can bc a positivc
lorcc in lilc (.6) and to his powcrlul claboration ol thc idca in
cxamplcs and in rhctorical cxhortations.
The Pivotal Book |
Altcr books . through havc discusscd thc thrcc topics announccd in
...a, book raiscs thc discussion to a ncw lcvcl. l all thc books
in this work, it is pcrhaps thc most consistcnt in its philosophical
intcrcst, cxplicitly rclating thc subjcct ol bcncts to thc lundamcntal
doctrincs ol lormal cthics. Thc lormal thcmc is rcminisccnt ol Platos
Fepublic, whcrc in book a Socratcs asks whcthcr wc pursuc justicc lor
its own sakc or lor thc sakc ol thc good outcomcs it produccs, hcrc
Scncca asks whcthcr wc conlcr bcncts and show gratitudc lor thcir
own sakc or lor thc sakc ol rcward. !n both cascs it is clcar that thcrc
arc both intrinsic and cxtrinsic advantagcs to thc positivc bchaviour
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(justicc, gcncrous giving, and rccciving), and Scncca tacklcs thc is

suc vcry much on thc thcorctical lcvcl, with a clcar philosophical
opponcnt: thc picurcans, whosc conscqucntialism cxtcnds not just
to political valucs but to all social rclations as wcll (though thcrc
sccms to havc bccn somc dcbatc within that school about whcthcr
lricndship in somc cascs becomes an intrinsic valuc). Thc lulcrum ol
Scnccas argumcnt is that bcnctgiving, propcrly donc, is an act ol
virtuc (..., cl. ...). Thc sapiens, having bccn mcntioncd only in
passing bclorc book (c.g., a..., a..a), now lcaturcs promincntly,
and in thc sccond hall ol thc book (.a6c) thc trcatmcnt ol hard
cascs will cxplorc thc conccpt and bchavior ol thc Stoic sagc. Unsur
prisingly lor a Stoic, Scncca also invokcs thc gods as a paradigm ol
idcal human bchavior, this lcads into a lcngthy trcatmcnt ol thcology
and providcntial cosmology (..a...).
Thc lact that conlcrring bcncts is worthwhilc lor its own sakc
docs not, ol coursc, mcan that it is donc uncritically. As an cxprcssion
ol human virtuc, it is rst and lorcmost an cxprcssion ol practical
rcason, and thc nccd to cxcrcisc disccrnmcnt and apply sound dc
libcrativc rcasoning in thc lacc ol thc concrctc circumstanccs ol lilc
is cmphasizcd rcpcatcdly in thc bulk ol book . Thc dcbatc is sharp
and principlcd throughout, with thc picurcans a rccurrcnt targct ol
criticism and cvcn abusc. For Scncca thc valuc ol virtuc is intrinsic,
but hc docs not hcsitatc to point out (..) that thc social virtucs arc
thc indispcnsablc gilt ol thc gods to human bcings, without thcm
our vulncrablc spccics would bc drivcn to dcstruction by othcr ani
mals. As in thc myth ol Platos Protagoras, thc gods givc humanity
thc attributcs (hcrc, rcason and lcllowship) that makc our lilc and
our supcriority to othcr animals possiblc. This may wcll sound likc a
utilitarian justication ol thc virtucs, but thc divinc origin ol thc vir
tucs that undcrwritc social cohcsion is mcant to givc thcm a uniquc
standing. Scncca carclully acknowlcdgcs thc lact that truc gcncrosity
also posscsscs an clcmcnt ol advantagc (.ac..) but maintains that
thcrc arc, as cnvisagcd in thc Fepublic,
J2
hard cascs which provc that
thc virtucs lundamcntal valuc is intrinsic.
Thc lact that giving bcncts and rcpaying thcm with gratitudc
arc by dcnition mattcrs ol attitudc rathcr than ovcrt matcrial cx
changc comcs to thc lorc again at .a.aa as part ol thc argumcnt
that cxtcrnal rcwards arc supcruous, kcy lcaturcs ol thc dcnition
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arc rcpcatcd at .a. as wcll. 8ut morc wcight is givcn, it sccms, to
thc rolc ol thc gods as modcls lor propcr human bchavior (.aa).
!t is clcar that thcy do not givc with thc cxpcctation ol bcing rcpaid,
so wc should not do so cithcr. That thcy go so lar as to givc bcncts
to thosc whom thcy know to bc unworthy and ungratclul provcs
that cxpcctation ol rcward cannot bc thcir motivation lor giving.
J3

8ut il thc gods arc a modcl lor human bchavior, thcrc is onc crucial
dicrcncc. Humans cannot bc surc ol thc lacts and know thc luturc
as thc gods can. This objcction sparks a philosophically signicant
cxposition ol Stoic vicws about rational action (.) in conditions
ol unccrtainty and ol thc lrccdom and adaptability this pcrmits as
circumstanccs changc (.6). Thc point is supportcd with ancc
dotcs lrom thc Hcllcnistic world (Philip ol Maccdon and Zcno ol
Citium, .,).
Though thcy arc harncsscd to a spccic problcm, Scnccas in
sights about thc naturc ol practical rcason in Stoicism arc philo
sophically sharp and rootcd in thc lormal Stoic dcnition ol bcnct
and gratitudc. !n thc nal paragraph ol book , thc conclusion ol thc
rst and most csscntial part ol thc wholc trcatisc, Scncca rcturns to a
ccntral conccrn raiscd most rcccntly at .a.: Vhat il thc rccipicnt ol a
bcnct is unablc to rcturn it: This givcs Scncca onc last opportunity
to cmphasizc thc kcy lcsson ol this rccctivcly didactic trcatisc: that
rcpaying a bcnct, likc giving it, is csscntially a mattcr ol attitudc
rathcr than matcrial cxchangc. Thc busincss, as hc has said at thc
bcginning, is carricd out with oncs mind (...a). 8cing gratclul is
not hard il onc has thc right attitudc, and rcpaying matcrially is not
gratitudc il onc lacks thc right attitudc (.c). And only you, Scncca
bclicvcs, can know whcthcr or not your attitudc is right (scc .a..),
oncs own scllawarcncss bccomcs crucial to oncs wcllbcing.
Books through y
Standing at thc ccntcr ol thc trcatisc, prcccdcd by thrcc books ol prc
ccpts and lollowcd by thrcc books ol problcmatic cascs and complcx
qucstions, book is thc pivot ol an csscntially symmctrical structurc.
Thc last thrcc books ol On Benets continuc thc work ol book ,
not only by tackling thc kind ol conundrums with which that book
cndcd, but also by continuing thc morc clcvatcd lcvcl ol philosophi
cal argumcnt so that dctailcd moral discussion bccomcs somcthing
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morc morally prolound and complcx than thc rudimcntary and
straightlorward instruction that prcdominatcs in thc carly books.
Hcrc, Scncca has movcd on lrom clcmcntary instruction by prcccpt
to a morc sophisticatcd discussion ol hard cascs, which hclps to rcnc
thc carlicr tcaching. Libcralis too is rcprcscntcd as having movcd on
to bccomc a morc activc participant, rcqucsting thc discussion ol
particular problcms and bcing askcd to sclcct which qucstions hc
wishcs to pursuc (6..).
J4
Thus thc apparcntly misccllancous thcmcs ol
thc last thrcc books arc not dcvclopcd indcpcndcntly ol thc rst lour
books, cvcn il thcy arc lcss tightly intcrconncctcd. !n book altcr a
short and complimcntary addrcss to his dcdicatcc, including a char
actcr skctch that links thc rst problcms to bc trcatcd with Libcra
liss own conccrnsScncca dcals with a thcmc alrcady lamiliar lrom
book , asking whcthcr it is shamclul to bc outdonc in bcnctgiving.
As bclorc, hc concludcs that it is not. This is lollowcd by a sharply
argucd analysis ol whcthcr onc may bcnct oncscll (.,..). Finally,
Scncca pulls back lrom thc apparcntly nccdlcss tcchnicality ol this
discussion with an apologctic cxplanation (..a..a), as hc oltcn docs
in thc Letters as wcll
J5
only to rccntcr thc dialcctical lray with a
considcration ol thc paradox that no onc is ungratclul (..a....)
and its contrary, that cvcryonc is ungratclul (...,). Thc argumcnts
pro and contra ol thc rhctorical schools mcrgc hcrc with thc dialccti
cal cxcrciscs ol philosophcrs. Thcrc lollow lurthcr puzzlcs and prob
lcms about gratitudc lor bcncts indircctly conlcrrcd, and Scncca
ovcrtly acknowlcdgcs thc dcbating gamc hc rcprcscnts (...) whcn
hc says that hc will lay asidc dcbating in dialoguc modc and givc an
opinion likc a lcgal cxpcrt. Thc intricatc cxploration ol such puzzlcs
continucs to thc cnd ol thc book, whcrc oncc morc thc ccntral im
portancc ol oncs undcrlying intcntions and attitudcs is highlightcd
as thc propcr critcrion lor scttling such issucs (.a.6).
8ook 6 also opcns with scllconscious apologics lor thc somc
what niggling (as Scncca prcscnts thcm) issucs to bc discusscd. Hcrc
thc topics lor dcbatc arc again lormally rclcrrcd to as quaestiones, thc
lormal thcmcs to bc dcbatcd in thc schools.
J6
Though ambivalcnt
about thc valuc ol this practicc (is it philosophically rcwarding, or
mcrcly intcllcctually cntcrtaining:), Scncca ncvcrthclcss turns thcsc
discussions to good purposc. Thc issuc ol whcthcr a bcnct can bc
takcn away (6.a6) is uscd to cmphasizc thc invulncrability that at
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tachcs to incorporcals, which in turn undcrlincs thc critical rolc ol
intcntion in constituting truc bcncts. Thc mctaphysical doctrincs
might bc arcanc, but thc moral outcomc ol thc dcbatc is not at all
irrclcvant.
J7
Thc samc may bc said lor thc ncxt quaestio (6.,.): Arc
wc obligcd to somconc who bcncts us without intcnding to do so:
Thc discussion hcrc is dctailcd and nuanccdcasuistical, onc might
saybut lor thc lact that thc ccntral issuc is always thc intcntion and
statc ol mind ol thc donor. Thc rolc ol lcgalistic dcbatc is manilcst
hcrc, blcnding scamlcssly with philosophical analysis. Thc samc may
bc said ol thc qucstions that lollow (6...), all ol which turn on
thc di cult task ol asscssing in its contcxt thc valuc ol a particular
bcnct on a givcn occasion. This scrics ol qucstions culminatcs in
a discussion ol thc bcncts grantcd by thc gods and oncs parcnts
(6.aca), which includcs considcration ol thc obligations incurrcd
by bcncciarics who arc too misguidcd or unawarc to apprcciatc
what is bcing givcn to thcm.
Thc nal thcmc ol book 6 raiscs a numbcr ol issucs about giving
and rcpaymcnt that must arisc oltcn in situations whcrc thcrc arc
signicant disparitics ol wcalth and powcr. !l thc strong and mighty
havc hclpcd us out, how arc wc to rcpay thcm: How could wc rcpay
thcm, whcn thcy havc so much morc than wc do: vidcntly, thc
thought gocs, wc could do so il thcy lcll lrom powcr and bccamc
vulncrablc. And so wc arc tcmptcd to wish mislortunc on thosc who
havc aidcd us, just so that wc can nally rcpay thcm. Clcarly this
rcasoning is pcrvcrsc and contrary to thc vcry idca ol bcnct and
gratitudcand yct thc discussion ol it occupics thc longcst scction ol
this book (6.a). 8y now Scnccas solution is cvidcnt to thc rcadcr:
that wc rcpay bcnct with our good will and intangiblc assistancc,
not ncccssarily with matcrial goods. Vc should bc contcnt to rcmain
in thc dcbt ol our bcnclactors, prcparcd to do somcthing lor thcm as
soon as possiblc, rclaxcd and condcnt about thc good will ol both
partics involvcd. Thc point is drivcn homc with a charactcristic rangc
ol historical cxamplcs lrom Roman and Grcck culturc and history.
Thc scvcnth and nal book, consisting cvcn morc clcarly ol lclt
ovcr thcmcs than books and 6, opcns with an cxcursus, bascd on thc
rhctorically claboratcd vicws ol thc Cynic philosophcr cmctrius,
on thc thcmc ol nccdlcssly prccisc invcstigationsan issuc alrcady
raiscd and parricd scvcral timcs, but ncvcr at such lcngth as hcrc
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(,..). Thc cxcursus providcs a smooth transition to anothcr dialcc
tical qucstion, about thc allcgcd conict bctwccn thc claim that thc
Stoic sagc posscsscs all things and thc possibility ol giving bcncts
to thc sagc (,..). Thc rcsponsc involvcs a systcmatic considcr
ation ol thc dicrcnt ways in which things can bc said to bclong
to pcoplcagain, a typically Stoic scmantic rcsolution lor onc ol
thcir own paradoxcs. Thc distinctivcly Cynic approach to owncr
ship and lrccdom is claboratcd through anothcr imagincd spccch by
cmctrius in ,..c and in thc anccdotc ol his conlrontation with
Caligula (,...): a story rcminisccnt ol thc onc told about thc Cynic
and thc king at a..,.
Altcr a lacuna ol unknown lcngth (,.. is all that is lclt ol it),
which sccms to havc containcd a quaestio about thc magnitudc ol
bcncts rcccivcd, Scncca raiscs a ncw and nal issuc that brings into
sharpcr locus a ccntral qucstion raiscd prcviously in various ways
throughout thc trcatisc. !n asking whcthcr somconc who has madc
cvcry cort to rcturn a bcnct has in lact rcturncd it (,....), Scncca
gocs to thc hcart ol his ccntral claims: that oncs attitudc and sinccrc
cndcavor arc what makcs any action what it is. xtcrnal and tangiblc
succcss is not rcquircd, but truc corts arc. Likc othcr stochastic
cralts, such as lcgal plcading and military lcadcrship, thc cxpcrt prac
ticc ol giving and gratitudc is a succcss cvcn il cxtcrnal cvcnts gct in
thc way ol thc dcsircd outcomc (,...). Hcrc as clscwhcrc in thc
trcatisc, Scncca is carclul to distinguish nancial obligation, whcrc
bcst corts arc not su cicnt, lrom thc obligation to rcpay a lavor,
which opcratcs on a dicrcnt lcvcl cvcn though thc languagc ol giv
ing and rccciving, owing and rcpaying is so dcccptivcly similar.
Gcncrosity and gratitudc rcquirc a dclicatc balancc bctwccn ac
knowlcdging that thc cort to rcpay can su cc and allowing oncscll
to bccomc an ungratclul lrcc ridcr. !t can bc di cult to achicvc this
balancc whcn dcaling with impcrlcct moral agcnts,
J8
so Scncca ocrs
this scnsiblc advicc (,..6..): that thc givcr should typically rcgard thc
gilt as having bccn rcturncd cvcn whcn no matcrial rcturn is madc,
and that thc rccipicnt should maintain an attitudc ol obligation
should say ! still owc. As always, Scncca insists that thc critcrion
lor how to handlc thc qucstion is thc public good (,..6.a). Thc prag
matic naturc ol thc trcatisc comcs up cvcn in thc midst ol dialcctical
dcbatc: thc right approach must not only cohcrc with Stoic thcory
.
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but it must also .ork in thc prcscrvation ol robust social bonds. This
makcs thc dctailcd discussions about bcncts among sagcs lcss rcl
cvant and urgcnt than thcy should bc (scc ,..,..,...), and Scncca
acknowlcdgcs this at ,..6.. Sadly, thc qucstions at ,...,.ac. about
how to trcat somconc who has bccomc truly wickcd and socially
dcstructivc wcrc probably bccoming pcrtincnt to daily lilc at thc
court ol Ncro.
8clorc concluding thc trcatisc, Scncca digrcsscs with a scrics ol
philosophical anccdotcs. nc, about a Pythagorcan, tcachcs us to
carc morc about maintaining thc appropriatc attitudcs ol gcncrosity
than about mcrc matcrial transactions (,.a.), thc aim bcing always lor
thc givcr and rccipicnt to cultivatc appropriatc attitudcs. This lcsson
is also thc locus ol thc rcst ol thc book, as Scncca urgcs his rcadcrs
to work at maintaining thc right sort ol mcntal stancc. Vith ancc
dotcs about Socratcs (,.a) and Aristippus (,.a), quotations lrom
vid (,.a..) and \irgil (,.a.., ,.a.a), dircct cxhortation to thc rcadcr
and vividly imagincd cxamplcs (,.a,), sobcr advicc and cncouragc
mcnt to scllasscssmcnt (,.a, ,..), rhctorical conlrontations with our
own stubborn bclicls (,.ac), and an insistcncc that as givcrs wc
should imitatc thc gods (,..), thc trcatiscs conclusion is a crcsccndo
ol philosophical protrcptic. 8ut in his corts not to discouragc his
impcrlcct rcadcrs by making unrcalistic dcmands on thcm, Scncca is
carclul to spcll out how his hypcrbolc is to bc undcrstood (,.aaa).
His charactcristic ability to boil down thc big mcssagc into a small
sententia is rccctcd in his nal scntcncc: Thc mark ol a grcat mind
is not to givc a bcnct and to losc it, thc mark ol a grcat mind is to
losc a bcnct and to givc.
Thc tcxt ol Scnccas On Benets is somctimcs di cult to cstablish
with ccrtainty. As a gcncral policy wc lollow thc Tcubncr tcxt ol
Hosius (sccond cdition, Lcipzig ..). Vhcrc wc divcrgc lrom Ho
sius on a signicant mattcr, a tcxtual notc is indicatcd by a Roman
numcral. Thcsc tcxtual notcs arc lound on pagcs ac.a.
On Benets
., Book z
(r.r) Vithin thc widc rangc ol mistakcs madc by thosc who livc
rccklcssly and without rccction, my cxccllcnt Libcralis, thcrc is al
most nothing, ! would claim, morc harmlul
i
than our ignorancc ol
how to givc and rcccivc bcncts. Thc rcsult is that sincc bcncts arc
bcstowcd badly, thcy arc owcd badly. Vc complain that our bcncts
arc not rcturncd, but it is too latc, sincc thcy wcrc ruincd whilc bc
ing givcn. (r.z) And it is no surprisc that among thc largc numbcr ol
cxtrcmcly gravc viccs, nonc is morc common than thosc stcmming
lrom an ungratclul mind. ! can scc scvcral causcs lor this statc ol al
lairs. Thc rst is that wc do not sclcct worthy rccipicnts lor our gilts.
8y contrast, whcn wc arc going to lcnd moncy wc makc a thorough
inquiry into thc inhcritcd asscts and lilcstylc ol our dcbtor, wc do
not sow sccd onto ground that is cxhaustcd and inlcrtilc. 8ut our
bcncts wc cast o without any discrimination, rathcr than actually
giving thcm.
(r.) !t would bc hard to say which is morc shamclul: rcpudiat
ing a bcnct or asking lor rcpaymcnt. For this is thc kind ol loan ol
which you should rcccivc back only as much as is lrccly ocrcd. Thc
rcason why dclaulting is so vcry shamclul is that mccting oncs obli
gations rcquircs not rcsourccs, but only attitudc. For thc pcrson who
owcs a bcnct rcpays it. (r.) Though blamc lalls on thosc who do
not cvcn claim to bc gratclul, it lalls on us too. Vc cncountcr many
ingratcs, wc crcatc morc. Somctimcs it is bccausc wc arc harsh and
rcproachlul in our dcmands lor rcpaymcnt, somctimcs wc arc cklc
and rcgrct our gilt almost immcdiatcly, somctimcs wc arc complain
crs making a luss about trivialitics. Vc spoil any lccling ol gratitudc
not just altcr wc havc givcn thc bcncts, but cvcn whilc wc arc giving
thcm. (r.) Vho ol us has cvcr bccn satiscd with a singlc passing rc
qucst: Vho has not lrowncd, turncd away, and prctcndcd to bc busy
whcn hc thinks hc is bcing askcd lor somcthing: r uscd long and
dclibcratcly intcrminablc convcrsation to climinatc thc opportunity
lor somconc to makc a rcqucst, cxploiting various tactics to cvadc
urgcnt nccds: (r.6) Vhcn corncrcd, who has not stallcd lor timc
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(that is, madc a cowardly rclusal) or promiscd to givc, but rcluctantly,
with lurrowcd brows and illnaturcd, grudgingly uttcrcd words:
(r.) No onc cvcr cnjoys bcing indcbtcd whcn hc has not rcccivcd thc
bcnct but has cxtortcd it. Can anyonc bc gratclul to a pcrson who
arrogantly tosscs o thc bcnct, angrily throws it in his lacc, or givcs
it only out ol wcarincss, to avoid lurthcr hasslc: !t is a big mistakc to
supposc that thc rccipicnt will rcciprocatc whcn you havc worn him
out with dclays and torturcd him with unccrtainty.
(r.8) A bcnct is owcd with thc samc attitudc as that with which
it is givcn, that is why it should not bc givcn carclcssly. !l somconc
rcccivcs a bcnct lrom an unwitting donor, hc lccls indcbtcd only
to himscll. Giving should dcnitcly not bc dclaycd, lor sincc thc
willingncss ol thc donor is always important whcn cvaluating a kind
dccd, thc donor who acts only altcr a dclay was lor a long timc
unwilling. 8y all mcans do not givc in an ocnsivc manncr. !t is a
natural lact that insults havc morc impact on pcoplc than scrviccs
dowhich is why thc lattcr quickly ladc lrom thc mind and thc lor
mcr arc stubbornly prcscrvcd in mcmory. So what should you cxpcct
il you ocnd a rccipicnt whilc obligating him: Thc bcncciary would
show su cicnt gratitudc just by lorgiving thc bcnct!
(r.q) Ncvcrthclcss, thc mass ol ungratclul rccipicnts should
not makc us slow to do lavors. !n thc rst placc, as ! havc said, wc
oursclvcs arc rcsponsiblc lor incrcasing thcir numbcr. Sccond, thc
immortal gods thcmsclvcs arc not dissuadcd lrom cxcrcising thcir
prolusc and ccasclcss gcncrosity
ii
by thc cxistcncc ol impious pcoplc
who ncglcct thc gods. Thc gods act in accordancc with thcir naturc
and conlcr bcnct on cvcrything, and this includcs cvcn pcoplc who
misrcprcscnt thcir gilts. Lct us lollow thc cxamplc ol thc gods, as
lar as our human wcakncss allows, lct us givc bcncts rathcr than
lcnd thcm. Anyonc who thinks about bcing rcpaid whilc hc is giving
dcscrvcs to bc chcatcd.
8ut supposc it has turncd out badly! (r.ro) Childrcn and wivcs
havc also lct us down, but wc still gct marricd and raisc lamilics. Vc
arc so pcrsistcnt in thc lacc ol our cxpcricnccs in lilc that wc cvcn
go back to war altcr a dclcat and back to sca altcr a shipwrcck. !t is
much morc appropriatc to pcrsist in giving bcncts to pcoplc. !l onc
docs not givc on thc grounds that onc has not bccn rcpaid, thcn thc
giving was lor thc sakc ol bcing rcpaid, and that givcs a good cxcusc
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to thc ungratclul, who should bc ashamcd not to rcturn a lavor il
thcy can. (r.rr) So many pcoplc arc unworthy ol sccing thc light ol
day, still, thc sun riscs. So many pcoplc complain ol bcing born, still,
naturc brings lorth ncw ospring and pcrmits thc vcry pcoplc who
would prclcr not to havc cxistcd to carry on living.
(r.rz) !t is a sign ol a grcat and good mind to pursuc not thc
rcturns lrom bcncts, but thc bcncts thcmsclvcs, and cvcn altcr
dcaling with bad pcoplc to scck out a good pcrson. Vhat would bc
so wondcrlul about hclping out many pcoplc il no onc cvcr lct us
down: !n lact, it is a virtuc to givc bcncts that arc not guarantccd
to bc rcpaid in thc luturc, bcncts whosc rcturns arc lclt immc
diatcly by a donor ol rcal cxccllcncc. (r.r) !ngratitudc should not
dctcr us or makc us rcluctant to undcrtakc a splcndid action, in lact,
il ! wcrc barrcd lrom thc prospcct ol nding a pcrson who would
bc gratclul, ! would rathcr not rcccivc bcncts than not givc thcm,
bccausc somconc who dcclincs to givc simply anticipatcs thc vicc ol
thc ingratc. ! will say just what ! mcan: somconc who lails to rcturn a
bcnct makcs a biggcr mistakc, but somconc who lails to givc makcs
an carlicr mistakc.
(z.r)
Vhcn you sct out to lavish bcncts on thc multitudc
Many must bc lost to makc onc good gilt.
J
Two criticisms can bc madc ol thc rst linc. For thc multitudc is
not thc propcr rccipicnt ol gcncrous giving and thcrc is no rcspcct
ablc way to makc lavish gilts ol anything, lcast ol all bcncts, lor il
you climinatc judgmcnt thcy ccasc to bc bcncts and will acquirc
somc othcr labcl. (z.z) Thc mcaning ol thc sccond linc is splcndid:
onc bcnct wcll givcn compcnsatcs lor thc harm donc by many that
arc wastcd. Considcr, ! bcg ol you, whcthcr it is not both trucr and
morc tting lor thc highmindcdncss ol a bcnclactor, to cxhort him
to givc bcncts cvcn il nonc ol thcm turns out to bc wcll givcn. For
it is lalsc to say that many must bc lost. Nonc is ruincd, lor whocvcr
loscs was kccping an account.
(z.) Thc bookkccping lor bcncts is quitc simplc. A ccrtain
amount is disburscd, il thcrc is any rcpaymcnt at all, thcn it is a
prot. !l thcrc is no rcpaymcnt, it is not a loss. ! gavc it only in ordcr
to givc. No onc rccords bcncts in an account book and thcn, likc
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a grccdy collcction agcnt, dcmands paymcnt at a sct day and timc.
A good man ncvcr thinks about his gilts unlcss hc is rcmindcd by
somconc wishing to rcpay thcm. thcrwisc thc bcncts arc con
vcrtcd into loans. Trcating a bcnct as an cxpcnditurc is a shamclul
lorm ol loansharking. (z.) No mattcr how prcvious bcncts havc
turncd out, carry on bcstowing thcm on othcrs. Thcy will bc bct
tcr o in thc hands ol thc ungratclul who might pcrhaps bc madc
gratclul somc day by a scnsc ol shamc, a convcnicnt opportunity, or
cmulation. o not givc up. Kccp on with your task and lulll thc rolc
ol a good man. Assist onc pcrson with wcalth, somconc clsc with
crcdit, anothcr with your inucncc, somconc clsc with your advicc,
anothcr with scnsiblc instructions. (z.) vcn bcasts arc awarc ol
kindncsscs, and no animal is so intractablc that carc and attcntion
will not gcntlc it and producc acction towards his handlcr. Thosc
who train thcm can salcly handlc lions mouths, lccding makcs thc
crccst clcphants coopcrativc and obcdicntthat is how ccctivc
pcrsistcnt carc and scrvicc arc at winning ovcr animals who cannot
cvcn undcrstand and apprcciatc bcncts. A man is ungratclul in thc
lacc ol thc rst bcnct: Hc wont bc in thc lacc ol thc sccond. Has
hc lorgottcn thcm both: Thc third will rcmind him ol thosc hc has
lct slip. (.r) Somconc who jumps to thc conclusion that his bcncts
havc bccn lost will in lact losc thcm. 8ut somconc who pcrscvcrcs
and hcaps bcnct upon bcnct will squcczc gratitudc cvcn lrom a
hcart that is hard and lorgctlul. Thc rccipicnt wont havc thc ncrvc
to starc down so many bcncts, whcrcvcr hc turns in his corts to
avoid rcmcmbcring thcm, lct him scc you thcrc. 8csicgc him with
your bcncts.
(.z) ! will tcll you what thc distinctivc propcrtics ol bcncts arc,
il you will rst pcrmit mc to skip ovcr thc issucs that do not mat
tcr: why thcrc arc thrcc Graccs,
2
why thcy arc sistcrs, why thcy arc
portraycd holding hands with cach othcr, smiling, youthlul, virginal,
and with loosc and transluccnt clothing. (.) Somc pcoplc advancc
thc vicw that onc ol thcm stands lor giving a bcnct, onc lor rccciv
ing it, and onc lor rcturning it. thcrs hold that thcy rcprcscnt thrcc
kinds ol bcnclactors: thosc who conlcr bcncts, thosc who rcturn
thcm, and thosc who acccpt bcncts and rcturn thcm at thc samc
timc. (.) 8ut no mattcr which ol thcsc intcrprctations you dccidc
is truc, what good docs this spccializcd knowlcdgc do lor us: And
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what about thc lact that thc group danccs in a circlc with intcrtwincd
hands: !s it bccausc a bcnct has an ordcrly scqucncc, passing lrom
hand to hand and yct rcturning to thc givcr, and loscs its intcgral
charactcr il thc scqucncc is at any point brokcn, bcing most bcauti
lul il thc continuity ol thc altcrnation is maintaincd: !n thc dancc,
though, thc oldcr sistcr has a grcatcr valuc, likc thosc who conlcr
bcncts. (.) Thc Graccs havc joylul cxprcssions, just as thosc who
givc and rcccivc bcncts gcncrally do. Thcy arc youthlul bccausc thc
rcmcmbrancc ol bcncts should not grow old. Thcy arc virginal bc
causc bcncts arc unspoilcd, purc, and rcvcrcd by all. 8cncts should
not bc constraincd or obligatcdthat is why thc Graccs wcar loosc
robcs. And thc robcs arc transluccnt bccausc bcncts want to bc in
lull vicw.
(.6) 8ut supposc that somconc is so dcdicatcd to thc Grccks
that hc thinks thcsc qucstions arc vital. vcn so, no onc will think
it mattcrs what namcs Hcsiod gavc thc Graccs. Hc callcd thc cldcst
Aglaca, thc middlc onc uphrosync, and thc youngcst Thalia. ach
authority twists thc intcrprctation ol thcsc namcs as it suits him,
trying to rcducc thcm to somc ordcrly plan, in lact, though, Hcsiod
just assigncd to thc girls thc namcs that hc lclt likc giving thcm.
(.) So Homcr changcd thc namc ol onc, callcd hcr Pasiphac and
cngagcd hcr to bc marricdso you can tcll that thcsc arc not \cstal
\irgins!
3
! could nd you anothcr poct who portrays thc Graccs as
tightly girdcd, and as going about in thick Phryxian wool garmcnts.
So Mcrcury stands bcsidc thcm too, not bccausc it is rcasonthat
is, discoursc
4
that urgcs us to givc bcncts, but bccausc that is what
thc paintcr lclt likc doing. (.8) Chrysippus, who is lamous lor his
sophisticatcd intcllcctual analysis that gcts to thc hcart ol thc truth,
and who only says what is nccdcd to gct thc job donc and ncvcr uscs
morc words than hc nccds in ordcr to bc undcrstoodChrysippus,
too, llcd his cntirc book with this nonscnsc, lcaving himscll only a
littlc bit ol room to discuss thc actual proccss ol giving, rccciving, and
rcturning bcncts. Hc didnt slip thc myths into his discussion, but
rathcr slippcd thc discussion into his myths. (.q) For ovcr and abovc
thc matcrial that Hccaton copicd out, Chrysippus also said that thc
thrcc Graccs arc thc daughtcrs ol Jupitcr and urynomc, youngcr
than thc Hours
5
but just a bit bcttcrlooking, and conscqucntly thc
dcvotcd lollowcrs ol \cnus. Hc thinks that thcir mothcrs namc is
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rclcvant: shc was callcd urynomc bccausc thc sharing out ol bcn
cts rcquircs an inhcritancc that sprcads lar and widc.
6
As though
mothcrs arc routincly namcd altcr thcir daughtcrs! And as though
pocts gct thc namcs right anyway! (.ro) Just as an announccr uscs
bravado in placc ol his mcmory, and il hc cannot rcport somconcs
rcal namc makcs onc up, thc pocts do not think it mattcrs il thcy tcll
thc truth. ithcr out ol ncccssity or bccausc thcy arc scduccd by thc
acsthctic ccct, thcy dcmand that cach charactcr bc callcd whatcvcr
works out prcttily in thc pocm. And it is not dishoncst ol thcm sim
ply to add a ncw namc to thc list. Thc ncxt poct who comcs along
dcmands that thc Graccs bc callcd by thc namcs hc chooscs. To bc
convinccd, just considcr Thalia, who is our particular locus. Shc is a
Gracc in Hcsiod and a Musc in Homcr.
(.r) 8ut to avoid doing what ! criticizc othcrs lor, ! will omit
all thosc topics that arc so lar o thc mark that thcy arc not cvcn in
thc vicinity. Just you look out lor mc, il anyonc takcs mc to task lor
knocking Chrysippus o his pcdcstalhc is a grcat man, ol coursc,
but still hc is a Grcck and his ovcrly subtlc sharpncss gcts bluntcd
and cvcn turncd against him. vcn whcn hc sccms to bc gctting
somcthing donc, hc dclivcrs a pinprick rathcr than a picrcing blow.
(.z) 8ut what is sharpncss on this issuc: ur job is to discuss bcncts
and to organizc thc topic which morc than any othcr binds togcthcr
human socicty. A law ol lilc must bc laid down, so that unrccctivc
niccncss docsnt satisly us undcr thc guisc ol an apparcnt kindncss,
and so that this vcry caution docsnt impcdc our gcncrosity (which
must ncithcr lall short nor go to cxccss) cvcn as it modcratcs it.
(.) Pcoplc must bc taught to givc bcncts lrccly, rcccivc thcm
lrccly, and rcturn thcm lrccly and to sct thcmsclvcs a grand chal
lcngc: not just to match in actions and attitudc thosc to whom wc
arc obligatcd, but cvcn to outdo thcm, lor thc pcrson who should
rcturn a lavor ncvcr catchcs up unlcss hc gcts ahcad. onors must
bc taught not to kccp accounts, rccipicnts must bc taught that thcy
owc cvcn morc than thcy havc rcccivcd. (.) Chrysippus cxhorts us
to cngagc in this most honorablc compctition, outdoing bcncts with
bcncts, whcn hc says that sincc thc Graccs arc Jupitcrs daughtcrs,
wc must rcgard insu cicnt gratitudc as an act ol impicty and as an
injusticc to such bcautilul girls. (.) Tcach mc onc ol thc lcssons
that can hclp mc to bccomc morc bcncccnt and morc gratclul to
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my bcnclactors and which stimulatc thc minds ol thc obligcrs and
thc obligcd to compctc, thc donors to bc lorgctlul, and thosc who
owc to rctain a pcrsistcnt mcmory. Lct us lcavc thosc lrivolitics to
thc pocts, thcir job is to plcasc our cars and tcll a swcctsounding
story. (.6) 8ut as lor thosc whosc ambition is to hcal our minds,
to maintain laithlulncss as a lactor in human aairs, and to ll our
minds with a continucd awarcncss ol our rcsponsibilitics, lct thcm
spcak scriously and act with grcat powcrunlcss, pcrhaps, you think
that lrivolous ctions and argumcnts t lor old womcn might bc ablc
to prcvcnt thc most dcstructivc possiblc turn ol cvcnts: a univcrsal
canccllation ol bcncts.
7
(.r) 8ut just as ! skip ovcr supcruous topics, so ! must announcc
that thc rst thing wc havc to lcarn is thc lollowing: what wc owc
whcn wc havc rcccivcd a bcnct. For onc pcrson says that what hc
owcs is thc moncy hc rcccivcd, somconc clsc says it is thc consul
ship, or a pricstly o cc, or thc govcrnorship ol a provincc. (.z) 8ut
thosc things arc thc signs ol thc lavors, not thc lavors thcmsclvcs.
A bcnct cannot bc touchcd with oncs hand, thc busincss is car
ricd out with oncs mind. Thcrc is a big dicrcncc bctwccn thc raw
matcrial ol a bcnct and thc bcnct itscll. Conscqucntly, thc bcnct
is not thc gold, thc silvcr, or any ol thc things which arc thought to
bc most important, rathcr, thc bcnct is thc intcntion ol thc givcr.
To bc surc, incxpcricnccd obscrvcrs only takc notc ol what thcy scc,
what is handcd ovcr to somconc clsc, and what is posscsscd, whilc
thcy rcgard as trivial~ thc vcry thing that is in lact valuablc and prc
cious. (.) Thc things wc hold in our hands, which wc gazc upon, thc
things that arc thc locus ol our dcsircs, thcsc things arc vulncrablc,
bad luck and injusticc can takc thcm away lrom us. 8ut a bcnct cn
durcs cvcn whcn wc havc lost thc thing through which it was givcn,
lor thc bcnct is a corrcct dccd,
8
and no violcncc can nullily it.
(.) ! ransomcd somconcs lricnd lrom thc piratcs, but somc
othcr cncmy capturcd this lricnd and thrcw him into prison, this
cncmy has dcprivcd him ol thc usc ol my bcnct, not ol thc bcnct
itscll. ! rcstorcd to somconc his childrcn by rcscuing thcm lrom a
shipwrcck or lrom a rc, and thcn a discasc or somc othcr unlair acci
dcnt snatchcd thcm away. vcn without thc childrcn hc still has what
was givcn in conncction with thc childrcn. (.) So all thc things
that arc mistakcnly labclcd bcncts arc thc mcans through which
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thc good will ol a lricnd cxprcsscs itscll. Thc samc thing happcns in
othcr mattcrs too: thc appcarancc ol somcthing is in onc placc, thc
thing itscll is in anothcr. (.6) Thc gcncral may bcstow on somconc
thc torquc,
9
thc sicgc crown, or thc civic crown. Vhat intrinsic valuc
is thcrc in thc crown: !n thc magistratcs toga:
J0
r in thc rods ol
o cc: r in thc right to spcak lrom thc magistcrial platlorm or in
thc triumphal chariot: Nonc ol thosc things is an honor, just thc sign
ol an honor. Similarly, what wc can scc is not a bcnct but mcrcly thc
cvidcncc and indicator ol a bcnct.
(6.r) So what is a bcnct: !t is a wcllintcntioncd action that
conlcrs joy and in so doing dcrivcs joy, inclincd towards and willingly
prcparcd lor doing what it docs. And so it mattcrs not what is donc
or what is givcn, but with what attitudc, sincc thc bcnct consists not
in what is donc or givcn but rathcr in thc intcntion ol thc givcr or
agcnt. (6.z) You can scc how big a dicrcncc thcrc is bctwccn thcm
by rcccting that a bcnct is unconditionally good whilc what is
donc or givcn is ncithcr good nor bad. !t is thc intcntion that cxalts
what is pctty and brings light to what is shabby, intcntion humblcs
thosc things that arc grand and gcncrally rcgardcd as valuablc. 8ut
thc objccts ol our striving do not havc cithcr charactcr: thcy arc
ncithcr good nor bad. Thc dicrcncc lics in whcrc thcy arc dircctcd
by thc stccrsman who givcs lorm to things. (6.) Thc bcnct itscll
is not thc thing that is countcd out or handcd ovcr, similarly, thc
honor to thc gods docs not consist in thc sacricial animals, no mat
tcr how lat and shining with gold thcy might bc, but rathcr in thc
corrcct and pious intcntion ol thc worshippcrs. And so good pcoplc
can bc obscrvant cvcn with barlcy groats and rustic cakcs, whcrcas
bad pcoplc cannot avoid impicty cvcn though thcy stain thc altars
with rivcrs ol blood.
(.r) !l bcncts consistcd in thc things and not prcciscly in thc
intcntion ol thc bcnclactor, thcn thc bcncts would bc grcatcr to thc
cxtcnt that thc things rcccivcd arc grcatcr. 8ut that is not thc casc.
For oltcn wc arc morc obligcd to thc pcrson who gavc us a small
gilt in grand manncr, who matchcd thc wcalth ol kings with his
intcntion,
JJ
who gavc littlc but did so lrccly, who ignorcd his own
povcrty whilc showing conccrn lor minc, who was not just willing to
hclp out but cagcr to do so, who lclt likc hc was rccciving a bcnct
bccausc hc was giving onc, who gavc as though hc would not~ latcr
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rcccivc and rcccivcd as though hc had not givcn, who watchcd lor,
cvcn sought out, an opportunity to scrvc. (.z) 8y contrast, as ! havc
alrcady said, bcncts that havc to bc cxtractcd lrom thc donor or that
lall carclcssly lrom himthcsc bcncts arc not apprcciatcd cvcn il
thcy sccm largc in bulk and in appcarancc, a gilt givcn with a rcady
hand is much morc apprcciatcd than onc givcn with a gcncrous hand.
(.) Vhat this pcrson gavc to mc was vcry small, but hc could do no
morc. Vhat this othcr pcrson gavc is grcat, but hc was hcsitant, hc
put it o, hc moancd whilc hc was giving, hc gavc arrogantly, and hc
paradcd thc lact that hc was giving, and did not intcnd to givc plca
surc to thc rccipicnt. Hc gavc to his own ambition and not to mc.
(8.r) vcryonc uscd to ocr Socratcs gilts, cach according to his
own rcsourccs. Acschincs, who was poor and a studcnt ol Socratcs,
said, ! cannot nd anything worthy ol you which ! could givc you,
it is only in this rcspcct that ! lccl poor. And so ! givc you thc only
thing ! havc: myscll. ! only ask that you apprcciatc my gilt, such as it
is, and rccct that although othcr pcoplc havc givcn you a grcat dcal,
thcy havc kcpt back morc lor thcmsclvcs. (8.z) Socratcs rcplicd, l
coursc you havc givcn mc a grcat giltunlcss, that is, you sct a low
valuc on yourscll. So ! will bc surc to rcturn you to yourscll in bct
tcr condition than ! rcccivcd you. Vith this gilt Acschincs outdid
Alcibiadcs, whosc intcntions matchcd his wcalth, and thc gcncrous
gilts ol all thc wcalthy young mcn.
(q.r) o you scc how a wcllintcntioncd donor can discovcr thc
raw matcrial lor gcncrosity, cvcn amidst straitcncd circumstanccs: !n
my opinion, Acschincs was saying, Fortunc, your dcsirc to makc mc
poor has bccn inccctual. cspitc you, ! will scnd this man a worthy
gilt, sincc ! cannot givc it lrom your rcsourccs, ! will givc it lrom my
own. And thcrc is no rcason lor you to concludc that Acschincs was
undcrvaluing himscll. Hc was willing to ocr himscll as paymcnt lor
himscll. This talcntcd young man lound a way to givc Socratcs to
himscll. You should not considcr thc magnitudc ol cach gilt, but thc
quality ol thc givcr . . . .
iii
(q.z) . . . a cunning man providcd casy acccss to thosc with unrc
straincd dcsircs, and, though hc was not actually going to do anything
to lulll thcir impropcr ambitions, hc gavc thcm vcrbal cncouragc
mcnt. His rcputation would sucr, though, il hc wcrc sharptongucd
and longlaccd as hc displaycd his good lortunc to thc cnvy ol othcrs.
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Thcy curry lavor with prospcrous pcoplc, yct hatc thcm. Thcy dctcst
othcrs lor doing cxactly what thcy would thcmsclvcs do, il only thcy
could.
(q.) Thcy humiliatcd othcr mcns wivcs, not bchind closcd doors
cvcn, but out in public, and thcn allowcd othcr mcn to do thc samc
to thcir own wivcs. !l a man dcnics his wilc pcrmission to makc
hcrscll publicly availablc as shc gocs about town in hcr scdan chair,
on display lor inspcction by all kinds ol prospcctivc clicnts, his bc
havior is thought to bc boorish and uncultivatcd, a mark ol thc kind
ol bad charactcr that all rcspcctablc marricd womcn dctcst. (q.) !l
a man bccomcs known lor not having a mistrcss, and docs not pay
an allowancc to somconc clscs wilc, thcn all thc rcspcctablc marricd
womcn say hc is bcncath thcm, a man with basc dcsircs pronc to
chasing altcr slavc girls. Thc rcsult is that adultcry is now thc most
rcliablc
iv
routc to bctrothal and both widowhood and bachclorhood
havc bccomc a gcncral practicc, sincc no onc takcs a wilc unlcss hc
is taking onc away lrom somconc clsc. (q.) Nowadays mcn compctc
to squandcr what thcy havc stolcn and thcn to collcct what thcy havc
squandcrcd all ovcr again, and thcy do so with a lcrocious and bit
tcr grccd, caring lor nothing, dcspising othcr mcns povcrty cvcn as
thcy lcar it lor thcmsclvcs morc than any othcr mislortunc, thcy up
sct civil ordcr with thcir unjust bchavior, tcrrorizing and opprcssing
wcakcr mcn. !t is no surprisc that provinccs arc pillagcd and corrupt
judgmcnts can bc rcsold to thc othcr sidc oncc thc bidding is opcncd
to both, altcr all, it is a univcrsal lcgal principlc that you arc allowcd
to scll somcthing that you havc purchascd.
(ro.r) 8ut ! havc bccn carricd away by my cnthusiasm and thc
stimulus ol thc subjcct, so lct us bring this to a conclusion by show
ing that thc lault docs not bclong to our cra. ur anccstors madc thc
complaint, wc makc thc complaint, and our dcsccndcnts will com
plain about it too: morals arc corrupt, vicc is dominant, human aairs
arc dcclining, and all scnsc ol right and wrong is crumbling. 8ut thc
situation is still thc samc and it will rcmain prctty much thc samc,
givc or takc a littlc movcmcnt onc way or thc othcr, likc thc wavcs
which thc incoming tidc brings lurthcr inland and thc outgoing tidc
holds back to thc lowwatcr linc. (ro.z) At onc point our moral lail
ings will lcan morc in thc dircction ol adultcry than any othcr vicc,
and thc rcstraints ol scxual modcsty will bc shattcrcd, at anothcr
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point thc dominant vicc will bc thc mad cxccsscs ol lcasting and
gastronomic cxtravagancc, which rcducc inhcritanccs to a shamclul
statc ol ruin, at somc othcr timc it will bc cxccssivc cultivation ol
thc body and an obscssion with bcauty that advcrtiscs intcllcctual
and moral uglincss, again, it will bc badly managcd lrccdom which
brcaks out into prcsumptuous impudcncc, thcn wc will dcsccnd into
public and privatc savagcry and thc madncss ol civil wars, in which
cvcrything sacrcd and holy is violatcd. Somc day drunkcnncss will
bring rcspcct, and thc capacity to drink a hugc volumc ol strong winc
will bc a virtuc. (ro.) \iccs do not wait around in just onc location,
thcy arc on thc movc and jostlc compctitivcly with cach othcr
somctimcs winning, somctimcs losing. 8ut wc will always bc obligcd
to makc thc samc dcclaration about oursclvcs: that wc arc bad now,
havc bccn bad in thc past, and (though ! add this point rcluctantly)
will bc bad in thc luturc. (ro.) Thcrc will always bc killcrs, tyrants,
thicvcs, adultcrcrs, rapists, violators ol rcligion, and traitors.
8ut lowcr than all ol thcsc is thc ungratclul manunlcss, ol
coursc, all thosc crimcs actually stcm lrom ingratitudc, without
which hardly any grcat crimc achicvcs its lull magnitudc. Trcat it as
thc grcatcst crimcand so avoid committing it. 8ut think ol it as
thc slightcstand so lorgivc it il somconc commits it against you.
For thc sum total ol thc injusticc is that you havc lost thc bcnct
you gavc, you havc prcscrvcd what is bcst about it, thc lact that you
gavc it.
(ro.) Vc must, ol coursc, takc grcat carc to bcstow bcncts abovc
all on pcoplc who will rcspond with gratitudc, but cvcn so, thcrc arc
somc bcncts which wc will conlcr cvcn il wc suspcct that thcy may
not turn out wcll, and which wc will conlcr on othcrs not only il wc
comc to thc conclusion that thc rccipicnts will bc ungratclul but cvcn
il wc know that thcy havc bccn so in thc past. For cxamplc, il ! can
rcscuc somconcs childrcn lrom gravc dangcr without any dangcr
to myscll, thcn ! will not hcsitatc to do so. ! will cvcn shcd my own
blood to dclcnd somconc who is worthy, and ! will sharc in thc risks,
and il somconc is unworthy but ! can rcscuc him lrom bandits by
raising a shout, thcn it wont bothcr mc to uttcr thc cry that might
bring salcty to a lcllow human bcing.
(rr.r) Ncxt lct us discuss which bcncts should bc givcn and how
thcy should bc givcn. Vc should rst givc bcncts that arc ncccssary,
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ncxt bcncts that arc usclul, thcn bcncts that arc plcasant, at all
cvcnts wc should givc bcncts that will cndurc. 8ut wc should start
with thc ncccssary. For our minds arc acctcd dicrcntly by things
that our lilc dcpcnds on, and by things that adorn our lilc or lurnish
it. A pcrson can bc a nicky cvaluator ol somcthing that hc can
casily do without and about which hc can say, Takc it back. ! dont
nccd it. ! am happy with what ! havc. And at timcs onc is inclincd
not just to rcturn what hc has bccn givcn, but cvcn to throw it away.
(rr.z) Ncccssary bcncts lall into thrcc catcgorics: rst, things wc
cannot livc without, sccond, things wc ought not to livc without,
third, things wc do not want to livc without.
(rr.) Thc rst typc arc bcncts ol this sort: bcing rcscucd lrom
thc clutchcs ol thc cncmy, a tyrants ragc, proscription, or any ol thc
various unprcdictablc dangcrs that thrcatcn human lilc. Thc grcatcr
and morc tcrrilying thc dangcrs wc havc dispcllcd, thc morc grati
tudc wc shall acquirc. !mmcdiatcly pcoplc think ol how grcat an
cvil thcy havc bccn sparcd, and antcccdcnt lcar makcs our scrvicc all
thc morc attractivc. Howcvcr, wc should not bc nccdlcssly slow in
rcscuing somconc just in ordcr to havc thcir tcrror add wcight to our
scrvicc. (rr.) Ncxt arc bcncts that wc can, to bc surc, livc without,
though dcath might bc prclcrablc, such as lrccdom, chastity, and
sanity. Altcr thcsc will comc things that arc dcar to us as a rcsult
ol lamily conncctions, blood kinship, lamiliarity, and longstanding
acquaintancc, such as oncs childrcn, spouscs, houschold gods, and
thc othcr things to which thc mind has bccomc so attachcd that it
sccms worsc to bc dcprivcd ol thcm than ol lilc itscll.
(rr.) Usclul bcncts comc ncxt, and thcrc is a grcat and varicd
supply ol such things. Hcrc wc will placc moncy, not in cxccss but in
an amount su cicnt lor a rcasonablc lcvcl ol cnjoymcnt, hcrc too wc
will placc honors and advanccmcnt lor thosc who strivc lor highcr
social standingnothing is morc usclul than to makc oncscll usclul
in this sphcrc.
v
Now wc comc to thc rcmaining bcnctsoncs that
will makc thc rccipicnts scllindulgcnt as a rcsult ol cxccss. !n this
arca wc will procccd in such a way as to makc thc bcncts apprcci
atcd bccausc ol thcir timclincss, bccausc thcy avoid bcing common
placc, thc sorts ol things that lcw pcoplc havc acquircd, or at any ratc
lcw pcoplc in that agc group, or in just that waythings that, cvcn
il thcy arc not valuablc in thcir own right, bccomc so bccausc ol thc
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circumstanccs ol timc or placc. (rr.6) Lct us considcr what wc can
givc that will bring grcatcst plcasurc and what thc rccipicnt will think
ol lrcqucntly, so that wc will bc in his thoughts whcncvcr thc gilt is.
At all cvcnts wc will bc carclul not to givc gilts that arc supcruous,
such as hunting cquipmcnt to a woman or an old man, or books to
a country bumpkin, or ncts
J2
to a man whosc passion is scholarship
and litcraturc. Convcrscly, wc will bc cqually carclul, whcn wc aim
to givc what will plcasc thc rccipicnt, to avoid scnding gilts that arc
in ccct criticisms ol thc rccipicnts viccs, such as wincs givcn to a
drunkard and mcdicinc to a hypochondriac. !l a gilt makcs pcoplc
noticc thc lailings ol thc rccipicnt, it vcrgcs on bcing a critiquc rathcr
than a gilt.
(rz.r) !l thc dccision about giving is in our own powcr wc will
scck abovc all to givc things that will last, so that thc gilt will bc as
immortal as possiblc. Thcrc arc lcw pcoplc so gratclul that thcy think
about what thcy havc rcccivcd cvcn il thcy cannot scc it. 8ut thc gilt
itscll provokcs cvcn thc ungratclul to rcmcmbcr, at lcast whcn it is
right bclorc thcir cycs, it docs not lct thcm lorgct thc gilt and lorccs
thc rccipicnt to takc noticc ol thc givcr as wcll. Lct us, thcn, look
lor gilts that will last, cspccially sincc wc should ncvcr rcmind thc
rccipicnt ol thcm. Thc objcct itscll should stimulatc thc mcmory il it
is wcakcning. (rz.z) ! will bc happicr to givc a silvcr objct dart than
a silvcr coin, and happicr to givc statucs than clothing and things
that wcar out altcr a short timc in usc. Fcw pcoplc rctain gratitudc
whcn thc objcct is gonc, thcrc arc morc who dont kccp gilts in mind
any longcr than thcy kccp thcm in usc. !l it can bc avoidcd, ! would
rathcr my gilt not bc uscd up, lct it stay in cxistcncc, cling to my
lricnd, and sharc his lilc. (rz.) No onc is so loolish that hc nccds
to bc rcmindcd not to scnd gladiators or animals lor thc hunt whcn
thc gamcs havc alrcady bccn stagcd, or summcr clothcs in thc wintcr
and wintcr clothcs at midsummcr. Thcrc should bc common scnsc in
giving bcncts. nc should pay attcntion to thc occasion, thc placc,
and thc pcoplc involvcd, sincc lor ccrtain things minor circumstanccs
dctcrminc whcthcr thcy arc apprcciatcd or not. !t is so much bcttcr il
wc givc what somconc docs not havc rathcr than somcthing hc pos
scsscs in grcat abundancc, what hc has bccn sccking lor a long timc
and not lound, rathcr than what hc can scc whcrcvcr hc turns. (rz.)
Thc gilts should not bc choscn lor thcir costlincss, but rathcr bccausc
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thcy arc scarcc and hard to nd, such gilts havc a spccial placc cvcn in
thc hcart ol a wcalthy man, just as wc cnjoy applcs that arc ordinary
and that wc would quickly tirc olif thcy havc comc on carly.
Morcovcr, thcrc will bc a spccial standing lor things that no onc
clsc has givcn or that wc havc givcn to no onc clsc. (r.r) Vhcn Al
cxandcr thc Grcat had conqucrcd thc ast and bccomc inhumanly
arrogant, thc Corinthians scnt ambassadors to praisc him and prcscnt
him with thc gilt ol Corinthian citizcnship. Vhcn Alcxandcr scocd
at this lorm ol rcspcct, onc ol thc ambassadors said, Vc havc ncvcr
givcn citizcnship to anyonc cxccpt you and Hcrculcs. (r.z) Alcx
andcr thcn gladly acccptcd thc honor, which was not dilutcd, and
honorcd thcm with an invitation to dinc with him and with othcr
courtcsics, thinking not about .ho was giving him citizcnship but to
.hom thcy had givcn it. This man, who was dcvotcd to glory (though
hc did not know what it rcally is or what its limits arc), lollowcd
in thc lootstcps ol Hcrculcs and ionysus and did not cvcn stop
whcrc thcy cvcntually had givcn out, this man rcdircctcd his gazc
lrom thosc who wcrc giving him thc honor to thc god who sharcd
it, as though hc had alrcady bccn clcvatcd to thc hcavcns which his
loolish mind was alrcady cmbracing, all bccausc hc had bccn put
on thc samc lcvcl as Hcrculcs. (r.) 8ut what did that crazy young
man havc in common with Hcrculcs: !n placc ol virtuc, Alcxandcr
posscsscd nothing but boldncss and good luck. Hcrculcs conqucsts
wcrc not undcrtakcn lor his own bcnct, hc travclcd thc world not
bccausc ol a lust lor conqucst, but bccausc ol his judgmcnt about
what to conqucr, hc was thc loc ol cvil mcn, thc dclcndcr ol good
mcn, thc bringcr ol pcacc on land and sca. 8ut Alcxandcr, cvcr sincc
childhood, had bccn a bandit and a worldwidc pillagcr, as dangcrous
to his cncmics as hc was to his lricnds. Hc thought thc highcst good
was to strikc tcrror into thc hcart ol all mortal crcaturcslorgctting
that it is not only thc crccst ol animals, but also thc bascst ol ani
mals, that arc lcarcd on account ol thcir vcnomous naturc.
(r.r) Lct us rcturn to our thcmc now. !l somconc givcs a bcnct
to just anybody, thcn it is apprcciatcd by no onc. No onc thinks ol
himscll as thc pcrsonal gucst ol thc innkccpcr or tavcrn kccpcr, nor
thc companion ol thc man who givcs a public lcast. !n thosc cascs
onc can lcgitimatcly say, Vcll, what has hc givcn to mc: Just this, !
gucss: cxactly what hc also gavc to thc pcrson hc hardly knows and
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cvcn to his cncmics and thc most dishonorablc ol pcoplc. Surcly
you do not think hc judgcd mc worthy ol anything, do you: Hc
was only indulging his vicc. !l you want somcthing to bc apprcci
atcd, makc it rarc. No onc
vi
minds bcing in dcbt on thosc tcrms.
(r.z) 8ut no onc should think that ! am rcducing gcncrosity and
kccping it on a tight lcash. Lct gcncrosity go as lar as it likcsbut
it should go and not just wandcr around. nc may sprcad it around,
but only in such a way that cach and cvcry rccipicnt lccls that hc is
not just onc ol thc crowd, cvcn il hc has rcccivcd thc gilt along with
many othcrs. (r.) vcryonc should havc somc uniquc indication
which lcts him imaginc that hc is in a spccial rclationship with thc
givcr. ! rcccivcd thc samc thing hc did, but it was ocrcd lrccly in
my casc. ! rcccivcd what hc did, but ! got it quickly and hc had to
wait a long timc to carn it. Thcrc arc pcoplc who havc thc samc
thing ! do, but thcy didnt gct it with thc samc kind words and thc
donor was not so gracious. Hc got it whcn hc askcd lor it, ! didnt
havc to ask. Hc rcccivcd somcthing, but is likcly to rcturn itthc
lact that hc is old and uncncumbcrcd with hcirs is a strong indica
tion. Hc gavc mc morc, in a scnsc, though hc gavc thc samc amount,
sincc hc gavc it to mc without hopc ol gctting it back. (r.) !t is likc
a prostitutc, who sharcs hcrscll among many mcn, but givcs cach ol
thcm somc sign ol spccial intimacy: anyonc who wants his bcncts
to cvokc acction should gurc out how to put many pcoplc undcr
obligation and still givc cach and cvcry onc somc rcason to think that
hc is prclcrrcd to thc othcrs.
(r.r) !n lact ! do not imposc obstaclcs to thc giving ol bcncts.
Thc morc and thc grcatcr thcy arc, thc morc praisc thcy bring to
thc givcr. 8ut lct thcrc bc somc cxcrcisc ol good judgmcnt. Altcr all,
things givcn haphazardly and rccklcssly will not cndcar thcmsclvcs to
anyonc. (r.z) So, il anyonc thinks that thcsc prcccpts wc arc giving
show that wc put strict limits on kindncss and givc it a lcss opcn cld,
wcll! That is simply a misundcrstanding ol our advicc. Vhich virtuc
do wc rcspcct morc: Vhich virtuc do wc stimulatc morc: Vho is
morc t to givc this cxhortation than wc oursclvcs, who rcgard thc
social bonds ol thc human racc with sacrcd rcvcrcncc:
(r.) So what is my mcssagc: ! lorbid thc squandcring ol gcn
crosity on thc grounds that no mcntal trait can bc honorablc, cvcn
il it originatcs in a corrcct intcntion,
J3
unlcss it is madc into a virtuc
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by thc imposition ol a limit. !t is a plcasurc to rcccivc a bcnct, with
hands outstrctchcd in lact, whcn rcason brings it to thosc who arc
worthy ol it, not whcn chancc and rccklcss impctuosity distributc
it haphazardly. A bcnct is somcthing onc is happy to display and
to havc on oncs books. (r.) o you call it a bcnct whcn you arc
ashamcd to admit who gavc it to you: 8ut whcn you gct morc plca
surc lrom thinking about who gavc somcthing than lrom thinking
about what you havc bccn givcn, isnt that much morc gratilying and
much morc likcly to makc a pcrmancnt impact on your inncrmost
thoughts and lcclings:
(r.) Crispus Passicnus
J4
uscd to say that thcrc wcrc somc pcoplc
whosc judgmcnt hc prclcrrcd to thcir bcncts and othcrs whosc bcn
cts hc prclcrrcd to thcir judgmcnt. And hc ocrcd cxamplcs. Hc
uscd to say, ! prclcr to havc Augustuss judgmcnt and Claudiuss
bcncts. (r.6) !, howcvcr, do not think that onc should scck bcncts
lrom anyonc whosc judgmcnt is worthlcss. Vhats that: Should !
not havc acccptcd what Claudius was ocring mc: 8y all mcans, but
you should havc acccptcd it as though it wcrc givcn by Fortuncand
you kncw that Fortunc could bccomc vicious in thc wink ol an cyc.
Vhy do wc scparatc things that arc thoroughly mixcd togcthcr:
J5
8c
causc it is not a rcal bcnct il thc bcst aspcct ol it is missingthat is,
thc lact that it was givcn with judgmcnt. thcrwisc, a hugc amount
ol moncy, il givcn without thought and corrcct intcntion, is not so
much a bcnct as a lucky nd. Thcrc arc, in lact, many things which
it is appropriatc to rcccivc, but without bcing indcbtcd.
Book :
(r.r) My cxccllcnt Libcralis, lct us considcr thc part ol thc rst topic
that is still outstanding: thc manncr in which wc should givc bcncts.
! think ! can point to an cxtrcmcly c cicnt way ol doing this: lct us
givc bcncts in thc way in which wc would want to rcccivc thcm.
(r.z) Abovc all, that mcans doing so willingly, quickly, and with no
hcsitation.
A bcnct docs not provokc gratitudc il it has bccn sticking to thc
ngcrs ol thc givcr lor a long timc and il thc givcr sccmcd scarccly
ablc to part with it, sccms to bc giving as though thc gilt wcrc bcing
torn lrom him. vcn il somc dclay docs occur, lct us by all mcans
avoid giving thc imprcssion that wc havc bccn considcring thc mat
tcr. Hc who hcsitatcs virtually rcluscs to givc, and gains no grati
tudc. For in bcncts thc donors willingncss is thc grcatcst sourcc ol
plcasurc, thcrclorc, bccausc hc dcmonstratcd by his vcry hcsitation
that hc was unwilling to givc, hc did not rcally givc but only lailcd at
rcsisting somconc who was cxacting a bcnct. !n lact, many pcoplc
bccomc gcncrous only bccausc thcy arc lccblc in thc lacc ol dctcr
mincd rcqucsts.
i
(r.) Thc bcncts that carn thc most gratitudc arc
thosc givcn rcadily, casily, unpromptcd, whcn thc only dclay dcrivcs
lrom thc modcsty ol thc rccipicnt. Thc bcst approach is to anticipatc
cach rccipicnts wishcs, thc sccond bcst plan is to comply promptly.
!t is bcttcr to takc thc initiativc bclorc wc arc askcd, bccausc a dcccnt
man clcnchcs his tccth and blushcs all ovcr whcn hc has to makc
a rcqucst and thc donor who sparcs him this pain magnics thc
valuc ol his gilt. (r.) Thc man who acccpts a gilt altcr asking lor
it is not gctting it lor lrcccspccially sincc, as our anccstors (vcry
scrious mcn indccd) thought, nothing is morc cxpcnsivc than what
is purchascd by supplication. Mcn would makc thcir praycrs morc
sparingly il thcy had to do so in public. And so wc would rathcr pray
silcntly and intcrnally cvcn whcn praying to thc gods, whom it is
most honorablc to implorc.
(z.r) ! rcqucst is an unplcasant and burdcnsomc cxprcssion, to
bc uttcrcd with downcast cycs. You must sparc lrom having to say it

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both your lricnds and anyonc whom you wish to makc into a lricnd
by doing a scrvicc. No mattcr how quickly you givc thc bcnct, it
is too latc whcn you havc givcn upon rcqucst. So you must intuit
thc dcsirc ol cach potcntial rccipicnt, and whcn you undcrstand it
you must lrcc him lrom thc burdcnsomc nccd to makc a rcqucst.
Thc bcnct that comcs to thc rccipicnt spontancously is thc onc
that will livc on in his mind most plcasantly. (z.z) !l it so happcns
that anticipating thc rcqucst is not possiblc, wc should intcrrupt thc
rcqucst so that lcw words nccd bc uttcrcd. To avoid thc imprcssion
that wc havc bccn askcd rathcr than just inlormcd, wc must promisc
immcdiatcly and dcmonstratc by our vcry hastc that wc wcrc about
to takc action cvcn bclorc wc wcrc pctitioncd. Just as in thc casc
ol illncss, thc timclincss ol thc lood aids in thc rccovcry, and cvcn
plain watcr givcn at thc right momcnt works as a curc, so too no
mattcr how trivial and ordinary a bcnct is, il it is rcadily givcn and
il not an hour has bccn lost, thcn it is grcatly cnhanccd and carns
morc gratitudc than an cxpcnsivc gilt that has comc slowly and altcr
a grcat dcal ol dclibcration. Rcadincss in giving is prool that it is
lrccly givcn, and so thc donor givcs happily and his lacial cxprcssion
displays his statc ol mind.
(.r) Somc pcoplc who givc cnormous bcncts undcrminc thcm
by thcir silcncc or rcluctancc to spcak, thcy givc thc imprcssion ol
bcing scrious and scvcrc, and so cvcn though thcy promisc to givc,
thcy look as il thcy arc saying no. !t is so much bcttcr to augmcnt
your good dccds with good words and to cnhancc your gilt with a
humanc and kindly manncr ol addrcss. (.z) You can gct your rccipi
cnt to blamc himscll lor asking too slowly by throwing in thc kind ol
complaint wc would dircct to a lricnd: !m annoycd at you bccausc
whcn you nccdcd somcthing you wantcd lor a long timc to kccp mc
in thc dark about it, and thcn you askcd so lormally and brought in a
third party.
J
! am just glad that you saw t to put my good will to thc
tcst, in thc luturc you can dcmand as a right whatcvcr you nccd!ll
pardon your bad manncrs this onc timc. (.) This is how to makc
surc that your rccipicnt will put a highcr valuc on your intcntions
than on whatcvcr it was that hc camc asking lor. Thc grcatcst mcrit
ol a donor and thc grcatcst kindncss comc whcn thc rccipicnt gocs
away saying to himscll, ! protcd grcatly today, but ! carc morc that
! lound a donor ol that charactcr than il ! had rcccivcd scvcral timcs
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as much ol what ! askcd lor in somc othcr manncr. ! will ncvcr bc

ablc to rcturn a lavor commcnsuratc with his good will.
(.r) 8ut thcrc arc a lot ol pcoplc whosc harsh spccch and con
tcmptuous cxprcssion makc thcir bcncts hatclul, thcy spcak and act
so arrogantly that thc rccipicnt comcs to rcgrct his succcss. And thcn
altcr thc bcnct is promiscd thcrc arc morc dclays, nothing cmbittcrs
a pcrson morc than having to ask lor somcthing that you havc alrcady
bccn grantcd. (.z) 8cncts should bc givcn on thc spotand yct
thcrc arc somc pcoplc lrom whom it is hardcr to gct thc bcnct than
thc promisc ol onc! You havc to ask onc man to do thc rcminding,
and somconc clsc to scc it through. So onc gilt gcts worn out by
passing through so many hands and vcry littlc gratitudc lodgcs with
thc promiscr, sincc cvcryonc who has to bc askcd subscqucntly takcs
somc away lrom thc initiator. (.) So il you want your gilts to bc
thought ol with gratitudc, takc carc that thcy gct to thc pcoplc to
whom thcy arc promiscd intact and undiminishcd, with no dcduc
tion having bccn madc. ont lct anyonc intcrvcnc, dont lct anyonc
slow thcm down. Vhcn you arc going to givc somcthing, no onc can
carn any gratitudc without rcducing yours.
(.r) Nothing is so bittcr as bcing kcpt hanging lor a long timc.
Somc pcoplc can bc morc goodnaturcd about having thcir hopcs
dashcd than about having thcm stallcd. 8ut many pcoplc sucr lrom
thc dclcct ol dclaying on thcir promiscs out ol a pcrvcrtcd ambition
to maintain thc sizc ol thcir crowd ol pctitioncrs, rathcr likc minis
tcrs to a powcrlul monarch who arc thrillcd by a prolongcd cxhibi
tion ol thcir own arrogancc and think that thcy arc not powcrlul
cnough il thcy do not makc a big show ol thcir powcr ovcr a long
pcriod ol timc lor cach and cvcry pcrson who comcs along. Thcy do
nothing quickly, nothing oncc and lor all. Thcir injurics arc instant,
thcir bcncts arc draggcd out. (.z) So you should rccognizc thc truth
ol what thc comic poct said:
Vhats that: ont you gct it:
Thc morc dclay you add, thc lcss gratitudc you gct!
2
And this is thc sourcc ol thosc cxclamations promptcd by thc an
guish ol thc rcspcctablc, !l yourc going to do somcthing, just do it!
and Nothing is worth this much, !d rathcr you just said no to mc!
(.) Vhcn having to wait around makcs thc mind so borcd that it
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starts to dctcst thc bcnct, can it still lccl any gratitudc lor it: rag
ging out thc punishmcnt is thc most vicious lorm ol cruclty, a swilt
cxccution is a kind ol mcrcy bccausc cxtrcmc torturc brings with it
an cnd to itscll and thc worst part ol an cxccution is thc timc lcad
ing up to it, in thc samc way, thcn, thcrc is morc gratitudc lor a gilt
thc lcss timc onc is lclt hanging. Vaiting, cvcn lor good things, is a
sourcc ol anxicty. Sincc thc vast majority ol bcncts bring rclicl lor
somc problcm or othcr, anyonc who prolongs thc sucring ol somc
onc whom hc could lrcc at oncc or dclays his joy is doing violcncc
to his own bcnct. (.) Kindncss always hurrics, and swilt action is
charactcristic ol somconc who acts lrccly. Somconc who hclps out
slowly, dragging out onc day altcr anothcr, docs not act wholchcart
cdly. So hc loscs two vcry important things: both thc timc involvcd
and thc indication that his intcnt was lricndly. Villingncss dclaycd
is a sign ol unwillingncss.
(6.r) Libcralis, thc way in which cach thing is said or donc is a
not insignicant aspcct ol cvcry undcrtaking. Spccd adds a grcat dcal
and dclay dctracts a grcat dcal. !n thc casc ol spcars thc quality ol
thc iron tip can bc thc samc, but it makcs a big dicrcncc whcthcr
it is hurlcd with a vigorous cxtcnsion ol thc arm or lct glidc lrom a
rclaxcd hand. Thc samc sword can both grazc thc surlacc and picrcc,
thc dicrcncc lics in how rmly it is hcld. Similarly, thc thing which
is givcn can bc thc samc, but ho. it is givcn makcs a dicrcncc. (6.z)
!t is so plcasant and so valuablc il thc donor docs not cvcn lct you
thank him, il hc has lorgottcn his gilt cvcn as hc givcs it. For it is
crazy to rcbukc somconc right whilc you arc giving him somcthing
and so to gralt insult onto your act ol kindncss. So bcncts should
not bc madc annoying, nor should anything harsh bc mixcd in. And
cvcn il thcrc is somcthing you want to chidc somconc lor, pick an
othcr timc lor it.
(.r) Fabius \crrucosus
3
uscd to say that a bcnct givcn rudcly
by a harsh man is likc brcad with gravcl in ita hungry man has to
takc it, but it is hard to swallow. (.z) Marius Ncpos, a practorian,
oncc askcd Tibcrius Cacsar to hclp him out whcn hc was in dcbt,
Cacsar ordcrcd him to supply thc namcs ol his crcditors. (That is not
giving a gilt, it is convcning a mccting ol crcditors!) And whcn thc
namcs had bccn supplicd Cacsar wrotc to Ncpos to say that hc had
givcn instructions that thc dcbts should bc paid o, and hc addcd
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to thc lcttcr an insulting bit ol advicc. Thc rcsult ol his actions was
that Ncpos was lclt without his dcbts and without a bcnct, Cacsar
lrccd him lrom his crcditors but did not bind Ncpos to himscll.
(.) Tibcrius had somcthing in mind, ! suspcct that hc didnt want
thcrc to bc vcry many pcoplc ocking to makc thc samc sort ol
rcqucst. Maybc this was an ccctivc way to dctcr pcoplcs immoral
dcsircs through shamc, but il you arc conlcrring a bcnct youvc got
to takc a wholly dicrcnt approach. Youvc got to drcss up your gilt
howcvcr you can to makc it casicr to acccpt. 8ut what Cacsar did
isnt giving a bcnct, its catching somconc out.
(8.r) And just to say in passing what ! think on this point too,
it is not rcally propcr cvcn lor thc cmpcror to givc a gilt in ordcr to
humiliatc.
4
Yct, onc says, not cvcn by this manncr ol giving could
Tibcrius cvadc what hc was trying to avoid. For latcr thcrc cmcrgcd a
lair numbcr ol pcoplc making thc samc rcqucst, and hc ordcrcd thcm
all to cxplain thc rcasons lor thcir dcbt in thc Scnatc, on thosc tcrms
hc grantcd thcm somc spccic amounts ol moncy. (8.z) This is not
gcncrosity, it is thc bchavior ol a ccnsor. !t is a lorm ol assistancc,
ol coursc, and it is thc gilt ol thc cmpcror, but it ccrtainly is not a
bcnct il ! cannot think about it latcr without blushing. ! was scnt
bclorc a judgc, ! plcd my casc to gct what ! askcd lor.
(q.r) And so it is that all philosophical authoritics tcach that somc
bcncts should bc givcn opcnly and somc in sccrct. Vc should bc
opcn about bcncts which it is glorious to rcccivc, such as military
dccorations, honors, and anything clsc which publicity makcs morc
splcndid. (q.z) 8ut wc should kccp condcntial thosc gilts that do
not bring advanccmcnt lor thc rccipicnt or makc him morc rcspcct
ablc, but rathcr assist him in timcs ol illncss, povcrty, or disgracc, thcy
should bc known only to thc bcncciarics.
(ro.r) Somctimcs you must cvcn dcccivc thc bcncciary, so that
hc rcccivcs thc bcnct but docs not know who gavc it. Thcy say that
Arccsilaus dccidcd that hc should givc sccrct assistancc to a lricnd
ol his who was poor but tricd to conccal his povcrty. Thc lricnd was
ill and hid this lact too, but lackcd thc moncy hc nccdcd lor basic
cxpcnscs. Vithout his knowlcdgc, Arccsilaus
5
put a pursc undcr his
pillow so that thc man, whosc modcsty workcd to his own disadvan
tagc, should simply discovcr what hc nccdcd rathcr than rcccivc it.
(ro.z) Vhat: Vont hc know who gavc him thc moncy: First ol all,

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it is acccptablc lor him not to know, il that ignorancc is itscll part ol
thc gilt. Sccond, ! will do many othcr bcncts lor him, givc him many
things, and in this way hc will comc to scc who was bchind thc rst
gilt. Finally, hc may not know that hc rcccivcd a gilt, but ! will know
that ! gavc it. 8ut thats not cnough! you say. !t is not cnough il you
arc planning to lend thc moncy, but il you arc planning to givc it, thcn
you will givc it in thc way that docs most good lor thc rccipicnt. You
will bc satiscd to bc your own witncss in thc mattcr. thcrwisc, thc
satislaction docsnt comc lrom granting thc bcnct but lrom bcing
sccn to havc donc it. 8ut ! just want him to know! Yourc looking
lor a dcbtor, thcn. (ro.) 8ut ! just want him to know! Vhat: !l it
is bcttcr lor him not to know, il it is morc rcspcctablc, il it makcs him
morc gratclul: Vont you changc your mind: ! want him to know.
So il it was dark out, you would not savc somconcs lilc.
(ro.) ! will not dcny that as oltcn as it is possiblc onc should
lccl satislaction at thc attitudc ol thc rccipicnt. 8ut il hc ought to bc
hclpcd yct it cmbarrasscs him, il what ! givc him causcs ocnsc un
lcss it is conccalcd, thcn ! wont publicizc thc bcnct in thc daily pa
pcrs. l coursc not! !m not going to tcll him that ! gavc thc gilt, not
whcn onc ol thc basic and csscntial guidclincs is that ! should ne.er
rcproach nor rcmind. Thc law that govcrns bcncts bctwccn two
pcoplc is this: onc ol thcm should immcdiatcly lorgct that thc bcnct
was givcn, thc othcr should ncvcr lorgct that it was rcccivcd.
(rr.r) Constant rcmindcrs about lavors irritatc and dcprcss pco
plcs spirits. Thcy lccl likc shouting out what thc man cxclaimcd
whcn onc ol Cacsars lricnds rcscucd him lrom proscription by thc
triumviratc.
6
Hc could not stand thc ovcrbcaring bchavior ol his rcs
cucr so hc said, Givc mc back to Cacsar!
7
How long will you go on
saying, ! savcd you, ! snatchcd you lrom thc jaws ol dcath: !l ! rccall
this on my own initiativc, thcn this rcscuc is lilc itscll to mc, but il !
rccall it bccausc ol your rcmindcrs, thcn it is a lorm ol dcath. ! dont
owc you anything il you only savcd mc so you could havc somconc
to show o. How long will you kccp putting mc on display: How
long will you rclusc to lct mc lorgct my good lortunc: !l ! had bccn
capturcd, ! would only havc bccn draggcd in onc triumphal paradc!
(rr.z) Vc should not talk about what wc havc givcn, somconc who
rcminds you is asking to bc paid back. You should not prcss thc
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point and try to kccp thc mcmory lrcsh, cxccpt il by a sccond gilt
you rcmind somconc ol thc prcvious onc. And wc should not cvcn
tcll othcr pcoplc about it. Thc givcr ol a bcnct should bc silcnt, thc
rccipicnt should do thc talking. thcrwisc, thc donor will bc told thc
samc thing as was said to thc man who constantly boastcd ol having
conlcrrcd a bcnct on somconc. His rccipicnt said, Surcly you wont
dcny that youvc bccn rcpaid: Vhcn thc man rcspondcd, Vhcn:
hc said, Quitc oltcn and all ovcr thc placcwhcncvcr and whcrcvcr
you told pcoplc about it.
(rr.) Vhat nccd is thcrc to talk about what you havc donc and
to usurp thc othcr lcllows duty: Thcrc is somconc clsc lor whom
it is morc rcspcctablc to talk about it, and whcn he tclls thc story
pcoplc will also praisc you lor not tclling thc talc. You must think mc
ungratclul il you supposc that no onc is going to know about your
good dccd unlcss you tcll thcm. Far lrom talking about oncs own
good dccds, il somconc mcntions thcm in our prcscncc wc should
say, Vcll, hc is morc than dcscrving ol cvcn grcatcr bcncts, but !
am morc condcnt that ! wish to givc him all hc dcscrvcs than ! am
ol having donc so as yct. And this should bc said not in a lawning
manncr, and not with that posturing that somc pcoplc usc whcn thcy
dcclinc thc vcry things thcy want most to attract.
(rr.) Ncxt, you should add to your bcncts cvcry lorm ol civility.
A larmcr loscs what hc sows il hc stops working oncc thc sccd is in.
Plants nccd a grcat dcal ol carc to producc a crop. Nonc bcars lruit
unlcss it is givcn consistcnt cultivation lrom bcginning to cnd. Thc
samc thing holds lor bcncts. (rr.) Surcly thcrc can bc nonc grcatcr
than thc oncs conlcrrcd on childrcn by thcir parcnts. Yct thcy arc in
vain il thc childrcn arc ncglcctcd in inlancy, wastcd unlcss stcady dc
votion nurturcs its own gilt. Thc samc thing holds lor othcr bcncts.
Unlcss you hclp thcm along, you losc thcm. !t is not cnough to havc
givcn thc gilt, onc must sustain it. !l you want thc pcoplc who arc
obligcd to you to bc gratclul, you must do morc than bcstow bcncts,
you must lovc thcm. (rr.6) And as ! said, it is cspccially important
to go casy on thcir carsrcmindcrs borc thcm and criticism makcs
thcm hatc you. !n bcstowing bcncts nothing is morc important to
avoid than arrogancc. Vhat is thc usc ol an ovcrbcaring cxprcssion
or proud words: Thc dccd itscll brings you crcdit. Gct rid ol thc
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cmpty boasting. ur actions will spcak lor thcmsclvcs cvcn il wc
arc silcnt. A bcnct givcn in arrogancc is not only unapprcciatcd, it
is dctcstcd.
(rz.r) Gaius Cacsar
8
grantcd Pompcius Pcnnus his lilc, il not tak
ing it away counts as granting it. Thcn whcn Pompcius was cxprcss
ing his gratitudc lor thc acquittal, Gaius cxtcndcd his lclt loot lor
him to kiss.
9
Thcrc arc thosc who makc cxcuscs lor this and say that
it was not an act ol insolcnt pridc, thcy claim that Gaius only wantcd
to show o his gildcd slippcr (actually, it was madc ol solid gold)
dccoratcd with pcarls. Thats it! Vhat insult could thcrc bc il a dis
tinguishcd cxconsul kisscd gold and pcarls, cspccially sincc hc wasnt
about to nd any clcancr part ol Gaius body to kiss: (rz.z) A man
whosc mission in lilc was to rcplacc thc customs ol a lrcc city with
Pcrsian scrvility thought it wasnt cnough lor a scnator and an cldcr,
who had cnjoycd thc highcst ol honors, to lic prostratc bclorc him
as a suppliant in thc prcscncc ol thc political clitc, in thc way that
conqucrcd cncmics lic down bclorc thc victors, Gaius lound a placc
down bclow his knccs to shovc our lrccdom. ocsnt this amount to
trampling on thc commonwcalthand with his left loot (though
somc may not think this a rclcvant point):
J0
Corruption and mad
ncss did not satisly thc arrogancc ol a man who worc slippcrs whilc
hcaring thc casc ol a distinguishcd cxconsul, not unlcss as cmpcror
hc could jam his hobnailcd boots
JJ
into thc lacc ol a scnator.
(r.r) Pridc! You arc thc most loolish a iction that accompanics
grcat good lortunc. !t is a good idca to acccpt nothing lrom you. You
turn all Fortuncs gilts into injurics.
ii
Thcy all rccct badly on you.
Thc highcr you raisc yourscll, thc lowcr you sink, you makc it obvious
that thc vcry goods you arc so pucd up about arc not yours to claim.
You ruin cvcrything you givc. (r.z) And so ! lccl likc asking why a
donor
iii
is so stuck up, why hc contorts his lacial cxprcssion so much
that hc sccms to prclcr a mask rathcr than a normal lacc. Thc bcncts
that bring plcasurc arc thc oncs givcn with a kindly cxprcssion, or
at lcast with onc that is calm and tranquil, givcn by somconc whosc
standing is highcr than minc but who did not lord it ovcr mc, but
was as kind as could bc, put himscll on my lcvcl, avoidcd making a
big show out ol his gilt, and waitcd lor thc right timc to givc, coming
to my aid whcn it was appropriatc rathcr than whcn ! was dcspcratc.
(r.) Thcrc is only onc way to convincc thcm not to undcrminc thcir
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bcncts through arrogancc, and that is il wc show thcm that gilts do
not sccm any grcatcr just bccausc thcy arc givcn in conditions ol cri
sis, that such conditions cannot makc anyonc think that thc donors
thcmsclvcs arc grcatcr. Thcir massivc arrogancc is cmpty, and only
rcndcrs hatclul gilts that should bc apprcciatcd.
(r.r) Somc bcncts will do harm to thosc who rcqucst thcm, thc
rcal bcnct is not to grant thc rcqucst but to dcny it. So wc ought
to considcr thc intcrcsts rathcr than thc wishcs ol thosc making thc
rcqucst. For oltcn wc dcsirc things that arc dcstructivc to us and lail
to scc how damaging thcy arc, no doubt bccausc our cmotions cloud
our judgmcnt. 8ut whcn thc passion has dicd down, and whcn thc
powcr ol thc mcntal turmoil that blocks our dclibcrations has wancd,
wc comc to hatc thosc who gavc us thc harmlul gilts lor bcing thc
agcnts ol our dcstruction. (r.z) Vc rclusc cold watcr to lcvcrcd pa
ticnts, wc dcny wcapons to pcoplc llcd with gricl and scllloathing,
and wc do not givc angry madmcn anything thcy intcnd to usc to
harm thcmsclvcs. !n thc samc way wc will stcadlastly rclusc to givc
harmlul gilts to thosc who plcad lor thcm with intcnsity and humil
ity, somctimcs cvcn pitiably. !t is scnsiblc to considcr not just thc
initial impact ol oncs bcncts, but also thcir ultimatc outcomc, and
to grant thosc which plcasc thc rccipicnt not just whcn rcccivcd but
altcrwards as wcll. (r.) Thcrc arc many who would say, ! know
this wont bc good lor him, but what can ! do: Hc is asking, and !
cannot withstand his cntrcatics. !t will bc his busincss, hc will only
havc himscll to blamc, not mc. 8ut that is not so. Hc will blamc you,
and rightly so. Vhcn hc has rcturncd to his scnscs and whcn that
passionatc t that inamcd his mind has passcd, naturally hc is going
to hatc thc pcrson who hclpcd him into dangcr and harm. (r.) !t
is a crucl lorm ol kindncss to yicld whcn somconc asks to bc ruincd.
Giving aid cvcn to thosc who arc rcluctant or unwilling is thc ncst
scrvicc, similarly, hcaping ruinous gilts on oncs pctitioncrs is charm
ing and courtcous hostility. Lct us givc gilts which providc morc and
morc satislaction as thcy arc cmploycd, and which ncvcr comc to a
bad cnd. ! will not givc moncy which ! know will just bc paid ovcr
to somconcs mistrcss, and ! will not bc lound collaborating in a
disrcputablc plan or action. !l ! can, ! will talk him out ol it, il not, at
lcast ! wont abct thc crimc. (r.) Maybc it is angcr that drivcs him
to do what hc should not do, or pcrhaps ovcrhcatcd ambition lcads
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him to takc loolish risks, cithcr way, ! will not allow him to amass
rcsourccs lor any misdccd lrom mc, nor will ! do anything that will
cnablc him somcday to say, Hc ruincd mc with his kindncss. ltcn
thcrc is no dicrcncc bctwccn thc gilts ol oncs lricnds and thc curscs
ol oncs cncmics, thc thoughtlcss gcncrosity ol thc lormcr prcparcs
lor and brings about what thc lattcr wish to bclall you. Vhat could
bc morc scandalous (though it happcns all thc timc) than crasing thc
dicrcncc bctwccn kindncss and hostility:
(r.r) Lct us ncvcr grant bcncts which will comc back to bring
us shamc. Sincc thc csscncc ol lricndship is to trcat your lricnd
cqually with yourscll, you havc to considcr both at thc samc timc.
!l a lricnd is in nccd, ! will givc, but not in such a way as to bccomc
nccdy myscll. !l hc is about to dic, ! will try to rcscuc him, but not at
thc cost ol my own lilcunlcss ! will thcrcby purchasc thc salcty ol
a grcat man or a grcat causc.
(r.z) ! wont grant any bcnct which it would bc shamclul lor mc
to rcqucst. ! wont cxaggcratc thc valuc ol a small bcnct, but ! also
wont allow largc oncs to bc rcgardcd as trivial. Somconc who trcats a
gilt as a dcbt to bc accountcd lor undcrmincs any scnsc ol gratitudc,
but making it clcar what oncs gilt is worth scrvcs to cnhancc its valuc
without bccoming a rcproach to thc rccipicnt.
(r.) Vc must cach pay attcntion to our capacitics and abilitics,
to avoid giving cithcr morc or lcss than wc arc ablc to givc. Vc havc
to takc account ol thc rccipicnts social rolc.
J2
For somc gilts arc too
small to comc lrom important mcn, othcrs arc too big lor thc rccipi
cnt. So comparc thc rolc ol cach and asscss in that contcxt thc gilt
you plan to givc, to scc il it is too grcat or too small lor thc givcr or
whcthcr, on thc othcr hand, thc prospcctivc rccipicnt might cithcr
turn up his nosc at it or not bc ablc to handlc it.
(r6.r) Alcxandcr thc Grcat, a madman whosc plans wcrc always
on thc cpic scalc, gavc somconc a city as a gilt. Thc rccipicnt took
thc mcasurc ol himscll and tricd to avoid thc cnvy such a grand gilt
would attract by saying that it was not appropriatc to his position.
Alcxandcr rcplicd, ! do not considcr what is tting lor you to acccpt,
but only what is tting lor mc to givc. This sccms likc a bold and
kingly rctort, though in lact it is vcry stupid. Nothing is tting lor
anyonc in thc abstract, it makcs a dicrcncc who thc givcr is, who
thc rccipicnt is, whcn, why, whcrc, and so lorthall thc lactors ncc
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cssary to think through an action propcrly. (r6.z) Vhat a pompous

bcast! !l it is not tting lor him to rcccivc it, thcn it is not tting lor
you to givc it. You havc to think about what is owing to thc social
rolc and thc rank ol thc pcoplc involvcd. \irtuc is always a mcan, so
somcthing cxccssivc is just as big a mistakc as somcthing dccicnt.
Lct us supposc that it is acccptablc lor you to givc that gilt, and that
Fortunc has raiscd you to such a lolty position that you can givc citics
as public largcss (though it would bc a sign ol bcttcr charactcr not
to capturc citics than to distributc thcm so wantonly), ncvcrthclcss,
thcrc arc somc pcoplc who just arcnt grand cnough to havc a city
put into thcir pockct.
J3
(r.r) A Cynic askcd King Antigonus lor a talcnt.
J4
His answcr
was that this was morc than it was right lor a Cynic to rcqucst. Rc
bucd, thc Cynic askcd lor a dcnarius
J5
instcad. Thc answcr was that
this was lcss than it was bccoming lor a king to givc.
That kind ol sophistry is just shamclul! Hc lound a way to givc
ncithcr amount, locusing on thc king whcn askcd lor a dcnarius and
on thc Cynic whcn askcd lor a talcnt, though thc Cynic could havc
bccn givcn a dcnarius and thc king could havc givcn a talcnt. Though
thcrc arc somc amounts too big lor a Cynic to acccpt, it is always
rcspcctablc lor a king with any dcccncy about him to givc a gilt, no
mattcr how small it might bc.
(r.z) 8ut il you ask mc, ! think thc king did thc right thing.
Asking lor cash whilc holding it in contcmpt is just outragcous. You
dcclarc that you dctcst moncy, this is your posturc, this is thc rolc you
havc takcn onso play that rolc! !t is grossly unlair lor you to try
to makc moncy whilc boasting ol your povcrty.
J6
So cvcryonc should
takc into account his own rolc in lilc no lcss than that ol thc pcrson
onc is thinking ol assisting.
(r.) ! would likc to usc thc cxamplc ol ball playing advanccd
by thc Stoic Chrysippus. Thcrc is no doubt that whcn thc ball is
droppcd it could bc thc lault ol cithcr thc throwcr or thc catchcr. Thc
gamc gocs along niccly whcn thc ball is thrown and caught by both
in a suitablc manncr, back and lorth bctwccn thc hands ol throwcr
and catchcr. 8ut a good playcr nccds to throw thc ball dicrcntly to
a tall partncr and to a short onc. !t is thc samc with granting bcncts:
unlcss it is adjustcd to thc social rolcs ol both partics, thc givcr and
thc rccipicnt, thc bcnct will not actually bc givcn by thc onc nor

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bc rcccivcd by thc othcr in thc right manncr. (r.) !l wc arc dcaling
with an cxpcricnccd playcr who is in good condition, wc will throw
thc ball morc advcnturously, knowing that howcvcr it comcs at him
his quick and nimblc hand will knock it back. !l wc arc playing with
an untraincd novicc, howcvcr, wc will not scnd it to him in such a
rm and pcrcussivc manncr, but morc gcntly, and wc will just barcly
mcct it whcn its vollcycd back to us, guiding it right into his hand.
iv

Vc should do thc samc with bcncts, somc pcoplc wc should trcat
likc studcnts and wc should think it su cicnt il thcy makc an cort,
il thcy will takc a chancc, il thcy arc willing. (r.) 8ut gcncrally wc
makc pcoplc ungratclul and lostcr this lccling in thcm, as though
thc nal prool that wc havc givcn an imprcssivc gilt is thcir inability
to rcturn thc lavor. This is how mcanspiritcd playcrs plan to trick
thc othcr playcrthough ol coursc it ruins thc gamc, which can only
carry on as long as both want to play.
(r.6) Many pcoplc arc so pcrvcrsc that thcy would rathcr losc
thc gilt thcy havc givcn than bc sccn to havc rcccivcd somcthing in
rcturn, thcy arc likc arrogant scorckccpcrs. !t would bc so much bct
tcr and so much morc dcccnt to makc it possiblc lor thc rccipicnts to
play thcir part too, to lostcr thc possibility ol a lavor bcing rcturncd
to oncscll, to cvaluatc thc bcncciarys actions in a gcncrous spirit,
and to intcrprct his thanks as il hc wcrc making a rcturnto bc ac
commodating in thc mattcr, so that thc donor should actually want
thc pcrson who is obligatcd to him to gct out ol dcbt. (r.) A loan
shark is usually criticizcd il hc makcs harsh dcmands, but it is just as
bad il hc is slow and awkward about bcing rcpaid and uscs stalling
tactics. !t is just as important to acccpt rcpaymcnt lor a bcnct as it is
to avoid dcmanding it. Thc idcal donor is somconc who gavc rcadily,
who ncvcr rcqucstcd rcpaymcnt but was dclightcd whcn it camc, and
whohaving gcnuincly lorgottcn what hc gavc in thc rst placc
acccptcd thc rcpaymcnt as though hc wcrc himscll thc bcncciary.
(r8.r) Somc pcoplc dont just givc bcncts in an arrogant man
ncr, thcy cvcn rcccivc thcm in that spirit, and that is an ocnsc onc
should ncvcr commit. Now lct us movc on to a considcration ol
thc othcr sidc: how pcoplc should bchavc whcn thcy arc rccciving
bcncts. Any rcciprocal obligation bctwccn two pcoplc dcmands just
as much lrom cach sidc. Vhcn you havc considcrcd what a lathcr
ought to bc likc, you will scc that thcrc is just as much lclt to do in
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considcring what his son ought to bc likc. A husband has ccrtain

dutics, and his wilcs dutics arc no smallcr. (r8.z) Thcy pcrlorm thosc
dutics rcciprocally, cach as rcquircd by thc othcr, and what thcy look
lor is a lair and cvcnhandcd guidclinc, and that, as Hccaton says,
is hard to achicvc. For cvcrything virtuous is di cult, and that is
cvcn truc ol what is ncarly virtuous. For it is not mcrc action that
wc nccd, but action bascd on rcasoning. Vc should go through lilc
guidcd by rcasoning and wc should do cvcrything grcat and small on
its rccommcndation. Vc must bcstow bcncts in thc manncr urgcd
on us by rcasoning.
J7
And thc rst dictatc ol rcasoning will bc that wc should not ac
ccpt bcncts lrom cvcryonc. So lrom whom shall wc acccpt thcm:
(r8.) Thc short answcr is that wc should acccpt bcncts lrom thosc
to whom wc would havc givcn thcm. Lct us considcr whcthcr wc
should not bc cvcn morc discriminating whcn scarching lor somc
onc to bc in dcbt to than whcn scarching lor somconc on whom to
conlcr bcncts. For, cvcn supposing that thcrc arc no disadvantagcs
(though in lact thcrc arc quitc a lcw), it is ncvcrthclcss cxtrcmcly
painlul to bc in dcbt to somconc to whom you do not want to bc.
8y contrast, it is a grcat dclight to havc rcccivcd a bcnct lrom thc
sort ol pcrson you could likc cvcn altcr bcing harmcd, a lricndship
that was dclightlul on othcr grounds is justicd by having a good
rcason lor it. 8ut a dcccnt and upright man nds it a most wrctchcd
cxpcricncc whcn hc is supposcd to trcat as a lricnd somconc whom
hc docs not nd congcnial.
(r8.) ! should notcrcpcatcdly, in lactthat ! am not talking
about sagcs, who nd cvcrything thcy arc supposcd to do congc
nial and havc complctc control ovcr thcir attitudcs, who lay down
lor thcmsclvcs thc law thcy wish to lay down and thcn obscrvc it
laithlully. Rathcr, ! am talking about impcrlcct pcoplc who want to
pursuc thc path ol virtuc and whosc lcclings arc obcdicnt, though
oltcn in a rcbcllious spirit. (r8.) So ! havc to makc a choicc about
lrom whom to rcccivc a bcnct. !n lact, ! should bc cvcn morc carc
lul whcn sccking somconc to bc indcbtcd to lor a bcnct than lor
moncy. Thc nancial crcditor only has to bc paid back as much as !
acccptcd, and oncc ! pay him o thcn ! am lrcc and clcar. 8ut ! havc a
largcr paymcnt to makc to thc othcr crcditor, and cvcn altcr thc lavor
has bccn rcturncd wc arc still linkcd to cach othcr. For oncc ! havc
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paid him back ! must start again, and a lricndship pcrsists. ! would
not acccpt an unworthy pcrson into lricndship,
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and ncithcr would !
admit such a pcrson into thc most sacrcd bond ol bcnclaction, which
is thc sourcc ol lricndship.
(r8.6) Thc objcction is madc, 8ut ! dont always gct to say no.
Somctimcs onc has to acccpt a bcnct cvcn il onc is unwilling. A
crucl and angry tyrant makcs you a gilt and makcs it clcar that your
rclusal would bc ocnsivc to him. Vont ! acccpt it: Put a bandit or
a piratc in his placc, or a king with thc attitudcs ol a bandit or piratc.
Vhat am ! to do: Hc is just not worthy ol my bcing in his dcbt.
vi
(r8.) Vhcn ! talk about choosing whom to bc in dcbt to, ! makc
an cxccption lor cascs involving lorcc majcurc and intimidation,
which climinatc gcnuinc choicc. !l it is opcn to you, il it is up to you,
thcn all on your own you will wcigh thc qucstion ol whcthcr you
arc willing or not. 8ut il compulsion rcmovcs choicc, you should bc
awarc that you arc obcying rathcr than rccciving. No onc is bound
by acccpting somcthing that thcy wcrc not allowcd to rcjcct. !l you
want to nd out whcthcr ! am willing, thcn makc it possiblc lor mc
to bc unwilling.
(r8.8) 8ut still, hc gavc you your lilc! !t docs not mattcr what
was givcn unlcss it was givcn by a willing givcr to a willing rccipicnt.
!l you rcscucd mc, that docs not makc you my rcscucr. Somctimcs
poison has workcd as a curc, but wc do not on that basis considcr
poison to bc a mcdicinc. Thcrc arc somc things that conlcr bcnct
but not obligations. A man camc to kill a tyrant and lanccd his tumor
with his sword, but thc tyrant did not cxprcss thanks to thc assas
sin whosc attack curcd an ailmcnt that doctors had bccn alraid to
trcat.
J8
(rq.r) You can scc that thc act considcrcd on its own docs not
carry much wcight, bccausc somconc who providcs an advantagc
lrom a bad motivation docs not sccm to havc givcn a bcnct. Thc
bcnct is thc work ol Fortunc, thc injury is thc work ol a human
bcing. Vc havc witncsscd in thc amphithcatrc thc spcctaclc ol a
lion protccting onc ol thc gladiators lrom attack by thc othcr bcasts
bccausc hc rccognizcd thc gladiator as his lormcr traincr.
J9
Surcly thc
assistancc rcndcrcd by thc bcast is not a bcnct. !t cannot bc, lor hc
did not want to do what hc did nor did hc do it with thc intcntion
ol doing it. (rq.z) Trcat thc tyrant, thcn, as ! havc trcatcd thc bcast.
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8oth thc tyrant and thc bcast gavc somconc his lilc, but ncithcr onc
providcd a bcnct. For it is not a bcnct to bc compcllcd to acccpt it,
and it is not a bcnct to bc in dcbt to somconc to whom you do not
wish to bc. You should givc mc my choicc rst, and thcn a bcnct.
(zo.r) Vc oltcn dcbatc thc casc ol Marcus 8rutus to dctcr
minc whcthcr hc ought to havc acccptcd lrom thc ivinc Julius thc
sparing ol his lilc, givcn that hc bclicvcd Cacsar should bc killcd.
20

(zo.z) Vc shall dcal clscwhcrc with thc rcasoning hc cmploycd in
killing Cacsar. !n my vicw, though 8rutus was a grcat man in othcr
rcspccts, hc sccms to havc gonc badly astray on this issuc and not to
havc comportcd himscll in accordancc with Stoic tcaching. ithcr
(a) hc was tcrricd ol thc word king, though thc rulc ol a just king
is thc bcst condition lor thc statc to bc in, (b) hc cxpcctcd to nd
lrccdom in thc vcry situation whcrc thcrc was an cnormous rcward
lor bcing mastcr and lor bcing a slavc, or (c) hc thought that, dcspitc
thc corruption ol its original customs, thc statc could bc rcstorcd to
its prcvious condition, that thcrc would bc cqual civil rights along
with a stablc rulc ol lawcvcn though hc had sccn thousands ol
mcn ghting not about whcthcr thcy would bc slavcs but to whom.
Hc must havc bccn in thc grips ol somc cnormous amncsia cithcr
about thc natural ordcr ol thc world or about his own city, hc camc
to bclicvc that il onc man was climinatcd thcrc would not arisc somc
othcr man with thc samc goals, dcspitc thc lact that Tarquinius camc
along right altcr so many kings had bccn slain by thc swords ol mcn
and thc thundcrbolts ol thc gods. (zo.) Anyway, 8rutus was right to
acccpt thc sparing ol his lilc, but did not on this basis nccd to trcat
Cacsar as a lathcr, bccausc Cacsar only acquircd thc ability to givc
thc bcnct by inicting injury. Hc didnt kill 8rutus, but that docs
not mcan that hc savcd him. Hc didnt conlcr a bcnct on him, hc
just sparcd him.
(zr.r) Thcrc is morc ol a dcbatc about what a prisoncr should
do whcn his ransom is plcdgcd by a malc prostitutc notorious lor
his oral cxploits. Vill ! allow myscll to bc rcscucd by somconc so
disgusting: And il ! am rcscucd, what rcturn shall ! makc to him:
How can ! sharc my lilc with a pcrvcrt: How can ! avoid sharing my
lilc with thc man who savcd mc: (zr.z) ! will tcll you what my vicw
is. ! will acccpt thc moncy cvcn lrom a pcrson ol that typc and ! will
spcnd it to ransom my lilc, but ! will takc it as a loan rathcr than as

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a bcnct. ! will pay him back thc moncy and il an occasion ariscs to
rcscuc him whcn hcs in troublc, thcn ! will do so. 8ut ! wont cntcr
into lricndship, a rclationship that binds similar pcoplc togcthcr, and
! wont count him as my rcscucr, but rathcr as a lcndcr to whom !
rcalizc that ! must rcpay what ! havc bccn givcn.
(zr.) Supposc thcrc is somconc who is thc right sort ol pcrson
lor mc to rcccivc a bcnct lrom, but who would bc harmcd by giving
it to mc. ! wont acccpt it, prcciscly bccausc hc is rcady to providc
mc with an advantagc cvcn at thc cost ol his own inconvcnicncc or
pcril. ! am on trial and hc will dclcnd mc, but by taking my casc hc
will makc thc king his cncmy. ! would bc his cncmy il, whcn hc is
willing to run risks on my bchall, ! would not undcrtakc thc lightcr
burdcn, to takc my chanccs in court without him. (zr.) Hccaton
invokcs thc lollowing silly and trivial cxamplc, a story about Arccsi
laus. Hccaton says that Arccsilaus dcclincd to acccpt a gilt ol moncy
ocrcd by a man still lcgally undcr his lathcrs control, in ordcr to
avoid annoying thc lathcr, who was stingy. Vhat was so praiscworthy
in his action: All hc did was to dcclinc to rcccivc stolcn goods and
to prclcr not acccpting thc moncy to giving it back latcr. Vhat kind
ol modcration is it not to acccpt somconc clscs propcrty:
2J
(zr.) !l
you want an instancc ol a truly grcat charactcr, lct us invokc Julius
Graccinus, an outstanding man, murdcrcd by Gaius Cacsar
22
lor thc
simplc rcason that hc was a bcttcr man than it was convcnicnt lor a
tyrant to havc around. Vhcn his lricnds took up a collcction to hclp
Graccinus nancc public gamcs, hc acccptcd thcir moncy but rc
luscd to acccpt a largc sum ol moncy scnt to him by Fabius Pcrsicus.
Thosc who considcr what is ocrcd rathcr than who is ocring it
criticizcd him lor rcjccting Pcrsicuss moncy, but hc rcplicd, Should
! acccpt a bcnct lrom a man lrom whom ! would not acccpt a toast:
(zr.6) And whcn Rcbilus, an cxconsul but a man ol similarly bad
rcputation, scnt Graccinus an cvcn largcr amount and prcsscd him
to authorizc its acccptancc, hc said, Plcasc lorgivc mc, but ! didnt
takc Pcrsicuss moncy cithcr.
23
Vas hc acccpting gilts or sclccting
mcmbcrs lor thc Scnatc:
(zz.r) ncc wc havc dccidcd to acccpt, wc should do so with a
chccrlul acknowlcdgmcnt ol our plcasurc. This should bc madc ap
parcnt to thc givcr so that hc gcts an immcdiatc satislaction, sccing
a lricnd happy is a good rcason to bc happy oncscll, but making
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a lricnd happy is an cvcn bcttcr rcason. Vc should makc cvidcnt

our gratitudc by unrcstraincd cxprcssions ol cmotion, and wc should
cxprcss thcsc lcclings cvcrywhcrc, not just in thc prcscncc ol thc
donor. Rccciving a bcnct with gratitudc is thc rst installmcnt ol
its rcpaymcnt.
(z.r) Somc pcoplc arc rcluctant to acccpt a bcnct cxccpt in
privatc, avoiding any witncss who might bc awarc ol thc bcnct. You
can bc surc that such pcoplc arc looking at thc mattcr impropcrly.
Thc givcr should only gcncratc publicity about his gilt to thc cxtcnt
that doing so will givc plcasurc to thc rccipicnt, but thc rccipicnt
should hold a public mcctingand il you arc cmbarrasscd to bc
obligcd to somconc lor somcthing, just dont acccpt it! (z.z) Somc
pcoplc cxprcss thcir gratitudc sccrctly, o in a corncr just whispcring
in thc donors car. That is not di dcncc, it is a way ol dcnying thc
gilt. Somconc who climinatcs witncsscs bclorc cxprcssing thanks is
actually ungratclul. Somc pcoplc rclusc to allow thcir borrowing to
bc cntcrcd in an account book, thcy do not want middlcmcn or wit
ncsscs to bc involvcd, and do not want to sign a documcnt. Thcy arc
doing thc samc as thosc pcoplc who makc surc that thc bcncts thcy
rcccivc arc as unknown as possiblc. (z.) Thcy arc rcluctant to bc
public about it, so that pcoplc will say that thcy achicvcd somcthing
on thcir own mcrits rathcr than with somconc clscs assistancc. Thcy
almost ncvcr turn up to pay thcir public rcspccts to thosc to whom
thcy owc thcir lilc or thcir rank in socicty, thcy avoid thc rcputation
ol bcing somconcs clicnt,
24
but thcy gct thc rcputation ol bcing un
gratclul, which is lar worsc.
(z.r) thcr pcoplc spcak most critically ol thosc who do thcm
thc grcatcst lavors. Thcrc arc pcoplc whom it is salcr to ocnd than
to hclp out, sincc thcy look lor prool that thcy arc not indcbtcd by
displaying contcmpt. 8ut in lact our grcatcst cort should bc to show
how rmly wc rctain thc mcmory ol thc lavors wc havc rcccivcd. This
rcquircs constant rcncwal, sincc no onc can rcpay a lavor unlcss hc
rcmcmbcrs thc lavor, and all who rcmcmbcr thc lavor
vii
will do so.
(z.z) And wc should not acccpt bcncts in a nicky manncr, but
ncithcr should wc acccpt thcm with submissivc humility. For il somc
onc is carclcss about thc way hc rcccivcs a bcnct whcn thc wholc
thing is lrcsh in his mind, what will hc do whcn his initial plcasurc
has coolcd o: Anothcr pcrson acccpts with disdain, such as thc
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man who says, (z.) ! dont rcally nccd it, but sincc you arc so cagcr
to givc, ! will put myscll at your disposal. Somcbody clsc acccpts a
lavor with such passivity that thc givcr is lclt unccrtain whcthcr hc
cvcn noticcd it. Somconc clsc mumblcs his thanks, barcly moving his
lips, and comcs across as morc ungratclul than il hc had kcpt silcnt.
(z.) nc must cxprcss oncs gratitudc with an intcnsity that cor
rcsponds to thc signicancc ol thc gilt and add rcmarks likc: You
havc put morc pcoplc in your dcbt than you arc awarc ol (cvcryonc
is plcascd that his bcnct should havc widcr impact), or you dont
know all that you havc donc lor mc, but you ought to know how
much morc it is than you think (it is an immcdiatc cxprcssion ol
gratitudc to assumc thc burdcn ol dcbt), or ! will ncvcr bc ablc to rc
pay thc lavor, and ! will ccrtainly ncvcr stop admitting that ! cannot.
(z.r) Thc most ccctivc thing Furnius
25
did to plcasc Augustus
and soltcn him up lor othcr rcqucsts camc altcr hc had succcsslully
rcqucstcd a pardon lor his lathcr, who had bccn on Antonys sidc,
Furnius thcn said, Cacsar, thc only complaint ! can makc about
you is that you havc compcllcd mc to livc and dic unablc to cx
prcss propcr gratitudc to you. Not bcing satiscd with oncs own
cxprcssions ol gratitudc, not cvcn bcing ablc to hopc to match thc
bcnct onc has rcccivcd, this is thc mark ol a truly gratclul mind.
(z.z) Thcsc phrascs and othcrs likc thcm must bc uscd to cnsurc
that our good intcntions arc not hiddcn, but shinc lorth in public.
Pcrhaps thc words will lall short, but il wc havc thc appropriatc lccl
ings our awarcncss ol thcm will bc visiblc in our lacial cxprcssion.
(z.) Somconc who is going to bc gratclul nccds to start thinking
about rcpaymcnt as soon as hc rcccivcs thc bcnct. Chrysippus says
that thc gratclul pcrson is likc somconc sct lor a racc, waiting in thc
starting blocks lor thc momcnt whcn thc signal is givcn so that hc
can spring into action.
26
And thcrc is no doubt that onc must havc
a rcal spirit ol compctition and trcmcndous spccd in ordcr to catch
up to thc lcadcr.
(z6.r) Now wc must considcr what it is that most makcs pcoplc
ungratclul: it is cithcr an cxccssivc rcgard lor oncscllthc dccply
ingraincd human lailing ol bcing imprcsscd by oncscll and oncs
accomplishmcntsor grccd or cnvy. (z6.z) Lct us start with thc
rst. vcryonc is gcncrous whcn judging himscll, which is why cach
pcrson thinks that hc has carncd all that hc has, that it is mcrcly
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rcpaymcnt ol what is owcd, and that his rcal valuc is not apprcciatcd
by othcrs. Hc did givc mc this, but look how long it took and how
much cort! ! could havc achicvcd so much morc il ! had rathcr
choscn to cultivatc this othcr lcllow, or that onc, or myscll!
viii
! did
not cxpcct this trcatmcnt, just bcing thrown in with thc crowd, did
hc think ! was worth so littlc: !t would havc bccn morc ol an honor
just to bc passcd ovcr. (z.r) Gnacus Lcntulus, thc augur, was thc
modcl ol a wcalthy man, at lcast until thc impcrial lrccdmcn madc
him sccm poor,
27
though hc lookcd upon a lortunc ol lour hundrcd
million scstcrccs (! am spcaking with prccision hcrc: all hc did was
look at it), hc was intcllcctually barrcn, as wcak in spcaking ability
ix

as hc was in intcllcct. cspitc his trcmcndous grccd, hc dolcd out
moncy morc rcadily than words. That is how lccblc a spcakcr hc
was. (z.z) Hc owcd all his advanccmcnt to thc ivinc Augustus, to
whom hc had prcscntcd himscll as an impovcrishcd man laboring
undcr thc burdcn ol noblc rank. ncc hc had riscn to bc a lcading
citizcn ol Romc both in moncy and in political inucncc, hc ncvcr
thclcss constantly complaincd about Augustus lor having pullcd him
away lrom his studics, saying that hc had lost morc whcn hc gavc up
lormal oratory than hc had gaincd nancially. !n lact, though, thc
ivinc Augustus had also donc him an additional lavor by lrccing
him lrom ridiculc and pointlcss corts.
(z.) Grccd will not allow anyonc to bc gratclul. Nothing that
is givcn is cvcr cnough to satisly undisciplincd hopcs, thc morc that
comcs to us, thc morc wc want. Vhcn avaricc is sitting on a grcat
hcap ol wcalth it gcts much morc stimulatcd. !t is likc a amc: thc
largcr thc rc it springs lrom, thc crccr and morc incalculablc its
lorcc. (z.) Similarly, ambition will not lct anyonc scttlc lor thc dc
grcc ol rccognition that was oncc an unrcalistic aspiration. No onc
cxprcsscs gratitudc lor bcing madc a tribunc, but instcad complains
that hc was not lasttrackcd to thc practorshipand cvcn this is not
apprcciatcd il thcrc is no consulship, but cvcn a consulship lcavcs
him unlulllcd il thcrc is only onc! csirc outrcachcs itscll and lails
to acknowlcdgc succcss, bccausc it is not looking back at whcrc it
camc lrom but only at whcrc it is hcadcd.
(z8.r) 8ut cnvy is a morc violcnt and rclcntlcss lailing than all ol
thcsc. !t unscttlcs us by making comparisons. Hc gavc mc this, but
hc gavc this othcr lcllow morc, and that lcllow got his sooncr. Ncxt,
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it ncvcr makcs thc casc lor somconc clsc but always puts its own
intcrcsts ahcad ol cvcryonc clscs. How much morc straightlorward
and scnsiblc it is to cxaggcratc thc valuc ol a bcnct onc has bccn
givcn and to rcalizc that cvcryonc asscsscs himscll morc gcncrously
than othcrs do. (z8.z) ! should havc rcccivcd morc, but it would not
havc bccn casy lor him to givc, his gcncrosity had to bc sharcd among
many rccipicnts. This is just a rst installmcnt, so lct us look on thc
bright sidc and wc will cncouragc his attitudc by rccciving thc gilt
with gratitudc. Hc did not do much lor mc, but hc will do it quitc
oltcn. Hc put that lcllow ahcad ol mc, but hc put mc ahcad ol many
pcoplc, and that man may not cqual my virtucs and my scrviccs to
thc donor, but hc docs havc his own distinctivc charm. Complaining
wont makc mc worthy ol grcatcr gilts, it will just makc mc unworthy
ol what ! havc bccn givcn. Grcatcr gilts havc bccn bcstowcd upon
thosc uttcrly shamclul pcoplc. So what: !t is so rarc that Fortunc
makcs scrious judgmcnts. (z8.) vcry day wc complain that cvil
mcn prospcr. Hailstorms oltcn pass by thc clds ol thc worst pcoplc
and strikc down thc crops ol thc vcry bcst mcn. As in othcr mattcrs,
so in lricndship: wc cach must cndurc our lot. (z8.) No bcnct is
so complctc that an cnvious gazc cannot pick it apart, but nonc is so
limitcd that a gcncrous intcrprctation will not cnhancc its impact.
!l you look at bcncts with a ncgativc attitudc you can always nd
grounds lor complaint.
(zq.r) Just look at how unlair so many pcoplc arc, cvcn philoso
phcrs, in thcir cvaluation ol thc gods gilts. Thcy complain that wc
arc not as physically largc as clcphants, arc not as swilt as stags, arc
not as light as birds, do not chargc as powcrlully as bulls, that wild
animals havc tough hidcs, morc clcgant lor dccr, thickcr lor bcars,
soltcr lor bcavcrs, that dogs outdo us in thc scnsc ol smcll, caglcs
in sharpncss ol cycsight, crows in longcvity, and that many animals
swim bcttcr than wc do. (zq.z) And though it is impossiblc lor naturc
to combinc ccrtain traits, such as spccd and bodily strcngth, thcy call
it an injusticc that human bcings arc not compoundcd ol various
incompatiblc charactcristics and thcy say that thc gods do not look
altcr us, just bccausc wc havc not bccn givcn good hcalth that is
prool against our viccs along with thc ability to scc thc luturc!
28
Thcy
can scarccly rcstrain thcmsclvcs lrom bccoming so impcrtincnt as to
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rcscnt naturc bccausc wc arc inlcrior to thc gods, bccausc wc arc not
thcir pccrs. (zq.) How much bcttcr it would bc to dcdicatc oncscll
to thc contcmplation ol thc bcncts wc havc, so many and so grcat,
and to cxprcss our gratitudc to thc gods lor thcir willingncss to givc
us thc sccond rank in this suprcmcly bcautilul homc and to put us
in chargc ol thc carth. ocs anyonc put us on thc samc lcvcl as thc
animals which havc bccn put undcr our authority:
(zq.) Anything dcnicd to us could not havc bccn givcn. So thcn,
whocvcr you arc, making your unlair asscssmcnt ol thc human condi
tion, stop and think how much our lathcr has givcn us, that wc havc
put undcr thc yokc bcasts which arc so much morc powcrlul than wc
arc and outpaccd animals which arc so much lastcr, that cvcrything
mortal is undcr our control. (zq.) Vc havc bccn givcn so many vir
tucs, so many cralts, and to top it o wc havc bccn givcn a mind that
can pcnctratc anywhcrc as soon as it trics, that is swiltcr than thc
stars (whosc paths it can anticipatc many ccnturics into thc luturc).
And wc havc bccn givcn so much lood, so much wcalth, so much ol
cvcrything clsc, hcaps upon hcaps ol it. You can survcy cvcrything,
and bccausc you will not nd anything that as a wholc you would
rathcr bc, you can pick out lrom cach individual somc traits which
you would likc to bc givcn to you. 8ut il you asscss naturcs gcncros
ity propcrly you will havc to admit that you havc bccn hcr darling.
(zq.6) !ts truc! Thc immortal gods havc chcrishcd us morc than any
thing clsc and thcy still do, thcy havc givcn us thc highcst honor that
could bc grantcd: bcing rankcd sccond altcr thcm. Vc havc rcccivcd
grcat gilts, wc could not havc handlcd anything grcatcr.
(o.r) Libcralis, my lricnd, ! thought ! had to bring up this topic,
both bccausc somcthing had to bc said about thc grcatcst bcncts
whcn wc wcrc discussing thc minor oncs, and also bccausc thc abom
inablc boldncss ol this vicc |ingratitudc| also sprcads lrom thcrc
into othcr domains. !l somconc rcgards thc grcatcst bcncts with
contcmpt, to whom will hc lccl gratitudc: Vhat gilt will hc rcgard
as signicant and worth rcpaying: !l somconc dcnics that hc owcs
his lilc to thc gods, though hc prays to thcm lor it on a daily basis,
to whom will hc admit that hc owcs his salcty and thc vcry brcath
hc draws: (o.z) So whocvcr tcachcs us to bc gratclul is arguing on
bchall ol both mcn and thc gods. Thc gods arc in nccd ol nothing

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and arc bcyond all dcsirc, but ncvcrthclcss wc can rcturn a lavor to
thcm. Vcakncss and povcrty do not providc anyonc with an cxcusc
lor having an ungratclul attitudc and saying, Vhat can ! do: How:
Vhcn can ! rcturn a lavor to thosc who arc supcrior and arc mastcrs
ol cvcrything: Rcturning thc lavor is casy, il you arc a miscr it can
bc donc without cxpcnsc, and il you arc lazy it can bc donc without
cort. At thc vcry momcnt whcn you havc incurrcd an obligation
you havc alrcady, il you wish it, squarcd your account with whocvcr it
might bc, sincc hc who acccpts a bcnct willingly has thcrcby rcpaid it.
(r.r) !n my opinion, this is thc lcast puzzling or unbclicvablc ol
thc paradoxcs advanccd by thc Stoic school: that hc who acccpts a
bcnct willingly has thcrcby rcpaid it. For sincc wc rclcr cvcrything
to thc mind, cach pcrson has accomplishcd as much as hc intcndcd.
And sincc picty, laithlulncss, and justiccin lact, cvcry virtucis
complctc in itscll cvcn il it cannot lilt a ngcr, so too a pcrson can bc
gratclul just by wanting to bc. (r.z) Vhcncvcr somconc achicvcs his
intcnt, hc gcts thc lruits ol his labors. Vhat is thc intcntion ol thc
pcrson who givcs a bcnct: To bc usclul to thc rccipicnt and to givc
him plcasurc. !l hc achicvcd this objcctivc and il his intcntion got
through to mc and wc lclt mutual plcasurc, thcn hc got what hc was
aiming at. For hc did not want to bc givcn somcthing in cxchangc,
othcrwisc it was not a bcnct but a busincss dcal. (r.) Thc man
who gcts to thc port hc was aiming lor has had a succcsslul sailing.
A spcar thrown by an cxpcrt hand docs thc job il it strikcs its targct.
Thc givcr ol a bcnct wants it to bc rcccivcd with gratitudc, il it is
rcccivcd propcrly, hc has attaincd his aim. 8ut hc hopcd lor somc
prot in rcturn. Thcn it was not a bcnct altcr all, sincc it is thc
mark ol a bcnct not to cvcn think about a rcturn. (r.) ! acccptcd
what ! acccptcd in thc samc spirit in which it was givcn. So ! rcpaid
it. thcrwisc this cxccllcnt thing, a bcnct, is in a dirc statc: ! dcpcnd
on Fortunc lor my ability to bc gratclul. !l Fortunc is uncoopcrativc
and ! cannot rcciprocatc without hcr support, thcn my good intcn
tions will bc a su cicnt match lor his. (r.) Vhat: Vont ! do
whatcvcr ! can to rcturn thc lavor, watch lor a suitablc timc and cir
cumstancc, and bc cagcr to ll thc pockct ol thc pcrson lrom whom !
havc rcccivcd a gilt: Ycs, but bcnctgiving would bc in a hard placc
il it wcrc not also possiblc to bc gratclul cmptyhandcd.
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(z.r) Thc rcply is, Somconc who mcrcly acccpts a bcnct, no

mattcr how good his attitudc is, has not yct lulllcd his obligation.
For thcrc is still an aspcct ol rcpaymcnt lclt. !t is just as in a gamc:
it is onc thing to catch thc ball with skill and carc, but you cannot
bc callcd a good playcr unlcss you arc quick and nimblc in rcturning
thc ball you havc caught. (z.z) This analogy lails. Vhy: 8ccausc
in this casc what is praiscworthy lics in thc skilllul movcmcnt ol
oncs body, not in thc mind. And so sincc thc cycs arc thc judgc, thc
cntirc cxchangc nccds to bc laid out lor inspcction. And cvcn so, !
would not hcsitatc to call somconc a good playcr il hc caught thc
ball propcrly and thc dclay in rcturning thc ball was not his lault.
(z.) Thc rcply is, 8ut cvcn though thcrc is nothing lacking in thc
playcrs skill, bccausc hc carricd out onc part ol thc gamc and is in
lact able to carry out thc part that hc did not carry out, thc gamc
itscll is incomplctc, sincc it consists in rcciprocal vollcys and rcturns.
(z.) ! do not want to arguc this point any lurthcr. Lct us supposc
that it is so, and that thcrc is somcthing dccicnt in thc playing ol thc
gamcbut not in thc playcr. Similarly, in thc casc wc arc discussing
thcrc is indccd a dccicncy with rcspcct to thc thing givcn, which
lacks its countcrpart, but thcrc is no dccicncy with rcspcct to thc
mind, lor it has lound anothcr mind which sharcs its attitudc and has
achicvcd what it intcndcd insolar as it was ablc to do so.
(.r) Somcbody gavc mc a bcnct and ! acccptcd it in thc way
that hc wantcd it to bc acccptcd. So hc now has what hc sought,
and indccd thc only thing hc sought. Thcrclorc ! am gratclul. Thcrc
rcmains thc issuc ol gctting somc usc out ol mc, and thc kind ol ad
vantagc dcrivablc lrom somconc who is gratclul. 8ut this is not thc
rcmaining portion ol an as yct incomplctc obligation, it is a bonus
on top ol a complctcd obligation. (.z) Phidias makcs a statuc. Thc
rcward lrom his art is onc thing, thc rcward lrom his work ol art is
somcthing clsc. Having donc what hc aimcd to do is thc rcward lrom
his art, having donc so with prot is thc rcward lrom thc work ol art.
vcn il Phidias has not sold his work, hc has complctcd it. So thcrc
arc thrcc kinds ol rcward lrom his work: onc comcs lrom his awarc
ncss, and this hc got whcn hc nishcd thc work, anothcr comcs lrom
rcputation, and thc third comcs in thc lorm ol somc practical payo,
which will comc cithcr lrom good will, lrom thc salc ol thc work,
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or lrom somc othcr advantagc. (.) So too thc rst rcward lrom a
bcnct is oncs awarcncss ol it, and this comcs whcn thc givcr gcts
thc gilt through to its intcndcd dcstination, thc rcwards in thc lorm
ol lamc and things providcd in rcturn lor thc gilt arc sccondary.
x
And
so whcn a bcnct is acccptcd with a kindly attitudc, thcn thc givcr
has alrcady rcccivcd his gratitudc in rcturn, but not thc payo yct.
So ! owc somcthing that is cxtcrnal to thc bcnct, but ! havc rcpaid
thc bcnct itscll by acccpting it propcrly.
(.r) Vhat, thcn: comcs thc objcction. id hc rcturn thc la
vor dcspitc doing nothing: First ol all, hc did do somcthing. Hc
voluntccrcd good intcntions in rcturn lor good intcntions, and hc did
so in a spirit ol cqualityand that is a mark ol lricndship. Sccond,
bcncts and loans arc paid o in dicrcnt ways. You cannot cxpcct
mc to point out thc paymcnt to you. Thc busincss is transactcd bc
twccn minds.
(.z) You will not think that what ! am saying is di cult
though at rst it will conict with your vicwsil you givc mc your
lull attcntion and rccct that thcrc arc morc things than thcrc arc
words lor thcm. Thcrc arc a grcat many things that lack namcs, and
wc indicatc thcm with labcls that do not strictly bclong to thcm but
arc borrowcd and mctaphorical. Vc rclcr to thc loot on our own
body, to thc loot ol a couch or ol a sail, and to a loot in poctry, wc rc
lcr to a hunting dog, to a sca dog,
29
and to thc og Star. Sincc wc do
not havc cnough words to match thcm oncloronc with things, wc
borrow whcncvcr wc nccd to. (.) Couragc is a virtuc that rcgards
dangcrs with a propcr disdain
xi
or thc knowlcdgc ol how to rcpcl,
to acccpt or to invitc risks. And yct wc also rclcr to a gladiator as a
couragcous man, and so too a wickcd slavc who is drivcn to dcspisc
dcath by his rccklcss dcspcration. (.) Frugality is thc knowlcdgc
ol how to avoid nccdlcss cxpcnditurcs, or thc skill ol managing oncs
pcrsonal propcrty with modcration. And yct wc rclcr to a small
mindcd and crabbcd man as bcing vcry lrugal, cvcn though thcrc
is a world ol dicrcncc bctwccn modcration and stingincss. Thcsc
things arc dicrcnt in thcir naturcs, but thc limitations ol our vocab
ulary lorcc us to call both mcn lrugal, just as wc call couragcous
both thc man who dcspiscs with justication thc blows ol Fortunc
and thc man who rushcs irrationally into dangcr. (.) !n thc samc
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way, a bcnct is two things: it is, as ! havc said, a bcncvolcnt action,
and it is also thc thing that is givcn through such an action, such as
moncy, a housc, a magistracy. Thcy sharc a namc but thcir mcaning
and signicancc arc vcry, vcry dicrcnt.
(.r) So pay attcntion and you will scc that ! am not saying any
thing which should conict with your bclicls. Vc havc rcturncd thc
lavor lor thc bcnct which consists in thc action itscll il wc acccpt
it in a gcncrous spirit. 8ut wc havc not yct rcpaid that othcr bcnct
which consists in thc objcct, though wc will want to do so. Vith our
intcntions wc havc rcspondcd to our bcnclactors intcntions, but wc
still owc objcct lor objcct. And so, although wc can say that hc who
has willingly rcccivcd a bcnct has rcturncd it, wc ncvcrthclcss urgc
him to givc back to thc donor somcthing similar to what hc has
rcccivcd. (.z) Somc ol thc things wc say sccm rcbarbativc to our
normal way ol spcaking, but thcn thcy comc back around to it by an
indircct path. Vc say that thc sagc cannot bc injurcd, but il somconc
punchcs him wc will still convict him ol assault. Vc say that nothing
bclongs to thc lool, but il somconc stcals somcthing lrom a lool wc
will convict him ol thclt. Vc say that cvcryonc is mad, but wc do not
trcat thcm all with hcllcborc. Thc vcry pcoplc whom wc call mad wc
admit to thc ballot box and thc bcnch.
(.) This is thc scnsc in which wc say that hc who rcccivcs a
bcnct with a good intcntion has rcturncd thc lavor, but that ncv
crthclcss wc lcavc him indcbtcd and bound to pay up cvcn whcn hc
has rcturncd it. !t is an cncouragcmcnt to giving bcncts, rathcr than
a rcpudiation ol thcm, thc point is to avoid bcing intimidatcd by
bcncts, so that wc will not dcspair bccausc wc lccl burdcncd by an
intolcrablc load ol dcbt. ! havc bccn givcn posscssions. My rcputa
tion has bccn dclcndcd. ! havc bccn savcd lrom disgracc. My lilc has
bccn savcd, and, somcthing morc prccious than lilc, my lrccdom. So
how will ! bc ablc to rcpay my bcnclactor: Vhcn will thc day comc
whcn ! can show him how ! lccl: (.) !n lact, it is thc vcry day
on which hc shows you how he lccls. Acccpt thc bcnct, cmbracc it,
rcjoiccnot bccausc you arc rccciving a bcnct, but bccausc you arc
rcturning it and will still bc indcbtcd. You arc not in such an unccr
tain situation that chancc could makc you ungratclul. ! am not giving
you somcthing tcrribly di cult to do, so you nccd not dcspair or burn

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yourscll out anticipating grcat labors and a lcngthy scrvitudc. ! am
not asking you to dclay rcpaymcnt. !t is all happcning in thc prcscnt.
(.) You will ncvcr bc gratclul il you arc not gratclul immcdiatcly.
So what will you do: You do not havc to takc up armsyou might
somcday, though. You do not havc to cross thc scasbut somcday
you might sct sail, cvcn il thc winds arc hostilc. o you want to rcpay
thc bcnct: Acccpt it with a kindly attitudc, you havc rcturncd thc
lavor. Not that you should think you havc paid o thc dcbt, but so
that you may bc indcbtcd with a grcatcr scnsc ol condcncc.
Book
(r.r) Acbutius Libcralis, it is shamclul, and cvcryonc knows it, not to
rcturn thc lavor whcn bcncts arc conlcrrcd. And so cvcn ungratc
lul pcoplc complain about ingratcs. Mcanwhilc, cvcryonc is still in
thc grips ol thc vcry thing which thcy all dcplorc. Vc go so lar
to thc oppositc cxtrcmc that wc trcat somc pcoplc as mortal cn
cmics not only after thcy bcnct us but cvcn because thcy bcnct us.
(r.z) ! would not dcny that lor somc pcoplc, at any ratc, this happcns
as a rcsult ol thcir having a corrupt naturc, but lor most pcoplc it is
bccausc thc passagc ol timc undcrmincs thcir mcmorics. For altcr a
whilc thc bcncts which, whcn thcy wcrc currcnt, had bccn vivid in
thcir minds ladc away. ! know that you and ! oncc had a dcbatc about
such pcoplc, you said that thcy wcrc not ungratclul, just lorgctlulas
though thc vcry thing which makcs thcm ungratclul should cxcusc
thcm lor it, or as though a pcrson is not ungratclul bccausc hc has
thc vcry cxpcricncc which can only happcn to an ingratc! (r.) Thcrc
arc many kinds ol ungratclul pcoplc, just as thcrc arc many kinds ol
thicvcs and murdcrcrs, thcrc is onc basic lailing, though thcrc is a
grcat varicty ol typcs. Somconc who dcnics that hc rcccivcd a bcn
ct that hc in lact did rcccivc is ungratclul. Somconc who prctcnds
not to havc rcccivcd it is ungratclul. Somconc who lails to rcpay it
is ungratclul. 8ut most ungratclul ol all is thc pcrson who lorgcts
that hc rcccivcd it. (r.) Thc othcrs at lcast arc indcbtcd, cvcn il thcy
dont makc rcpaymcnt, thcrc dcnitcly cxists a lingcring tracc ol thc
lavors rcccivcd, hiddcn away in thcir guilty conscicncc. Thcy can
cvcntually, somchow or othcr, bc brought around to rcturning thc
lavor, a scnsc ol shamc might rcmind thcm, or a suddcn dcsirc to do
thc right thingthc sort ol lccling that can arisc lrom timc to timc
cvcn in pcoplc ol bad charactcror a convcnicnt occasion might
cnticc thcm. 8ut thc lorgctlul pcrson can ncvcr bccomc gratclul, thc
bcnct rcccivcd is totally lost to him. And which pcrson would you
say is worsc: Thc onc who loscs his scnsc ol gratitudc lor a bcnct
or thc onc who also loscs his mcmory ol it: (r.) !l your cycs shrink
lrom strong light, thcy arc discascd. !l thcy do not cvcn scc it, thcy
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arc blind. Not loving your parcnts is impicty, not rccognizing thcm
is madncss.
(z.r) Vho is as ungratclul as somconc who takcs what ought
to havc bccn at thc lorclront ol his mind, always in his thoughts,
and scgrcgatcs, cvcn dismisscs it so ccctivcly that hc makcs him
scll ignorant ol it: !t is clcar that somconc who has bccn ovcrcomc
by lorgctlulncss cannot havc thought vcry oltcn about rcpaymcnt.
(z.z) !n lact, actual rcpaymcnt ol a lavor rcquircs good charactcr,
timc, rcsourccs, and good lortunc. 8ut somconc who is mindlul ol a
bcnct is gratclul, cvcn without cxpcnditurc. Somconc who docs not
manilcst thiswhich docs not rcquirc cort, wcalth, or succcss in
lilchas no dclcnsc to hidc bchind. For anyonc who puts a bcnct
so lar out ol his mind ncvcr did want to bc gratclul. (z.) Thcrc is
ncvcr any risk that somcthing in constant usc, bcing handlcd and
touchcd on a daily basis, should sucr lrom dccay, but il things arc
not inspcctcd, arc sct asidc as supcruous and lclt lying around, thcn
thcy incvitably attract lth and corrosion with thc passagc ol timc.
Similarly, il wc think about somcthing constantly, kccp it in scrvicc
and updatc it, it docs not slidc away lrom our mcmory. Mcmory only
loscs things that it has lailcd to think about lrcqucntly.
(.r) 8cyond this, thcrc arc othcr causcs which oltcn cradicatc
lrom our minds somc ol thc grcatcst lavors donc lor us. Thc most
promincnt and powcrlul ol all such causcs is that sincc wc arc con
stantly prcoccupicd with novcl dcsircs, wc do not considcr what wc
havc but only what wc arc trying to gct. Vc arc locuscd on what wc
strivc lor, so wc trcat our prcscnt posscssions as contcmptiblc. (.z)
8ut incvitably, whcn thc dcsirc lor novcltics makcs what you havc
bccn givcn sccm unimportant, thc donor comcs to bc undcrapprcci
atcd. Vc lovcd and admircd somconc and admittcd that hc was thc
basis lor our currcnt prospcritybut only so long as wc wcrc plcascd
by what wc got lrom him. Thcn our mind was invadcd by lascination
with othcr prospccts, and wc chargcd o altcr thcmit is human
naturc to want biggcr and biggcr things all thc timc. And right away
wc losc sight ol all thc things wc uscd to rcgard as bcncts, wc do
not rccct upon thc things that havc put us ahcad ol othcr pcoplc,
but only thosc brought to our attcntion by thc good lortunc ol pcoplc
who arc ahcad ol us. (.) 8ut it is impossiblc lor anyonc to lccl cnvy
and gratitudc at thc samc timc, cnvy is what gloomy complaincrs lccl,
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but gratitudc is accompanicd by joy. (.) Finally, sincc nonc ol us is
awarc ol any timc cxccpt thc ccting prcscnt, wc scldom lorcc our
minds to look back to thc past. And so it happcns that our tcachcrs
and thc bcncts thcy conlcrrcd on us arc lorgottcn, bccausc wc havc
lclt our cntirc childhood bchind, and so it happcns that wc losc sight
ol what was donc lor us in our adolcsccncc, bccausc wc ncvcr look
back at that stagc ol our lilc. All ol us trcat prior cvcnts not as things
in thc past, but as things that havc passcd away. So it is: pcoplc who
arc intcnt on thc luturc havc lragilc mcmorics.
(.r) Hcrc ! should stand up lor picurus, who always complains
that wc arc ungratclul about thc past, that wc do not rccall thc goods
wc havc alrcady cxpcricnccd and do not includc thcm among our
plcasurcs, cvcn though thc most rcliablc plcasurc is onc that can
no longcr bc takcn away lrom us. (.z) Prcscnt goods arc not yct
complctcly rm, somc mislortunc could curtail thcm. Futurc goods
arc contingcnt and unccrtain. 8ut what is in thc past is storcd up in
salcty. How can anyonc bc gratclul lor bcncts il hc rushcs through
his wholc lilc cntircly dcvotcd to thc prcscnt and thc luturc: Mcmory
makcs a pcrson gratclul. Thc morc cncrgy onc dcvotcs to cxpccta
tions, thc lcss is availablc lor mcmorics.
(.r) My dcar Libcralis, somc things stick in thc mind as soon as
thcy arc graspcd, as you know, thcrc arc othcr things lor which it docs
not su cc just to lcarn thcm (lor our knowlcdgc ol thcm is lost un
lcss it is kcpt going), ! am rclcrring to gcomctry and astronomy and
any othcr studics whosc complcxity makcs thcm slippcry. !n thc samc
way thcrc arc somc bcncts whosc shccr sizc prcvcnts us lrom losing
thcm, whilc thcrc arc othcrs which arc smallcr but cxtrcmcly numcr
ous, occurring ovcr a broad span ol timc, and thcy do slip away lrom
us. Thc rcason, as ! havc said, is that wc do not dcal with thcsc bcn
cts constantly and do not lrccly acknowlcdgc what wc owc to cach
donor. (.z) Just listcn to what pcoplc say whcn making thcir rcqucsts:
cvcryonc said that thc mcmory ol thc bcnct would livc lorcvcr in
thcir hcart, cvcryonc claimcd to bc dcdicatcd and dcvotcdand
any othcr tcrm, cvcn morc abjcct, that could bc lound to cxprcss a
dccp obligation. 8ut just a short whilc latcr thcy arc avoiding thc sort
ol languagc thcy uscd to usc, rcgarding it as dcgrading and scrvilc.
Thcn thcy rcach thc stagc that, in my opinion, thc worst and most
ungratclul pcoplc rcach: thcy lorgct altogcthcr. For a pcrson who
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lorgcts is so ungratclul that somconc counts as gratclul
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il thc bcnct
mcrcly crosscs his mind.
(6.r) !t is a mattcr ol dcbatc whcthcr this vicc, so rightly abhorrcd,
should go unpunishcd, or whcthcr thc law pcrmitting lcgal action
against ingratitudc, which is cmploycd in school dcclamations,
J

should bc implcmcntcd in civic lilc. This is a law that cvcryonc
thinks is rcasonablc. l coursc! Altcr all, onc city blamcs anothcr
ovcr bcncts conlcrrcd and pcoplc try to collcct lrom thc dcsccn
dants lor things givcn to thcir anccstors. (6.z) ur anccstors, who
wcrc ccrtainly grcat mcn, only sought rcparations lrom thcir cncmics,
thcy bcstowcd bcncts with grcatncss ol hcart and lost thcir invcst
mcnt in thc samc spirit. Thc right to suc an ingratc has bccn grantcd
among no pcoplc cxccpt thc Maccdonians.
2
And this is a powcrlul
indication that thc right should not havc bccn grantcd: wc arc unitcd
in opposing cvcry lorm ol mallcasancc, in various placcs thcrc arc
dicrcnt pcnaltics lor murdcr, poisoning, parricidc, and sacrilcgc, but
thcrc is always somc pcnalty prcscribcdbut thc crimc ol ingrati
tudc, though it is thc most common, isnt punishcd anywhcrc, though
it is cvcrywhcrc disapprovcd. !t is not that wc pardon it, but sincc it
is hard to asscss somcthing so indctcrminatc, thc only punishmcnt
imposcd on it is our hatrcd, wc havc lclt it on thc list ol crimcs that
wc rclcr to divinc judgcs.
(.r) Morcovcr, many rcasons comc to mind lor why this crimc
should not bc subjcct to lcgal sanction. First ol all, thc bcst aspcct ol
a bcnct is lost il a suit can bc brought as it can lor a dcnitc amount
ol moncy, or ovcr hiring and lcasing. For thc most noblc thing about
a bcnct is that wc gavc cvcn at thc risk ol losing it, that wc put thc
wholc thing in thc hands ol thc rccipicnts. !l ! summon him and call
him bclorc a judgc, thcn it starts to bc a loan rathcr than a bcnct.
(.z) Sccond, although rcturning a lavor is a most honorablc act, it
ccascs to bc honorablc il it is compulsory. Thcrc will bc no morc
praisc lor a gratclul pcrson than lor somconc who rcturncd a dcposit
or rcpaid a dcbt without lcgal action bcing takcn. (.) And so wc
ruin two things that arc thc ncst things in human lilc, thc gratclul
pcrson and thc bcnct itscll. For what is so wondcrlul about thc bcn
ct il it is not givcn but lcnt, or about thc pcrson who rcpays it not
bccausc hc wishcs to but bccausc it is ncccssary: Thcrc is no mcrit in
bcing gratclul unlcss onc can bc ungratclul with impunity.
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(.) Add this considcration: all thc courtrooms availablc will not
bc cnough lor cascs brought undcr just this onc law. Vho wont bc in
a position to suc: Vho wont bc vulncrablc to bcing sucd: vcryonc
ovcrratcs his own contributions, cvcryonc cxaggcratcs cvcn thc trivial
gilts thcy havc bcstowcd on othcrs. (.) Morcovcr, mattcrs covcrcd
by a lawsuit can bc summcd up in a lcgal lormulation so that thc
judgc docs not havc unlimitcd discrction. That is why a good casc
is bcttcr o il brought bclorc a judgc than il submittcd to an arbi
trator.
3
Thc judgc is constraincd by thc statcmcnt ol lcgal principlc
that imposcs on him limits hc must not violatc, but an arbitrator is
guidcd only by his intcgrity, which is lrcc and unlcttcrcd, and can
add or subtract things lrom thc casc at will, hc can stccr his judgmcnt
not according to argumcnts bascd on law or justicc, but according to
thc strcngth ol his scnsc ol dcccncy or his sympathics. (.6) A suit
lor ingratitudc could not havc imposcd tight constraints on a judgc,
but would havc had to givc him unrcstrictcd authority. For thcrc is
no clcar agrccmcnt about what a bcnct is, lct alonc about how big
it is. Thc gcncrosity ol thc judgcs intcrprctation makcs a dicrcncc.
No law can indicatc what counts as an ungratclul pcrson, somctimcs
cvcn thc pcrson who rcpaid what hc was givcn is ungratclul, whilc
thc pcrson who did not rcpay is gratclul. (.) n somc mattcrs cvcn
an incxpcricnccd judgc can rcndcr a vcrdict, whcn all hc has to do
is dctcrminc whcthcr hc did it or hc didnt do it, whcn adduc
ing writtcn guarantccs scttlcs thc disagrccmcnt, or whcn a gcncral
principlc givcs thc disputants thcir dccision. 8ut whcn a conclusion
must bc drawn about somconcs statc ol mind, whcn thc disagrcc
mcnt turns on a point that only wisdom can scttlc, thcn lor this
casc somconc cannot bc pickcd lrom thc gcncral crowd ol sclcct
judgcs, whosc wcalth and inhcritcd status as knights arc thcir only
qualications.
4
(8.r) And so it is not that ingratitudc is thought ol as an unsuit
ablc issuc to bring bclorc a judgc, but rathcr that no suitablc judgc
has cvcr bccn lound lor this issuc. This will not comc as a surprisc,
il you considcr thc kind ol challcngcs that conlront anyonc pro
cccding against somconc on a chargc ol ingratitudc. (8.z) Somconc
madc a largc monctary gilt, but hc was wcalthy and would not noticc
thc cxpcnditurc. Somconc clsc madc thc samc gilt, but by doing so
riskcd his wholc inhcritancc. Thc amount is thc samc, thc bcnct
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givcn is not. Add this casc too. nc man paid out a sum ol moncy
on bchall ol a convictcd dcbtor,
5
but to do so hc drcw on his privatc
rcsourccs, somconc clsc madc thc samc paymcnt, but took out a loan
to do so or plcd to gct thc moncy and submittcd to bcing undcr a
major obligation lor thc lavor. o you think thc lcllow who had
to borrow in ordcr to givc is in thc samc position as thc man who
cortlcssly providcd thc nancial bcnct: (8.) Somctimcs it is thc
circumstanccs that makc a bcnct largc, rathcr than thc moncy. Thc
gilt ol an cstatc so productivc that it could dcprcss thc pricc ol grain
at markctthat is a bcnct. 8ut so is a singlc loal ol brcad whcn a
man is hungry. Giving somconc tracts ol land draincd by navigablc
rivcrs ol cnormous sizcthat is a bcnct. 8ut so is pointing out a
spring to pcoplc dying ol thirst, with throats so parchcd that thcy
arc scarccly ablc to draw brcath. Vho will makc thc comparisons:
Vho will wcigh thcir signicancc: Thc dccision is di cult whcn
you nccd to invcstigatc not thc simplc lact, but its signicancc. Thc
samc things may bc at issuc, but il givcn in dicrcnt circumstanccs
thcy havc a dicrcnt wcight. (8.) Hcrc is somconc who gavc mc
a bcnct, but hc did not givc it lrccly, in lact hc complaincd about
having donc so, and hc thcrcaltcr trcatcd mc morc arrogantly than
hc uscd to, and hc gavc it altcr such a long dclay that it would havc
bccn a biggcr lavor to mc il hc had givcn mc a quick no. How will
thc judgc cvcn bcgin to asscss thcsc lactors whcn thc words uscd,
a ccrtain hcsitation, or cvcn thc cxprcssion on thc donors lacc can
climinatc thc gcncrosity ol a gilt.
(q.r) And what about thc lact that somc things arc callcd bcn
cts on thc grounds that thcy arc grcatly dcsircd, whcrcas othcrs arc
not dccmcd bcncts by this commonplacc critcrion, thcy arc in lact
morc important, though thcy do not sccm so. (q.z) You say that it
is a bcnct to havc grantcd somconc citizcnship in a powcrlul city,
or clcvatcd him to thc rank ol knight,
6
or dclcndcd him on a capital
chargc. 8ut what about having convinccd him to takc good advicc,
or rcstraincd him lrom rushing hcadlong into committing a crimc:
r having takcn thc sword away lrom somconc about to commit
suicidc, or having uscd ccctivc consolations to bring back thc will
to livc in somconc who in his gricl wantcd to lollow his lovcd oncs
to thc gravc: Vhat about having sat by his sickbcd and, as his hcalth
and strcngth gradually stabilizcd, watching lor thc right timc to ad
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ministcr lood, rcplcnishing his lailing pulsc with a sip ol winc, or
calling thc doctor to attcnd as hc dicd: (q.) Vho will asscss thcsc
bcncts: Vho will call lor a comparison ol bcncts so dissimilar to
cach othcr: ! gavc you a housc. 8ut ! am thc onc who warncd you
that yours would collapsc on you. ! gavc you an inhcritancc. 8ut
! gavc you a timbcr whcn you wcrc shipwrcckcd. ! lought lor you
and was woundcd. 8ut ! savcd your lilc by kccping silcnt. 8cncts
arc givcn and rcpaid in dicrcnt lorms, so it is hard to kccp thc ac
counts balanccd.
(ro.r) Furthcrmorc, a timc limit cannot bc sct on rcpaying a bcn
ct, as can bc donc lor a loan. So it is possiblc that somconc who
has not yct rcpaid will do so. Just tcll mc, thcn, what thc statutc ol
limitations will bc lor a chargc ol ingratitudc. (ro.z) Thc grcatcst
bcncts cannot bc ccrticd by cvidcncc, oltcn thcy lic hiddcn in thc
silcnt awarcncss ol two pcoplc. Shall wc bring in thc rcquircmcnt
that bcncts not bc givcn without a witncss: (ro.) And nally, what
pcnalty arc wc going to cstablish lor acts ol ingratitudc: A unilorm
pcnalty, dcspitc thc dicrcnccs among thcm: r dicrcnt pcnaltics,
grcatcr or lcss according to thc bcncts in cach casc: Vcll thcn, thc
pcnalty will bc limitcd to monctary paymcnt. Vhat about thc lact
that somc bcncts arc worth a lilc, and othcrs arc cvcn morc valu
ablc: Vhat pcnalty will bc dcclarcd lor thcm: nc that is lcss than
thc valuc ol thc bcnct: That is not lair. nc that is ol cqual valuc,
capital punishmcnt: Vhat could bc morc uncivilizcd than lor bcn
cts to lcad to a bloody outcomc:
(rr.r) Thc objcction is madc: Parcnts arc grantcd ccrtain lcgal
prcrogativcs,
7
and just as spccial considcration has bccn givcn to thcir
situation, so too should othcr bcnclactors bc givcn spccial consid
cration. Vc havc cxaltcd parcnthood bccausc it was cxpcdicnt that
childrcn should bc raiscd. Sincc thcy had to commit to an cntcrprisc
ol unccrtain outcomc, pcoplc had to bc cnticcd into undcrtaking this
task. Thcy could not bc told, as potcntial bcnclactors arc, Choosc
your bcncciary, il you arc disappointcd, kccp your complaints to
yourscll, assist only thc worthy. !n thc mattcr ol rcaring childrcn,
thc parcnts judgmcnt is lclt with no choicc, thc bcst thcy can do is
to hopc and pray. So to inducc thcm to takc thc gamblc with lcss
anxicty, parcnts had to bc grantcd a ccrtain authority. (rr.z) Fur
thcrmorc, thc situation with parcnts is dicrcnt. ncc parcnts havc
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givcn, thcy continuc to givc no mattcr what, and will go on giving,
and thcrc is no risk that thcy will makc a lalsc claim about having
givcn. !n othcr cascs onc has to cnquirc not just whcthcr pcoplc havc
rcccivcd a bcnct, but also whcthcr thcy havc givcn onc, in thc casc
ol parcnts thc lavors givcn arc manilcst and, sincc it is usclul to young
pcoplc to bc rulcd, wc havc subordinatcd thcm to a kind ol domcstic
magistratc to kccp thcm in protcctivc custody. (rr.) Furthcrmorc, all
parcnts givc thc samc bcnct, and so it could bc asscsscd dcnitivcly.
thcr bcncts vary, thcy arc dicrcnt lrom cach othcr, and thc gap
bctwccn thcm is cnormous. That is why ordinary bcncts could not
bc brought undcr a gcncral rulc, on thc grounds that it was morc lair
to lct thcm all go unrcgulatcd than lor all ol thcm to bc trcatcd as
thc samc.
(rz.r) Somc bcncts arc ol grcat signicancc to thc givcr, othcrs
arc important to thc rccipicnts but costlrcc lor thc donors. Somc
bcncts havc bccn givcn to lricnds, othcrs givcn to strangcrs. Though
thc gilt bc thc samc, it counts lor morc il it is givcn to somconc
whom you only bcgin to know whcn you conlcr thc bcnct. nc
pcrson givcs concrctc assistancc, anothcr honors, somconc clsc givcs
consolation. (rz.z) Thcrc arc pcoplc out thcrc who think that thcrc
is nothing morc plcasant or morc important than to havc somc
onc to sharc thcir disastcrs with. And thcrc arc othcrs who would
rathcr havc thcir social standing sccn to than thcir pcrsonal salcty,
yct somconc clsc thinks hc owcs morc to thc pcrson who promotcs
his sccurity than to thc onc who promotcs his prcstigc. Thc valuc
ol thc bcncts is grcatcr or lcsscr, dcpcnding on thc tcmpcramcntal
a nitics ol thc pcrson making thc judgmcnt. (rz.) And lurthcr
morc, ! choosc my own crcditor but ! oltcn acccpt a bcnct lrom
somconc ! would rathcr not takc it lrom. Somctimcs ! cvcn bccomc
obligatcd without knowing it. Vhat will you do, thcn: Vill you
labcl ungratclul thc pcrson on whom a bcnct is thrust without his
knowing it, somconc who would havc rcluscd to acccpt it il hc had
known: Vont you labcl him an ingratc lor not rcpaying thc bcnct,
rcgardlcss ol how it was acccptcd: (rz.) Somconc gavc mc a bcnct,
but thc samc pcrson subscqucntly inictcd an injury on mc. Am !
committcd by onc gilt to tolcratc any and cvcry injury: r is it as
though ! had rcturncd his lavor bccausc hc rctractcd his bcnct with
thc subscqucnt injury:
8
So how will you asscss which is grcatcr, thc
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bcnct rcccivcd or thc injury sucrcd: !l ! tricd to work through all
thc problcms, thcrc would not bc cnough hours in thc day.
(r.r) Thc objcction is madc: Vc actually discouragc pcoplc
lrom giving bcncts by not taking action to dclcnd thc valuc ol
bcncts and by not punishing thosc who rcpudiatc thcm. 8ut that
policy might just blow up in your lacc and makc pcoplc much morc
rcluctant to acccpt bcncts, il doing so will cxposc thcm to lcgal risks
and il it will put thcir rcputation lor intcgrity at risk. (r.z) Furthcr
morc, wc will oursclvcs bc morc rcluctant to givc, sincc no onc likcs
giving to unwilling rccipicnts, on thc contrary, whocvcr is attractcd
to bcnclactions by a spirit ol gcncrosity and by thc nobility ol giving
will bc cvcn morc happy to givc il thcir rccipicnts only owc what thcy
arc willing to owc. !l a good dccd is carclully protcctcd, thc crcdit lor
it is grcatly rcduccd.
(r.r) Ncxt point: thcrc will bc lcwcr bcncts, but thcy will bc
morc sinccrc. And what is wrong with discouraging thc rccklcss
giving ol bcncts: 8ut this is cxactly thc aim ol thc pcoplc who
dcclincd to lay down a law to govcrn bcncts: that wc should givc
morc thoughtlully and bc morc thoughtlul in our choicc ol rccipicnts
lor our gilts.
ii
(r.z) Rccct, ovcr and ovcr again, on your choscn
rccipicnt. You will not havc acccss to lawsuits and claims lor rcpay
mcnt. !l you think a judgc will hclp you, you arc wrong. No law can
put you back thc way you wcrc, considcr nothing but thc good laith
ol thc rccipicnt. This is how bcncts maintain thcir crcdibility and
thcir splcndor. You will sully thcm il you makc thcm thc basis lor
lcgal action.
(r.) Thc cry to rcpay what you owc! is cmincntly just, and
claims thc authority ol a worldwidc principlc ol justicc. 8ut it is
cmincntly shamclul whcn applicd to bcncts. Rcpay! Rcpay what:
Thc lilc you owc: Thc social standing: Thc pcrsonal salcty: Thc
hcalth: (r.) Thc most important things in lilc cannot bc rcpaid.
8ut, gocs thc objcction, rcpay somcthing ol cqual valuc. 8ut this
is just what ! was sayingthat il wc turn a bcnct into a commodity,
thc valuc ol somcthing vcry important will bc dcstroycd. Vc do not
nccd to cncouragc thc mind to grccd, quarrcls, and strilc, it rushcs
down that road all on its own. Lct us push back as hard as wc can
and prccmpt its qucst lor opportunitics.
(r.r) !l only wc could pcrsuadc lcndcrs to acccpt rcpaymcnt only
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lrom thosc who want to rcpay! !l only buycr and scllcr could dispcnsc
with lormal commitmcnts, and il only contractual agrccmcnts wcrc
not protcctcd by wax scals! 8cttcr that our good laith and an atti
tudc rcspcctlul ol justicc should bc thc salcguard. (r.z) 8ut pcoplc
havc put situational rcquircmcnts ahcad ol idcals, and thcy would
rathcr compcl good laith than wait around lor it. Vitncsscs arc callcd
by both partics. nc man insists on supplcmcntary guarantors and
cntrics in scvcral lcdgcrs whcn making loans. Anothcr wont scttlc
lor a vcrbal contract, but has thc guarantor lockcd in with a writtcn
commitmcnt. (r.) This is scandalousan admission that human
bcings arc crooks and that dishoncsty is rampant. Vc put morc laith
in scals than in souls. Vhy do wc bring in thosc highranking dig
nitarics: Vhy do thcy put thcir scal on contracts: bviously, just
so hc cannot dcny rccciving what hc in lact rcccivcd. o you think
that they arc upright mcn who will stand up lor thc truth: Vcll, as
soon as thosc dignitarics takc out loans, thc samc conditions arc ap
plicd. So would it not bc morc rcspcctablc to havc lailurcs ol good
laith by a lcw pcoplc than to havc to lcar dishoncsty by cvcryonc:
(r.) Thc only clcmcnt lacking in our grccd is that wc do not yct in
sist on a guarantor whcn granting bcncts. A noblc and highmindcd
spirit will assist othcrs and hclp thcm out. Thosc who conlcr bcncts
imitatc thc gods, thosc who scck rcpaymcnt imitatc loan sharks. Vhy
should wc makc bcnclactors kccp thc most disrcputablc company
whilc wc arc trying to stand up lor thcm:
(r6.r) Thc objcction is put: !l thcrc is no right to takc lcgal ac
tion against ingratcs, thcrc will bc morc ol thcm. No, thcrc will bc
lcwcr, sincc bcncts will bc givcn with grcatcr sclcctivity. Morcovcr,
it is not prudcnt to lct cvcryonc nd out how many ingratcs thcrc
arcthc grcat numbcr ol malclactors will makc thc misdccd lcss
shamclul, and il ingratitudc bccomcs a mattcr ol univcrsal complaint
it will ccasc to count as wrong. (r6.z) Surcly no woman is cmbar
rasscd by divorcc anymorc, now that ccrtain lamous and highborn
ladics kccp track ol thc ycars not by counting consuls
9
but by count
ing husbands, thcy lcavc homc to gct marricd but gct marricd to gct
divorccd. ivorcc was lcarcd only as long as it was unusual. 8ut it is
in thc ncws all thc timc now, so thcy havc lcarncd to cmulatc what
thcy hcar about so oltcn. (r6.) And surcly thcrc is no scandal in
adultcry anymorc cithcr, now that wc arc at thc point whcrc a woman
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only takcs a husband to makc hcr lovcr jcalous. Rcmaining chastc is
prool that shc is ugly. Vhcrc will you nd a woman so wrctchcd and
squalid that shc scttlcs lor just onc pair ol lovcrs:without having
a ncw lovcr lor cach hour ol thc day! And shc cannot gct to thcm all
in a singlc day unlcss shc spcnds a carriagc ridc with onc and slccps
ovcr with anothcr. Any woman who docs not scc that marriagc is
just a namc lor having only onc lovcr must bc simplcmindcd and
bchind thc timcs. (r6.) Thc shamc lor thcsc misdccds has long sincc
cvaporatcd as thc practicc has bccomc morc widcsprcad, and in thc
samc way you will producc morc ingratcs, worsc oncs too, il thcy gct
thc chancc to count thcmsclvcs up.
(r.r) So thcn, will ingratitudc go unpunishcd: So thcn, will im
picty go unpunishcd: r mcanspiritcdncss: r grccd: r rccklcss
ncss: r cruclty: Thcy arc dctcstcddo you think thcy arc unpun
ishcd: r do you rcally supposc that thcrc is any worsc punishmcnt
than public hatrcd: (r.z) Thcrc is a punishmcnt in thc lact that an
ingratc docs not darc to acccpt a bcnct lrom anyonc, docs not darc
to givc anyonc a bcnct, that hc is starcd at by cvcryonc, or at lcast
thinks that hc is, that hc has lost all awarcncss ol somcthing truly
wondcrlul and cxtrcmcly plcasant. You would call somconc miscrablc
il thcy wcrc blind or wcnt dcal bccausc ol discasc, would not you call
somconc wrctchcd il hc lost thc ability to pcrccivc bcncts: (r.) Hc
lcars thc gods, who witncss all acts ol ingratitudc, his awarcncss ol
having usurpcd a bcnct burns and torturcs him. 8ut in thc cnd, this
simplc lact is a big cnough punishmcnt: that, as ! said bclorc, hc is
dcprivcd ol all awarcncss ol a thing that is cxtrcmcly plcasant.
8y contrast, somconc who cnjoys rccciving a bcnct nds a stcady
and cndlcss plcasurc, rcjoicing in thc intcntions ol his bcnclactor
rathcr than in thc gilt. A gratclul man gcts plcasurc lrom a bcnct
always, an ingratc only oncc. (r.) !n lact, is thcrc rcally any com
parison bctwccn thcir livcs: nc ol thcm is dcprcsscd and worricd,
as is usual lor somconc who dcnics and chcats, who docs not rcspcct
his parcnts as hc should, nor his tutor, nor his tcachcrs. Thc othcr
is happy, cxultant, looking lorward to thc opportunity to rcturn thc
lavor, and lrom this vcry scntimcnt dcriving cnormous joynot
looking lor a way to dclault but looking lor a way to givc back morc
lully and morc gcncrously, not just to his parcnts and his lricnds,
but cvcn to pcoplc ol lowcr social standing. For cvcn il hc rcccivcd
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a bcnct lrom his slavc, hc takcs account ol what hc has rcccivcd,
not lrom whom.
(r8.r) Ncvcrthclcss, somc pcoplc (Hccaton, lor cxamplc) havc
raiscd thc qucstion ol whcthcr a slavc can conlcr a bcnct on his
mastcr. And ccrtain pcoplc makc thc lollowing distinctions: somc
things arc bcncts, somc arc rcsponsibilitics, somc arc scrviccs. A
bcnct is what an outsidcr givcs, an outsidcr bcing somconc who
could havc hcld back without bcing blamcd lor it. A rcsponsibility
attachcs to a son or a wilc or to thosc rolcs in which a rclationship
motivatcs thcm and urgcs thcm to hclp out. A scrvicc bclongs to a
slavc, somconc whosc lcgal situation is such that nothing hc providcs
givcs him a claim on his supcrior.
iii
(r8.) !l a slavc docs not givc
a bcnct to his mastcr, thcn ncithcr docs anyonc bcnct his king,
nor any soldicr his commandcr. !l onc is subjcct to an allpowcrlul
supcrior, thc cxact naturc ol thc authority docs not mattcr. For il
compulsion and thc lcar ol cxtrcmc punishmcnts bar a slavcs scrviccs
lrom bcing cntitlcd to thc labcl lavor, thcn thc samc thing applics to
anyonc who has a king or a commandcr. For dcspitc thc supcrcially
dicrcnt titlcs, thcy havc thc samc authority ovcr thcir inlcriors. 8ut
in lact, subjccts do grant bcncts to thcir kings and soldicrs to thcir
gcncrals. Thcrclorc slavcs givc bcncts to thcir mastcrs.
(r8.z) Morcovcr, somconc who dcnics that a slavc somctimcs bcn
cts his mastcr is just ignorant ol thc rights hc has as a human bc
ing. Vhat mattcrs is not thc lcgal status ol thc pcrson who providcs
somcthing, but his statc ol mind. \irtuc shuts thc door on no onc. !t
is opcn to cvcryonc and lcts us all in, invitcs us in: thc lrccborn, cx
slavcs, slavcs, kings, and cxilcs. !t docs not choosc anccstry or wcalth,
virtuc is satiscd with thc barc pcrson. Vhat sccurity would wc havc
against cmcrgcncics, what grcat promisc could our mind makc lor
itscll, il virtuc wcrc not rcliablc but could bc takcn away by Fortunc:
(r8.) A slavc can bc just, hc can bc bravc, hc can bc grcathcartcd.
Thcrclorc a slavc can also grant a bcnct, sincc this too is part ol
virtuc. Slavcs ccrtainly can givc bcncts to thcir mastcrs, so much
so that oltcn thcy havc madc thc vcry cxistcncc ol thcir mastcrs thc
rcsult ol thcir bcnct.
(rq.r) Thcrc is no doubt that a slavc can givc a bcnct to anyonc
clsc, so why can hc not givc onc to his mastcr as wcll: 8ccausc
il hc givcs him moncy hc cannot bccomc a crcditor ol his mastcr.
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thcrwisc hc puts his mastcr in his dcbt cvcry day. Hc attcnds him
on his travcls, takcs carc ol him whcn hc is sick, works vcry hard on
his mastcrs larm. 8ut all ol thcsc things, which would indccd bc
tcrmcd bcncts il providcd by somconc clsc, arc scrviccs whcn a slavc
providcs thcm. For a bcnct is somcthing that somconc givcs whcn
it is opcn to him not to givc it. 8ut a slavc docs not havc thc right to
rclusc. So hc docs not providc thcsc things as bcncts, hc just obcys.
And hc docs not boast ol having donc somcthing that hc could not
havc avoidcd doing.
(rq.z) vcn undcr this stipulation ! will win thc argumcnt and
bring thc slavc so lar along that hc will attain lrccdom lor many
purposcs. Mcanwhilc, tcll mc this: !l ! show you somconc who ghts
to savc his mastcr hccdlcss ol his own intcrcstswho, though hc has
alrcady bccn rcpcatcdly stabbcd, ncvcrthclcss spills thc last drops ol
blood lrom his vital organs, and who by his own dcath procurcs thc
dclay that givcs his mastcr timc to cscapcwill you dcny that hc has
conlcrrcd a bcnct, just bccausc hc is a slavc: (rq.) !l ! show you
somconc who has rcluscd to bctray his mastcrs sccrctsrcjccting thc
bribcs ol a tyrant, undauntcd by any ol his thrcats, unbcatcn by thc
pains ol torturcwho has donc all hc could to avcrt thc suspicions ol
his intcrrogator and thcn has givcn his lilc to prcscrvc his loyalty, will
you dcny that hc has conlcrrcd a bcnct on his mastcr, just bccausc
hc is a slavc: (rq.) !nstcad, considcr whcthcr pcrhaps thc rclativc
scarcity ol instanccs ol virtuc among slavcs actually makcs thcm morc
signicant, lor gcncrally spcaking, bcing undcr somconcs command
is hatclul and compulsion is always unplcasant, yct in somc slavcs
acction lor thcir mastcrs ovcrcomcs thc univcrsal hatrcd ol scrvi
tudc. So lar lrom it not bcing a bcnct bccausc it camc lrom a slavc,
in lact it is an cvcn grcatcr bcnct bccausc not cvcn slavcry could
discouragc him.
(zo.r) !t is a mistakc to think that slavcry pcnctratcs to thc corc ol
a human bcing. Thc bcst part ol him is cxcmpt. 8odics arc vulncrablc,
assigncd to mastcrs, but thc mind is autonomous, so lrcc and indc
pcndcnt that cvcn thc prison that contains it cannot prcvcnt it lrom
using its own powcrs to undcrtakc grcat dccds and lrom dcparting
lor thc innitc as a companion ol thc cclcstial bodics. (zo.z) And so
it is only thc body that Fortunc has turncd ovcr to a mastcr, this is
what hc buys and sclls. That inncr part ol a pcrson cannot bc owncd.
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Vhatcvcr comcs lrom this inncr part is lrcc. For thcrc arc things wc
cannot dcmand ol our slavcs, and thcy arc not compcllcd to obcy our
cvcry command. Thcy will not obcy trcasonous ordcrs, nor will thcy
assist in thc commission ol a crimc.
(zr.r) Thcrc arc ccrtain things that thc laws ncithcr command
nor lorbid slavcs to do. This is whcrc slavcs havc thc opportunity
to givc bcncts. As long as what is givcn is somcthing customarily
dcmandcd ol a slavc, thcn it is a scrvicc. 8ut whcn it gocs bcyond
what a slavc is compcllcd to do, thcn it is a bcnct, whcn thc cmo
tions involvcd bccomc thosc ol lricndship, it ccascs to bc callcd a
scrvicc. (zr.z) Thcrc is a ccrtain amount that a mastcr is supposcd
to providc lor his slavc, such as lood and clothing. No onc has cvcr
callcd this a bcnct. 8ut supposc hc has bccn gcncrous, brought him
up morc as bcts a lrcc pcrson, givcn him thc skills lrccborn childrcn
arc taught. That is a bcnct. Thc samc applics mutatis mutandis to
thc slavc. Vhatcvcr gocs bcyond thc standard bcnchmark ol scrvilc
rcsponsibilitics, whatcvcr is givcn not on command but voluntarily,
that is a bcnctprovidcd that it is signicant cnough that it would
bc tcrmcd a bcnct il somconc clsc gavc it.
(zz.r) A slavc, as Chrysippus holds, is a longtcrm cmploycc.
J0
Just
as an cmploycc givcs a bcnct whcn hc providcs morc than what hc
has contractcd lor, so too docs a slavc: whcn thc good will hc lccls lor
his mastcr gocs bcyond thc boundarics sct by his position in lilc and
whcn hc aims at somcthing highcr, somcthing that would do crcdit
cvcn to somconc ol luckicr birth, and so surpasscs thc cxpcctations
ol his mastcr, thcn wc havc lound a casc ol bcnct givcn within thc
houschold. (zz.z) r docs it sccm right to you that wc gct angry at
slavcs il thcy do lcss than thcy should, but arc not gratclul to thcm
il thcy havc donc morc than thcir customary dutics: o you want
to know whcn it is not a bcnct: Vhcn onc can say, And what il
hc rcluscd: 8ut whcn hc providcs lor his mastcr somcthing that hc
had a right to rclusc, thcn his willingncss to do it is praiscworthy.
(zz.) 8cnct and injury arc oppositc to cach othcr. nc can givc a
bcnct to oncs mastcr il onc can bc harmcd by oncs mastcr. 8ut wc
actually havc an o cial
JJ
to hcar cascs ol injurics inictcd on slavcs by
mastcrs, his job is to punish cruclty, lust, and stingincss in providing
thc ncccssitics ol lilc.
So thcn: Can a mastcr rcccivc a bcnct lrom a slavc: No, but
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onc human bcing can rcccivc a bcnct lrom anothcr human bcing.
(zz.) !n thc nal analysis, thc slavc did what was in his powcr, hc
gavc a bcnct to his mastcr. !t is in your powcr not to rcccivc it lrom
a slavc.
J2
8ut who is so grcat and powcrlul that Fortunc might not
lorcc him to nccd hclp lrom cvcn thc lowlicst sourcc:
(z.r) ! will now adducc many instanccs ol bcncts, all dicrcnt
and somc cvcn oppositc to cach othcr. nc slavc gavc his mastcr
lilc, anothcr gavc him dcath. nc savcd his mastcr lrom pcrishing,
and il that is not cnough, savcd him by pcrishing. nc hclpcd his
mastcr to dic, anothcr trickcd him out ol dying. (z.z) !n book . ol
his nnals, Claudius Quadrigarius
J3
rcports that whcn Grumcntum
was undcr sicgc and thc situation had bccomc uttcrly hopclcss, two
slavcs cscapcd to thc cncmy and providcd valuablc scrvicc. Thcn,
altcr thc capturc ol thc city, whcn thc victors wcrc running wildly
through it, thcsc slavcs ran ahcad to thc housc whcrc thcy had bccn
slavcs, lollowing routcs thcy kncw wcll, thcy capturcd thcir mistrcss
and lcd hcr through thc strccts. Vhcn askcd who thcir captivc was,
thcy said that shc was thcir mistrcss and that shc had bccn cxtrcmcly
crucl to thcm, so thcy wcrc taking hcr out lor cxccution. Thcy thcn
took hcr outsidc thc city walls and took thc grcatcst pains to conccal
hcr whcrcabouts until thc ragc ol thc cncmy army scttlcd down.
Thc army was soon satcd and rcvcrtcd to normal Roman bchavior,
at that point thc slavcs also rcvcrtcd to thcir normal bchavior and
surrcndcrcd thcmsclvcs to thcir mistrcss. (z.) Shc lrccd thcm both
on thc spot and did not rcscnt thc lact that shc owcd hcr lilc to slavcs
ovcr whom shc had oncc had thc powcr ol lilc and dcath. !n lact,
shc might wcll havc rcjoiccd at this turn ol cvcnts. For il shc had
bccn savcd in somc othcr way shc would havc bccn thc bcncciary
ol somc lamiliar, rathcr ordinary lorm ol clcmcncy. 8ut owing to this
dramatic rcscuc shc bccamc somcthing ol a cclcbrity and an cxamplc
sct lor two citics. (z.) Vhcn thc city was capturcd thc uphcaval
was so grcat that it was cvcry man lor himscll, and cvcryonc dcscrtcd
hcr cxccpt lor thc runaways. 8ut thcy wantcd to show thc intcntion
bchind thcir carlicr act ol dcscrtion, so thcy oncc again ran away,
this timc lrom thc winncrs to thcir captivc mistrcss, prctcnding to
bc murdcrcrs. Thc most imprcssivc lcaturc ol thcir bcnct was that
thcy thought it so important to prcvcnt thc murdcr ol thcir mistrcss
that thcy lct thcmsclvcs bc thought to havc murdcrcd hcr. Trust mc,
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it is not charactcristic ol a slavish mind to carry out a noblc dccd at
thc pricc ol a rcputation lor criminality.
(z.) \cttius, thc practor ol thc Marsi, was capturcd and brought
bclorc thc Roman gcncral.
J4
His slavc drcw thc sword ol thc soldicr
who had \cttius in custody and slcw his mastcr rst and thcn said,
Now it is timc to look out lor my own intcrcsts. ! havc alrcady lrccd
my mastcr. And thcn hc ran himscll through with onc blow. Show
mc anyonc who rcscucd his mastcr morc splcndidly!
(z) Cacsar was bcsicging Cornium, and omitius was trappcd
insidc thc city.
J5
Hc ordcrcd his doctor, who was also his slavc, to
givc him poison. Vhcn omitius noticcd his slavcs hcsitation hc
said, Vhats thc dclay: !ts not as though you arc in control ol this
wholc situation. ! want dcath and ! havc a wcapon. Thcn thc slavc
gavc him his promisc and ocrcd his mastcr a harmlcss potion to
drink. Vhcn this put omitius to slccp, thc slavc wcnt to his son and
said, Givc ordcrs that ! bc kcpt undcr guard until you lcarn lrom thc
outcomc whcthcr ! poisoncd your lathcr. omitius livcd and his lilc
was sparcd by Cacsar, but omitiuss slavc savcd him rst.
(z) uring thc civil war a slavc hid his mastcr, who had bccn
proscribcd. Hc put on his mastcrs rings and worc his clothcs, and
thcn ran out to mcct thc spics and told thcm hc would not bcg thcm
not to carry out thcir ordcrs. Thcn hc ocrcd his ncck to thc cxccu
tioncrs. Vhat hcroism this was, to want to dic lor oncs mastcr at a
timc whcn not wanting him dcad would havc bccn a rarc act ol loy
alty! Hcrc wc nd a casc ol kindncss amidst public savagcry, loyalty
amidst public trcachcry. Vhcn hugc rcwards wcrc bcing ocrcd lor
bctrayals, this man ycarncd lor dcath as his rcward lor loyalty.
(z6.r) ! wont omit cxamplcs lrom our own timc. !n thc rcign ol
Tibcrius thcrc was a widcsprcad, ncarly univcrsal mania lor dcnounc
ing pcoplc.
J6
This hit thc cntirc citizcn body cvcn hardcr than any
civil war would. runkcn words and innoccnt jokcs wcrc rcportcd.
Nothing was salc. vcry prctcxt lor savagcry was satislactory and
you did not havc to wondcr what thc outcomc would bcthcrc was
only onc. Paulus, an cxpractor, was dining at somc lcast or othcr
and worc a gcmstonc ring with an imagc in rclicl ol Tibcrius Cacsar.
(z6.z) ! would bc a lool il ! tricd at this point to nd dclicatc words
to say it: Paulus pickcd up a chambcrpot. As soon as hc did, Maro,
onc ol thc notorious spics ol thc agc, took notc. 8ut so did thc slavc
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ol thc man who was bcing cntrappcd.
iv
Hc slippcd thc ring o his
drunkcn mastcrs ngcr, and whcn Maro callcd thc othcr gucsts to
witncss that Paulus had cxposcd thc cmpcrors likcncss to lth, and
was alrcady composing his indictmcnt, thc slavc showcd cvcryonc
that thc ring was in his hand. !l anyonc calls this man a mcrc slavc,
hc will no doubt rcgard Maro as a gcnuinc gucst.
(z.r) !n thc rcign ol Augustus, pcoplcs words did not yct put
thcir livcs in dangcr but thcy could causc thcm troublc. A man
ol thc scnatorial class namcd Rulus
J7
oncc, at a dinncr party, cx
prcsscd thc wish that Cacsar not rcturn salcly lrom thc trip that hc
was planningand hc addcd that all thc bulls and calvcs sharcd
his wish.
J8
Thcrc wcrc witncsscs listcning carclully. First thing ncxt
morning, thc slavc who had attcndcd him at thc lcast told him what
hc had said at tablc whilc drunk, and urgcd him to go to Cacsar rst
so as to bc his own accuscr. (z.z) Rulus took this advicc and mct
Cacsar as hc lclt his palacc, hc sworc that hc had not bccn in his right
mind thc day bclorc, said that hc wantcd thc wish to lall rathcr on
himscll and his sons, and bcggcd Cacsar to lorgivc him and rcccivc
him back into his lavor. (z.) Vhcn Cacsar said that hc would do
so, Rulus said, 8ut no onc will bclicvc that ! am back in lavor with
you unlcss you givc mc a gilt. Hc thcn askcd lor and rcccivcd a sum
ol moncy that would not havc bccn ncgligiblc cvcn il hc had bccn
in Cacsars good books. Cacsar addcd, For my part, ! will bc carclul
ncvcr to gct angry with you! (z.) Cacsars actions wcrc honorablc,
hc lorgavc him and addcd a display ol gcncrosity to his clcmcncy.
nc cannot hcar this story without praising Cacsarbut only altcr
praising thc slavc. You do not havc to wait to hcar it: thc slavc who
pcrlormcd this scrvicc was lrccd. 8ut his manumission was not lrcc.
Cacsar had paid thc pricc lor his libcrty.
J9
(z8.r) Surcly, altcr so many cxamplcs, thcrc cannot bc any doubt
that thcrc arc timcs whcn a mastcr can rcccivc a bcnct lrom his
slavc. Vhy should thc social rolc dcgradc thc dccd, instcad ol thc
dccd cnnobling thc social rolc ol thc agcnt: Vc arc all madc ol thc
samc clcmcnts and wc all havc thc samc origin. No onc is morc noblc
than anyonc clsc, cxccpt thc pcrson with a charactcr that is morc
upright and cquippcd with morc good traits. (z8.z) Thcrc arc pcoplc
who display anccstral masks in thcir loycrs and post thcir long and
intricatc lamily trccs right at thc cntranccs ol thcir palatial homcs
20

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but arc thcy not notorious rathcr than noblc: Thc cosmos is thc solc
parcnt ol us all, and cvcryoncs anccstry is traccd back to that sourcc,
whcthcr thc pathways to that origin arc glorious or humblc. Thcrc
is no rcason to bc loolcd by pcoplc who, as oltcn as thcy cnumcratc
thcir anccstors, whcrcvcr thcrc is a gap in thc string ol lamous namcs,
slip thc namc ol a god into thcir gcncalogy. (z8.) o not look down
on anyonc, cvcn il hc is cnmcshcd in a lamily whosc glory has passcd
and which is no longcr sustaincd by thc lavors ol lortunc. Vhcthcr
lrccdmcn, slavcs, or lorcigncrs lic hiddcn
v
in your lamily history, raisc
your hcad proudly and jump right ovcr thc intcrvcning mcdiocrity: at
thc summit grcat nobility awaits you. (z8.) Vhy docs pridc makc us
so pompous that wc think wc arc too good to rcccivc bcncts lrom
our slavcs, considcring thcir position in lilc and ignoring what thcy
havc donc lor us: o you darc call anyonc clsc a slavc: You arc a
slavc to your lust, your grccd, and your mistrcssactually, you arc thc
joint propcrty ol many mistrcsscs. (z8.) And you call anyonc clsc a
slavc: So whcrc arc your portcrs whisking you o to in that covcrcd
scdan chair ol yours: Vhat about thosc mcn in cloaks dcckcd out
in lancy unilorms to look likc soldicrs: Vhcrc, ! ask you, whcrc arc
thcy hustling you o to: To somc gatckccpcrs gatc: r to gardcns
tcndcd by a slavc without any rcgular dutics: And thcn you say that
no slavc ol yours could givc you a bcnct, whcn you trcat a kiss lrom
somconc clscs slavc as a bcnct. (z8.6) Vhy so much intcllcctual
inconsistcncy: You dcspisc slavcs and curry lavor with thcm at thc
samc timc: a raging tyrant at homc and in public thc picturc ol hu
mility, dcspiscd as much as you dcspisc othcrs. No onc is morc abjcct
in spirit than thosc who havc unduc pridc, nonc is morc rcady to
tramplc othcr pcoplc than thosc who havc lcarncd to inict insults
by having to sucr thcm.
(zq.r) ! had to say all this in ordcr to bcat down thc arrogancc ol
pcoplc who arc dcpcndcnt on good lortunc and to justily thc claim
that slavcs can givc bcncts, so that thc samc claim could bc madc
lor oncs sons. !n lact, it is a subjcct ol dcbatc whcthcr thcrc might
bc timcs whcn childrcn can givc thcir parcnts grcatcr bcncts than
thcy havc rcccivcd.
(zq.z) !t is an agrccd lact that thcrc havc bccn many sons who arc
morc important and morc powcrlul than thcir parcnts, cqually, it is
also agrccd many havc bccn bcttcr pcoplc. !l this is scttlcd, it can turn
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out that thc childrcn can givc bcttcr gilts, sincc thcy havc a bcttcr
lot in lilc and bcttcr intcntions. (zq.) Thc objcction is, Vhatcvcr a
son givcs to his lathcr, it is always lcsscr, sincc hc owcs to his lathcr
thc vcry ability to givc. Thcrclorc thc lathcr is ncvcr outdonc in bcn
cts, sincc thc vcry lact that hc is outdonc is a bcnct hc bcstowcd.
First, thcrc arc somc things whosc bcginnings dcpcnd on othcrs but
which ncvcrthclcss bccomc grcatcr than thcir bcginnings. Thc lact
that somcthing could not havc advanccd so lar without having a
starting point docs not mcan that it is not in lact grcatcr than its
starting point. (zq.) vcrything advanccs lar bcyond its own bcgin
nings. Sccds arc thc causcs ol all things, and ncvcrthclcss thcy arc
thc smallcst portions ol thc things that thcy producc. Considcr thc
Rhinc, considcr thc uphratcs, just considcr all thc rcnowncd riv
crs, what do thcy amount to il you mcasurc thcm by thcir sourccs:
Vhatcvcr it is that makcs thcm lormidablc, that makcs thcm lamous,
is acquircd as thcy go along. (zq.) Considcr trcc trunks, thc tallcst
oncs il you mcasurc hcight or thc widcst il you mcasurc thc thick,
dcnsc covcr ol thcir branchcs, comparcd to thcsc, thc volumc ol thc
slcndcr root bcrs is minusculc. 8ut il you pull up this root, thc trccs
will not grow and vast mountains will not bc clothcd in lorcst. Thc
soaring tcmplcs ol thc city rcst upon thcir loundations, but thcsc
loundations, laid to support thc cntirc monumcnt, arc hiddcn by it.
(zq.6) Thc samc thing happcns in othcr cascs. ach things bcgin
nings arc obscurcd by thc grcatncss that cmcrgcs. ! could not havc
achicvcd anything unlcss bcncts had bccn grantcd prcviously by
my parcnts. 8ut it docs not lollow that cvcrything ! havc achicvcd
is smallcr than thc bcnct which was thc ncccssary condition lor
my achicvcmcnts. (zq.) Unlcss my wct nursc had lcd mc as a baby
! could not havc donc any ol thc things ! havc undcrtakcn with my
intclligcncc and labor, nor could ! havc attaincd thc lamc that ! havc
carncd by my hard work in political and military lilc. Surcly, though,
you wont trcat thc job ol a wct nursc as bcttcr than thcsc suprcmc
achicvcmcnts. And yct thcrc is not rcally any dicrcncc, sincc it is
just as truc that ! could not havc gonc on to my latcr achicvcmcnts
without my wct nurscs assistancc as it is that ! could not havc donc
it without my lathcrs. (zq.8) 8ut il ! owc all thc powcr ! now havc
to my origins, rccct that my origins arc not my lathcr or cvcn my
grandlathcr. Thcrc is always somc carlicr starting point lrom which
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thc origins ol my immcdiatc origins dcrivcd. And yct no onc is go
ing to say that ! owc morc to thc obscurc anccstors lost in thc mists
ol timc than ! do to my lathcr. 8ut in lact ! do owc thcm morc, il
thc vcry lact that my lathcr sircd mc is somcthing hc owcs to his
anccstors.
(o.r) Vhatcvcr ! havc providcd to my lathcr, no mattcr how
grcat thc bcnct, is worth lcss than my lathcrs gilt, just bccausc it
would not cxist il hc had not sircd mc. n that linc ol rcasoning as
wcll, il somconc had curcd my lathcr whcn hc was sick and about
to dic, thcn any bcnct ! providc to thc doctor must bc lcss than his
to mc, sincc my lathcr could not havc sircd mc unlcss hc had bccn
curcd. 8ut think about it, probably thc morc mcaninglul cvaluation
is whcthcr my abilitics and my actions arc minc, thc product ol my
own strcngth and my own intcntions. (o.z) Considcr on its own
mcrits what thc mcrc lact ol my bcing born is likc. You will scc that
it is somcthing trivial, ambivalcnt, thc raw matcrial lor both good
and bad outcomcsno doubt thc rst stcp lor cvcrything clsc, but
not grcatcr than thcm all just bccausc it is rst. (o.) ! savcd my
lathcrs lilc, advanccd him to thc highcst rank, and madc him thc
lcadcr in his city, ! did not just cnnoblc him by my own dccds but !
gavc him a big, casy opportunity lor achicving things ol his own, an
opportunity that was just as sccurc as it was glorious. ! hcapcd upon
him honors, wcalth, cvcrything that compcls human ambition. And
whcn ! myscll stood abovc cvcryonc clsc, ! took my placc bclow him.
(o.) Now go ahcad and say to mc, Your ability to achicvc all thosc
things is your lathcrs gilt to you, and ! will givc you my answcr. l
coursc it isil bcing born is all it takcs to achicvc thcm. 8ut il bcing
alivc contributcs only minimally to living wcll, and il what you gavc
mc is somcthing ! sharc with bcasts and cvcn somc piddly littlc lilc
lorms, cvcn somc disgusting oncs, thcn dont claim lor yourscll what
docs not in lact dcrivc lrom thc bcncts you providcd, cvcn il it can
not dcvclop without thcm.
(r.r) Supposc that ! havc givcn you lilc in rcturn lor you giv
ing mc lilc. vcn so ! havc surpasscd your gilt, sincc ! gavc lilc to
a conscious bcing, sincc ! was conscious ol giving as ! did so, sincc
! did not givc you lilc lor thc sakc ol my own plcasurc (or ccrtainly
not by mcans ol my own plcasurc), and sincc it is morc valuablc to
kccp brcathing than to start brcathingjust as it is lcss scrious to
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dic bclorc onc comcs to lcar dcath. (r.z) ! gavc you lilc lor your im
mcdiatc usc, you gavc lilc to somconc who would not cvcn know hc
was alivc. ! gavc lilc to you, who wcrc alraid to dic. You gavc lilc to
mc so that ! would bc ablc to dic. ! gavc you a lilc that was complctc
and wcll roundcd, you sircd mc as an irrational bcing, a burdcn lor
somconc clsc to bcar. (r.) o you want a scnsc ol how thc gilt ol
lilc is not rcally such a grcat bcnct: You might havc cxposcd mc,
2J

thcrcby doing mc a wrong by having sircd mc. Vhat do ! concludc
lrom this: That it is a prctty trivial bcnct lor a lathcr and mothcr to
slccp togcthcr unlcss thcrc arc additional bcncts to lollow up on this
initial gilt and to consolidatc it with additional scrviccs to thc child.
(r.) !t is not living which is thc good, but living wcll. And ! do livc
wcll. 8ut ! could also havc livcd badly. And so this alonc is your do
ing, that ! am alivc. !l you claim that ! am in your dcbt lor lilc itscll,
all on its own, unadorncd and without rationality, and you aunt this
as a grcat good that you havc givcn, thcn just rcmcmbcr that you arc
trcating mc as bcing in dcbt to you lor a good that ! sharc with ics
and worms. (r.) Furthcrmorc, to mcntion only thc lact that ! havc
dcvotcd myscll to gctting a libcral cducation and stccrcd a straight
and truc coursc through lilc, lrom all ol this you havc rcccivcd morc
lrom your bcnct to mc than you havc givcn. For you gavc mc to
myscll as an unschoolcd and incxpcricnccd pcrson, and ! havc givcn
you a son whom you can bc proud ol having lathcrcd.
(z.r) My lathcr lcd mc. !l ! do thc samc, my rcturn is grcatcr
than his gilt bccausc hc rcjoiccs not only that hc is lcd, but also that
hc is lcd by his son, and so hc dcrivcs a grcatcr plcasurc lrom my
intcntion than hc docs lrom thc lccding itscll. His lccdings cxtcndcd
only as lar as my body. (z.z) And what about this: !l somconc has
gottcn so lar that hc has an intcrnational rcputation lor cloqucncc or
justicc or warlarc, and so surrounds his lathcr with so much lamc that
it raiscs him lrom thc obscurity ol his station at birth and puts him
in a spotlight, has hc not conlcrrcd a pricclcss bcnct on his parcnts:
(z.) r would anyonc havc cvcr hcard ol Aristo and Gryllus il it
had not bccn lor thcir sons Xcnophon and Plato: Socratcs kccps thc
namc ol Sophroniscus alivc lorcvcr. !t would takc too long to list all
thc othcrs whosc namcs arc kcpt in circulation solcly bccausc thc
outstanding achicvcmcnts ol thcir childrcn prcscrvcd thcir namcs
lor postcrity. (z.) Vas a grcatcr bcnct givcn to Marcus Agrippa
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by his lathcr
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(who was not lamous cvcn altcr his sons achicvc
mcnts), or was thc grcatcr bcnct givcn to his lathcr by Agrippa, who
was lamcd lor winning thc naval crown, carning an honor uniquc
among military dccorations, and who crcctcd in thc city ol Romc so
many buildings ol such outstanding magnitudc that thcy surpasscd
thc glory ol carlicr days and would not bc surpasscd in latcr ycars:
(z.) Vas a grcatcr bcnct givcn to his son by ctavius, or was
thc grcatcr bcnct givcn to his lathcr by thc ivinc Augustus, cvcn
though thc shadow cast by his adoptivc lathcr
23
did obscurc him:
Vhat plcasurc hc would havc takcn in sccing his son supcrvisc a stablc
pcacc at thc cnd ol thc civil war, though hc could not havc rccognizcd
thc good hc had providcd, and could scarccly havc bclicvcd, whcn hc
rccctcd on his own situation, that a man likc that had bccn born in
his own houschold! Vhy should ! go through thc list ol othcr mcn
who by now would havc sunk into oblivion il thcir sons glory had not
pullcd thcm out ol thc darkncss and kcpt thcm in thc light to this day:
(z.6) Finally, our qucstion is not which son gavc his lathcr bcn
cts grcatcr than what hc rcccivcd lrom him, rathcr, our qucstion
is whcthcr it is possiblc lor a son to rcturn to his lathcr a grcatcr
bcnct than hc rcccivcd. So cvcn il thc cxamplcs ! havc adduccd arc
not su cicnt and thcy do not outwcigh thc bcncts givcn by thcir
parcnts, cvcn so naturc admits ol this possibility, which has not yct
bccn sccn in any agc. And il individual bcncts cannot cxcccd thc
magnitudc ol thc gilts givcn by lathcrs, thcn many takcn togcthcr
will surpass thcm.
(.r) Scipio rcscucd his lathcr on thc battlccld, and dcspitc
his youth
24
hc spurrcd his horsc into thc cncmy ranks. !s it a trivial
lact that hc spurncd all thc dangcrs that wcrc a particular thrcat to
thc most powcrlul lcadcrs, and conlrontcd so many obstaclcs, all in
ordcr to rcach his lathcr: And that although hc was a ncw rccruit
going into battlc lor thc rst timc, hc chargcd amidst thc corpscs ol
vctcran soldicrs, lar surpassing his ycars in couragc: (.z) Add to this
thc lact that hc also dclcndcd his lathcr in court and rcscucd him
lrom thc plots ol his powcrlul cncmics, so that hc could hcap upon
him a sccond and third consulship and othcr honors that would bc
thc cnvy cvcn ol cxconsuls, so that hc could givc his impovcrishcd
lathcr wcalth scizcd in accordancc with thc rulcs ol war, and (thc
most glorious honor lor soldicring mcn) makc him rich by mcans ol
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booty won lrom thc cncmy. (.) And il this is still not cnough, add
to it thc lact that hc cxtcndcd his lathcrs provincial govcrnorships
and cxtraordinary commands, and that altcr our grcatcst citics had
bccn dcstroycd, hc cmcrgcd as thc loundcr and dclcndcr ol a luturc
Roman cmpirc that would bc without rival lrom thc rising to thc
sctting sun, and so providcd an cvcn grcatcr glory to a man alrcady
glorious: thc chancc to bc known as thc lathcr ol Scipio. Can thcrc
bc any doubt that thc commonplacc bcnct ol mcrcly siring him
was outwcighcd by thc sons outstanding lial rcspcct and a hcroism
that brought to thc city itscll both salvation and honor! do not
know which was thc grcatcr. (.) Thcn, il this is still not cnough,
imaginc somconc who lrccd his lathcr lrom torturc, and imaginc that
hc did so by translcrring thc torturcs to himscll. You can incrcasc
thc bcncts ol thc son as much as you want, whilc thc lathcrs gilt
is straightlorward and casy, providcs plcasurc to thc givcr, and must
havc bccn grantcd to many, cvcn thosc hc docs not know hc gavc it
to. !n giving it, hc had a partncr and took into account thc law, his
lathcrland, thc rcwards ol lathcrhood,
25
thc continuity ol his housc
and lamily linccvcrything, in lact, cxccpt thc pcrson to whom hc
gavc thc gilt. (.) Vhat: !l somconc acquircd wisdom and thcn
gavc it to his lathcr, would you cvcn thcn dcbatc whcthcr hc gavc
somcthing grcatcr than hc rcccivcd, having rcccivcd mcrc lilc and
rcpaying his lathcr with thc happy lilc:
() 8ut, thc objcction runs, whatcvcr you do, whatcvcr you
arc ablc to givc to your lathcr, it is all a bcnct lrom your lathcr.
And it is a bcnct lrom my tcachcr that ! havc madc progrcss in thc
libcral arts. Ncvcrthclcss, wc surpass thosc who taught us thosc sub
jccts, cspccially thosc who instructcd us in thc rudimcnts ol litcracy,
although no onc can achicvc anything without tcachcrs, it docs not
lollow that no mattcr how much onc accomplishcs onc rcmains in
lcrior to thosc tcachcrs. Thcrc is a big dicrcncc bctwccn thc basic
lcssons wc lcarn and thc most important lcssons, thc basics arc not
cquivalcnt to thc most important just bccausc thc most important
cannot cxist without thc basics.
(.r) Now it is timc to bring out a lcw argumcnts coincd, so to
spcak, in our own mint. Somconc who givcs a bcnct than which a
bcttcr bcnct cxists can bc surpasscd. A lathcr gavc his son lilc, but
thcrc is somcthing bcttcr than lilc, so a lathcr can bc surpasscd, sincc
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hc gavc a bcnct than which a bcttcr bcnct cxists. (.z) Again, il hc
who gavc lilc to somconc has bccn rcscucd lrom mortal pcril oncc
and cvcn twicc, thcn hc has rcccivcd a bcnct grcatcr than hc gavc.
8ut a lathcr gavc lilc to his son. Thcrclorc, il hc has bccn rcpcat
cdly rcscucd lrom mortal pcril by his son, thcn it is possiblc that
hc rcccivcs a grcatcr bcnct than hc gavc. (.) Hc who rcccivcs a
bcnct rcccivcs a grcatcr bcnct in proportion to thc nccd hc is in,
but somconc who is alivc is in grcatcr nccd ol lilc than somconc who
has not bccn born (sincc thc lattcr cannot cvcn bc in nccd at all),
thcrclorc thc lathcr, il hc rcccivcs lilc lrom his son, rcccivcs a grcatcr
bcnct than thc son rcccivcd lrom his lathcr in bcing born.
(.) Thc bcncts ol a lathcr cannot bc surpasscd by thc bcn
cts ol thc son. Vhy: 8ccausc thc son rcccivcd lilc lrom his lathcr,
and il hc had not rcccivcd it hc could not havc givcn any bcncts.
8ut thc lathcr sharcs this with cvcryonc who has givcn lilc to anyonc.
For thcsc pcoplc could not havc rcturncd thc lavor unlcss thcy had
rcccivcd lilc. !t lollows thcn that it is not possiblc to rcturn a lavor
to a doctor bcyond his dcsscrt (lor oltcn a doctor givcs lilc too), nor
to a sailor il hc has pickcd up a shipwrcckcd pcrson. And yct thc
bcncts ol thcsc and othcr pcoplc who havc givcn us lilc in somc
lorm or anothcr can bc surpasscd. !t lollows that thc bcncts givcn
by lathcrs can also bc surpasscd. (.) !l somconc gavc mc a bcnct
that nccdcd thc support ol bcncts providcd by many othcr pcoplc,
but ! gavc this pcrson a bcnct that nccdcd no oncs support, thcn !
gavc a grcatcr bcnct than ! rcccivcd. A lathcr gavc his son lilc, but
this lilc would havc pcrishcd unlcss thcrc had bccn many additional
lactors to protcct it. !l this son gavc lilc to his lathcr, thcn hc gavc
him a lilc that did not nccd anyoncs assistancc in ordcr to cndurc.
!t lollows that thc lathcr who rcccivcd lilc rcccivcd lrom his son a
grcatcr bcnct than hc gavc him.
(6.r) Thcsc argumcnts do not undcrminc rcspcct lor parcnts, nor
do thcy makc childrcn inlcrior to thcir parcnts, rathcr, thcy makc
thc childrcn cvcn bcttcr than thcir parcnts. For virtuc naturally aims
at gaining glory, and wants to outdo its prcdcccssors. And lial rc
spcct will bc all thc morc cagcr il it approachcs thc task ol rcpay
ing bcncts with somc hopc ol surpassing thcm. Fathcrs thcmsclvcs
would nd this a wclcomc and plcasing dcvclopmcnt, sincc thcrc
arc many sphcrcs in which it is in our own intcrcst to bc surpasscd.
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(6.z) Vhcrc clsc could you nd such a dcsirablc contcst: Vhcrc

could you nd such a sourcc ol joy lor parcnts as having to admit
that thcy arc not cqual to thc bcncts bcstowcd by thcir childrcn:
Unlcss wc comc to this conclusion wc arc just giving our childrcn
cxcuscs and making thcm morc sluggish at rcturning thc lavor, whcn
wc ought to bc urging thcm on and saying,
Go lor it, my nc young mcn! Vc havc announccd an honorablc
compctition bctwccn parcnts and childrcn, to scc whcthcr thcy
havc givcn or rcccivcd grcatcr bcncts. (6.) Thcy havc not won
just bccausc thcy got thc rst play, just takc thc attitudc that bc
ts you and do not losc hcart. You will bcat thcmits what thcy
arc hoping lor. And this glorious contcst docs not lack champions
who will chccr you on to cmulatc thcir dccds and urgc you to
lollow in thcir lootstcps to a victory ovcr parcnts that has oltcn
bccn won in thc past.
(.r) Acncas outdid his lathcr, hc had himscll bccn in his inlancy
a light burdcn to carry, involving no dangcr, but hc carricd his lathcr,
who was hcavy in his old agc, right through thc cncmy lincs amidst
thc ruins ol a city collapsing all around him, and his lathcr was not
thc only baggagc that wcighcd Acncas down as hc cd, lor thc pious
old man was carrying in his arms thc sacrcd objccts and gods ol his
houschold. Acncas carricd him through thc amcs andthcrc is no
limit to what lial rcspcct can dogot him salcly through, and hc sct
his lathcr down to bc worshippcd as onc ol thc loundcrs ol thc Ro
man cmpirc. (.z) Thc youths ol Sicily
26
outdid thcir parcnts. Vhcn
Actna was crupting with unusual violcncc and pouring conagration
onto thc citics, clds, and a grcat portion ol thc island, thcy carricd
thcir parcnts on thcir backs. Thc lcgcnd is that thc wall ol rc partcd,
and with thc amcs withdrawing on both sidcs ol thcm a pathway
opcncd up so that thcsc youths, who ccrtainly dcscrvcd to pcrlorm
thcir bravc dccds in salcty, could pass through. (.) Antigonus
27

outdid his lathcr, whcn hc had conqucrcd thc cncmy in an cnormous
battlc hc passcd on thc prizc ol thc war to his lathcr, handing him
command ovcr Cyprus. Rcal kingship is dcclining to rcign whcn
it is in your powcr to do so. (.) Manlius
28
outdid his tyrannical
lathcr. Though hc had until thcn bccn banishcd by his lathcr, owing
to his thuggish and stupid bchavior as a tccnagcr, Manlius madc

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an approach to thc tribunc ol thc pcoplc who was prosccuting his
lathcr. Hc askcd lor a mccting, which thc tribunc grantcd in thc hopc
that thc son would bctray thc lathcr hc hatcd, morcovcr, thc tribunc
thought that hc had donc a lavor to thc young man by making his
cxilc thc chicl chargc on thc indictmcnt against thc cldcr Manlius.
Vhcn thc youth got him alonc, hc drcw a sword that hc had hiddcn
undcr his cloak and said to thc tribunc, Unlcss you swcar to drop
thc chargcs against my lathcr, ! will run you through with this sword.
!t is up to you, but onc way or anothcr my lathcr will ccasc to havc
a prosccutor. Thc tribunc sworc and kcpt his word, hc announccd
to thc asscmbly his rcason lor dropping thc chargc. No onc clsc has
cvcr gottcn away with humiliating a tribunc.
(8.r) Thcrc is onc cxamplc altcr anothcr ol sons who snatchcd
thcir parcnts lrom dangcr, who promotcd thcm lrom thc lowcst
ranks to thc highcst and turncd ignoblc plcbcians lrom thc mob
into mcn whosc namcs will lorcvcr ring through history. (8.z) Thcrc
arc not words cnough, thcrc is not wit cnough to cxprcss how grcat
an achicvcmcnt it is, how worthy ol praisc and how indclibly im
prcsscd on thc mcmory ol thc human racc it is, to bc ablc to say, !
obcycd my parcnts, ! yicldcd to thcir commands, whcthcr it was lair
or harsh and unjust, ! showcd myscll an obcdicnt and compliant son.
! was only rcbcllious about onc thing: ! rcluscd to bc outdonc in thc
pcrlormancc ol bcncts. (8.) Strivc lor it, ! bcg ol you, and whcn
you arc cxhaustcd rcncw thc battlc. 8lcsscd will bc thc victors and
blcsscd too thosc who arc vanquishcd. Vhat could bc morc splcndid
than thc young man who can say to himscll (and it would bc wrong
to say it to anyonc clsc), ! outdid my lathcr in giving bcncts: Vhat
could bc a grcatcr succcss than thc agcd man who will announcc to
cvcryonc cvcrywhcrc that hc has bccn outdonc by his own son in
thc giving ol bcncts: Vhat could bc morc blcsscd than to yicld
this ground:
Book ,
(r.r) l all thc subjccts wc havc trcatcd, Acbutius Libcralis, nonc is
as csscntial or (to quotc Sallust)
J
morc in nccd ol carclul discussion
than thc onc wc havc in handthat is, whcthcr conlcrring a bcnct
and doing a lavor in rcturn arc things to bc choscn lor thcir own
sakc. (r.z) Pcoplc can bc lound who cultivatc honorablc conduct
lor thc sakc ol rcward and who do not lavor virtuc without somc
rccompcnsc, though thcrc is nothing grand about it il it involvcs any
considcration ol prot. Vhat is, altcr all, morc shamclul than lor
somconc to calculatc thc valuc a man should sct on bcing good, whcn
virtuc ncithcr attracts us by prot nor dctcrs us by loss and, so lar
lrom corrupting us with hopc and promisc ol gain, dcmands instcad
that wc incur cxpcnsc and appcars morc oltcn on our discrctionary
budgct: Vc must tramplc on our own intcrcsts in approaching it,
whcrcvcr it summons us, whcrcvcr it scnds us, thcrc wc must go,
without rcgard to our lortunc, somctimcs cvcn without sparing our
own blood. Vc must ncvcr cvadc its command.
(r.) Vhat shall ! gain, somconc may say, il ! do this with
couragc, il ! do this with gratitudc: Your gain will bc that you havc
donc itnothing morc is promiscd you. !l it happcns that somc
advantagc rcsults, thcn you will count that a bonus. Thc rcward lor
honorablc actions lics in thc actions thcmsclvcs. !l what is honorablc
is to bc choscn lor its own sakc, and a bcnct is somcthing honorablc,
thcn it cannot lollow a dicrcnt rulc sincc its naturc is thc samc. 8ut
it has bccn oltcn and lully provcd that thc honorablc is to bc choscn
lor its own sakc.
(z.r) n this point wc arc in conict with thc picurcans, that
cctc and shcltcrcd crowd who philosophizc whilc partying, and
lor whom virtuc is thc scrvant ol thc plcasurcs, obcying thcm, scrv
ing thcm, and looking up to thcm. Thcrc is no plcasurc, you say,
without virtuc. (z.z) Yct why put it bclorc virtuc: o you think this
is just a dcbatc about prcccdcncc: Thc wholc issuc ol virtuc and its
authority is in qucstion. !t is not virtuc il it can bc subscrvicnt. Thc
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principal rolc bclongs to it ol right, it ought to lcad, to command,
to occupy thc top position. 8ut you arc making it look clscwhcrc lor
ordcrs.
(z.) Vhat dicrcncc docs it makc to you: somconc says. ! too
say that lilc cannot bc happy without virtuc. Plcasurc itscll, which
! pursuc, to which ! am in thrall, ! disavow and condcmn il virtuc
is abscnt. nly onc point is in disputc: whcthcr virtuc is thc causc
ol thc highcst good or is itscll thc highcst good. o you think that
answcring this onc qucstion mcrcly involvcs a changc ol prcccdcncc:
!t is in lact a casc ol conlusion and manilcst blindncss to put last
things rst.
(z.) Vhat ! rcscnt is not that virtuc is put altcr plcasurc, but
that it is put in any rclation with plcasurc at all whcn it dcspiscs
it and is its cncmy, whcn it rccoils as lar lrom it as possiblc and is
morc at homc with cort and pain, manly obstaclcs, than with that
ccminatc good ol yours.
(.r) ! had to makc thcsc points hcrc, my dcar Libcralis, bccausc
conlcrring a bcnct, our prcscnt topic, is an act ol virtuc, and it is
uttcrly shamclul to conlcr onc lor any othcr rcason than to scc it con
lcrrcd. For il wc wcrc to bcstow it in hopcs ol rccompcnsc, it would
bc to thc wcalthicst, not thc worthicst, that wc should givc, but as it
is, ! shall prclcr
i
a poor man to a rich onc, howcvcr insistcnt. !t is not
a bcnct il it takcs account ol a pcrsons lortunc. (.z) Furthcrmorc,
il it wcrc scllintcrcst alonc that induccd us to givc hclp, thcn thosc
pcoplc would bc undcr thc lcast obligation to dispcnsc bcncts who
could most casily do so: that is, rich pcoplc, powcrlul pcoplc, and
kings, all ol whom nccd no hclp lrom othcrs. !n lact, thc gods would
not givc all thc numcrous gilts that thcy pour lorth unccasingly day
and night. Clcarly, thcir naturc is scllsu cicnt in all rcspccts and
kccps thcm lully supplicd, salc and inviolatc. Thcrclorc thcy will
conlcr a bcnct on no onc il thc onc motivc lor giving is looking
altcr oncscll and oncs own advantagc. (.) !t docs not count as a
bcnct but as an invcstmcnt, il you arc considcring not whcrc you
can bcst placc it, but whcrc you can dcrivc thc most prot and sccurc
thc casicst rcturns. Sincc thc gods arc rcmotc lrom thcsc conccrns,
it lollows that thcy will not bc gcncrous. Altcr all, il thc onc rcason
lor conlcrring a bcnct is oncs own advantagc, and yct a god can
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hopc lor no advantagc lrom us, thcn thcrc is no rcason lor a god to
conlcr a bcnct.
2
(.r) ! know thc rcgular answcr at this point: Ycs, that shows that
a god docs not conlcr bcncts, rathcr, unconccrncd and indicrcnt
to us, hc turns his back on thc world and docs somcthing clsc, or
what sccms to picurus suprcmc happincsshc docs nothing: and
bcncts acct him no morc than injurics. (.z) Somconc who says
this is not listcning to thc voicc ol pcoplc cvcrywhcrc as thcy pray
and, lilting thcir hands to hcavcn, makc vows, privatc and public, to
rcpay thc divinc gilts. This ccrtainly would not bc happcning, and
mortals would not all havc agrccd on thc insanc practicc ol addrcss
ing dcitics who arc dcal and usclcss unlcss wc wcrc awarc ol bcncts
at thcir hands, somctimcs conlcrrcd unaskcd, somctimcs givcn in
answcr to our praycrsgrcat bcncts, timcly bcncts, which by thcir
coming dclivcr us lrom mighty thrcats.
(.) Vho is so wrctchcd, who is so abjcct, who is born to such
a harsh dcstiny and punishmcnt that hc has ncvcr cxpcricnccd thc
grcat gcncrosity ol thc gods: Look at thosc vcry pcoplc who bcmoan
thcir lot and whinc: you will nd that thcy arc not totally without a
sharc in hcavcnly bcncts, and that thcrc is nobody to whom somc
drop has not tricklcd down lrom that most bountilul spring. !snt
what is distributcd cqually to us at birth cnough: !l wc lcavc asidc
thc gilts that lollow, howcvcr uncqually dispcnscd, did naturc not
givc us cnough whcn shc gavc us hcrscll:
(.r) God docs not conlcr bcncts. Vhat, in that casc, is thc
sourcc ol thc things that you posscss, that you givc, that you rclusc,
that you storc, that you grab: Vhat is thc sourcc ol thc countlcss
things that dclight your cycs, your cars, your mind: Vhat is thc
sourcc ol thc prolusion ol luxurics: Not only arc ncccssitics providcd
lor us, wc arc lovcd to thc point ol bcing spoilcd.
(.z) Vhat is thc sourcc ol all thosc trccs with thcir varicd yicld
ol lruit, all thosc hcaling plants, all thc varictics ol lood distributcd
throughout thc ycar, so many that thc carth providcs cvcn thosc
who makc no cort with random sustcnancc: Vhat is thc sourcc ol
animals ol cvcry spccics, somc born on dry ground, othcrs in watcr,
othcrs coming down lrom thc sky, so that cvcry part ol naturc pays
somc tributc to us: (.) Vhat is thc sourcc ol thc rivcrs that cnclosc

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thc clds in thcir dclightlul twistings and turnings, or thc rivcrs that
ocr a path to commcrcc as thcy ow in thcir broad and navigablc
courscs, somc ol thcm miraculously incrcascd in thc days ol summcr,
so that thc parchcd lands, cxposcd to thc burning sky, arc watcrcd by
thc suddcn lorcc ol a summcr ood: Vhat shall wc say ol thc sourccs
ol hcaling springs: Vhat ol thc bubbling up ol warm watcrs right
on thc shorcs ol thc sca:
You, mighty Larius, and you
8cnacus, swclling with wavcs and roaring likc thc sca:
3
(6.r) !l somconc had givcn you a lcw acrcs ol ground, you would
say you had rcccivcd a bcnct. o you dcny that thc immcasurablc
cxtcnt ol land strctching out bclorc you is a bcnct: !l somconc
givcs you moncy and lls your trcasurc chcst, sincc you think that
important, you will call it a bcnct. God has buricd so many vcins
ol orc, has produccd so many rivcrs lrom thc carth, to ow ovcr it
bcaring gold, hc has givcn you thc skill to nd silvcr, coppcr, and iron
buricd cvcrywhcrc in hugc quantitics, and has placcd signs ol that
hiddcn trcasurc on thc surlacc ol thc carth, do you dcny that you
havc rcccivcd a bcnct:
(6.z) !l you wcrc to bc givcn a housc in which thcrc was shining
marblc and a cciling glcaming with gold and adorncd with painting,
you would say that this is no ordinary gilt. God has built lor you a
grcat mansion lrcc ol thc thrcat ol rc or collapsc, in which you scc
not lragilc vcnccrs, thinncr than thc bladc that cut thcm, but solid
masscs ol prccious stonc, all ol matcrial so varicd and intricatc that
you marvcl at thc smallcst lragmcnt, and a cciling that shincs in
onc way by night and in anothcr by day: do you dcny that you havc
rcccivcd a gilt: (6.) And though you attach grcat valuc to what
you havc, do you bchavc likc an ingratc and claim that you arc not
indcbtcd to anyonc: Vhat is thc sourcc ol thc brcath that you draw:
Vhat is thc sourcc ol thc light by which you arrangc and ordcr thc
actions ol your lilc: Vhat is thc sourcc ol thc blood whosc circula
tion maintains thc hcat ol lilc: Vhat is thc sourcc ol thc trcats that
go on tcmpting your palatc with thcir rarc avors cvcn whcn you
havc catcn cnough: Vhat is thc sourcc ol thc stimulants that arousc
plcasurc whcn it is jadcd: Vhat is thc sourcc ol that inactivity in
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which you mouldcr and wastc away: (6.) Vill you not say, il you
arc gratclul:
. . . !t was a god who gavc us this pcacc.
For hc will always bc a god to mc, his altar
Vill always bc staincd with thc blood ol lambs lrom my lold.
As you can scc, it was hc who vouchsalcd my cattlc to wandcr
thc clds
And mc to play thc tuncs ! wish on my rustic pipc.
4
(6.) Hc is a god who has scnt lorth, not a lcw oxcn, but hcrds
throughout thc wholc world, who providcs lood lor ocks roaming
lar and widc, who has sccn to it that wintcr pasturcs rcplacc thosc ol
summcr, who has taught not mcrcly singing to thc pipc and compos
ing music that, though rustic and artlcss, has at lcast somc rcgard lor
rulcs, but who has dcviscd so many arts, so many dicrcnt typcs ol
voicc, so many sounds, somc madc simply by our own brcath, othcrs
addcd by cxtcrnal instrumcnts, and rcsulting in mclody. (6.6) For
you cannot say that thc things wc havc invcntcd arc our doing any
morc than thc lact that wc grow, or thc lact that thc bodys proccsscs
rcspond to thc xcd stagcs ol lilc: at onc stagc comcs thc loss ol
milk tccth, at anothcr, now as wc advancc in ycars and grow in vigor,
comcs thc onsct ol pubcrty, and thcn comcs thc last wisdom tooth
that marks thc cnd ol our youthlul dcvclopmcnt. !nborn in us arc thc
sccds ol all agcs, and ol all skills: and it is god who, as our tcachcr,
draws lorth lrom hiddcn dcpths our talcnts.
(.r) !t is naturc, somconc objccts, that providcs thcsc things lor
mc. o you not grasp that whcn you say this, you arc mcrcly giving
god a dicrcnt namc: Vhat clsc is naturc but god and thc divinc
rcason which pcrmcatcs thc wholc world and all its parts: You can
usc dicrcnt namcs, as oltcn as you likc, to addrcss this author ol
all wc havc: it is corrcct to call him Jupitcr 8cst and Grcatcst, and
also thc Thundcrcr, and also thc Staycr, a namc which hc has not
bccausc a Roman battlc linc staycd its ight in rcsponsc to praycr (as
historians havc rclatcd),
5
but bccausc all things stay in placc thanks
to him, bccausc hc is thcir staycr and stabilizcr. (.z) !l you call this
samc cntity Fatc as wcll, you will not bc misrcprcscnting thc lacts,
lor, sincc latc is nothing clsc than a chain ol conncctcd causcs, hc is
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thc rst causc ol all, thc onc on which all thc othcr causcs dcpcnd.
Vhatcvcr namcs you choosc will bc propcrly applicd to him il thcy
imply somc powcr or conscqucncc ol hcavcnly things, his titlcs can
bc as numcrous as his bcncts.
(8.r) ur school also thinks ol him as Fathcr Libcr and as Hcr
culcs and as Mcrcury: as Fathcr Libcr bccausc hc is thc parcnt ol all
and thc rst to discovcr thc scminal powcr that providcs lor lilc~
ii

through plcasurc, as Hcrculcs bccausc his powcr is invinciblc and
bccausc, whcn wcaricd by thc labours hc has accomplishcd, it will
rcturn to rc, as Mcrcury bccausc to him bclong rcason and numbcr,
ordcr and knowlcdgc. (8.z) Vhcrcvcr you turn, thcrc you will scc
him coming to mcct you, nothing is cmpty ol him, hc pcrvadcs all
his works. Thcrclorc it is pointlcss lor you, most ungratclul ol mor
tals, to say that you owc a dcbt not to god but to naturc, sincc thcrc
is no naturc without god, or god without naturc: thcy arc idcntical,
though thcy dicr in lunction. (8.) !l you wcrc to say that what you
had rcccivcd lrom Scncca you owcd to Annacus or to Lucius,
6
you
would not bc changing your crcditor, only his namc, sincc whcthcr
you uscd his pracnomcn, his nomcn, or his cognomcn, hc would still
bc thc samc pcrson. So now call him Naturc, Fatc, or Fortunc:
all arc namcs ol thc samc god using his powcr in dicrcnt ways. !n
thc samc way, justicc and probity, prudcncc, couragc, and lrugality
all arc good qualitics ol onc and thc samc mind, il you approvc ol any
ol thcm, you approvc ol that mind.
(q.r) 8ut, not to bc dccctcd into anothcr dcbatc, god conlcrs on
us grcat bcncts in grcat quantitics without cxpccting a rcturn, sincc
hc has no nccd ol any gilt nor is thcrc anything that wc can givc him.
!t lollows that a bcnct is somcthing to bc choscn lor itscll. nly
onc advantagc is in vicw, that ol thc rccipicnt: lct us dircct our corts
towards this, putting asidc our own intcrcsts.
(q.z) You say, somconc objccts, that wc ought to choosc carc
lully thosc to whom wc givc bcncts, sincc cvcn larmcrs do not
sow thcir sccd in sand. 8ut il that is truc, it is our advantagc that
wc pursuc in giving bcncts, just as in ploughing and sowing: lor
sowing is not somcthing to bc choscn lor its own sakc. And lurthcr,
you cnquirc whcrc and how to conlcr a bcnct, that would not bc
ncccssary il a bcnct wcrc somcthing to bc choscn lor its own sakc,
sincc in whatcvcr contcxt and in whatcvcr manncr it was givcn, it
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would still bc a bcnct. (q.) Vhat is honorablc wc pursuc lor no
othcr rcason than itscll. Noncthclcss, cvcn il nothing clsc is to bc
pursucd, wc still cnquirc what
iii
wc should do and whcn and how wc
should do it. Thcsc arc, in lact, thc critcria ol an honorablc act. And
so, whcn ! sclcct thc pcrson to whom ! givc a bcnct, ! cnsurc that it
is in lact a bcnct, sincc, il it is givcn to somconc disrcputablc, it can
not bc honorablc or a bcnct.
(ro.r) To rcturn a dcposit is somcthing to bc choscn lor its own
sakc, but ! shall not always rcturn onc and not in cvcry placc nor at
cvcry timc. Somctimcs it makcs no dicrcncc whcthcr ! dcny thc
dcposit or opcnly rcturn it. ! shall havc rcgard lor thc intcrcst ol thc
pcrson to whom ! am intcnding to rcturn it, and dcny a dcposit that
will harm him.
7
(ro.z) ! shall do thc samc whcn it comcs to a bcnct.
! shall asccrtain whcn ! should givc, to whom ! should givc it, and
how and why. For nothing should bc donc without rcason, and only
what is givcn with rcason is a bcnct sincc whatcvcr is honourablc
is accompanicd by rcason.
(ro.) How oltcn havc wc hcard pcoplc blaming thcir own
thoughtlcss gilt in thcsc words, ! would rathcr havc thrown it
away than havc givcn it to him. Thc most shamclul kind ol loss is
a thoughtlcss gilt, and it is much worsc to havc givcn a bcnct badly
than not to havc rcccivcd a rcturn. That wc arc gctting no rcturn is
somconc clscs lault, that wc did not makc a propcr choicc ol rccipicnt
is our own lault. (ro.) !n making my choicc, nothing shall bc lurthcr
lrom my thoughts than what you cxpcctwho is thc pcrson lrom
whom ! shall rcccivc a rcturn. For ! choosc somconc who will bc gratc
lul, not somconc who will rcpay mc, and oltcn thc pcrson who is not
going to rcpay is gratclul and thc pcrson who has rcpaid is ungratclul.
(ro.) My cvaluation looks to charactcr, thcrclorc ! shall pass ovcr
thc rich but unworthy and givc to thc poor man who is virtuous. Hc
will bc gratclul in dirc povcrty and whcn hc has nothing clsc, his
charactcr will rcmain.
(rr.r) ! am not out to gct prot or plcasurc or glory whcn ! givc
a bcnct, satiscd in this to plcasc onc pcrson, ! shall givc in ordcr
to do what ! ought to do. 8ut what onc ought to do involvcs choicc.
Vhat sort ol choicc will this bc: you ask. ! shall choosc a man who
is upright, candid, mindlul ol obligations, and gratclul, who kccps his
hands o anothcrs propcrty but is not grccdily posscssivc ol his own,
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a man who is kind. Vhcn ! havc choscn such a man, though Fortunc
givcs him nothing that hc can usc to rcturn thc lavor, ! shall havc
lulllcd my purposc. (rr.z) !l it is scllintcrcst and sordid calculation
that makcs mc gcncrous, il ! hclp no onc unlcss hc can hclp mc in
rcturn, ! shall not givc a bcnct to somconc sctting out lor distant
and lorcign placcs, ncvcr to rcturn, ! shall not givc to anyonc so ill
that hc has no hopc ol rccovcry, and ! shall not givc on my dcathbcd,
sincc ! havc no timc to rcccivc a rcturn.
(rr.) And yctso you may rcalizc that to conlcr bcncts is
somcthing to bc choscn lor its own sakcwc do hclp lorcigncrs
who havc just arrivcd in our harbor and arc about to dcpart, wc givc
a ship to thc shipwrcckcd strangcr and cquip it so hc can sail homc
in it. Scarccly knowing who has brought about his rcscuc and ncvcr
cxpccting to bc in our sight again, hc dcsignatcs thc gods as our dcbt
ors and prays that thcy will rcturn thc lavor that hc owcs. Mcanwhilc
wc cnjoy bcing awarc ol our bcnct, cvcn though it yiclds no rcturn.
(rr.) Again, whcn wc rcach thc cnd ol our livcs and draw up a will,
arc wc not distributing bcncts that will do nothing lor us: How
much timc wc spcnd dcbating with oursclvcs how much wc should
givc and to whom! Vhat docs it mattcr to whom wc givc whcn no
onc will rcpay us: (rr.) And yct wc ncvcr givc morc carclully, wc
ncvcr makc morc torturcd dccisions than whcn all considcrations
ol scllintcrcst arc rcmovcd and only thc idca ol what is honorablc
stands bclorc us: wc arc bad asscssors ol our obligations as long as
thcy arc distortcd by hopc and lcar and by that most lccblc ol viccs,
plcasurc. Vhcn dcath has cxcludcd all ol thcsc and scnt in an incor
rupt judgc to pass scntcncc, wc scck out thc most dcscrving to inhcrit
our wcalth and takc thc most scrupulous carc in arranging what docs
not touch us. (rr.6) Yct, good hcavcns, what joy comcs ovcr a pcrson
whcn hc thinks, ! will makc this man richcr and, by adding wcalth
to his standing, ! will impart to it somc additional splcndor! !l wc
givc bcncts only whcn somc rcturn is in thc o ng, wc shall havc
to dic intcstatc!
(rz.r) You call a bcnct an unrcpayablc loan, somconc objccts.
And yct a loan is not a thing to bc choscn lor its own sakc. Vhcn
wc usc thc word loan, wc arc using a gurc ol spccch, a mctaphor.
!n thc samc way, wc call law a rulc dctcrmining what is just and
unjust, and a rulc is not somcthing to bc choscn lor its own sakc.
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Vc havc rccoursc to such tcrms lor purposcs ol cxplanation. Vhcn

! say loan, it is undcrstood as a quasiloan, as you can scc lrom
my adding unrcpayablc, although thcrc is no loan that cannot or
ought not to bc rcpaid. (rz.z) So truc is it that a bcnct should not bc
givcn lor rcasons ol scllintcrcst that oltcn, as ! havc said, it should
bc givcn at our own cxpcnsc and pcril. !n thc samc way ! comc to
thc dclcnsc ol somconc surroundcd by robbcrs, although ! would bc
allowcd to go on in salcty, ! protcct a dclcndant who is up against
pcoplc ol inucncc and turn thc schcming ol powcrlul mcn against
myscll, prcparcd to put on thc garb ol mourning that ! havc sparcd
him at thc hands ol thc samc accuscrs, although ! could pass by on
thc othcr sidc and witncss in salcty strugglcs that do not conccrn mc,
! stand surcty lor a man who has bccn adjudgcd a dcbtor and, whcn
thc lricnds propcrty is put up lor salc, ! takc down thc noticc, prc
parcd to makc myscll liablc to his crcditors, in ordcr to savc somconc
who has bccn proscribcd ! run thc risk ol proscription myscll. (rz.)
No onc prcparcd to buy a villa at Tusculum or Tibur as a hcalthy
summcr rctrcat argucs about how many ycars it will takc to rccoup
thc cost: whcn hc has bought it, hc must look altcr it. (rz.) Thc samc
principlc applics in thc casc ol a bcnct. Vhcn you ask what rcturn
thc bcnct givcs, ! rcply, a good conscicncc.
8
Vhat rcturn docs it
givc: Tcll mc what rcturn docs justicc givc, or innoccncc, or grcatncss
ol mind, or modcsty, or tcmpcrancc: !l you pursuc anything bcsidcs
thcm, you arc not pursuing thcm.
(rz.) To what cnd docs hcavcn go through its scasonal changcs:
To what cnd docs thc sun lcngthcn or shortcn thc day: All ol thcsc
arc bcncts, sincc thcy happcn lor our advantagc. Just as it is thc duty
ol hcavcn to kccp thc cyclc ol things turning, just as it is thc duty ol
thc sun to changc whcrc it riscs and scts, and to pcrlorm thcsc movc
mcnts that arc so bcnccial to us without rcward, so, among othcr
things, it is thc duty ol a man to givc bcncts. Vhy thcn docs hc
givc thcm: To avoid not giving thcm, to avoid losing an opportunity
to do good.
(r.r) Your
9
idca ol plcasurc is to givc your contcmptiblc body
ovcr to idlc sloth, to scck a lrccdom lrom carc tantamount to slccp,
to hidc out in thick shadc, to divcrt thc torpor ol a lcthargic mind
with thc soltcst thoughts, which you call tranquility, and to stu
bodics pallid lrom idlcncss with lood and drink in thc privacy ol your

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gardcn. (r.z) ur idca ol plcasurc is to conlcr bcncts cvcn il thcy
involvc cort, providcd that thcy rcducc thc corts ol othcrs, cvcn il
thcy involvc dangcr, providcd thcy rcscuc othcrs lrom dangcr, cvcn
il thcy strain our nanccs, providcd thcy rclicvc thc wants and hard
ships ol othcrs. (r.) Vhat dicrcncc docs it makc to mc whcthcr
! rccovcr my bcncts: vcn il ! rccovcr thcm, thcy must bc givcn
again. A bcnct aims at thc advantagc ol thc pcrson to whom it is
givcn, not ol oursclvcs, othcrwisc, wc arc giving it to oursclvcs. That
is why many things that bring thc grcatcst advantagc to othcrs lorlcit
gratitudc bccausc thcy havc a pricc. A mcrchant is usclul to citics,
a doctor to thc sick, a dcalcr to thc slavcs hc sclls, but all ol thcsc,
bccausc thcy arc ol advantagc to othcrs whilc sccking thcir own, do
not placc thosc thcy hclp undcr any obligation. That is not a bcnct
which is dircctcd at prot. This ! shall givc and that ! shall rcccivc
back is thc sign ol a salc.
(r.r) ! would not call chastc a woman who rcpulscd a lovcr in
ordcr to inamc him, or who was dctcrrcd by lcar ol thc law or ol
hcr husband. As vid says,
Shc who didnt givc bccausc shc couldntdid givc.
J0
Shc dcscrvcs to bc rcckoncd among thosc who stray il shc owcd
hcr chastity to lcar, not to hcrscll.
JJ
!n thc samc way, a pcrson who
has givcn a bcnct in ordcr to rcccivc onc back, has not givcn onc.
(r.z) thcrwisc, wc arc also conlcrring a bcnct on animals which
wc rcar lor work or lor lood, wc arc giving a bcnct to trccs which
wc tcnd so that thcy do not sucr lrom drought or lrom thc hardncss
ol untillcd and ncglcctcd soil. (r.) No onc comcs to agriculturc
out ol a scnsc ol justicc, nor to any othcr activity whosc rcward lics
outsidc itscll. No grccdy or sordid considcration induccs us to givc
a bcnct, but a humanc and libcral wish to givc cvcn whcn onc has
alrcady givcn and to augmcnt prcvious gilts with lrcsh ncw oncs,
with onc aim: to do as much good as possiblc to thc bcncciary. th
crwisc it is a low act, without praisc or glory, to bc ol usc bccausc it
is cxpcdicnt. (r.) Vhat is so splcndid about loving oncscll, sparing
oncscll, amassing lor oncscll: From all ol this thc truc wish to conlcr
a bcnct calls us away, drags us o to cndurc loss, and abandons scll
intcrcst lor thc suprcmc dclight ol mcrcly doing good.
(r.r) Can thcrc bc any doubt that a bcnct and an injury arc
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contrarics: Just as to inict an injury is somcthing to bc avoidcd

and shunncd lor its own sakc, so to conlcr a bcnct is somcthing to
bc choscn lor its own sakc. !n thc onc casc, thc shamclulncss ol thc
dccd outwcighs all thc rcwards that urgc us to crimc, in thc othcr, thc
vcry appcarancc ol what is honorablc induccs us to action by itscll.
(r.z) ! shall not misrcprcscnt thc lacts il ! say that thcrc is no onc
who docs not lovc thc bcncts hc conlcrs, no onc who is not disposcd
to takc plcasurc in sccing a pcrson on whom hc has hcapcd bcncts
and is not movcd to givc again by thc mcrc lact ol having givcn al
rcady. This would not bc thc casc il our bcncts did not dclight us.
(r.). How oltcn can you hcar somconc saying: ! cannot bcar
to abandon him whcn ! savcd his lilc and rcscucd him lrom dangcr.
Hc asks mc to takc up his casc against mcn ol inucncc: ! do not
want to, but what can ! do: ! havc alrcady dclcndcd him, not oncc
but twicc. o you not scc that thcrc is a lorcc inhcrcnt in thc thing
itscll, a lorcc that compcls us to conlcr bcncts, rst bccausc wc
ought to, thcn bccausc wc havc alrcady conlcrrcd thcm: (r.) Vc
initially had no rcason to givc him anything, but wc givc no. simply
bccausc wc alrcady havc donc so. !t is not scllintcrcst that movcs
us to conlcr bcncts. Far lrom it! Vc continuc to protcct and lostcr
thosc who do not prot us simply lor lovc ol thc bcnct: trcating it
indulgcntly, cvcn whcn it has bccn unhappily bcstowcd, is as natural
as it is to trcat our childrcn so, whcn thcy turn out badly.
(r6.r) Thosc samc opponcnts ol ours say that thcy thcmsclvcs
rcturn a lavor not bccausc it is honorablc, but bccausc it is advan
tagcous. That this is not truc is all thc casicr to provc bccausc thc
samc argumcnts wc uscd to show that giving a bcnct is somc
thing to bc choscn lor its own sakc, wc can usc to cstablish this too.
(r6.z) Thc xcd point lrom which thc rcst ol our prools procccd is
this: Vhat is honorablc is rcvcrcd lor no othcr rcason than bccausc
it is honorablc. So who will darc to disputc whcthcr it is honor
ablc to bc gratclul: Vho is thcrc who docs not loathc thc ingratc, a
man usclcss cvcn to himscll: Vhat about this thcn: Vhcn somconc
tclls you, Hc has rcccivcd thc grcatcst bcnct lrom his lricnd and
has shown himscll ungratclul, what do you lccl: That hc has donc
somcthing shamclul or that hc has omittcd somcthing advantagcous
and likcly to prot him: ! bclicvc you would count him a wickcd
man in nccd ol punishmcnt rathcr than a kccpcr,
J2
which would not
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bc thc casc unlcss to bc gratclul wcrc an honorablc thing and to bc
choscn lor its own sakc.
(r6.) thcr qualitics pcrhaps manilcst thcir valuc lcss clcarly and
nccd somconc to cxplain whcthcr thcy arc honorablc, but this onc
is obvious and too bcautilul lor its splcndor to shinc lorth obscurcly
and dimly. !s thcrc anything so laudablc, anything that our minds so
univcrsally approvc as rcturning thc lavor whcn somconc has trcatcd
us wcll:
(r.r) Vhat is it, tcll mc, that lcads us to this conclusion: !s it
gain: 8ut unlcss you dcspisc that, you arc ungratclul. Ambition:
Vhat is thcrc to boast about in paying what you owc: Fcar: Thc
ingratc has nothing to lcar, sincc this is thc onc thing lor which wc
havc providcd no lcgal sanction on thc ground that naturc has alrcady
guardcd su cicntly against it. (r.z) Just as thcrc is no law that ordcrs
us to lovc our parcnts or to look altcr our childrcn (sincc wc do not
nccd to bc drivcn whcrc wc arc going), just as no onc nccds to bc
urgcd to sclllovc, which movcs onc lrom thc momcnt ol birth, so
no onc nccds urging to pursuc what is honorablc lor its own sakc.
J3

Such things appcal to us by thcir vcry naturc. \irtuc is so attractivc
that cvcn bad pcoplc instinctivcly approvc what is bcttcr. !s thcrc
anyonc who docs not wish to appcar bcncccnt, who docs not try
to acquirc a rcputation lor goodncss in thc midst ol his crimcs and
injurics, who docs not gloss his most rccklcss acts with somc scm
blancc ol right, wanting it to appcar that hc has conlcrrcd a bcnct
on thosc whom hc has injurcd: (r.) Thus thcy allow thcmsclvcs to
bc thankcd by thosc whom thcy havc hurt, and thcy prctcnd to bc
good and gcncrous bccausc thcy cannot actually bc so. Thcy would
not do this unlcss thc lovc ol what is honorablc and to bc choscn lor
its own sakc wcrc not driving thcm to scck a rcputation contrary to
thcir charactcrs and to hidc thcir wickcdncss, thcy covct thc lruits
ol wickcdncss, but in itscll it is a sourcc ol hatrcd and shamc. No
onc has dccd thc law ol naturc and shcd his humanity to thc cxtcnt
ol bcing cvil just lor thc lun ol it. (r.) Ask anyonc who livcs by
robbcry whcthcr hc would prclcr to acquirc by honcst mcans what
hc gains by pillagc or thclt. Thc man who prots by assaulting and
striking down passcrsby would rathcr nd his loot than scizc it. You
will nd no onc who docs not prclcr to cnjoy thc lruits ol wickcdncss
without bcing wickcd. Thc grcatcst scrvicc naturc docs us is to makc
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virtuc shinc hcr light into thc minds ol all ol us. vcn thosc who do
not lollow hcr, scc hcr.
(r8.r) That gratitudc is an attitudc to bc choscn lor itscll lol
lows lrom thc lact that ingratitudc is somcthing to bc avoidcd in
itscll, bccausc nothing so dissolvcs and disrupts thc harmony ol
mankind as this vicc. For what clsc kccps us salc, cxccpt hclping
cach othcr by rcciprocal scrviccs: nly onc thing protccts our livcs
and lortics thcm against suddcn attacks: thc cxchangc ol bcncts.
(r8.z) Takcn onc by onc, what arc wc: Thc prcy ol animals, thcir
victims, thc choiccst blood, and thc casicst to comc by. thcr animals
havc cnough strcngth to protcct thcmsclvcs, and thosc that wcrc
born to wandcr and lcad isolatcd livcs arc armcd. 8ut man is covcrcd
with a dclicatc skin: hc has ncithcr powcrlul claws nor tccth to instill
lcar in othcrs, nakcd and wcak as hc is, it is lcllowship that protccts
him. God has grantcd two things that makc this vulncrablc crcaturc
thc strongcst ol all: rcason and lcllowship.
J4
So thc bcing that on
its own was no match lor anything is now thc mastcr ol all things.
(r8.) Fcllowship has givcn him powcr ovcr all animals, lcllowship
has conlcrrcd on this tcrrcstrial crcaturc control ol anothcrs sphcrc
and ordcrcd him to rulc cvcn by sca. !t is this that has chcckcd thc
incursions ol discasc, providcd support lor his old agc, and givcn him
comlort in his sucrings, it is this that makcs us bravc bccausc wc
can call on it lor hclp against Fortunc. (r8.) Rcmovc lcllowship and
you will dcstroy thc unity ol mankind on which our lilc dcpcnds. 8ut
you will rcmovc it il you makc ingratitudc somcthing to bc avoidcd
not lor its own sakc, but bccausc it has somcthing to lcar: lor how
many thcrc arc who can salcly bc ungratclul! !n lact, ! call ungratclul
anyonc whosc gratitudc is causcd by lcar.
(rq.r) No sanc man lcars thc gods. !t is madncss to lcar what pro
motcs wcllbcing, and no onc lovcs thosc whom hc lcars. As lor you,
picurus, you rcmovc gods wcapons and lcavc him totally without
arms or powcr and, in ordcr that hc should not inspirc lcar in anyonc,
you havc cast him out bcyond thc limits ol lcar. (rq.z) You havc no
rcason to lcar this bcing, conncd as hc is by a hugc insurmount
ablc wall and scparatcd lrom thc rcach and sight ol mortals. Hc has
no mcans to hclp or harm. !solatcd lrom thc company ol animals,
mcn, and things, in thc spacc bctwccn our cosmos and anothcr, hc
avoids thc collapsc ol thc worlds that crash abovc and around him,

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dcal to our praycrs and indicrcnt to us. (rq.) Yct you want to look
as il you arc vcncrating this bcing just likc a parcnt with, ! supposc,
thc samc gratclul hcart, or, il you do not wish to look gratclul, why
do you worship him, givcn that you rcccivc no bcnct lrom him but
arc yoursclvcs lormcd ol atoms and thosc motcs ol yours combining
through blind chancc: (rq.) 8ccausc ol his surpassing majcsty, you
say, and his uniquc naturc. Supposc ! grant that you rcally do this
without any rcward or hopc to inducc you. That shows that thcrc is
somcthing to bc choscn lor its own sakc, somcthing that induccs you
by its own worththat is, thc honorablc. 8ut what is morc honor
ablc than gratitudc: Thc scopc lor practicing this virtuc is as broad
as lilc itscll.
(zo.r) 8ut this good also posscsscs an clcmcnt ol advantagc.
Vhat virtuc docs not: 8ut somcthing is said to bc choscn lor its own
sakc, dcspitc carrying somc advantagcs, il it plcascs us cvcn whcn
thcsc arc sct asidc and rcmovcd. !t pays to bc gratclul, but ! shall bc
gratclul cvcn il it docs mc harm. (zo.z) Vhat docs thc gratclul pcrson
scck: That his gratitudc should win him cxtra lricnds, cxtra bcncts:
Vhat about this: !l somconc is going to stir up rcscntmcntsil
somconc knows that, so lar lrom gaining anything by such bchavior,
hc must losc much that hc has alrcady acquircd and savcdwill hc
not gladly incur thc loss: (zo.) Rcturning thc lavor whilc cnvisaging
a sccond gilt amounts to ingratitudc, it mcans hoping whilc rcpaying.
Ungratclul is what ! call a man who sits by a sick man bccausc hc is
about to makc his will and nds timc to think about an inhcritancc
or lcgacy. Lct him do cvcrything that a good lricnd conscious ol his
obligation ought to do: il thc hopc ol gain is prcscnt to his mind, hc
is shing lor lcgacics and dropping thc hook. Just as birds that livc
by dcvouring carcasscs hovcr ncar ocks cxhaustcd by discasc and
rcady to drop, so this pcrson is rcady to swoop on dcath and hovcrs
round thc corpsc.
(zr.r) A gratclul mind is attractcd by thc vcry goodncss ol its pur
posc. o you want prool that this is so, and that it is not corruptcd
by scllintcrcst: Thcrc arc two typcs ol gratclul pcoplc. A pcrson is
callcd gratclul who has rcturncd somcthing in cxchangc lor what hc
rcccivcd: hc can pcrhaps show o, hc has somcthing to boast about,
somcthing to broadcast. Thcn again, a pcrson is callcd gratclul who
has acccptcd a bcnct in thc right spirit and owcs it in that spirit: hc
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kccps this rcsponsc shut up in his thoughts. (zr.z) Vhat advantagc

can comc to him lrom this cmotion that hc kccps hiddcn: Yct cvcn il
hc can do nothing morc, hc is gratclul. Hc lccls acction, hc admits
his dcbt, hc dcsircs to rcturn thc lavor, whatcvcr you nd wanting,
thc omission is not his.
(zr.) A pcrson is still an artist though hc lacks thc tools lor cx
crcising his art, and a singcr is no lcss skillcd bccausc thc noisc ol a
hostilc crowd prcvcnts his voicc bcing hcard. ! wish to rcturn a lavor:
altcrwards ! still havc somcthing to do, not to show gratitudc but to
bc quit ol thc dcbt. ltcn thc pcrson who rcturns thc lavor is un
gratclul, and thc onc who has not is gratclul. Thc cvaluation ol this,
as ol all othcr virtucs, turns cntircly on attitudc: il that is as it should
bc, thcn whatcvcr is missing, it is Fortunc that is at lault. (zr.) Just
as it is possiblc to bc an cloqucnt man cvcn whcn onc is silcnt, a bravc
man with oncs hands loldcd or cvcn ticd, just as it is possiblc to bc a
hclmsman cvcn whcn onc is on dry land, sincc thcrc is no dccicncy
in his cxpcrtisc dcspitc thc obstaclc that prcvcnts him lrom using
itin thc samc way, that pcrson is gratclul who only wishcs to bc
and has no othcr witncss to that wish than himscll.
(zr.) !ndccd ! will go lurthcr. Somctimcs a pcrson is gratclul
cvcn whcn hc appcars ungratclul, whcn malign gossip has givcn a
pcrvcrsc account ol him. Vhat clsc can such a man lollow than his
own scllknowlcdgc:
J5
vcn il obscurcd, it dclights him, it protcsts
against thc opinion ol thc crowd, it rclics totally on itscll, and whcn
it sccs on thc othcr sidc a hugc mob that thinks othcrwisc, docs not
count thc votcs but prcvails by its own conviction. (zr.6) !l it sccs its
good laith subjcctcd to punishmcnt lor trcachcry, it docs not lcavc its
pinnaclc but stands supcrior to its own punishmcnt. !t says, ! havc
what ! wantcd, what ! sought, ! havc no rcgrcts, nor will ! havc, nor
will lortunc howcvcr unlair bring mc to such a pass that it hcars mc
say, Vhat havc ! wishcd on myscll: Vhat usc is my good intcntion
to mc now: A good intcntion is ol usc on thc rack, cvcn in thc amc
which is applicd to onc limb altcr anothcr and slowly surrounds
thc body, cvcn il my hcart, though lully awarc ol its goodncss, drips
with blood: it will dclight in thc amc through which its good laith
shincs lorth.
(zz.r) Now is thc momcnt to rcncw thc lollowing argumcnt,
though it has appcarcd bclorc:
J6
Vhy is it that wc want to show
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gratitudc whcn wc arc dying, that wc wcigh up thc scrvicc ol indi
viduals, that wc scc to it that mcmory rulcs on our wholc lilc so that
wc do not sccm to havc lorgottcn a scrvicc lrom anyonc: Nothing
is lclt to hopc lor, but at this critical juncturc wc wish to cxit lrom
human aairs, showing oursclvcs as gratclul as possiblc. (zz.z) !t is
clcar that thc rcward lics in thc action itscll, and that thc powcr ol
thc honorablc to attract thc minds ol mcn is immcnsc: its bcauty
oods our minds and swccps us along, cnchantcd with wondcr at its
brilliancc and splcndor.
(zz.) 8ut many advantagcs spring lrom it: lilc is morc sccurc lor
pcoplc who arc bcttcr, and thcy cnjoy thc lovc and rcspcct ol good
mcn, and thcir days arc morc sccurc whcn innoccncc and gratitudc
accompany thcm. Naturc would indccd havc bccn most unlair il
shc madc such a grcat good wrctchcd and dangcrous and barrcn.
8ut considcr whcthcr you would cmbark on thc road to this samc
virtuc, which oltcn is rcachcd by a salc and casy path, cvcn il it wcrc
through stoncs and clis and bcsct by bcasts and snakcs. (zz.) !t is
not that somcthing is not to bc choscn lor its own sakc, just bccausc
somc cxtrancous advantagc attachcs to it. Thc most bcautilul things
arc in lact oltcn accompanicd by a host ol addcd attractions, but it is
bcauty that lcads and thc attractions lollow along.
(z.r) Can wc doubt any ol thcsc statcmcnts: that this homc ol
thc human racc is rcgulatcd by thc sun and moon as thcy rcvolvc in
thcir circuits, that thc hcat ol thc onc nourishcs our bodics, loos
cns thc soil, rcduccs cxccssivc moisturc, and brcaks thc grimncss ol
wintcr that lcttcrs cvcrything, whilc thc warmth ol thc othcr, so
ccctivc and pcrvasivc, dirccts thc ripcning ol crops, that thcrc is a
corrcspondcncc bctwccn thc moons cyclc and human lcrtility, that
thc sun by its rcvolution has madc thc ycar pcrccptiblc, thc moon,
with its shortcr circuits, thc months: (z.z) !l you imaginc all this
rcmovcd, would not thc sun itscll still bc a tting spcctaclc lor our
cycs, worthy ol vcncration cvcn il it only sailcd by us: Vould thc
moon not bc worth looking at cvcn il it travclcd on likc an idlc star:
Thc cosmos itscll, whcn it pours out its rcs at night and shincs so
brightly with countlcss stars, whosc gazc docs it not hold xcd on
itscll: Vho thinks, at thc momcnt whcn hc is looking at thcm in
wondcr, that thcy will bc ol usc to him:
(z.) Vatch thcsc bodics slipping by ovcrhcad in such a grand
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proccssion, how thcy hidc thcir own swiltncss lrom us as thcy appcar
to stand still and motionlcss. How many things happcn during thc
night, which you obscrvc only lor numbcring and marking o thc
days! Vhat a throng ol cvcnts unroll in this silcncc! (z.) Vhat a
chain ol dcstiny that clcar circuit dcncs! Thc stars, which you think
ol as scattcrcd abovc lor adornmcnt, arc cach ol thcm at work. Thcrc
is no rcason to think that thcrc arc only scvcn wandcring stars whilc
thc rcst arc xcd: wc only apprchcnd thc movcmcnts ol a lcw, but
thcrc arc countlcss dcitics lurthcr lrom our sight that comc and go,
whilc many ol thosc that our cycs can scc procccd at an indisccrniblc
pacc, drivcn on in sccrct.
(z.r) Tcll mc, would you not bc captivatcd by thc sight ol such
a grand structurc cvcn il it did not covcr you, protcct you, chcrish
and bcgct you, and maintain you with its spirit: Thcsc bcings arc ol
primc valuc to us, ncccssary and lilcgiving, yct it is thcir grandcur
that captivatcs our minds. !n thc samc way all virtuc, and cspccially
that ol a gratclul mind, has much to givc us, but it docs not want
to bc lovcd lor that. !t contains somcthing morc in itscll and is not
rcally undcrstood by somconc lor whom it just counts as somcthing
usclul. (z.z) !l a pcrson is gratclul bccausc it is in his intcrcst, is hc
thcn gratclul only as lar as it is in his intcrcst: \irtuc docs not ac
ccpt a lovcr who is stingy, hc must comc to hcr with an opcn pursc.
Thc ingratc rcasons thus, ! wantcd to rcturn thc lavor but ! lcar thc
cxpcnsc, ! lcar thc dangcr, ! drcad giving ocncc. So ! will do instcad
what is in my intcrcst. Thc rcasoning that lcads onc to bc gratclul
cannot also lcad onc to bc ungratclul, lor thcir actions arc as dicr
cnt as thcir aims. Thc onc is ungratclul, though hc ought not to bc,
bccausc it is in his intcrcst, thc othcr is gratclul, although it is not in
his intcrcst, bccausc hc ought to bc.
(z.r) ur aim is to livc according to naturc and to lollow thc
cxamplc ol thc gods. 8ut what do thc gods aim at in whatcvcr thcy
do, bcyond simply doing it: Unlcss you happcn to think that thcy
gain a rcward lor thcir work in thc smokc ol cntrails and thc smcll ol
inccnsc! (z.z) Scc how many things thcy do day by day, how many
things thcy dispcnsc, how many arc thc lruits with which thcy ll thc
lands, how timcly arc thc winds that ru c thc scas as thcy carry us
to cvcry shorc, how copious and suddcn arc thc showcrs that soltcn
thc ground as thcy lall and rcll thc dricdup sourccs ol springs,
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ooding thcm with hiddcn nourishmcnt to givc thcm ncw lilc. All
this thcy do without any rcward, without dcriving any advantagc lor
thcmsclvcs. (z.) Lct human rcason too, il it is not to stray lrom its
modcl, also lollow this principlc ol not pcrlorming virtuous acts lor
hirc. Vc should bc ashamcd to sct any pricc on a bcnct whcn wc
havc thc gods thcmsclvcs lor lrcc.
(z6.r) !l you arc imitating thc gods, conlcr bcncts on thc un
gratclul too, lor thc sun riscs lor criminals too and thc scas arc opcn
cvcn to piratcs. That raiscs thc qucstion ol whcthcr a good man
will conlcr a bcnct on an ungratclul pcrson, knowing him to bc
ungratclul. 8ut lct mc add a point hcrc to avoid bcing trappcd by a
captious qucstion. (z6.z) According to thc Stoic systcm thcrc arc two
scnscs in which pcoplc can bc ungratclul. Thcrc is thc pcrson who
is ungratclul bccausc hc is a lool. !l hc is a lool hc will also bc a bad
man, and bccausc hc is bad hc will lack nonc ol thc viccs. Thcrclorc
hc will also bc ungratclul. !n this scnsc wc say that all bad mcn arc
intcmpcratc, grccdy, scnsual, spitclul, not bccausc thcy posscss as in
dividuals all thosc viccs in a markcd and obvious lorm, but bccausc
thcy havc thcm potcntially. (!n lact, thcy do posscss thcm, cvcn il
thcy arc not apparcnt.) Thcn thcrc is thc pcrson who is ungratc
lul in thc ordinary scnsc, who has a natural propcnsity to this vicc.
(z6.) n thc lormcr kind ol ingratc, thc pcrson who docs not lack
this vicc bccausc hc docs not lack any, thc good man will conlcr a
bcnct, lor il hc cxcludcs such pcoplc hc will not bc ablc to conlcr
onc on anyonc. n thc lattcr kind ol ingratc, who chcats you ol bcn
cts and has a natural inclination to do so, hc will not conlcr bcncts,
any morc than hc will lcnd moncy to a bankrupt or cntrust a dcposit
to somconc who has alrcady withhcld onc morc than oncc.
(z.r) Somconc is callcd timid bccausc hc is a lool: this vicc too
pursucs bad pcoplc, who arc bcsicgcd by all viccs without cxccp
tion. 8ut somconc is callcd timid in thc strict scnsc il hc is naturally
alarmcd by mcaninglcss noiscs. Thc lool has cvcry vicc but docs not
havc a natural propcnsity to all ol thcm, onc pcrson inclincs to ava
ricc, anothcr to scllindulgcncc, anothcr to insolcncc. (z.z) And so it
is a mistakc to ask thc Stoics: ocs this mcan that Achillcs is timid:
r that Aristidcs, callcd thc Just, is unjust: r that Fabius, thc man
who savcd thc situation by dclaying, is rash: r that ccius is alraid
ol dcath,
J7
that Mucius is a traitor,
J8
that Camillus is a dcscrtcr:
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Vc do not claim that cvcry vicc is in cvcry pcrson in thc scnsc that
individual viccs stand out in particular pcoplc, but that bad and lool
ish pcoplc arc not lrcc ol any viccs. Vc do not cxcmpt thc bold man
lrom lcar, nor lrcc cvcn thc spcndthrilt lrom avaricc.
(z.) Just as a man has all vc scnscs but docs not lor that rca
son havc cycsight as kccn as Lynccus, so a man who is a lool docs
not havc all thc viccs in thc acutc and activc lorm in which somc
pcoplc havc somc ol thcm. All viccs cxist in all mcn, but all viccs arc
not promincnt in cach individual. This man is inclincd by naturc
to avaricc, this onc is addictcd to winc, that onc to lust or, il not
yct addictcd, so constitutcd that thcir charactcrs lcad thcm down
that path. (z.) Thcrclorc, to rcturn to thc point, cvcryonc who is
bad is ungratclul, lor hc has in him all thc sccds ol wickcdncss, but
only that pcrson is callcd ungratclul in thc strict scnsc who has a
propcnsity towards this vicc. n such a pcrson ! shall not conlcr a
bcnct. (z.) A lathcr is ncglccting his daughtcrs intcrcsts whcn hc
marrics hcr to an abusivc husband, scvcral timcs divorccd, a man will
bc considcrcd a poor hcad ol houschold il hc hands ovcr thc carc ol
his lortunc to somconc condcmncd lor mismanagcmcnt, a man will
bc acting insancly il hc makcs a will naming as thc guardian ol his
son a pcrson who rcgularly dcspoils his wards. Just so, a pcrson will
bc dccmcd thc worst ol bcnclactors il hc chooscs thc ungratclul on
whom to conlcr bcncts that arc bound to bc wastcd.
(z8.r) vcn thc gods givc many things to thc ungratclul. 8ut
thcy prcparcd thcm lor thc good, yct thcy lall to thc bad as wcll,
bccausc thc two cannot bc scparatcd. vcn so, it is bcttcr to hclp thc
bad bccausc ol thc good, than to lail thc good bccausc ol thc bad.
And so thc things you mcntionthc day, thc sun, thc succcssion
ol wintcr and summcr, thc modcratc tcmpcraturcs ol spring and
autumn, thc rains and lling ol thc springs, thc rcgular blowing ol
thc windsthcsc thcy dcviscd lor thc good ol cvcryonc, thcy could
not cxcludc individuals. (z8.z) A king givcs honors to thc worthy but
largcssc cvcn to thc unworthy, thc thicl, as wcll as thc pcrjurcr and
thc adultcrcr, rcccivcs thc corn dolc as docs anyonc on thc rcgistcr
without distinction ol charactcr. Anything, in short, that is givcn to
a pcrson qua citizcn, not qua good man, is sharcd by good and bad
alikc. (z8.) God too givcs ccrtain gilts to thc human racc as a wholc
without cxcluding anyonc. !t was not possiblc lor a wind to bc lavor
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ablc lor good mcn and advcrsc lor bad, and yct it was lor thc public
good that tra c on thc sca should bc opcn to all and thc dominion
ol thc human racc bc cxtcndcd. And thcrc could hardly bc a law
imposcd on thc rains to prcvcnt thcm lrom lalling on thc clds ol
thc bad and wickcd.
(z8.) Somc things arc common to us all. Citics arc loundcd lor
thc good and bad alikc, works ol gcnius arc publishcd cvcn il thcy
will rcach thc unworthy, mcdicinc points out its rcmcdics cvcn to
criminals, no onc has prcvcntcd thc compounding ol wholcsomc
rcmcdics in ordcr to avoid hcaling thc unworthy. (z8.) cmand
an cvaluation and asscssmcnt ol pcrsons in thc casc ol things that
arc givcn individually by mcrit, not in thc casc ol things that arc
opcn to thc crowd without distinction. Thcrc is a grcat dicrcncc
bctwccn not cxcluding somconc and choosing somconc. vcn thc
thicl sccurcs justicc, cvcn murdcrcrs cnjoy pcacc, thosc who havc
stolcn thc goods ol othcrs can still rccovcr thcir own, thc city wall
dclcnds lrom thc cncmy both assassins and pcoplc who draw thcir
swords within thc wall, thosc who havc ocndcd most against thc
laws arc still accordcd thcir protcction. (z8.6) Ccrtain things cannot
accruc to particular pcoplc unlcss thcy arc givcn to all and sundry.
Thcrclorc thcrc is no rcason to arguc about things ol which cvcryonc
is invitcd to partakc. 8ut somcthing which in my judgmcnt should bc
assigncd to a pcrson, that ! shall not givc to somconc whom ! know
to bc ungratclul.
(zq.r) Thcn do you mcan that you will not givc advicc to an
ingratc in mcntal pcrplcxity or allow him to havc a drink ol watcr
and show him thc way whcn hc is lost: r do you mcan that you will
pcrlorm thcsc acts, but you will not thcrcby givc him anything: !
shall draw a distinction hcrc, or at lcast try to do so. (zq.z) A bcnct
is a usclul scrvicc, but not cvcry usclul scrvicc is a bcnct, lor somc
scrviccs arc too trivial to claim thc titlc. Two things must combinc to
producc a bcnct. First comcs thc qucstion ol sizc, somc things do
not mcasurc up to thc namc. Vho has cvcr callcd a morscl ol brcad
a bcnct, or a coin tosscd as alms, or allowing somconc to kindlc
his rc lrom yours: Thcrc arc occasions whcn thcsc things arc morc
hclplul than thc grcatcst gilts, and yct thcir chcapncss, cvcn whcn
thcy bccomc ncccssitics bccausc ol thc nccds ol thc momcnt, rcduccs
thcir valuc. (zq.) Thc sccond and most important rcquircmcnt is
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that ! must act lor thc sakc ol thc pcrson who is thc intcndcd rccipi
cnt, and that ! must judgc him worthy and givc willingly, dcriving joy
lrom my gilt. 8ut nonc ol thc cascs wc discusscd havc thcsc lcaturcs,
lor wc givc thcsc things to pcoplc not bccausc thcy dcscrvc thcm, but
without considcration bccausc thc things arc ncgligiblc, and wc do
not bcstow thcm on a particular human bcing, but on humanity.
(o.r) Thcrc arc timcs whcn ! admit that ! shall givc cvcn to thc
unworthy in ordcr to honor othcrs, just as in sccking o cc nobility ol
birth has put somc ol thc most disrcputablc mcn ahcad ol thosc who
arc hardworking ncwcomcrs, and not without rcason. Thc mcmory
ol grcat virtucs is sacrcd, and morc pcoplc dclight in bcing good il
thc lavor cnjoycd by good mcn docs not cnd with thcm. (o.z) Vhat
madc Ciccros son a consul il not his lathcr: Vhat brought Cinna
rcccntly,
20
what brought Scxtus Pompcius and thc othcr Pompcians
lrom thc camp ol thc cncmy to thc consulship, cxccpt thc grcatncss
ol onc man, oncc so towcring that cvcn his downlall clcvatcd all his
dcsccndants: Vhat rcccntly madc Fabius Pcrsicus, whosc kiss ol
grccting cvcn thc shamclcss rcgardcd as a disgracc, a pricst in morc
than onc collcgccxccpt thc \crrucosi and Allobrogici and thc thrcc
hundrcd who lor thc sakc ol thcir country placcd thcir onc lamily in
rcsistancc to thc invasion ol thc cncmy:
2J
(o.) Vc owc it to instanccs ol virtuc that wc rcvcrc thcm not
only whcn thcy arc prcscnt, but cvcn whcn thcy havc vanishcd lrom
our sight. Just as thcy contrivcd to bcnct not just onc agc but to
lcavc thcir bcncts bchind thcm, so wc should cxtcnd our grati
tudc bcyond our own agc. This man lathcrcd grcat sons: hc dcscrvcs
our bcncts, whatcvcr hc is likc, hc gavc us sons who dcscrvc thcm.
(o.). This man has illustrious anccstors, whatcvcr hc is likc, lct him
hidc in thc shadow ol his lorcbcars. Squalid placcs light up whcn
thc sun shincs on thcm: in thc samc way, lct thc lccblc shinc in thc
rccctcd light ol thcir anccstors.
(r.r) At this point, my Libcralis, ! wish to ocr you a dclcnsc
ol thc gods. From timc to timc wc nd oursclvcs saying, Vhat was
providcncc doing whcn it put Arrhidacus in chargc ol a kingdom:
22

(r.z) o you think it was grantcd to him: !t was grantcd to his
lathcr and brothcr. Vhy did it put Gaius Cacsar in chargc ol thc
world, a man so grccdy lor human blood, that hc ordcrcd it to bc
shcd in his sight as il hc wcrc going to drink it: o you rcally think
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it was grantcd to him: !t was grantcd to his lathcr Gcrmanicus, to
his grandlathcr and grcatgrandlathcr, and to thosc bclorc thcm who
wcrc no lcss distinguishcd cvcn il thcy lcd privatc livcs on an cqual
looting with othcr mcn.
23
(r.) !n your own casc, whcn you wcrc making Mamcrcus Scau
rus consul,
24
wcrc you unawarc that hc would opcn his mouth to
catch thc mcnstrual blood ol his slavcs: id hc himscll cvcr dis
scmblc it: id hc cvcr .ant to sccm dcccnt: ! will rclatc to you a
story hc told against himscll, which ! rcmcmbcr bcing rcpcatcd and
applaudcd cvcn in his prcscncc. (r.) !n obsccnc languagc hc said
to Annius Pollio,
25
who was rcclining, that hc would do to him what
hc would prclcr to havc donc to himscll, and whcn hc saw Pollio
lrown, hc said, !l ! havc said anything bad, lct it lall on mc and my
hcad. Hc uscd to tcll this story himscll. (r.) Havc you rcally ad
mittcd a man ol such lrank obsccnity to thc lasccs and thc tribunal:
l coursc you did it whilc you wcrc thinking ol thc grcat Scaurus
ol thc past, thc lcadcr ol thc Scnatc, and rcscnting thc obscurity ol
his dcsccndant.
(z.r) !t is plausiblc to think that thc gods act in thc samc way, so
that thcy trcat somc pcoplc morc indulgcntly bccausc ol thcir parcnts
and grandparcnts, othcrs bccausc ol thc talcnt that will bc shown by
thcir grandchildrcn and grcatgrandchildrcn and thcir long linc ol
dcsccndants. For thcy know how thcir works unlold, and thc knowl
cdgc ol cvcrything that will pass through thcir hands is always clcar
to thcm, whcrcas it comcs to us out ol thc bluc. Vhat wc rcgard as
uncxpcctcd comcs to thcm lorcsccn and lamiliar.
(z.z) Lct thcsc mcn bc kings, bccausc thcir anccstors wcrc not,
bccausc thcy accordcd suprcmc authority to justicc and abstincncc,
bccausc thcy dcdicatcd thcmsclvcs to thc commonwcalth, not thc
commonwcalth to thcmsclvcs. Lct thcsc mcn rulc, bccausc in thc
past onc ol thcir anccstors was a good man who had a mind supcrior
to lortunc, who in a pcriod ol civil strilc prclcrrcd to losc rathcr than
to win bccausc it was bcttcr lor thc commonwcalth. !t has not bccn
possiblc to rcturn thc lavor to him altcr such a lapsc ol timc, in his
honor lct that man rulc thc pcoplc, not bccausc hc has thc knowl
cdgc or capacity to rulc, but bccausc anothcr has carncd it lor him.
(z.) This man is ugly in body, hidcous to look at, and likcly to
disgracc his insignia ol o cc, pcoplc will soon blamc mc and call
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mc blind and rash, ignorant ol whcrc ! am placing what should go
to thc grcatcst and noblcst ol mcn. 8ut ! know that it is somconc
clsc to whom ! am giving it, somconc clsc to whom ! am rcpaying
an old dcbt.
26
(z.) How can thcsc pcoplc know thc man who was
oncc so cagcr to cc lrom thc glory that pursucd him, who wcnt into
dangcr wcaring thc cxprcssion that othcrs wcar on thcir rcturn lrom
dangcr, who ncvcr distinguishcd bctwccn his own and thc public
good: Vhcrc, you ask, is that man or who is hc: You havc no way
ol knowing. !t is lor mc to comparc thc dcbits and crcdits on thosc
accounts, ! know what ! owc to whom. Somc ! rcpay altcr a long
tcrm, othcrs in advancc and whcn thc opportunity and rcsourccs ol
my commonwcalth allow. Thcrclorc on occasion ! shall givc ccrtain
things to an ingratc, but not on his own account.
(.r) 8ut il, an objcction runs, you do not know whcthcr hc is
ungratclul or gratclul, will you wait until you know, or will you scizc
thc opportunity ol conlcrring a bcnct: To wait is a lcngthy busi
ncss (lor, as Plato says, drawing conclusions about human charactcr
is di cult),
27
not to wait is rash. (.z) ur answcr to this is that
wc ncvcr wait lor absolutc ccrtainty, sincc discovcry ol thc truth is
arduous, but wc lollow what is likcly to bc truc. This is thc path wc
lollow in accomplishing all our tasks. That is how wc sow, how wc
sail, how wc go to war, how wc contract marriagc, how wc rcar chil
drcn, sincc thc outcomc ol all thcsc activitics is unccrtain, wc adopt
a coursc ol action whcrc wc bclicvc our hopcs havc a good chancc
ol bcing lulllcd. For who will promisc you a harvcst whcn you sow,
or a harbor whcn you sail, or victory whcn you go to war, who will
promisc you a chastc wilc whcn you marry, or dutilul childrcn whcn
you bccomc a lathcr: Vc lollow whcrc rcason, not truth, has takcn
us. (.) !l you wait and do nothing that is not ccrtain to succccd and
claim no knowlcdgc whosc truth is not conrmcd, all activitics will
ccasc and lilc will stand still. Sincc it is not truth, but what is likcly
to bc truc, that dirccts mc to this or that, ! shall conlcr a bcnct on
somconc who is likcly to bc gratclul.
(.r) Many things will happcn, comcs thc objcction, that al
low a bad man to pass lor a good onc and a good man to losc lavor
instcad ol a bad onc, lor thc appcaranccs ol things arc dcccptivc and
it is thcsc that wc havc trustcd. Vho dcnics it: 8ut ! can nd noth
ing clsc to guidc my thinking. Thcsc arc thc tracks ! must lollow in
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thc pursuit ol truth, sincc ! havc nothing morc rcliablc. ! shall sparc
no cort to cvaluatc thcsc as carclully as possiblc, nor shall ! casily
givc my asscnt to thcm. (.z) Thc samc thing may happcn in battlc.
My hand through somc crror may dircct my wcapon at a comradc,
and ! may sparc thc cncmy as il hc wcrc on my sidc, but this only
rarcly happcns, and it is not my lault, lor my intcntion is to strikc thc
cncmy and dclcnd my lcllow citizcn. !l, thcn, ! know that a pcrson
is ungratclul, ! shall not givc him a bcnct. 8ut il hc has trickcd mc,
il hc has takcn advantagc ol mc, no guilt attachcs to thc givcr hcrc,
bccausc ! gavc it to him cxpccting him to bc gratclul.
(.) !l you havc promiscd to givc somconc a bcnct, and altcr
wards you havc lcarncd that hc is an ingratc, will you givc it to him
or not: !l you do it knowing what you do, you arc wrong, bccausc
you arc giving to a pcrson to whom you ought not to givc, il you
rclusc to do it, in that cvcnt too you arc wrong, lor you arc not giv
ing to somconc to whom you promiscd to givc. At this point your
Stoic rmncss
iv
laltcrs togcthcr with thc proud claim that thc sagc
ncvcr rcgrcts his action, ncvcr corrccts what hc has donc, and docs
not changc his mind.
(.) Thc sagc docs not changc his mind whcn all thc circum
stanccs rcmain thc samc as thcy wcrc whcn hc madc up his mind, lor
that rcason hc ncvcr cxpcricnccs rcgrct, bccausc nothing bcttcr could
havc bccn donc at that timc than what was donc, nothing bcttcr
dccidcd than what was dccidcd. 8ut hc approachcs cvcrything with
thc rcscrvation, !l nothing occurs to impcdc. For that rcason wc say
that cvcrything turns out succcsslully lor him and nothing happcns
contrary to his cxpcctation, bccausc hc makcs thc prior assumption
that somcthing can happcn to prcvcnt what hc intcndcd. (.) nly
thc thoughtlcss havc thc kind ol condcncc to bclicvc that Fortunc
has givcn a guarantcc, thc sagc kccps both hcr aspccts in mind. Hc
knows how much scopc thcrc is lor crror, how unccrtain arc hu
man aairs, how many obstaclcs thcrc arc to our plans, hc adopts a
watchlul attitudc toward thc unccrtainty ol things and thc slippcry
coursc ol chancc, hc wcighs up with sccurc judgmcnt thc insccurity
ol cvcnts. 8ut thc rcscrvation which hc includcs in all his plans and
undcrtakings protccts him hcrc also.
(.r) ! promiscd a bcnct unlcss somcthing occurrcd which
rcmovcd my obligation to givc. Vhat il my country should ordcr
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mc to givc to hcr what ! had promiscd him: Vhat il a law should
bc passcd lorbidding anyonc to do what ! had promiscd my lricnd
to do: ! promiscd my daughtcr in marriagc to you, altcrwards you
turncd out to bc a noncitizcn, ! havc no right to contract a marriagc
with an alicn, thc samc lact that lorbids thc act providcs my dclcnsc.
(.z) nly thcn shall ! bc brcaking laith, only thcn shall ! bc chargcd
with a lack ol constancy il, though cvcrything rcmains thc samc as
whcn ! promiscd, ! lail to lulll what ! promiscd. thcrwisc, any
changc givcs mc thc lrccdom to dccidc alrcsh and lrccs mc lrom my
plcdgc. ! promiscd to plcad in support, altcrwards it bccamc clcar that
through that casc a prcccdcnt against my lathcr was bcing dcviscd. !
promiscd that ! would go abroad, but ncws comcs that thc road is in
lcstcd with brigands. ! was about to comc to thc sccnc ol action, but
was dctaincd bccausc my son was ill or my wilc about to givc birth.
(.) For you to hold mc to it, cvcrything ought to bc thc samc as
whcn ! promiscd, but what grcatcr changc can occur than discovcr
ing that you arc a bad and ungratclul pcrson: Vhat ! was prcparcd
to givc to a worthy pcrson, ! shall rclusc to an unworthy onc, and
in addition ! shall havc rcason to bc angry bccausc ! was dcccivcd.
(6.r) Ncvcrthclcss ! shall also considcr thc valuc ol thc itcm
in qucstion, thc amount ol what is promiscd will hclp mc dccidc.
!l it is trivial, ! shall givc it, not bccausc you dcscrvc it, but bccausc
! promiscd, nor shall ! givc it as a gilt, but as thc lulllmcnt ol my
word, and ! shall tic a knot in my handkcrchicl as a warning lor thc
luturc. Thc loss will punish thc rashncss ol my promisc. Look how
it hurts and lcarn to spcak morc carclully ncxt timc. As thc saying
gocs, ! shall pay a lorlcit lor my tonguc. (6.z) !l thc amount is largcr,
! shall not, as Macccnas says, allow myscll to bc punishcd to thc tunc
ol tcn million scstcrccs. ! shall comparc thc two sidc by sidc. Thcrc
is somcthing to bc said lor pcrsisting with what you havc promiscd,
yct again, thcrc is somcthing to bc said lor not giving a bcnct to
somconc unworthy. 8ut how grcat is thc bcnct: !l it is trivial, lct us
turn a blind cyc to it, but il it will causc mc grcat loss or grcat shamc,
! prclcr to makc cxcuscs oncc lor rclusing than cvcr altcrwards lor
giving. Vhat ! am saying is that cvcrything dcpcnds on how high a
sum is xcd by thc tcrms ol my promisc. (6.) Not only shall ! kccp
back what ! was rash to promisc, but, whatcvcr ! was wrong to givc,
! shall dcmand back: it is mad to kccp laith with an crror.
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(.r) King Philip ol Maccdon had a soldicr who was a bravc
ghtcr and, having lound his scrvicc usclul in many campaigns, hc
gavc him lrom timc to timc somc ol his booty in rccognition ol his
couragc, thcrcby inaming thc covctous naturc ol thc man by his
rcpcatcd rcwards. This man was shipwrcckcd and cast ashorc on thc
propcrty ol a ccrtain Maccdonian who, whcn hc hcard thc ncws,
camc running, rcsuscitatcd him, took him to his villa and, giving up
his bcd to him, rcvivcd him, wcak and halldcad as hc was, lookcd
altcr him lor thirty days at his own cxpcnsc, rcstorcd him, and lur
nishcd him with moncy lor his journcy whilc thc man said ovcr and
ovcr: ! will rcturn thc lavor to you il only ! am lucky cnough to scc
my commandcr. (.z) Hc told Philip about his shipwrcck, but kcpt
quict about thc hclp hc had rcccivcd and promptly askcd to bc givcn
a ccrtain mans cstatc. That man was his host, thc vcry pcrson who
had madc him wclcomc and rcstorcd him to hcalth. Kings lrom
timc to timc, cspccially in war, makc gilts with thcir cycs closcd. A
just man cannot gratily so many appctitcs in arms. No onc can bc a
good man and a good gcncral at thc samc timc. How can so many
thousands ol insatiablc mcn bc satiscd: Vhat will thcy occupy il
cach man is to occupy what is his: (.) Thcsc arc thc things Philip
told himscll whcn ordcring thc man to bc givcn posscssion ol thc
propcrty hc rcqucstcd.
rivcn out ol his propcrty, thc owncr did not bcar thc injury in
silcncc, likc a pcasant rclicvcd that hc himscll had not bccn handcd
ovcr, but hc wrotc to Philip a brisk and candid lcttcr. Vhcn thc king
rcccivcd it hc was so angry that hc immcdiatcly ordcrcd Pausanias to
rcstorc thc propcrty to its lormcr owncr and, in addition, to mark that
most shamclcss ol soldicrs, most ungratclul ol gucsts, most grccdy
ol castaways with a tattoo proclaiming him an ungratclul pcrson.
(.) Hc dcscrvcd to havc thosc lcttcrs not mcrcly markcd on him
but carvcd into his csha man who had drivcn his host, likc a na
kcd and shipwrcckcd man, onto thc samc shorc on which hc himscll
had bccn strandcd. (.) Latcr on wc shall considcr how scvcrc his
punishmcnt should bc, but at all cvcnts hc had to losc what hc had
scizcd by hcinous crimc. Vho could bc disturbcd by his punishmcnt:
Hc had committcd a crimc which cnsurcd that no compassionatc
pcrson could lccl compassion.
(8.r) Vill Philip givc it to you bccausc hc promiscd, cvcn il hc
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ought not to, cvcn il hc would bc committing an injury, cvcn il hc
would bc committing a crimc, cvcn il at a strokc hc would bc clos
ing thc shorcs to castaways: !t is not cklcncss to abandon what you
havc rccognizcd and condcmncd as an crror, you havc to dcclarc
honcstly, ! thought somcthing dicrcnt, ! was dcccivcd. !t bclongs
to thc stubbornncss ol proud stupidity to say, Vhat ! havc oncc said,
whatcvcr it is, is to bc an irrcvocablc law.
(8.z) Thcrc is nothing shamclul about changing a dccision
whcn thc lacts changc. Scc now, il Philip had lclt him thc owncr
ol thosc shorcs, which hc had acquircd by shipwrcck, would hc not
havc turncd all unlortunatcs into outlaws: ! prclcr that within thc
boundarics ol my kingdom you display on your brazcn brow thosc
lcttcrs that should bc inscribcd lor all to scc. Go, show what a sacrcd
thing a hospitablc tablc is, wcar on your lacc lor all to rcad that dc
crcc against making thc provision ol a rool lor unlortunatcs a capital
ocnsc. Thus my ordinancc will havc morc authority than il ! had
cngravcd it on bronzc.
(q.r) Vhy thcn, somconc objccts, did your Zcno,
28
whcn hc
had promiscd a loan ol vc hundrcd dcnarii
29
to somconc and had
himscll lound out that that hc was an unsuitablc pcrson, pcrsist in
making thc loan dcspitc thc urgings ol his lricnds against giving
it, bccausc hc had promiscd: (q.z) For onc thing, a loan involvcs
a situation dicrcnt lrom that ol a bcnct. nc can call in cvcn a
bad loan, ! can summon a dcbtor lor a particular day and, il hc has
bccomc bankrupt, ! shall gct my sharc. 8ut a bcnct is lost in total
and at oncc. 8csidcs, thc lattcr is thc act ol a bad man, thc lormcr ol
a bad hcad ol houschold. Thcn again, had thc amount bccn grcatcr,
not cvcn Zcno would havc pcrsistcd in lcnding it. !t was vc hundrcd
dcnariia sum, as thc saying gocs, onc can lrittcr away, at that
pricc it was worth not brcaking his promisc.
(q.) ! shall go out to dinncr bccausc ! promiscd, cvcn il it is cold
out, but not il it is snowing. ! shall gct up to go to an cngagcmcnt
party bccausc ! promiscd, cvcn though ! havc indigcstion, but not
il ! havc a lcvcr. ! shall go down to thc lorum to bc your surcty in
a public contract bccausc ! promiscd, but not il you dcmand that !
stand surcty lor an unspccicd sum, il you put mc undcr obligation to
thc cmpcrors trcasury. (q.) Thcrc is a tacit rcscrvationnamcly, il
! can, il ! ought, il things stay as thcy arc. Supposc that thc situation
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is thc samc whcn you cxact paymcnt as it was whcn ! was giving my
promisc, it will count as cklcncss to dclault. !l somcthing ncw oc
curs, why do you wondcr that whcn thc circumstanccs ol my promisc
havc changcd, my purposc has changcd too: cr mc thc samc con
ditions, and ! will bc thc samc. Vc promisc bail, yct not all arc liablc
to bc sucd lor dclaulting: lorcc majcurc cxcuscs thc dclaultcr.
(o.r) xpcct thc samc answcr to thc qucstion ol whcthcr a lavor
must bc rcturncd in cvcry circumstancc and whcthcr a bcnct should
in all cascs bc rcpaid. ! havc an obligation to show myscll gratclul,
but somctimcs my own ill lortunc, somctimcs thc good lortunc ol
thc pcrson to whom ! am indcbtcd, will not allow mc to rcturn thc
lavor. (o.z) Vhat rcturn can ! makc to a king or to a rich man il !
am poor, cspccially sincc somc pcoplc rcgard rccciving a bcnct as an
injury and continually hcap onc bcnct on anothcr: Vhat morc can
! do in thc casc ol thcsc pcoplc than bc willing: Nor should ! rcjcct a
ncw bcnct lor thc rcason that ! havc not yct rcpaid thc rst. ! shall
acccpt as willingly as it is ocrcd, and ! shall providc my lricnd with
amplc opportunity to practicc his kindncss. Unwillingncss to acccpt
ncw bcncts implics rcscntmcnt ol thosc alrcady rcccivcd.
(o.) ! do not rcturn a lavor. So what: Thc dclay is not my lault,
il ! lack cithcr thc occasion or thc mcans. Hc conlcrrcd it on mc, but
ol coursc hc had thc occasion and thc mcans. !s hc a good man or a
bad man: 8clorc a good man, ! havc a good casc, bclorc a bad onc,
! do not cvcn plcad. (o.) Nor do ! approvc ol doing thisnamcly,
rushing to rcturn a lavor cvcn against thc will ol thosc to whom it is
shown, and prcssing it upon thcm whcn thcy shrink lrom it. Vhcn
you givc back somcthing you willingly rcccivcd to somconc unwilling
to rcccivc it, that is not rcturning a lavor. Somc pcoplc, whcn somc
tric has bccn scnt to thcm, immcdiatcly scnd back anothcr inop
portuncly and claim that thcy arc quit ol thcir obligation. !t is a kind
ol rclusal to scnd somcthing clsc back at oncc and wipc out onc gilt
with anothcr. (o.) Thcrc arc cvcn timcs whcn ! shall not rcpay a
bcnct, although ! can. Vhcn: !l my loss is grcatcr than his gain, il
hc will not noticc any addition on rccciving it, whcrcas on rcturning
it much will bc lost to mc. A pcrson who hurrics to rcpay at all costs
has thc attitudc not ol a gratclul man, but ol a dcbtor. And, to put it
bricy, a pcrson who is too cagcr to pay his dcbt is unwilling to owc,
and hc who is unwilling to owc is ungratclul.
.. Book
(r.r) !n thc prcccding books ! appcarcd to havc accomplishcd my
objcctivc, having discusscd how a bcnct should bc givcn and how it
should bc rcccivcd, lor thcsc dcnc thc limits ol this rcsponsibility.
!n lingcring lurthcr, ! am not scrving but indulging my subjcct: !
havc a duty to lollow whcrc it lcads, but not whcrc it cnticcs mc, lor
now and again somcthing comcs up that challcngcs thc mind by its
appcal, a point not so much otiosc as unncccssary. (r.z) 8ut, sincc it
is your wish, lct us go on, now that wc havc nishcd what bclongcd
to thc subjcct, to cxaminc also thcsc issucs which, il thc truth bc
told, arc appcndcd to it rathcr than propcrly attachcd. xamining
thcsc things carclully docs not rcpay oncs cort, but docs not wastc
it cithcr.
(r.) Now to you, Libcralis Acbutius, thc bcst ol mcn by naturc
and pronc to bcncts, no praisc ol thcm is su cicnt. ! havc ncvcr
sccn anyonc as gcncrous in valuing cvcn thc most trivial scrviccs,
your goodncss has gonc so lar that you rcgard a bcnct conlcrrcd on
anyonc as conlcrrcd on yourscll, to prcvcnt anyonc lrom rcgrctting
a bcnct, you arc rcady to rcpay dcbts lor thc ungratclul. (r.) You
yourscll arc so lar lrom all boasting, so willing to lrcc instantly lrom
thcir obligation thosc whom you hclp, that, whatcvcr you conlcr on
anyonc, you wish to appcar to bc rcpaying, not giving. Things givcn
in this spirit will lor that rcason bc rcturncd to you in grcatcr mca
surc. For bcncts attcnd thc pcrson who asks no rcturn and, just as
glory attcnds thosc who cc lrom it, so thosc who allow othcrs to
bc ungratclul will rcccivc a morc gratclul rcturn lor thcir bcncts.
(r.) !n your casc, thosc who havc rcccivcd bcncts nccd not hcsitatc
in prcsuming to ask again, nor will you rclusc to conlcr othcrs and to
add morc and grcatcr oncs to thosc that arc covcrt and undiscloscd.
!t is thc aim ol an cxccllcnt man and a grcat soul to put up with an
ingratc long cnough to makc him gratclul. Nor will this calculation
dcccivc you, viccs givc way to virtucs, il you do not rush to hatc thcm
too soon.
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(z.r) !t is shamclul to bc outdonc in bcnctsthis is an adagc
that particularly appcals to you as a splcndid saying. Vhcthcr this is
truc or not is rcgularly and rightly qucstioncd, and thc lacts arc quitc
dicrcnt lrom what you imaginc. !n lact, it is ncvcr shamclul to bc
bcatcn in a compctition ovcr honorablc things, providcd that you do
not throw down your arms and that, cvcn whcn bcatcn, you still wish
to win. (z.z) Not cvcryonc brings to a worthy goal thc samc capaci
tics, thc samc rcsourccs, thc samc good luck, which accts at lcast
thc outcomc ol cvcn thc bcst plans. Thc vcry wish to pursuc what is
right dcscrvcs praisc, cvcn il somconc cctcr ol loot outstrips it. Nor
docs thc palm indicatc thc bcttcr compctitor, as it docs in compcti
tions at thc public gamcs, though cvcn in thcsc chancc has oltcn
givcn rst prizc to an inlcrior contcstant. (z.) Vhcn it comcs to a
rcciprocal scrvicc, which both partics wish to pcrlorm as gcncrously
as possiblc, il onc has had morc powcr and has had morc rcsourccs at
hand lor lullling his intcntion, il lortunc has grantcd him all that hc
attcmptcd but thc othcr is his cqual in dcsirc, cvcn il hc has rcturncd
lcss than hc rcccivcd or has not madc a rcturn in lull, but wishcs to
makc a rcturn and is xcd on this with all his hcart, thcn hc has no
morc bccn conqucrcd than thc man who dics in arms bccausc it was
casicr lor his cncmy to kill him than to put him to rout. (z.) Vhat
you rcgard as shamclul cannot happcn to a good manthat is, to bc
conqucrcd. For hc will ncvcr submit, ncvcr givc up, to thc last day ol
his lilc hc will stand rcady and hc will dic in that post, proclaiming
that hc rcccivcd grcat gilts and dcsircd to cqual thcm.
(.r) Thc Spartans do not allow thcir athlctcs to contcnd in thc
pancration or boxing with wcightcd glovcs, sports in which it is an
admission ol dclcat that indicatcs thc loscr.
J
A runncr has touchcd
thc nish linc rst: hc has won by his spccd, not his spirit. A wrcs
tlcr who has bccn thrown thrcc timcs has lost thc palm, but not
surrcndcrcd it. Sincc thc Spartans rcgard it as important that thcir
citizcns should bc unconqucrcd, thcy havc kcpt thcm out ol thosc
contcsts in which thc victor is dccidcd not by a judgc or thc outcomc
itscll, but by thc voicc ol thc loscr as hc admits dclcat and surrcndcrs
thc palm. (.z) This salcguard against cvcr bcing conqucrcd, which
thc Spartans prcscrvc in thc casc ol thcir citizcns, virtuc and good
intcntion ocr to all, sincc cvcn whcn circumstanccs gain thc uppcr
hand, thc mind rcmains unconqucrcd. Thcrclorc no onc dcscribcs
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thc thrcc hundrcd Fabii as conqucrcd, but as cut down, and Rcgulus
was capturcd by thc Carthaginians, not conqucrcd, as is anyonc clsc
opprcsscd by thc powcr and lorcc ol crucl lortunc who docs not
yicld in spirit.
2
(.) !t is thc samc with bcncts. A pcrson has rc
ccivcd morc, and grcatcr oncs and morc lrcqucnt, and yct hc has not
bccn conqucrcd. Pcrhaps onc sct ol bcncts has bccn conqucrcd by
anothcr, il you comparc with cach othcr thosc conlcrrcd and thosc
rcccivcd, but il you comparc thc pcrson giving and thc pcrson rccciv
ing, whosc intcntions must ol coursc bc valucd in thcmsclvcs, ncithcr
will havc thc palm. For it is thc custom to say, cvcn whcn onc man
has bccn picrccd by many wounds and thc othcr has bccn slightly
woundcd, that thcy havc lclt thc arcna on cqual tcrms, cvcn though
onc is clcarly worsc o.
(.r) Thcrclorc no onc can bc outdonc in bcncts il hc knows
how to bc in dcbt, il hc wants to rcpay, il whcn hc cannot match
somconc in dccds, hc matchcs him in intcntion. Such a pcrson, as
long as hc rcmains xcd on this, as long as hc rctains thc dcsirc to
makc manilcst his gratclul attitudcwhat dicrcncc docs it makc
on which sidc thc grcatcr numbcr ol trinkcts is to bc countcd: You
arc ablc to givc much, and ! can only rcccivc, on your sidc stands
good lortunc, on minc good intcntion, yct ! am as much your cqual
as unarmcd or lightly armcd troops arc thc cqual ol thc many soldicrs
who arc lully armcd. (.z) Thcrclorc no onc is outdonc in bcncts,
bccausc cach pcrson is as gratclul as his intcntion. For il it is shamc
lul to bc outdonc in bcncts, onc ought not to acccpt a bcnct lrom
mcn ol grcat powcr to whom you cannot rcturn thc lavorlrom
rulcrs, ! mcan, lrom kings, whom Fortunc has placcd in a position
that cnablcs thcm to bcstow many gilts but rcccivc only a vcry lcw,
and thosc uncqual to what was givcn.
(.) ! havc mcntioncd kings and rulcrs, to whom it is noncthc
lcss possiblc to rcndcr scrviccs and whosc prccmincnt powcr is itscll
dcpcndcnt on thc conscnt and support ol lcsscr mcn. 8ut thcrc arc
thosc who arc withdrawn bcyond thc rcach ol all cupidity, who arc
scarccly acctcd by any human dcsircs, on whom lortunc hcrscll can
bcstow nothing. l ncccssity ! shall bc outdonc in bcncts by So
cratcs, ol ncccssity by iogcncs who passcd through thc Maccdonian
trcasurcs nakcd, trampling on thc kings wcalth.
3
(.) How rightly
did hc sccm thcn, to himscll and to anyonc clsc whosc ability to
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disccrn truth was not dimmcd, to towcr abovc thc man who had thc
world at his lcct. Far morc powcrlul, lar richcr was hc than Alcxan
dcr, who thcn had all things in his powcr, lor what iogcncs would
not acccpt was grcatcr than what Alcxandcr could givc.
(.r) !t is not shamclul to bc outdonc by such pcoplc, lor ! am not
lcss bravc bccausc you match mc with an cncmy who is invulncrablc,
nor is a rc lcss capablc ol burning bccausc it cncountcrs matcrial
that is prool against amcs, nor has a sword lost thc powcr to cut
bccausc what nccds to bc split is a stonc that is solid and impcrvious
to blows, and whosc naturc rcndcrs it salc against hard instrumcnts.
! say thc samc to you about a gratclul pcrson. Hc is not shamclully
outdonc in bcncts bccausc hc is undcr obligation to thosc whosc
grcat good lortunc or outstanding virtuc has closcd thc door on any
bcncts that might rcturn to thcm.
(.z) Vc arc usually outdonc by our parcnts. For as long as thcy
arc still with us, wc think thcm scvcrc and do not apprcciatc thcir
bcncts. 8ut just whcn agc has taught us somc wisdom and wc havc
startcd to scc that thcy dcscrvc to bc lovcd by us lor prcciscly thc
rcasons why thcy wcrc not lovcdlor thcir warnings, thcir harshncss,
and thcir carclul protcction ol our rccklcss youththcy arc snatchcd
lrom us. Fcw havc livcd long cnough to rcap a truc rcward lrom
thcir childrcn, thc rcst havc cxpcricnccd thcir childrcn as burdcns.
(.) Yct it is not shamclul to bc outdonc by a parcnt: how could it
bc, whcn it is not shamclul to bc outdonc by anyonc: For wc arc both
cqual and uncqual to ccrtain pcoplccqual in intcntion, which alonc
thcy rcquirc and which alonc wc guarantcc, uncqual in lortunc: il this
prcvcnts anyonc lrom rcturning a lavor, thcrc is no rcason lor him
to blush il outdonc. !t is not shamclul to lail in an attcmpt, providcd
you makc thc attcmpt.
(.) ltcn wc nccd to scck lurthcr bcncts bclorc wc havc rc
turncd carlicr oncs, but wc do not lail to scck thcm lor that rcason,
nor do so with shamc at incurring a dcbt that wc arc not about to
rcturn, bccausc thc dclay at showing oursclvcs most gratclul will not
bc our lault but thc rcsult ol an intcrvcntion lrom outsidc that prc
vcnts us. Yct wc shall not bc outdonc in intcntion, nor shamcd whcn
ovcrwhclmcd by things not in our powcr.
(6.r) Alcxandcr, king ol Maccdon, uscd to boast that hc was out
donc by no onc in bcncts. Thcrc is no rcason why, cxccssivcly proud
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as hc was, hc should cstccm thc Maccdonians and Grccks and Car
ians and Pcrsians and all thc nations cnrollcd in his army, and rcgard
his kingdom, strctching lrom a corncr ol Thracc to thc shorc ol thc
unknown sca, as thcir gilt to him. Socratcs could havc madc thc samc
boast and iogcncs, by both ol whom hc was outdonc. Vas hc not
in lact outdonc on that day whcn, a man swollcn with morc than
human pridc, hc saw somconc to whom hc could givc nothing, lrom
whom hc could takc nothing away:
(6.z) King Archclaus invitcd Socratcs to comc to him, Socratcs is
said to havc rcplicd that hc did not want to go to somconc in ordcr to
acccpt bcncts lrom him whcn hc would bc unablc to makc an cqual
rcturn.
4
First ol all, it was in his powcr not to acccpt, ncxt, hc was
about to conlcr a bcnct rst, sincc hc was coming at his rcqucst and
was about to conlcr what thc king could not in any way pay back to
Socratcs. Yct again, Archclaus was going to givc him gold and silvcr,
only to rcccivc contcmpt lor gold and silvcr. Vas Socratcs unablc to
rcturn thc lavor to Archclaus: (6.) And what was hc to rcccivc that
was as grcat as what hc gavc, il hc had shown him a man having a
grasp ol lilc and dcath and undcrstanding thc cnds ol cach: !l hc
had introduccd to thc workings ol naturc a king who could not nd
his way in broad daylight, and who was so ignorant that whcn thcrc
was an cclipsc ol thc sun hc shut up his palacc and shavcd his sons
hcad, as is customary in timcs ol gricl and disastcr:
(6.) Vhat a grcat bcnct it would havc bccn had hc pullcd thc
lrightcncd king lrom his hiding placc and urgcd him to bc ol good
hcart, saying, This docs not mark thc disappcarancc ol thc sun but
thc coincidcncc ol two stars, whcn thc moon, which runs in a lowcr
coursc, has placcd hcr sphcrc right bcncath thc sun and hiddcn it by
intcrposing hcrscll. Somctimcs shc obscurcs a small part ol thc sun,
il shc has brushcd it in passing, somctimcs shc covcrs morc, il shc has
intcrposcd thc grcatcr part ol hcrscll, somctimcs shc cuts o thc sight
ol thc sun altogcthcr, il shc has movcd into a position bctwccn thc
sun and carth, with all ol thcm strictly aligncd. (6.) 8ut soon thcir
own spccd ol motion will draw thosc stars apart, onc hcrc, onc thcrc,
soon thc carth will rccovcr daylight, and this cyclc will continuc
through thc ccnturics with its appointcd days known in advancc, on
which thc sun, bccausc ol thc intcrlcrcncc ol thc moon, is prcvcntcd
lrom scnding out all its rays. Vait a littlc whilc, soon it will comc
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out, soon it will lcavc bchind that apparcnt cloud, soon, lrccd ol its
obstaclcs, it will scnd lorth its light lrccly.
(6.6) Could not Socratcs havc madc an cqual rcturn to Archclaus,
il hc had lorbiddcn him to rulc:
i
To bc surc, thc bcnct hc rcccivcd
lrom Socratcs would havc bccn too small, had hc bccn ablc to givc
onc to Socratcs. Vhy thcn did Socratcs say what hc said: As a clcvcr
man whosc convcrsation was obliquc, a mockcr ol all, cspccially ol
thc mighty, hc prclcrrcd to rclusc him wittily rathcr than dcantly
or arrogantly. Hc said that hc did not want to acccpt bcncts lrom
somconc to whom hc could not makc cquivalcnt rcpaymcnt. Pcrhaps
hc lcarcd bcing lorccd to acccpt what hc did not want, lcarcd bcing
lorccd to acccpt somcthing unworthy ol Socratcs. Somconc will say,
Hc could havc rcluscd, il hc wishcd to. (6.) 8ut hc would havc
provokcd thc hostility ol a king who was proud and wishcd all his
lavors to bc grcatly valucd. !t makcs no dicrcncc whcthcr you rc
lusc to givc somcthing to a king or rclusc to acccpt somcthing lrom
a king, hc rcgards both cqually as a rcbu, and lor a proud man it
is morc bittcr to bc scorncd than not to bc lcarcd. o you want to
know what hc rcally intcndcd: Hc was unwilling to cntcr voluntary
scrvitudc, this man whosc lrccdom a lrcc city could not bcar!
(.r) Vc havc discusscd this topic su cicntly, ! thinkthat is,
whcthcr it is shamclul to bc outdonc in bcncts. Vhocvcr poscs that
qucstion is awarc that pcoplc arc not accustomcd to conlcr a bcnct
on thcmsclvcs, lor it would havc bccn clcar that it is not shamclul to
bc outdonc by oncscll. (.z) And yct among somc Stoics this too is in
disputc, whcthcr somconc can conlcr a bcnct on himscll, whcthcr
hc ought to rcturn a lavor to himscll.
5
Vhat makc it sccm worth
discussing arc such cxprcssions as ! thank myscll and ! cannot
blamc anyonc but myscll and ! am angry with myscll and ! will
punish myscll and ! hatc myscll and many othcrs ol this kind
in which cach onc spcaks ol himscll as il hc wcrc anothcr pcrson.
(.) !l ! can harm myscll, thc argumcnt runs, why can ! not conlcr
a bcnct on myscll: Morcovcr, il things ! havc bcstowcd on somconc
clsc arc callcd bcncts, why should thcy not bc bcncts il ! havc
bcstowcd thcm on myscll: !l ! would bc indcbtcd lor somcthing !
had rcccivcd lrom anothcr pcrson, why should ! not bc indcbtcd lor
it il ! gavc it to myscll: Vhy should ! bc ungratclul towards myscll,
somcthing no lcss shamclul than to bc stingy towards oncscll, and
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harsh and scvcrc to oncscll, and ncglcctlul ol oncscll: (.) A pimp
acquircs an cqually bad rcputation by sclling anothcrs body or his
own. Thc attcrcr who gocs along with thc words ol anothcr and is
rcady to praisc lalschoods is surcly opcn to ccnsurc, no lcss thc pcr
son who is complaccnt and sclladmiringin othcr words, his own
attcrcr. \iccs attract odium not only whcn thcy arc cnactcd outsidc,
but whcn thcy arc turncd in on thcmsclvcs. (.) Vhom do you ad
mirc morc than thc pcrson who is in command ol himscll, who has
himscll undcr control: !t is casicr to rulc barbarous pcoplcs, intolcr
ant ol thc powcr ol othcrs, than to rcstrain oncs spirit and subduc
it to oncscll. Plato thanks Socratcs, thc argumcnt runs, bccausc hc
lcarncd lrom him, why should Socratcs not thank himscll, bccausc
hc taught himscll: Marcus Cato says, Vhat you nccd, borrow lrom
yourscll.
6
Vhy can ! not givc to myscll, il ! can borrow lrom myscll:
(.6) Thcrc arc countlcss cascs in which it is customary to dividc
oursclvcs. Vc arc uscd to saying, Lct mc havc a word with myscll
and ! will rcmind myscll ol it. !l thcsc cxprcssions arc accuratc, thcn
just as somconc ought to bc angry with himscll, so too hc ought to
thank himscll, just as hc ought to rcproach himscll, so too hc ought
to praisc himscll, just as hc can bc thc causc to himscll ol loss, so too
hc can bc thc causc ol gain. !njury and bcnct arc oppositcs, il wc
say ol somconc, Hc did himscll an injury, wc can also say, Hc did
himscll a lavor.
(8.r) 8y naturc a pcrson owcs rst and rcturns thc lavor altcr
wards, thcrc is no dcbtor without a crcditor, any morc than thcrc can
bc a husband without a wilc or a lathcr without a child, somconc has
to givc lor anothcr to rcccivc. !t is not giving or rccciving to translcr
somcthing lrom oncs lclt hand to oncs right. (8.z) No onc carrics
himscll, although hc movcs his body and shilts it, no onc, although
hc has spokcn on his own bchall, is said to havc appcarcd in his own
dclcnsc, or crccts a statuc to himscll as his advocatc, no onc, whcn
hc has rccovcrcd lrom an illncss by trcating himscll, dcmands a lcc
lrom himscll, just so in cvcry transaction, cvcn whcn hc has donc
somcthing which has bcnctcd himscll, hc will not bc undcr an obli
gation to rcturn thc lavor to himscll, bccausc hc will not havc anyonc
to whom hc can rcturn it.
(8.) Grantcd that somconc can givc himscll a bcnct: thcn whilc
hc is giving it, hc is rccciving it, grantcd that somconc can rcccivc
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a bcnct lrom himscll: thcn whilc hc is rccciving it, hc is giving it.
You arc borrowing lrom yourscll, as thcy say, and in a larcical way
thc itcm is immcdiatcly movcd lrom onc column to anothcr. For it is
not a dicrcnt pcrson who givcs than who rcccivcs, but onc and thc
samc pcrson. This word to owc is not appropriatc cxccpt bctwccn
two pcoplc, how thcn can it apply to a singlc pcrson who by incurring
an obligation lrccs himscll lrom it: (8.) As in a disk and a sphcrc
thcrc is no bottom, no top, no cnd, no bcginning, bccausc thcir ordcr
changcs as thcy movc and what camc altcr is now coming bclorc,
and what wcnt down is now coming up, and cvcrything, whcrcvcr it
wcnt, rcturns to thc samc placcimaginc that it works this way with
a pcrson. Though you havc givcn him dicrcnt rolcs, hc is thc samc
pcrson. Hc has struck himscll, hc has no onc whom hc can chargc
with injury, hc has bound himscll and lockcd himscll up, hc is not
liablc on a chargc ol assault, hc has givcn himscll a bcnct, hc has at
thc samc timc madc a rcturn to thc givcr. (8.) Naturc, it is said, loscs
nothing bccausc whatcvcr is snatchcd lrom hcr rcturns to hcr, and
nothing can pcrish bccausc thcrc is no placc whcrc it can cscapc, but
it comcs round again to thc samc placc lrom which it camc. Vhat
is thc rcscmblancc, comcs thc qucstion, bctwccn this cxamplc and
thc qucstion that was poscd: ! will tcll you. (8.6) !maginc that you
arc ungratclul: thc bcnct docs not pcrish, thc pcrson who gavc it
still has it. !maginc that you do not want to rcccivc a rcturn: it is in
your posscssion cvcn bclorc it is rcturncd. You cannot losc anything,
bccausc whatcvcr is takcn away, is noncthclcss acquircd by you. Thc
cyclc takcs placc within you, by rccciving you arc giving, by giving
you arc rccciving.
(q.r) nc ought to conlcr a bcnct on oncscll, thcrclorc onc
ought also to rcturn thc lavor. First, thc prcmisc on which thc con
clusion dcpcnds is lalsc, lor no onc givcs a bcnct to himscll, but
rathcr hc obcys his own naturc by which hc is inclincd to lccl lor
himscll an acction that lcads him to takc thc grcatcst carc to avoid
what will do him harm and scck what will do him good.
7
(q.z) And
so thc pcrson who givcs to himscll is not gcncrous, nor is thc pcrson
who pardons himscll clcmcnt, nor docs thc pcrson who is movcd
by his own ills cxpcricncc pity. Vhat counts as gcncrosity, clcm
cncy, or pity whcn givcn to anothcr is, whcn givcn to oncscll, just
human naturc. A bcnct is a voluntary act, but looking altcr oncs
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own intcrcst is unavoidablc. Thc morc bcncts a pcrson has givcn,
thc morc bcncccnt hc is, but who was cvcr praiscd bccausc hc gavc
himscll hclp: 8ccausc hc rcscucd himscll lrom brigands: No onc
givcs himscll a bcnct any morc than hc givcs himscll hospitality, no
onc makcs a gilt to himscll any morc than hc lcnds to himscll.
(q.) !l cach pcrson conlcrs a bcnct on himscll, hc conlcrs it all
thc timc, hc conlcrs it without pausc: it will not bc possiblc lor him
to kccp an account ol his bcncts. Vhcn in lact will hc rcturn thc
lavor, sincc in that vcry act ol rcturning thc lavor hc is conlcrring a
bcnct: For how will you bc ablc to tcll whcthcr hc is giving a bcnct
to himscll or rcturning onc, whcn thc cxchangc takcs placc within
thc samc pcrson: ! havc lrccd myscll lrom dangcr: ! havc conlcrrcd
a bcnct on myscll. ! libcratc myscll lrom dangcr yct again: am !
conlcrring a bcnct or rcturning onc:
(q.) Thcn again, as soon as ! grant that wc do conlcr bcnct on
oursclvcs, ! shall rclusc to grant thc conclusion: lor cvcn il wc givc, wc
do not owc. Vhy is that: 8ccausc wc rcccivc a rcturn immcdiatcly. !t
is propcr to rcccivc a bcnct, thcn to bc indcbtcd, thcn to rcturn it,
but thcrc is no opportunity to bc indcbtcd hcrc, bccausc without any
dclay wc rcccivc a rcturn. No onc givcs cxccpt to anothcr pcrson, no
onc owcs cxccpt to anothcr pcrson, no onc rcturns cxccpt to anothcr
pcrson. Vhat on cach occasion rcquircs two pcoplc cannot takc placc
within onc pcrson.
(ro.r) A bcnct is thc ocring ol somcthing so as to bc usclul,
but thc word ocring implics thc involvcmcnt ol othcrs. Vill a
pcrson cvcr sccm othcr than mad who says that hc has sold himscll
somcthing: That is bccausc sclling mcans alicnating and translcrring
oncs own propcrty and oncs right to it to somconc clsc. 8ut, as with
sclling, so giving involvcs parting with somcthing and translcrring
what you havc hcld to thc posscssion ol somconc clsc. !l this is truc,
no onc has givcn a bcnct to himscll, bccausc no onc givcs to him
scll, othcrwisc two oppositcs combinc in a singlc act, so that giving
and rccciving arc onc. (ro.z) Now thcrc is a grcat dicrcncc bctwccn
giving and rccciving. How can thcrc not bc, whcn thcsc words arc
uscd in oppositc scnscs: And yct il somconc givcs himscll a bcnct,
thcrc is no dicrcncc bctwccn giving and rccciving. A littlc carlicr
! was saying that ccrtain words havc rclcrcncc to othcr pcoplc and
arc so dcsigncd that thcir wholc mcaning points away lrom us: ! am
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a brothcr, but ol somconc clsc, lor no onc is his own brothcr, ! am
an cqual, but ol somconc clsc, lor who is thc cqual ol himscll: For a
comparison to bc madc, thcrc must bc anothcr, lor a conjunction to
takc placc, thcrc must bc anothcr, so also, lor giving to happcn, thcrc
must bc anothcr, and lor a bcnct to occur, thcrc must bc anothcr.
(ro.) This is clcar lrom thc word itscll, which includcs thc idca
ol having donc good to, but no onc docs good to himscll any
morc than hc shows lavor to himscll or bclongs to his own laction.
nc could discuss this at grcatcr lcngth and with lurthcr cxamplcs.
(ro.) Naturally, bccausc bcnct must bc includcd among thosc
tcrms that rcquirc a sccond pcrson. Ccrtain acts, though thcy arc
honorablc, suprcmcly noblc, and ol consummatc virtuc, cannot
happcn without anothcr pcrson. Good laith is praiscd and rcvcrcd
among thc grcatcst blcssings ol humanity, but can anyonc bc said to
havc kcpt laith with himscll:
(rr.r) ! comc now to thc last part ol thc argumcnt. A pcrson who
rcturns a lavor ought to bc spcnding somcthing, just as a pcrson
who pays a dcbt spcnds moncy, but thc pcrson who rcturns a lavor
to himscll docs not spcnd anything, any morc than thc pcrson who
has rcccivcd a bcnct lrom himscll gains anything. A bcnct and thc
rcturn ol a lavor ought to go in dicrcnt dircctions, whcn onc pcrson
is involvcd, thcrc is no cxchangc. Thc pcrson who rcturns a lavor is
doing good in turn to thc pcrson lrom whom hc rcccivcd somcthing.
8ut to whom docs thc pcrson do good who rcturns a lavor to him
scll: nly himscll. And who docs not imaginc onc dcstination lor
thc rcturn ol a lavor and anothcr lor thc bcnct: 8ut thc pcrson who
rcturns a lavor to himscll also docs himscll good. And what ingratc
was cvcr unwilling to do this: Vhat is morc, who was not ungratc
lul prcciscly in ordcr to do this: (rr.z) !l wc arc obligcd to thank
oursclvcs, an objcction runs, thcn wc arc also obligcd to rcturn a
lavour to oursclvcs, but wc do say, ! thank myscll lor not agrccing
to marry that woman and lor not cntcring into a partncrship with
that man. Vhcn wc say this wc arc congratulating oursclvcs and,
in ordcr to show approval ol what wc havc donc, wc misusc thc lan
guagc lor giving thanks.
(rr.) A bcnct is somcthing that, oncc it is givcn, can also lail
to bc rcturncd, hc who givcs himscll a bcnct cannot lail to rc
ccivc what hc gavc, thcrclorc it is not a bcnct. Again, a bcnct is
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givcn at onc timc and rcturncd at anothcr. (rr.) A bcnct has this
commcndablc, this admirablc lcaturcthat somconc, in ordcr to do
good to anothcr, has lor a timc lost sight ol his own advantagc, that
hc has givcn to anothcr what hc is prcparcd to takc lrom himscll.
This is not donc by thc pcrson who conlcrs a bcnct on himscll.
(rr.) To givc a bcnct is a social act that wins somconc ovcr, that lays
somconc undcr an obligation, to givc to oncscll is not a social act, it
wins no onc ovcr, it lays no onc undcr obligation, it instills hopc in
no onc, moving him to say: This is a man who must bc cultivatcd,
hc has givcn a bcnct to that pcrson, hc will givc onc to mc as wcll.
(rr.6) A bcnct is somcthing that a pcrson givcs not lor his own sakc,
but lor thc sakc ol thc pcrson to whom hc givcs it, but thc pcrson
who givcs himscll a bcnct, givcs lor his own sakc. Thcrclorc it is
not a bcnct.
(rz. r) ! sccm to you now to havc madc a lalsc statcmcnt at thc
outsct. You say that ! am lar lrom doing what rcpays cort, that ! am,
in all honcsty, wasting all my cort. Vait, and you will say this morc
truthlully whcn ! havc lcd you into such obscuritics that whcn you
havc cmcrgcd lrom thcm, you will havc achicvcd nothing morc than
to cscapc lrom di cultics into which you nccd ncvcr havc plungcd.
(rz.z) For what is thc usc ol laboriously untying knots
8
that you havc
madc yourscll in ordcr to untic thcm: Now, to providc rccrcation
and amuscmcnt, tanglcs ol knots arc lormcd in such a way that thcy
arc di cult to solvc lor an unskillcd pcrson, but yicld without any
cort to thc pcrson who cntanglcd thcm bccausc hc knows whcrc
thc crossings and knots lic. Noncthclcss, thosc tanglcs providc somc
plcasurc, sincc thcy tcst thc sharpncss ol our minds and awakc our
conccntration. !n thc samc way, thcsc problcms, which sccm cun
ning and trcachcrous, rcmovc complaccncy and sluggishncss lrom
our minds, which nccd at timcs an opcn spacc in which to wandcr
and at othcrs an obscurc and uncvcn strctch through which thcy
must crccp and placc thcir lootstcps carclully.
(rz.) !t is maintaincd that no onc is ungratclul, this is thc rcason
ing: 8cnct is somcthing that docs good, but no onc can do good
to a bad pcrson, as you Stoics say, thcrclorc a bad pcrson docs not
rcccivc a bcnct, hc is not thcrclorc~
ii
ungratclul. Furthcrmorc, a
bcnct is an honorablc and admirablc thing, but a bad pcrson ocrs
no scopc lor anything honorablc and admirablc, thcrclorc not lor a
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bcnct, but il hc cannot rcccivc such a thing, hc cannot bc obligcd
to rcturn it, and thcrclorc hc docs not bccomc ungratclul. (rz.) Fur
thcrmorc, as you maintain, a good pcrson always acts rightly, il hc
always acts rightly, hc cannot bc ungratclul. No onc can givc a bcnct
to a bad pcrson. A good pcrson rcturns a bcnct, a bad pcrson docs
not rcccivc it. 8ut il this is so, ncithcr can any good pcrson nor any
bad pcrson bc ungratclul. Thcrclorc thcrc is no ungratclul pcrson in
thc rcalm ol naturc, and this is an cmpty tcrm.
(rz.) For us thcrc is only onc good, thc honorablc. This cannot
accruc to a bad pcrson, lor hc ccascs to bc bad il virtuc has cntcrcd
him, but as long as hc is bad, no onc can givc him a bcnct, bccausc
bad and good arc incompatiblc and cannot bc combincd. Thcrclorc
no onc docs him good, bccausc whatcvcr rcachcs him is spoilcd by
misusc. (rz.6) Just as a stomach damagcd by discasc and lull ol bilc
changcs whatcvcr lood it rcccivcs and translorms cvcry lorm ol nour
ishmcnt into a causc ol pain, so thc twistcd mind turns whatcvcr
you havc cntrustcd to it into a burdcn lor itscll, and a dcstructivc
agcnt and a sourcc ol miscry. And so thc most lortunatc and wcalthy
pcoplc sucr thc most disquict and arc lcast ablc to discovcr thcm
sclvcs, bccausc thcy havc thc grcatcst opportunity to bc disturbcd.
(rz.) Thcrclorc nothing can accruc to bad pcoplc that would do
thcm good, in lact nothing that docs not do thcm harm. For what
cvcr attachcs to thcm, thcy changc into thcir own naturc, and out
wardly attractivc things that would do good il thcy wcrc givcn to a
bcttcr pcrson arc dclctcrious to thcm. Nor lor that rcason can thcy
givc a bcnct, sincc no onc can givc what hc docs not havc, such a
pcrson lacks thc willingncss to bcnct.
(r.r) Yct dcspitc this bcing so, cvcn a bad pcrson can rcccivc ccr
tain things that rcscmblc bcncts, and il hc docs not rcturn thcm hc
will bc ungratclul. Thcrc arc goods ol thc mind, ol thc body, and ol
lortunc. Thc rst arc bcyond thc rcach ol thc stupid and bad pcrson,
to thc othcrs hc has acccss: hc can rcccivc thcm and ought to rcturn
thcm, and il hc docs not rcturn thcm hc is ungratclul. And this is
not only truc according to our way ol thinking. Thc Pcripatctics as
wcll, who cxtcnd thc bounds ol human happincss lar and widc, say
that triing bcncts will accruc to bad pcoplc and that thc pcrson
who docs not rcturn thcm is ungratclul. (r.z) Vc do not acccpt that
things that will not makc thc mind bcttcr arc bcncts, but wc do
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not dcny that thosc things arc advantagcs and to bc choscn. Thcsc
things a bad pcrson can givc cvcn to a good man and rcccivc lrom a
good mansuch things as moncy and clothing and public o cc and
lilcand il hc docs not rcturn thcm, hc will bc chargcd with bcing
an ingratc. (r.) 8ut how can you call somconc ungratclul lor not
rcturning somcthing that you say is not is a bcnct: Ccrtain things,
cvcn il thcy arc not gcnuinc cxamplcs ol somcthing, arc covcrcd by
thc samc tcrm bccausc ol thcir similarity. Thus wc spcak ol a gold
and silvcr pyxis,
9
wc call illitcratc a pcrson who is not totally igno
rant but has not achicvcd high litcrary culturc, thus somconc who has
sccn a man scantily drcsscd and in rags says that hc saw him nakcd.
Thc things wc mcan arc not bcncts, but havc thc appcarancc ol a
bcnct. (r.) Just as thosc things arc quasibcncts, so thc man too
is a quasiingratc and not an ingratc. That is lalsc, bccausc both thc
givcr and thc rccipicnt call thcm bcncts. And so, thc pcrson who
has lailcd to honor thc scmblancc ol a truc bcnct is just as much an
ingratc as that pcrson is a poisoncr who has mixcd a slccping draught
bclicving it was a poison.
(r.r) Clcanthcs argucs thc point morc lorcibly. vcn il, hc says,
what hc has rcccivcd is not a bcnct, hc himscll is still ungratclul,
bccausc cvcn il hc had rcccivcd onc hc would not havc rcturncd it.
(r.z) So a man is a brigand cvcn bclorc hc stains his hands with
blood, bccausc hc is alrcady armcd to kill and has thc intcntion ol
robbing and murdcring: thc wickcdncss is madc actual and manilcst
by thc act, but it docs not start thcrc. Thosc guilty ol sacrilcgc arc
punishcd, cvcn though no onc can lay hands on thc gods.
(r.) How, it is askcd, can anyonc bc ungratclul towards a bad
man whcn it is not possiblc to rcccivc a bcnct lrom a bad man:
For thc simplc rcason that what hc rcccivcd was not a bcnct but
was callcd onc. Thc pcrson~ who rcccivcs lrom him onc ol thosc
things that arc hcld in cstccm~
iii
by thc ignorant, ol which bad
mcn posscss a good supply, ought in his turn to bc gratclul in a
similar modc and, rcgardlcss ol thcir truc naturc, to rcturn as goods
whatcvcr hc rcccivcd as goods. (r.) A pcrson is said to owc moncy
cvcn il hc owcs gold bullion, or lcathcr bcaring a govcrnmcnt stamp,
such as thc Spartans uscd, which lunctions as coincd moncy. Vhat
cvcr lorm your obligation takcs, dischargc your dcbt in that lorm.
(r.) Vhat bcncts arc, whcthcr thc majcsty ol that noblc namc
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should bc lowcrcd to rclcr to such mcan and contcmptiblc mattcr, is
ol no conccrn to you: thc truth is sought lor cascs othcr than yours.
iv

You should adjust your minds to thc scmblancc ol truth and, whilc
you arc lcarning virtuc, rcspcct whatcvcr boasts thc namc ol virtuc.
(r.r) Thc point can bc madc, Just as in your vicw no onc is
ungratclul, so, on thc othcr hand, cvcryonc is ungratclul. For, as wc
say, all lools arc bad and hc who has onc vicc has thcm all, but all
arc loolish and bad, thcrclorc all arc ungratclul. (r.z) So what: Arc
thcy not so: !s this not a complaint brought cvcrywhcrc against thc
human racc: !s it not a univcrsal gricvancc that bcncts arc thrown
away, and that thcrc arc vcry lcw who do not lail to givc thcir just
dcscrts to thosc who dcscrvc wcll ol thcm: And do not think that
this is only a complaint brought by us |Stoics|, who rcgard as cvil
and wrong whatcvcr lalls short ol thc standard ol right conduct.
(r.) Hcrc is thc cry ol condcmnation against pcoplcs and nations
that gocs up, not lrom thc domain ol philosophcrs, but lrom thc
midst ol thc crowd:
. . . No gucst lrom his host is salc,
No lathcr lrom his soninlaw, good will among brothcrs is
rarc,
Thc husband plans his wilcs dcstruction, shc his.
J0
(r.) This gocs cvcn lurthcr: bcncts arc rcplaccd by crimc,
and thc blood ol thosc lor whom oncs blood should bc shcd is not
sparcd, wc rcward bcncts with thc sword and poison. To lay hands
on oncs lathcrland and crush it with its own lasccs counts as powcr
and prcstigc.
JJ
Hc thinks himscll to bc in a low and contcmptiblc
position who docs not towcr ovcr thc commonwcalth. Thc armics
rcccivcd lrom hcr arc turncd against hcr, and thc gcncrals haranguc
runs: (r.) Fight against your wivcs, ght against your childrcn!
Turn your arms against altars, hcarths and houschold gods! You
who wcrc not supposcd to cntcr thc city without thc Scnatcs com
mand, cvcn to hold a triumph, you lor whom thc Scnatc mct outsidc
thc walls
J2
whcn you rcturncd with your army, now, altcr murdcring
citizcns, you cntcr thc city, drcnchcd in thc blood ol kinsmcn and
with standards hcld high. (r.6) Lct libcrty bc silcnccd amid military
insignia, lct that pcoplc, that conqucror and pacicr ol nations, now
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that wars arc lar away and cvcry thrcat supprcsscd, bc bcsicgcd within
its own walls and shuddcr at its own caglcs.
(r6.r) Coriolanus is ungratclul, in that hc bccamc loyal too latc,
altcr rcgrctting his crimc, hc laid down his arms, but hc laid thcm
down in thc midst ol parricidc. Catilinc is ungratclul, in that it is
not cnough lor him to conqucr his lathcrland: hc must ovcrturn it,
hc must unlcash against it thc cohorts ol thc Allobrogcs, this cncmy,
summoncd lrom across thc Alps, must satisly its old and inbrcd ha
trcd and makc good thc sacriccs long ovcrduc at thc Gallic tombs
with thc livcs ol Roman gcncrals.
J3
(r6.z) C. Marius is ungratclul, in
that having riscn lrom a common soldicr to multiplc consulships hc
will think his lortunc too littlc changcd, cvcn rcduccd to its lormcr
rank, unlcss hc has madc thc Roman dcad cqual thc Cimbric losscs,
unlcss hc has not only givcn thc signal lor thc dcath and slaughtcr
ol his citizcns, but bccomc that living signal.
J4
(r6.) L. Sulla is un
gratclul, in that hc curcd his country with rcmcdics harshcr than hcr
pcrils and, altcr marching through human blood lrom thc citadcl
at Pracncstc to thc Collinc gatc, rcncwcd in thc city othcr battlcs,
othcr murdcrs. Two lcgions hc crowdcd into a corncr and butchcrcd
altcr his victory (how crucl!), altcr giving his word (how wickcd!).
And hc invcntcd thc proscriptions, grcat gods, so that anyonc who
had killcd a Roman citizcn should rcccivc impunity, moncy, all but
a civic crown.
J5
(r6.) Cn. Pompcius is ungratclul, in that, in rcturn
lor his thrcc consulships, his thrcc triumphs, his many positions ol
honor acquircd lor thc most part bclorc thc lcgal agc, hc rcpaid thc
commonwcalth this lavor by inciting othcrs to join him in taking
posscssion ol hcr, as il hc could rcducc thc odium attachcd to his
powcr by allowing to othcrs also what should bc allowcd to no onc.
Vhilc hc covctcd cxtraordinary commands, whilc hc distributcd
provinccs to suit his own choicc, whilc hc dividcd up thc common
wcalth so that two ol thc thrcc sharcs rcmaincd in his own lamily,
hc rcduccd thc Roman pcoplc to a condition in which it could only
survivc thanks to slavcry.
J6
(r6.) Thc actual cncmy and conqucror
ol Pompcy is ungratclul.
J7
From Gaul and Gcrmany hc whirlcd war
into thc city, and that lricnd ol thc pcoplc, that dcmocrat, pitchcd
his camp in thc Circus Flaminius, ncarcr to thc city than Porscnnas
had bccn.
J8
!t is truc that hc modcratcd thc crucl privilcgcs ol vic
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tory: hc lulllcd thc promisc hc oltcn madc not to kill anyonc not in
arms. Vhat ol it: Thc othcrs madc cruclcr usc ol thcir arms but, oncc
satcd, laid thcm down: hc swiltly shcathcd his sword, but ncvcr laid
it down. (r6.6) Antonius
J9
is ungratclul towards his dictator, whom
hc pronounccd justly killcd, and whosc assassins hc dispatchcd to
provinccs and commands, his country, torn apart by proscriptions,
invasions and wars, hc cntrustcd altcr such sucrings to kings who
wcrc not cvcn Roman,
20
so that thc city that had givcn to thc Achac
ans, thc Rhodians, and many lamous citics undilutcd autonomy and
libcrty with immunity lrom taxation should hcrscll pay tributc to
cunuchs!
(r.r) A wholc day would not su cc to list thosc who pushcd
ingratitudc to thc point ol uttcrly dcstroying thcir country. qually
cndlcss will thc task bc il ! bcgin to rccount how ungratclul thc com
monwcalth has bccn to thosc who arc thc noblcst and most dcvotcd
to it, and how it has sinncd as oltcn as it has bccn sinncd against.
(r.z) Camillus was scnt into cxilc, Scipio was allowcd to go. Cic
cro was cxilcd altcr dclcating Catilinc, his homc was dcstroycd, his
propcrty stolcn, and cvcrything was donc that Catilinc would havc
donc in victory. Rutilius was rcwardcd lor his innoccncc with a lilc
ol obscurity in Asia. Thc Roman pcoplc dcnicd Cato thc practorship,
and pcrsistcd in dcnying him thc consulship.
2J
(r.) Vc arc ungratclul cn massc. Lct cach onc qucstion himscll:
thcrc is no onc who docs not complain ol somconcs ingratitudc. 8ut
it cannot bc thc casc that all havc a complaint unlcss all arc an ob
jcct ol complaint: thcrclorc all arc ungratclul. Arc thcy ungratclul~
v

only: Thcy arc also all covctous, all malicious, all lcarlul, cspccially
thosc who appcar to bc daring. Morc than that: thcy arc all sclsh
and all without scruplc. 8ut thcrc is no rcason to bc angry with thcm,
pardon thcm, lor thcy arc all mad. (r.) ! do not want to rclcr you
to gcncralitics, such as: Scc, how ungratclul is youth! Vho, howcvcr
innoccnt hc is, docs not wish lor his lathcrs last day, who, howcvcr
rcasonablc hc is, docs not look lorward to it, who, howcvcr dutilul
hc is, docs not drcam ol it: How lcw thcrc arc who drcad so much
thc dcath ol an cxccllcnt wilc as not to makc calculations: Vhat
litigant, ! ask, altcr bcing dclcndcd, has rctaincd thc mcmory ol so
grcat a bcnct any longcr than thc last hcaring: (r.) Vc all agrcc
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in asking: who is thcrc who dics without complaint: Vho has thc
couragc to say on his last day:
! havc livcd my lilc and run thc coursc that lortunc gavc mc.
22
Vho docs not protcst, who docs not groan as hc dcparts: Yct it is thc
act ol an ingratc not to bc contcnt with thc timc onc has had. Thc
days will always sccm lcw, il you start counting thcm. (r.6) Rccct
that thc highcst good docs not lic in lcngth ol timc, whatcvcr thc
duration, bc contcnt with it. Any postponcmcnt ol thc day ol your
dcath would contributc nothing to your good lortunc, sincc dclay
docs not makc lilc happicr, but only longcr. (r.) How much bcttcr
it is, with gratitudc lor thc plcasurcs onc has cnjoycd, not to calculatc
thc ycars allottcd to othcr pcoplc but to sct a gcncrous valuc on oncs
own and count thcm as gain. God judgcd mc worthy ol this: this is
cnough, hc could havc givcn mc morc, but cvcn this is a bcnct. Lct
us bc gratclul to thc gods, gratclul to mcn, gratclul to thosc who havc
donc somcthing lor us, gratclul to thosc who havc donc somcthing
lor thosc dcar to us.
(r8) You tic mc, runs an objcction, to an unlimitcd obligation
whcn you say also lor thosc dcar to us, thcrclorc sct somc limit. A
pcrson who givcs a bcnct to a son, according to you, also givcs it to
his lathcr: that is thc rst part ol my qucstion. Thcn ! want this point
in particular to bc claricd lor mc: !l a bcnct is also givcn to his
lathcr, is it rcally givcn also to his brothcr: Also to his unclc: Also to
his grandlathcr: Also to his wilc and lathcrinlaw: Tcll mc whcrc !
should stop, how lar ! should pursuc thc list ol rclcvant pcrsons. !l
! cultivatc your cld, ! shall havc givcn you a bcnct, il your housc
is burning and ! cxtinguish thc blazc, or il ! support it to prcvcnt
its lalling down, ! shall givc you a bcnct, il ! curc your slavc, ! shall
count it as a lavor donc lor you, il ! savc your son, will you not havc
rcccivcd a bcnct lrom mc:
(rq.r) Your cxamplcs arc not consonant, sincc whocvcr cultivatcs
my cld givcs a bcnct to mc, not to thc cld, and whocvcr props up
my housc to kccp it lrom lalling obligcs mc, lor thc housc itscll is not
scnticnt. Hc counts mc as his dcbtor bccausc hc has no othcr. And
whocvcr cultivatcs my cld wants to dcscrvc wcll ol mc, not ol thc
cld. ! would say thc samc ol thc slavc: thc act conccrns my propcrty,
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hc is prcscrvcd lor mc, thcrclorc thc obligation is minc instcad ol his.
A son is himscll capablc ol rccciving a bcnct, thcrclorc hc rcccivcs
it, whilc ! am plcascd by thc bcnct and am touchcd, but ! am not
undcr an obligation. (rq.z) Ncvcrthclcss, ! would likc you, who think
you arc not undcr an obligation, to givc mc an answcr to this. Thc
sons good hcalth, his happincss, his patcrnal inhcritancc conccrn
thc lathcr, who will bc happicr il hc has his son salc and wcll than
il hc has lost him. Vcll thcn, whocvcr is both madc happicr by mc
and lrccd ol thc dangcr ol suprcmc unhappincss, is hc not in rcccipt
ol a bcnct:
(rq.) No, comcs thc rcply, lor thcrc arc things that arc con
lcrrcd on othcrs but work thcir way through to us, thc rcturn, how
cvcr, should bc dcmandcd lrom thc pcrson on whom thcy arc con
lcrrcd, just as moncy is sought lrom thc pcrson to whom it was lcnt,
cvcn though it comcs into my hands in onc way or anothcr. Thcrc
is no bcnct whosc advantagc docs not impingc on thosc closc to
thc rccipicnt and cvcn somctimcs on thosc not so closc. (rq.) Thc
qucstion is not whcrc thc bcnct wcnt whcn it movcd on lrom thc
pcrson to whom it was givcn, but whcrc it was rst placcd: it is lrom
thc pcrson undcr thc obligation himscll, lrom thc primary rccipi
cnt, that thc lavor must bc rcclaimcd. Vcll thcn, ! ask you, do you
not say: You madc a gilt to mc ol my son, and il hc had pcrishcd !
would not havc survivcd: o you not owc a bcnct in rcturn lor his
lilc, sincc you valuc it abovc your own: Furthcrmorc, whcn ! havc
savcd your son, you lall on your knccs, you pay vows to thc gods as
il you yourscll had bccn savcd, thcsc arc thc words that issuc lrom
you: (rq.) !t is ol no conccrn to mc il minc was thc lilc you savcd,
you savcd two ol us, no, mc in particular. Vhy do you talk likc this,
il you arc not in rcccipt ol a bcnct: For thc samc rcason that, il my
son has takcn out a loan, ! will pay his crcditor without thcrcby bcing
myscll in dcbt, lor thc samc rcason that, il my son should bc caught
in adultcry, ! will blush without thcrcby bccoming an adultcrcr.
(rq.6) ! say that ! am obligcd to you lor thc sakc ol my son, not bc
causc ! actually am, but bccausc ! want to voluntccr myscll as your
dcbtor. 8ut his salcty has brought mc thc grcatcst plcasurc, thc grcat
cst advantagc, and sparcd mc thc most gricvous injury, that ol losing
a child. Thc qucstion now is not whcthcr you havc bccn ol usc to mc,
but il you havc givcn mc a bcnct, lor an animal, a stonc, a plant can
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bc ol usc, but noncthclcss thcy arc not conlcrring a bcnct, which
is ncvcr givcn without intcntion. (rq.) You, howcvcr, do not intcnd
to givc to thc lathcr, but to thc son, and somctimcs you do not cvcn
know thc lathcr. And so whcn you say: Havc ! not thcrclorc givcn
thc lathcr a bcnct by saving his son: considcr thc oppositc point:
Havc ! thcrclorc givcn a bcnct to thc lathcr, whom ! do not know,
to whom ! havc ncvcr givcn a thought: And what ol thc casc, which
docs occur, that you hatc thc lathcr but savc thc son: Vill you bc
thought ol as conlcrring a bcnct on somconc to whom you wcrc
cxtrcmcly hostilc whcn you conlcrrcd it:
(rq.8) 8ut, to lay asidc dcbating in dialoguc modc and givc an
opinion likc a lcgal cxpcrt, it is thc intcntion ol thc givcr that must
bc scrutiniscd: hc has givcn a bcnct to thc pcrson to whom hc
wantcd it givcn. !l hc has actcd out ol rcgard lor thc lathcr, thc la
thcr has rcccivcd thc bcnct, il out ol conccrn lor thc son, thc lathcr
is not undcr obligation lor thc bcnct conlcrrcd on his son, cvcn il
hc prots by it. 8ut il thc occasion ariscs, hc will also want to prol
lcr somcthing, not bccausc hc lccls undcr a ncccssity to rcpay but
bccausc hc has a rcason to takc thc initiativc. A bcnct should not
bc rcclaimcd lrom thc lathcr, il hc acts gcncrously in rcsponsc, hc is
bcing just, not gratclul. (rq.q) For that kind ol obligation can havc
no limit: il ! am giving his lathcr a bcnct, ! am giving onc to his
mothcr and his grandlathcr and his unclc and his childrcn and his
rclativcs and his lricnds and his slavcs and his country. Vhcrc thcn
docs a bcnct start to cnd: For an cndlcss sorites
23
ariscs, on which it
is di cult to sct a limit, bccausc it grows littlc by littlc and docs not
stop gaining ground.
(zo.r) This is a common qucstion: Two brothcrs quarrcl, il ! savc
onc, am ! giving a bcnct to somconc who will takc it badly il his
hatcd brothcr has not pcrishcd: Thcrc is no doubt that to bc ol usc
to somconc cvcn against his will counts as a bcnct, just as somconc
who has bccn ol usc against his own will has not givcn a bcnct.
(zo.z) o you call it a bcnct, thc objcction runs, il it causcs him
ocncc, il it causcs him sucring: Many bcncts prcscnt a grim and
scvcrc appcarancc, such as to cut and burn in ordcr to curc, and to
put in chains. Vc should not pay rcgard to whcthcr a pcrson gricvcs
on rccciving a bcnct, but to whcthcr hc ought to rcjoicc, a coin is
not bad bccausc a barbarian, who docs not rccognizc thc o cial dic
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stamp, has rcjcctcd it. A pcrson both hatcs and rcccivcs a bcnct, il
it hclps him, il thc givcr gavc in ordcr to hclp him. (zo.) Comc now,
turn thc qucstion around. A man hatcs his brothcr, although hc is
an assct to him, ! kill thc brothcr: that is not a bcnct, although hc
says it is and is dclightcd. Vhcn a pcrson gcts himscll thankcd lor
an injury hc docs harm in thc most dcvious manncr! (zo.) ! scc,
somcthing hclps and is thcrclorc a bcnct, it harms and is thcrclorc
not a bcnct. 8ut considcr this: ! will givc what ncithcr hclps nor
harms, but is noncthclcss a bcnct. ! lound somconcs lathcr dcad
in a dcscrt and buricd his body. ! did not hclp thc lathcr (lor what
dicrcncc did it makc to him how his body putricd:), nor thc son
(what advantagc camc to him through this:). ! will tcll you what hc
gaincd: through mc hc pcrlormcd a customary and ncccssary duty.
(zo.) ! did lor his lathcr what hc himscll would havc wishcd to do,
indccd ought to havc donc. Noncthclcss, this act is a bcnct only il
! pcrlormcd it not out ol mcrcy and humanity, which would inducc
mc to bury any corpsc, but il ! rccognizcd thc body, il ! thought that
! was doing this action at that timc lor thc son. 8ut il ! havc pilcd
carth on an unknown dcad man, ! havc not by this action put anyonc
undcr obligation lor this scrvicc: ! havc simply bccn humanc in thc
public intcrcst.
(zo.6) Somconc will say: Vhy do you takc so much troublc to
nd out to whom you should givc a bcnct, as il you wcrc going to
rcclaim it somc day: Thcrc arc thosc who think a bcnct should
ncvcr bc rcclaimcd and adducc thc lollowing rcasons. An unworthy
pcrson will not rcpay it cvcn whcn askcd, a worthy onc will rcturn it
on his own. Morcovcr, il you havc conlcrrcd it on a good man, wait
to avoid doing him an injury by prcssing him as il hc wcrc not going
to rcpay ol his own accord. !l you havc givcn it to a bad man, you
arc bcing punishcd, but do not spoil a bcnct by making it a loan.
8csidcs, thc law, by not laying down that it should bc rccovcrcd, has
lorbiddcn it.
24
(zo.) Thcsc arc just words. So long as thcrc is no prcssurc on
mc, so long as lortunc docs not compcl mc, ! would rathcr losc my
bcnct than rcclaim it. 8ut il it is a mattcr ol my childrcns salcty, il
my wilc is in dangcr, il thc salcty and lrccdom ol my country takc
mc whcrc ! do not want to go, ! will ovcrcomc my scnsc ol shamc
and bcar witncss that ! havc donc cvcrything to avoid nccding thc
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hclp ol an ungratclul pcrson, nally thc nccd to rccovcr my bcnct
will conqucr my rcluctancc. Again, whcn ! givc a bcnct to a good
man, ! givc with thc intcntion ol ncvcr rcclaiming it, unlcss it should
bc ncccssary.
(zr.r) 8ut thc law, it is argucd, by not sanctioning thc cxaction
ol paymcnt, has lorbiddcn it. Thcrc arc many things not covcrcd by
thc law or actionablc to which thc convcntions ol human lilc, which
arc morc powcrlul than any law, givc acccss. No law ordcrs us not to
divulgc thc sccrcts ol lricnds, no law ordcrs thc kccping ol laith cvcn
with an cncmy, what law binds us to lulll what wc havc promiscd
somconc: Nonc. And yct ! will rcmonstratc with somconc who has
not kcpt my sccrct, and ! will bc indignant whcn a plcdgc givcn is
not kcpt.
(zr.z) 8ut, comcs thc rcply, you arc turning a bcnct into a
loan. Not at all. For ! am not cxacting, but rcqucsting, and not
cvcn rcqucsting, but rcminding. Vill cvcn thc most dirc ncccssity
drivc mc to thc point ol calling on somconc with whom ! will havc
a prolongcd strugglc: !l somconc is so ungratclul that it will not bc
cnough to rcmind him, ! shall pass him by and not judgc him worthy
ol bcing lorccd to bc gratclul. (zr.) Just as a moncylcndcr docs not
dun ccrtain dcbtors who hc knows havc dcclarcd bankruptcy and
who, to thcir shamc, havc nothing lclt that is not alrcady lost, so !
shall pass ovcr ccrtain pcoplc who havc shown blatant and pcrsistcnt
ingratitudc and not rcclaim a bcnct lrom anyonc lrom whom ! will
nccd to scizc it rathcr than rcccivc it.
(zz.r) Thcrc arc many pcoplc who ncithcr dcny nor rcturn what
thcy havc rcccivcd, who arc ncithcr as good as thc gratclul nor as
bad as thc ungratclul, sluggish procrastinators, dilatory dcbtors, not
dclaultcrs. Thcsc ! shall not dun, but ! shall rcmind thcm and rccall
thcm lrom othcr conccrns to thcir duty. Thcy will at oncc rcply to
mc: Pardon mc, ! had no idca that you nccdcd it, othcrwisc ! would
havc ocrcd it ol my own accord, ! bcg you not to think mc un
gratclul, ! do rcmcmbcr what you gavc mc. Vhy should ! hcsitatc
to makc thcsc pcoplc bcttcr in thcir own cstimation and in minc:
(zz.z) Vhcn ! can prcvcnt somconc lrom doing wrong, ! will do it,
all thc morc so with a lricndlrom doing wrong and, most ol all,
lrom doing wrong to mc. ! shall bc giving him a sccond bcnct, il !
do not allow him to bc ungratclul, nor will ! rcproach him harshly
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with my lavor to him, but as gcntly as possiblc. !n ordcr to givc him
thc opportunity ol rcturning thc lavor, ! will rclrcsh his mcmory and
ask lor a bcnct, hc will himscll undcrstand that ! am rcclaiming it.
(zz.) Somctimcs ! shall usc harshcr words, il ! havc hopcs that
hc can bc rclormcd, lor il hc is a hopclcss casc, ! shall lor that rcason
not irritatc him lor lcar ol turning him lrom an ingratc to an cncmy.
(zz.) 8ut il wc sparc thc ungratclul cvcn thc aront ol admonishing
thcm, wc shall makc thcm tardicr in rcpaying bcncts, ccrtain pcoplc
who arc curablc and could bc madc good il somc rcmark has stung
thcm, thcsc wc shall allow to bc ruincd by withholding thc ccnsurc
that a lathcr somctimcs uscs to corrcct his son, and a wilc to bring
back hcr husband whcn hc strays, and a lricnd to rcawakcn thc lail
ing loyalty ol a lricnd.
(z.r) Ccrtain pcoplc, in ordcr to bc awakcncd, do not nccd to
bc struck but shakcn, in thc samc way, in somc pcoplc thc scnsc ol
obligation about rcturning a lavor is not abscnt, but slumbcrs. Lct
us givc it a pinch! o not lct your gilt turn into an injury, lor it is
an injury il you do not ask lor a rcturn with thc aim ol making mc
an ingratc. Vhat il ! do not know what you would likc: Vhat il,
caught up in busincss and distractcd by othcr conccrns, ! havc not
lookcd out lor an opportunity: Show mc what ! can do, what you
would likc mc to do. (z.z) Vhy should you givc up hopc bclorc you
try: Vhy arc you in hastc to losc both a bcnct and a lricnd: How
do you know whcthcr ! lack thc will or thc pcrccption, whcthcr ! lack
thc intcntion or thc opportunity: Try mc. ! shall thcrclorc rcmind,
not with bittcrncss, not in public, and without rccrimination, so that
thc pcrson will think that hc has rcmcmbcrcd, not that hc has bccn
rcmindcd.
(z.r) nc ol his vctcrans was plcading a casc against his ncigh
bors rathcr aggrcssivcly bclorc thc ivinc Julius, and thc casc was
going badly. o you rcmcmbcr, gcncral, hc said, whcn you twistcd
your anklc ncar thc Sucro:
25
Vhcn Cacsar rcplicd that hc rcmcm
bcrcd, hc wcnt on, o you rcmcmbcr, too, that whcn you wantcd
to rcst lrom thc burning sun undcr a ccrtain trcc that gavc vcry littlc
shadc and thc ground, in which only that onc trcc had burst through
thc sharp rocks, was vcry rough, onc ol your lcllow soldicrs sprcad
out his cloak lor you: (z.z) Vhcn Cacsar rcplicd, l coursc !
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rcmcmbcr. And lurthcr, whcn ! was dying ol thirst and wantcd to
claw my way to a ncarby spring bccausc ! was cripplcd and could not
walk, unlcss my lcllow soldicr, a strong activc man, had brought mc
watcr in his hclmct . . . , hc continucd, Vould you thcn, gcncral,
bc ablc to rccognizc that man and that hclmct: Cacsar said that hc
could not rccognizc thc hclmct but could ccrtainly rccognizc thc
man, and addcd, bcing, ! think, rathcr irritatcd that hc was lctting
himscll bc dccctcd lrom a trial in progrcss by an old anccdotc, You
at any ratc arc not hc. (z.) You arc right, Cacsar, hc said, not to
rccognizc mc, lor whcn that happcncd ! was undamagcd, altcrwards
in thc battlc at Munda ! lost an cyc and somc boncs lrom my skull.
As lor thc hclmct, you would not rccognizc it il you saw it, bccausc
a Spanish sword split it in two. Cacsar issucd a prohibition against
harassmcnt ol thc man, and thc small plot ol landa communal
pathway through it had causcd thc quarrcl and thc lawsuithc gavc
to his soldicr.
(z.r) Vhat thcn: Should hc not scck thc rcturn ol a bcnct lrom
a gcncral whosc mcmory was blurrcd by thc grcat numbcr ol cvcnts,
and whosc good lortunc as thc disposcr ol hugc armics did not al
low him to hclp individual soldicrs: This is not to scck thc rcturn
ol a bcnct but to takc what is rcady and waiting, though onc must
cxtcnd oncs hand to takc it. And so ! shall scck a rcturn, bccausc !
am going to do this cithcr whcn impcllcd by dirc ncccssity or lor thc
sakc ol thc pcrson lrom whom ! will scck it.
(z.z) Tibcrius Cacsar, whcn somconc said to him carly in his
rcign, You rcmcmbcr . . . , cut thc pcrson o bclorc hc could adducc
morc prools ol thcir old intimacy with, ! do not rcmcmbcr what
! uscd to bc. l coursc hc should not havc sought thc rcturn ol a
bcnct lrom such a man. Hc should havc hopcd that Tibcrius would
lorgct. That man was rcjccting thc acquaintancc ol all his lricnds
and pccrs and wantcd noticc takcn only ol his prcscnt good lortunc,
wantcd only that to bc thought about and spokcn about. Hc rcgardcd
an old lricnd as an invcstigator!
(z.) Thc right occasion mattcrs morc in rcqucsting rcpaymcnt
ol a bcnct than in rcqucsting it in thc rst placc. nc must bc
modcratc in oncs choicc ol words, so that a gratclul pcrson cannot
bc ocndcd nor an ungratclul onc prctcnd not to undcrstand. !l wc
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livcd among sagcs, it would bc incumbcnt on us to say nothing and
wait, and yct it would bc bcttcr to makc clcar cvcn to sagcs what our
statc ol aairs rcquircd.
(z.) Vc makc rcqucsts ol thc gods, whosc noticc nothing cs
capcs, and our praycrs do not prcvail on thcm but rcmind thcm. Thc
pricst in Homcr, ! say, also rccitcs to thc gods his scrviccs and his
pious carc ol thcir altars. Thc sccond lcvcl ol virtuc is to bc willing
and ablc to takc advicc. (z.) A docilc horsc only nccds to bc gcntly
guidcd this way and that by an casy movcmcnt ol thc rcins. For a
lcw mcn thcir own conscicncc is thcir bcst guidc, ncxt comc thosc
who rcturn to thc right path whcn admonishcd, thcsc should not bc
dcprivcd ol a lcadcr. (z.6) Vhcn thc cycs arc closcd, thcy still havc
thc powcr ol sight but not thc usc ol it, whcn thc light ol day cntcrs
thcm, it rccalls that powcr to its lunction. Tools lic idlc unlcss thc
craltsman applics thcm to his work. Thcrc can bc a good intcntion
in our minds but it is torpid somctimcs through soltncss and idlc
ncss, somctimcs through ignorancc ol duty. Vc ought to bring it into
usc, not abandon it to wrong through rcscntmcnt. Tcachcrs paticntly
tolcratc in thc boys thcy arc tcaching mistakcs that arc duc to lapscs
ol mcmory, and just as, whcn onc or two words arc supplicd, thcir
mcmory is callcd back to thc tcxt bcing rccitcd, so our good intcntion
should bc rccallcd by a rcmindcr to thc rcturn ol a lavor.
., Book o
(r) Thcrc arc somc mattcrs, Libcralis, bcst ol mcn, that arc scruti
nizcd mcrcly to cxcrcisc thc mind and that rcmain always outsidc
thc scopc ol rcal lilc, othcrs arc both cnjoyablc whilc undcr scrutiny
and, oncc invcstigatcd, usclul. ! shall makc availablc to you thc wholc
rcpcrtoirc, it is lor you, as you think bcst, to command that thcy
bc cxamincd thoroughly or that thcy just bc prcscntcd as a way ol
showing thc program ol thc cntcrtainmcnt. 8ut cvcn thosc that you
ordcr to bc dismisscd at oncc will not bc a wastc ol cort, lor cvcn
what it is otiosc to lcarn, it is worthwhilc to know. Thcrclorc ! shall
rcspond to your lacial cxprcssion, just as it dirccts mc, ! shall dwcll
on somc things longcr, and othcrs ! shall grab by thc scru ol thc
ncck and cxpcl.
(z.r) Thc qucstion has bccn poscd whcthcr a bcnct can bc takcn
away. Somc dcny that it can, lor it is not a thing but an act. Just as a
prcscnt is onc thing, thc act ol giving anothcr, just as a sailor is onc
thing and sailing anothcr, and again, although a sick man is a casc
ol discasc a sick man is not thc samc as his discasc, so thc bcnct
itscll is onc thing, what has comc into thc posscssion ol cach onc
ol us through a bcnct is anothcr. (z.z) Thc rst is incorporcal, it
docs not bccomc invalid, but thc matcrial ol it is passcd lrom hand
to hand and changcs owncrs. And so whcn you snatch away lrom
somconc thc matcrial ol thc bcnct that you gavc, you do not also
snatch away thc bcnct.~
i
Naturc hcrscll cannot rccall what shc has
givcn. Shc cuts short thc ow ol hcr bcncts, shc docs not canccl
thcm: whocvcr dics has noncthclcss livcd, whocvcr has lost his sight
has noncthclcss sccn. !t can happcn that things that havc comc into
our posscssion arc no morc, but it cannot happcn that thcy havc
not bccn. !n lact, what has bccn is part ol a bcnct, and indccd thc
surcst part. (z.) Somctimcs wc arc prcvcntcd lrom lurthcr usc ol a
bcnct, but thc bcnct itscll is not crascd. Though shc summon all
hcr powcrs to this cnd, Naturc cannot rcvcrsc hcr actions. A housc
and moncy and a slavc and whatcvcr clsc gocs undcr thc namc ol
bcnct can bc snatchcd away, but thc bcnct itscll is xcd and
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unmovcd, no powcr will undo thc lact that this pcrson has givcn and
that onc has rcccivcd.
(.r) !t strikcs mc as admirablc what M. Antonius cxclaims in
thc pocm by Rabirius,
J
whcn hc sccs his good lortunc passing to
anothcr and nothing lclt to him savc thc right to dic, and cvcn that
on condition that hc cxcrcisc it at oncc: Vhatcvcr ! havc givcn,
that alonc ! still havc. (And how much hc could havc had, il hc had
wantcd it!) Thcsc arc thc richcs that arc sccurc and rcmain in placc,
whatcvcr thc cklcncss ol our human lot: thc grcatcr these richcs
bccomc, thc lcss cnvy thcy attract. Vhy arc you sparing with wcalth,
as il it wcrc yours: You arc a mcrc stcward. (.z) All thosc things
that makc you swollcn with pridc and pucd up bcyond thc human
scalc makc you lorgct how lragilc you arc, thosc things that you arm
yourscll to guard bchind iron bars, thosc things that, stolcn at thc
cost ol anothcrs blood, you dclcnd with your own, thosc things lor
which you launch ships to stain thc scas with blood, lor which you
shattcr citics without knowing how much wcaponry Fortunc may
bc prcparing against you bchind your back, lor which thc bonds ol
marriagc, lricndship, collcgiality havc bccn rupturcd so many timcs,
and thc world crushcd bctwccn two contcndcrs
2
all thcsc things
do not bclong to you. Thcy arc on dcposit with you and will nd
anothcr mastcr at any momcnt. ithcr your cncmy or thc hcir who
rcgards you as an cncmy will scizc thcm. (.) o you ask how to
makc thcm your own: 8y giving thcm as gilts. Takc thought thcn
lor thc things that you own and prcparc lor yourscll sccurc and in
vulncrablc posscssion ol thcm by making thcm, not only salcr but
morc honorablc. (.) That which you rcvcrc, which you think rcn
dcrs you rich and powcrlul, languishcs undcr a disrcputablc namc
as long as you posscss ithousc, slavc, moncy, whcn you havc
givcn it away, it is a bcnct.
(.r) You will admit, somconc says, that somctimcs wc do not
owc a bcnct to thc pcrson lrom whom wc rcccivcd it, thcrclorc it
has bccn rcmovcd. Thcrc arc many rcasons why wc ccasc to owc a
bcnct, not bccausc it has bccn takcn away but bccausc it has bccn
spoilcd. Somconc dclcndcd mc whcn ! was on trial, but violatcd
my wilc by lorcc, hc has not takcn thc bcnct away but, by sctting
against it an cqual injury, hc has lrccd mc lrom my dcbt, and il hc
wrongcd mc morc than hc prcviously bcnctcd mc, not only is any
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gratitudc cxtinguishcd but ! am lrcc to rctaliatc and rcmonstratc
whcn thc injury has outwcighcd thc bcnct. Thus thc bcnct is not
withdrawn but outdonc.
3
(.z) Now thcn, arc thcrc not somc lathcrs
so harsh and wickcd that it is just and right to rccoil lrom thcm and
disown thcm: Havc thcy thcn takcn away what thcy gavc: No, but
thcir lailurc to honor thcir obligations in thc scqucl has wipcd out
thc crcdit thcy had won lor all thcir carlicr scrvicc. Vhat is rcmovcd
is not thc bcnct but gratitudc lor thc bcnct, and thc rcsult is not
that ! do not havc thc bcnct but that ! do not owc lor it. !t is as il
somconc lcnds mc moncy but burns down my housc. Thc loan has
bccn balanccd by thc loss, ! havc not madc him a rcturn, and yct !
am not in dcbt. (.) !n thc samc way, too, somconc who has oncc
bchavcd with good will and gcncrosity towards mc, but latcr and on
many occasions with arrogancc, contcmpt, and cruclty, has placcd mc
in a situation whcrc ! am just as lrcc in rcgard to him as il ! had not
rcccivcd anything, hc has killcd his own bcncts. (.) A landlord
has no claim on his tcnant, though thc lcasc is still in lorcc, il hc has
tramplcd his crop, cut down his orchard, not bccausc hc has rcccivcd
what was agrccd but bccausc his own actions havc prcvcntcd his rc
cciving it. Thus a crcditor is oltcn condcmncd to pay his dcbtor whcn
hc has takcn morc lrom him, on somc othcr count, than thc original
loan. (.) !t is not only bctwccn a crcditor and a dcbtor that a judgc
sits and pronounccs, You havc loancd moncy. Vhat ol it: You havc
drivcn away his ock, you havc killcd his slavc, you arc in posscssion
ol silvcr that you did not buy, whcn thc calculation is madc, you must
dcpart as a dcbtor, though you camc as a crcditor. So too bctwccn
bcncts and injurics a balancc shcct is drawn up.
(.6) ltcn, ! say, thc bcnct rcmains but crcatcs no obligation,
il rcgrct has lollowcd thc act ol giving, il thc donor has said that hc
is sorry hc gavc it, il whcn hc gavc it hc sighcd, madc a lacc, and
bclicvcd hc was losing somcthing, il hc gavc it lor his own sakc or
at lcast not lor minc, il hc has not stoppcd bcing ocnsivc and scll
congratulatory in boasting cvcrywhcrc and making his gilt a burdcn,
thc bcnct rcmains in placc though it is not owcd, just as ccrtain
sums ol moncy to which thc crcditor has no lcgal right may bc owcd
to him but cannot bc claimcd.
4
(.r) You conlcrrcd a bcnct, and altcrwards inictcd an injury,
gratitudc was owcd lor thc bcnct and rcvcngc lor thc injury, ncithcr
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do ! owc him gratitudc nor docs hc owc mc a pcnalty: onc dcbt is
cancclcd by thc othcr. (.z) Vhcn wc say, ! rcpaid his bcnct to
him, wc do not mcan that wc havc rcpaid thc actual thing wc rc
ccivcd, but rathcr somcthing clsc in licu ol it. For to rcpay is to givc
onc thing in rcturn lor anothcr. This is obvious bccausc all paymcnt
consists in rcpaying, not thc samc itcm, but its cquivalcnt in valuc.
For wc arc said to havc rcpaid moncy cvcn il wc havc countcd out
gold coins lor silvcr, cvcn il no coins havc bccn involvcd, thc paymcnt
bcing ccctcd by thc mcrcly oral assignmcnt ol a dcbt.
(.) ! sccm to scc you saying to mc, You arc wasting your timc.
For what is thc point ol my knowing whcthcr a bcnct rcmains in
cxistcncc, il it carrics no obligation to rcpay: Thcsc arc thc clcvcr lol
lics ol lcgal cxpcrts who say that an inhcritancc cannot bc acquircd by
virtuc ol longtcrm posscssion, only thosc things that arc includcd in
thc inhcritancc, as il thc inhcritancc wcrc a dicrcnt cntity lrom thc
things that arc includcd in it. (.) Rathcr solvc lor mc this problcm,
which may bc ol somc usc: Vhcn thc samc man has conlcrrcd a
bcnct on mc and altcrwards inictcd an injury, ought ! to rcturn
thc bcnct to him and noncthclcss avcngc myscll on him, rcsponding
scparatcly as il on two scparatc counts, or ought ! to combinc onc
with thc othcr and do nothing, thc bcnct bcing rcmovcd by thc in
jury and thc injury by thc bcnct: Thc lormcr is what ! scc happcns
hcrc in our courts. (You arc thc oncs who should know what thc law
is in your school.) (.) Thc proccsscs arc handlcd scparatcly and no
combincd lormula govcrns both thc action wc arc bringing and thc
action brought against us. !l a pcrson has dcpositcd a sum ol moncy
with mc and altcrwards has robbcd mc ol somcthing, ! shall suc him
lor thclt, and hc will suc mc lor rccovcry ol his dcposit.
(6.r) Thc instanccs you havc adduccd, Libcralis, arc covcrcd by
spccic laws which must bc lollowcd. nc law is not combincd with
anothcr, cach pursucs its own coursc. Rccovcry ol a dcposit has its
own action, in cxactly thc samc way as thclt. A bcnct is subjcct to no
law, it makcs mc thc judgc. ! am lrcc to makc a comparison bctwccn
how much hc hclpcd mc and how much hc harmcd mc, and thcn
to pronouncc whcthcr ! am owcd morc than ! owc or thc rcvcrsc.
(6.z) !n thc cascs you adduccd, nothing is in our powcr and wc must
lollow whcrc wc arc lcd, in dcaling with a bcnct, all thc powcr rcsts
with mc and ! pass judgmcnt. And so ! do not handlc thc cascs
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scparatcly, nor do ! dividc thcm, but ! scnd both injurics and bcncts
bclorc thc samc judgc. thcrwisc you command mc to lovc and
hatc, to complain and thank, at thc samc timc, which naturc docs
not allow. Rathcr, having comparcd thc bcnct and thc injury, ! shall
asccrtain whcthcr anything lurthcr is owcd to mc. (6.) !l somconc
inscribcs othcr lincs ol writing ovcr what ! havc writtcn, hc docs not
crasc thc carlicr lcttcrs but hidcs thcm, just so, an injury coming on
top ol a bcnct docs not allow thc bcnct to bc sccn.
(.r) Your lacc, by which ! havc agrccd to bc govcrncd, is wrinklcd
and lrowning, as though ! wcrc straying too lar lrom thc point. You
sccm to bc saying to mc:
Vhcrc arc you going, so lar to thc right: ircct your coursc
hcrc.
Hug thc shorc.
5
! cannot do bcttcr. Thcrclorc, il you think this qucstion has bccn
givcn its duc, lct us pass to a ncw onc: Arc wc undcr any obliga
tion to somconc who has donc us a scrvicc without that intcntion:
! would havc lramcd this morc clcarly il thc proposition had not
nccdcd to bc somcwhat imprccisc, so that thc distinction that lollows
right now might show that two qucstions arc bcing askcdnamcly,
(a) whcthcr wc arc undcr an obligation to somconc who has hclpcd
us unwillingly, and (b) whcthcr wc arc undcr an obligation to somc
onc who has hclpcd us unwittingly. (.z) (For il somconc has donc
somc good undcr actual durcss, thc lact that hc docs not placc us
undcr obligation is too obvious to nccd any discussion.) And this
qucstion will bc casily rcsolvcd, and any qucstion similar to this onc
that can bc raiscd, il on cvcry occasion wc locus our attcntion on
this idca: Nothing is a bcnct unlcss, rst, somc dclibcration dirccts
it at us, sccond, that dclibcration must bc lricndly and wclldisposcd.
(.) And so wc do not givc thanks to rivcrs, cvcn though thcy may
support largc ships and run in a widc and continuous strcam suitablc
lor convcying cargocs, or ow, lull ol sh and charm, through lcrtilc
clds, nor docs anyonc dccidc that hc owcs a lavor to thc Nilc any
morc than hc harbors a grudgc against it, il it ovcrowcd its banks
immodcratcly and was slow to rcccdc, ncithcr docs thc wind conlcr
a bcnct, though it blows gcntly and lavorably, nor docs nourishing
and wholcsomc lood. For whocvcr is going to conlcr a bcnct on
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mc ought not only to do mc good, but wish to do so. Thcrclorc wc
arc not indcbtcd to dumb animals, dcspitc thc lact that thc spccd ol
a horsc has rcscucd many lrom dangcr, nor to trccs, dcspitc thc lact
that thc shadc ol thcir boughs has rclicvcd many who wcrc sucring
lrom thc hcat.
(.) 8ut what dicrcncc docs it makc whcthcr somconc who
docs not know, or a bcing that could not know, hclps mc, sincc both
lackcd thc dcsirc to do so: Vhat dicrcncc docs it makc whcthcr
you dircct mc to lccl undcr an obligation to a ship or a carriagc or a
spcar, or to a pcrson who had as littlc intcntion ol conlcrring a bcnct
as thcy, but hclpcd mc by chancc:
(8.r) Anyonc can rcccivc a bcnct unawarc, but not lrom somc
onc who is unawarc. Just as many arc curcd by accidcnts that arc not
lor that rcason rcmcdics, and lalling into a rivcr in vcry cold wcathcr
has rcstorcd hcalth, just as quartan lcvcr has bccn dispcllcd by og
ging, and suddcn lcar, by dirccting attcntion to anothcr problcm,
has cnablcd a critical timc to pass unnoticcd, and yct nonc ol thcsc
things, cvcn il thcy savc, is thcrcby salutary: just so, ccrtain pcoplc
do us a scrvicc whilc unwilling, in lact bccausc thcy arc unwilling,
but wc do not thcrclorc owc thcm a bcnct, bccausc it was Fortunc
that turncd thcir cvil intcntions to good. (8.z) o you think ! owc
anything to a pcrson whosc hand struck my cncmy whcn ! was thc
targct, who would havc injurcd mc il hc had not misscd: ltcn a
witncss, by opcnly pcrjuring himscll, has dcstroycd thc crcdibility ol
cvcn truthlul witncsscs and has rcndcrcd thc dclcndant an objcct ol
pity bccausc hc sccms to bc thc victim ol a conspiracy. (8.) Ccrtain
pcoplc havc bccn rcscucd by thc vcry powcr that was crushing thcm,
and judgcs who wcrc prcparcd to condcmn somconc lor a crimc havc
rcluscd to condcmn him on account ol unduc inucncc. Yct thcsc
pcoplc havc not conlcrrcd a bcnct on thc dclcndant, although thcy
hclpcd him, bccausc what is in qucstion is whcrc thc wcapon was
aimcd and not whcrc it struck, and what distinguishcs a bcnct lrom
an injury is not thc outcomc but thc intcntion. (8.) My opponcnt, by
contradicting himscll and ocnding thc judgc with his arrogancc and
rashly rcducing his casc to onc witncss, has rcvivcd my casc. ! do not
ask whcthcr his crror was in my intcrcst, hc wantcd to do mc harm.
(q.r) l coursc, in ordcr to count as gratclul, ! havc to want to do
thc samc thing that hc ought to havc wantcd to do in ordcr to conlcr
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a bcnct. Vhat is morc unjust than a man who hatcs thc pcrson by
whom hc was troddcn on in a crowd or splashcd or pushcd out ol
his intcndcd path: And yct what clsc is it that cxcmpts this pcrson
lrom blamc, sincc an injury has in lact bccn donc, cxccpt that hc did
not know what hc was doing: (q.z) Thc samc circumstancc mcans
that this pcrson has not conlcrrcd a bcnct and that that onc has not
inictcd an injury, it is thc intcntion that makcs a lricnd and an cn
cmy. How many mcn has illncss rcscucd lrom military scrvicc: Somc
havc avoidcd bcing prcscnt whcn thcir housc collapscd bccausc an
cncmy lorccd thcm to appcar in court. Somc havc succccdcd in not
lalling into thc hands ol piratcs bccausc ol a shipwrcck. Ncvcrthc
lcss, wc do not owc a bcnct lor thcsc accidcnts, bccausc chancc is
a strangcr to any awarcncss ol duty, nor arc wc obligcd to an cncmy
whosc suit has savcd us whilc troubling and dctaining us. (q.) Thcrc
is no bcnct unlcss it procccds lrom a good intcntion, unlcss thc
givcr acknowlcdgcs it as such. Somconc has donc mc good without
knowing: ! owc him nothing. Somconc did mc good whcn hc wishcd
to harm mc: ! will imitatc him.
(ro.r) Lct us rcturn to that rst casc. o you want mc to do
somcthing to rcturn a lavor whcn hc has donc nothing to givc mc
a bcnct: Lct us considcr thc othcr casc: do you want mc to rc
turn a lavor to such a pcrson, rcpaying willingly what hc did not
intcnd to givc mc: And what should ! say about thc third cascthc
pcrson who, lrom inicting an injury, has stumblcd into conlcrring a
bcnct:
6
(ro.z) For mc to owc you a bcnct, it is not cnough that you
wantcd to givc onc, lor mc not to owc you onc, it is cnough that you
did not want to givc. For intcntion all on its own docs not crcatc a
bcnct. Rathcr, somcthing that would not bc a bcnct il lortunc lclt
our bcst and most gcncrous intcntions in thc lurch, is cqually not a
bcnct unlcss thc intcntion prcccdcd thc contribution ol lortunc. !n
ordcr that ! bc undcr obligation to you, it is rcquircd, not that you
havc donc mc good, but that you havc donc mc good dclibcratcly.
(rr.r) Clcanthcs uscs an cxamplc likc this: ! scnt two slavcs to
look lor Plato and lctch him lrom thc Acadcmy. Thc onc scarchcd
through thc wholc colonnadc and scarchcd othcr placcs in which hc
cxpcctcd him to bc lound, rcturning homc as tircd as hc was unsuc
ccsslul. (rr.z) Thc othcr sat down to watch an cntcrtaincr ncar at
hand and, whilc hc was cnjoying thc company ol domcstic slavcs,
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thc aimlcss vagabond lound Plato, who was passing by, though hc
had not lookcd lor him. Thc rst slavc, hc said, who did what hc
was ordcrcd to do to thc bcst ol his ability, wc will praisc, thc sccond,
lortunatc in his idlcncss, wc will punish.
(rr.) !t is thc intcntion that, according to us, cstablishcs a scrvicc,
notc what charactcristics it must havc to placc mc undcr an obliga
tion. !t is not cnough lor a pcrson to want to do mc good, unlcss
hc has donc so, it is not cnough to havc donc mc good, unlcss hc
wantcd to. For imaginc that somconc wantcd to givc but has not
givcn. Ccrtainly ! havc his intcntion, but ! do not havc thc bcnct,
which rcquircs both objcct and intcntion combincd to bc complctc.
(rr.) Just as ! owc nothing to thc pcrson who wantcd to scnd mc
moncy but did not hand it ovcr, so, to thc pcrson who wantcd to
givc mc a bcnct but was not ablc to do so, ! shall bc a lricnd, but
! shall not bc undcr an obligation, and ! shall wish to lurnish him
with somcthing (lor hc wantcd to do thc samc lor mc), but, il ! havc
cnjoycd bcttcr lortunc and actually lurnishcd it, ! shall havc givcn a
bcnct, not rcturncd a lavor. Hc will owc mc thc rcturn ol my lavor,
my bcnct will mark thc bcginning ol thc proccss, thc counting will
bcgin with mc.
(rz.r) ! know alrcady what it is you want to ask, you do not havc
to spcak: your lacc says it all. !l somconc has donc us good lor his
own sakc, is anything owcd him: you ask. For ! oltcn hcar you com
plaining that pcoplc givc ccrtain things to thcmsclvcs but cntcr thcm
in othcrs accounts. ! shall rcply, my dcar Libcralis, but rst ! shall
dividc that qucstion and scparatc what is lair lrom what is unlair.
(rz.z) !n lact, it makcs a big dicrcncc whcthcr somconc conlcrs a
bcnct on us lor his own sakc or also lor his own sakc. Thc rst pcr
son, who looks wholly to his own intcrcst and hclps bccausc hc can
not othcrwisc hclp himscll, is in thc samc position as thc pcrson who
providcs wintcr and summcr loddcr lor his livcstock, in thc samc
position as thc man who lccds his captivcs in ordcr to gct a bcttcr
pricc and lattcns thcm up likc~
ii
plump oxcn and rubs thcm down,
in thc samc position as thc gladiatorial traincr who takcs cnormous
troublc in cxcrcising and cquipping his troupc. Thcrc is, as Clcanthcs
said, a grcat dicrcncc bctwccn bcncccncc and busincss.
(r.r) Thcn again, ! am not so unlair as to lccl no obligation to
a pcrson who, whcn hc was usclul to mc, was also usclul to himscll,
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lor ! do not dcmand that hc consult my intcrcsts without rcgard
lor his own, in lact ! cvcn hopc that a bcnct conlcrrcd on mc has
donc cvcn morc good to thc givcr, providcd that hc gavc with an
cyc to both ol us and dividcd his bcnct bctwccn himscll and mc.
(r.z) vcn though hc should acquirc thc largcr sharc, providcd that
hc lct mc havc my sharc, providcd that hc considcrcd both ol us, !
am bcing ungratclul, not mcrcly unjust, il ! do not rcjoicc that hc
dcrivcd prot lrom what hc gavc mc. !t is thc hcight ol stingincss
not to call somcthing a bcnct unlcss it inicts somc hardship on thc
donor.
(r.) To thc othcr typc ol pcrson who conlcrs a bcnct lor his
own sakc, ! shall rcply, Sincc you havc madc usc ol mc, why do you
say that you havc donc mc good rathcr than that ! havc donc so to
you: Supposc, hc says, ! could not bccomc a magistratc unlcss
! ransomcd tcn capturcd citizcns lrom among a largc numbcr ol
captivcs, will you owc mc nothing whcn ! lrcc you lrom slavcry and
chains: Yct ! will do it lor my sakc. (r.) To this ! shall rcply, !n
that casc you arc doing somcthing lor your sakc and somcthing lor
minc: lor your sakc you arc paying a ransom, lor minc you arc paying
my ransom, lor, as lar as your intcrcsts go, it is cnough lor you to havc
ransomcd whomcvcr you wishcd. Thcrclorc ! am in your dcbt, not
bccausc you ransom mc but bccausc you choosc mc, lor by ransoming
anothcr you could achicvc thc samc cnd as by ransoming mc. You
dividc thc advantagc with mc and admit mc to a bcnct that will do
us both good. You choosc mc ovcr othcrs, this you do totally lor my
sakc. (r.) Thcrclorc il thc ransoming ol tcn captivcs would makc
you a practor, but thcrc wcrc only tcn captivcs, nonc ol us would
owc you anything, bccausc you would havc nothing to subtract lrom
your own advantagc to chargc to anyonc clscs account. ! am not a
grudging asscssor ol a bcnct nor do ! wish that it bc givcn only to
mc, but also to mc.
(r.r) Vhat thcn, hc says, il ! had ordcrcd your namcs to bc
cntcrcd in a lottcry and your namc had bccn drawn among thosc to
bc ransomcdwould you owc mc nothing: (r.z) n thc contrary,
! would owc somcthing, but vcry littlc, what thc amount is, ! will
cxplain. !n that casc you arc doing somcthing lor my sakc, in that you
arc giving mc thc opportunity ol bcing ransomcd, that my namc is
drawn, ! owc to thc lot, that it could bc drawn, ! owc to you. You gavc
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mc acccss to your bcnct, ol which ! owc thc grcatcr part to Fortunc,
but this vcry thing ! owc to youthat ! could owc it to Fortunc.
(r.) ! shall pass ovcr cntircly thosc whosc bcnct is mcrccnary,
whcrc thc givcr calculatcs not to whom, but lor how much hc will
givc it, a bcnct which is in cvcry rcspcct dircctcd towards himscll.
Somconc sclls mc corn, ! cannot livc unlcss ! buy it, but ! do not owc
him my lilc bccausc ! bought it. (r.) Nor do ! rcckon how ncccs
sary thc itcm was without which ! would not havc staycd alivc, but
how unworthy ol gratitudc was somcthing that ! would not havc had
without buying it, and which thc scllcr importcd without thinking
how much hclp hc would bring mc, but how much prot hc would
bring himscll. Vhat ! havc paid lor, ! do not owc.
(r.r) 8y that rcasoning, runs an objcction, you arc saying that
you owc nothing to a doctor cxccpt his mcagcr lcc, nor to a tcachcr
bccausc you havc paid him somcthing. 8ut lor all thcsc pcoplc wc
lccl grcat acction, grcat rcspcct. (r.z) Thc answcr to this point is
that ccrtain things arc worth morc than you pay lor thcm. You buy
lrom a doctor somcthing pricclcss, lilc and good hcalth, and lrom
a tcachcr ol thc libcral arts, thc cducation ol a gcntlcman and thc
cultivation ol thc mind. Thcrclorc, you pay thcm not thc pricc ol
thc thing acquircd, but thc pricc ol thcir work, thcir dcvotion to us,
and thcir ncglcct ol thcir own conccrns in ordcr to attcnd to ours:
thc paymcnt thcy takc is not lor thcir scrvicc, but lor thcir troublc.
(r.) Yct thcrc is a trucr cxplanation which ! shall givc oncc ! havc
shown how thc point you madc can bc rclutcd. 8ccausc, you say,
somc things arc worth morc than what thcy scll lor, you ought to pay
mc somcthing cxtra lor thcm, cvcn though you havc paid lor thcm.
(r.) 8ut rst, what docs it mattcr what thcy arc worth, whcn thc
buycr and scllcr havc agrccd on a pricc: Thcn again, ! bought it not
at its rcal pricc, but at your pricc. !t is worth morc than it sold lor,
but it could not bc sold lor morc. And indccd thc pricc ol a thing
varics altcr all with thc circumstanccs, though you havc toutcd your
warcs wcll, thcy arc worth only thc highcst pricc lor which thcy
can bc sold. A pcrson who buys thcm at a good pricc owcs nothing
cxtra to thc scllcr. (r.) Thcn again, cvcn il thcy arc worth morc,
no gcncrosity on your part is involvcd, sincc thc pricc is dctcrmincd
not by thcir usclulncss and c cacy but by thc customary markct
pricc. (r.6) Vhat lcc do you proposc lor somconc who crosscs thc
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scas and, whcn thc land has rcccdcd lrom sight, cuts a clcar coursc
through thc midst ol thc wavcs and lorcsccs luturc storms and sud
dcnly, whcn all on board arc unawarc ol dangcr, ordcrs thc sails to bc
lurlcd, thc tacklc to bc lowcrcd, and cvcryonc to stand rcady to lacc
thc suddcn lorcc ol an onrushing storm: Yct this man rcccivcs, as
his rcward lor such work, thc passcngcrs larc. (r.) Vhat valuc do
you sct on lodging whcn in a wildcrncss, on shcltcr lrom thc rain, on
a warm bath or a rc during cold wcathcr: Yct ! know how much !
shall pay lor thosc things whcn ! cntcr an inn. Vhat a grcat scrvicc
hc docs us who props up our collapsing housc and shorcs up a tcnc
mcnt showing cracks in its loundation. Yct such maintcnancc work is
paid lor at a xcd and minimal ratc. (r.8) A wall kccps us salc lrom
cncmics and lrom suddcn attacks by brigands, yct it is known what
a workman carns cach day lor crccting towcrs cquippcd with turrcts
to cnsurc public sccurity.
(r6.r) !t will takc lorcvcr il ! go on collccting instanccs to show
that important things lctch trivial priccs. Vhat lollows thcn: Vhy
is it that ! owc somcthing morc to my doctor and my tcachcr, but !
do not quit my dcbt by paymcnt: 8ccausc lrom bcing a doctor or
a tcachcr thcy turn into a lricnd, and thcy put us undcr obligation
not by thcir prolcssional skill, which thcy scll, but by thcir kind and
lricndly disposition. (r6.z) Thcrclorc, to a doctor who docs nothing
morc than takc my pulsc and put mc on his list lor housc calls, tclling
mc what to do and what to avoid without any sign ol lccling, ! owc
nothing morc bccausc hc rcgards mc not as a lricnd but as somconc
who commands his scrviccs. (r6.) Nor is thcrc any rcason why !
should vcncratc a tcachcr il hc has rcgardcd mc as onc ol his crowd
ol pupils, il hc has not thought mc worthy ol spccial and pcrsonal
carc, il hc has ncvcr turncd his attcntion to mc, and il, whcn hc was
pouring lorth his knowlcdgc into thc midst ol us, ! did not so much
lcarn as pick it up. (r6.) Vhy is it thcn that wc owc so much to thcsc
pcoplc: Not bccausc what thcy sold is morc than wc paid lor, but
bccausc thcy gavc somcthing to us in particular. That man gavc mc
morc than is rcquircd ol a doctor, it was lor mc, not lor his prolcs
sional rcputation, that hc lcarcd, hc was not satiscd with pointing
out rcmcdics: hc administcrcd thcm, hc sat by mc among my anx
ious lricnds, hc camc quickly at timcs ol crisis, no scrvicc was too
burdcnsomc, nonc too distastclul lor him, (r6.) hc did not hcar my
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groanings unconccrncd, in a crowd ol paticnts invoking his aid, ! was
always his primc conccrn, hc only had that amount ol timc to sparc
lor othcrs that my illncss allowcd him: to this man ! am indcbtcd,
not as a doctor but as a lricnd.
(r6.6) Thc othcr, again, in tcaching mc, cndurcd work and tc
dium, in addition to thc things that arc commonly said by tcachcrs,
thcrc wcrc othcr things hc instillcd in mc and transmittcd to mc, by
cxhorting mc hc rouscd my good charactcr, now hc cncouragcd mc
with praisc, now hc dispcllcd my idlcncss with scoldings, (r6.) thcn
hc cxtractcd by hand, as it wcrc, my hiddcn and incrt intcllcct, nor
did hc dolc out his knowlcdgc grudgingly to prolong his usclulncss,
but hc wantcd, il hc could, to pour thc sum total into mc: ! am un
gratclul il ! do not lovc him as onc to whom ! am bound by thc vcry
closcst obligations ol gratitudc.
(r.r) To our shop managcrs sclling cvcn thc mcancst mcrchan
disc wc pay morc than was agrccd, il thcy sccm to havc takcn morc
troublc than usual, and wc givc a tip to a pilot and to a makcr ol
trinkcts and to a day laborcr. 8ut in thc noblcst arts, which prcscrvc
and cmbcllish lilc, thc pcrson who thinks hc owcs nothing morc than
hc stipulatcd counts as ungratclul. (r.z) Add that thc transmission
ol such knowlcdgc involvcs a mccting ol minds, whcn this happcns,
thc pricc lor his work is paid to thc doctor as to thc tcachcr, but thc
pricc lor his attitudc is still owcd.
(r8.r) Vhcn Plato crosscd a rivcr in a boat and thc lcrryman
didnt ask him lor paymcnt, hc said, bclicving this to havc bccn givcn
as a mark ol rcspcct lor him, that thc lcrryman had crcdit with Plato
lor his scrviccs, thcn a littlc altcr, whcn thc lcrryman kcpt carrying
onc pcrson altcr anothcr across lor nothing, Plato dcnicd hc had any
crcdit with him. (r8.z) !ndccd, lor mc to owc somcthing lor what you
givc, you must not only conlcr it on mc but with mc in mind, you
cannot call on anyonc to rcpay what you ing to thc crowd. Vhat
thcn: Vill you not bc owcd anything in rcturn lor it: From any onc
individual, nothing, ! shall pay along with othcrs what ! owc along
with othcrs.
(rq.r) o you dcny, thc objcction runs, that a pcrson who lcr
rics mc in a boat across thc Rivcr Po lor nothing is conlcrring any
bcnct: Hc docs somc good, but hc docs not conlcr a bcnct, lor hc
docs it lor his own sakc, or at lcast not lor minc. !n short, not cvcn
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hc thinks hc is conlcrring a bcnct on mc, but hc is bcstowing it on
thc commonwcalth or on thc ncighborhood or on his own ambition,
and in rcturn hc cxpccts a dicrcnt kind ol advantagc than what hc
will rcccivc lrom individuals.
(rq.z) Vhat thcn, somconc objccts, il thc princcps conlcrs citi
zcnship on all thc Gauls, immunity lrom taxation on all thc Span
iards: Vill thc individuals owc nothing on that account:
7
l coursc
thcy owc somcthing, but thcy will owc it not lor a pcrsonal bcnct
but lor a sharc in a public onc. (rq.) Thc princcps, hc says, had no
thought ol mc at thc timc whcn hc bcnctcd cvcryonc, hc did not
want to givc citizcnship to mc pcrsonally, nor to dircct his attcntion
to mc, thcrclorc, why should ! bc indcbtcd to somconc who did not
havc mc in mind whcn hc was contcmplating giving what hc did:
(rq.) First ol all, whcn hc thought ol bcncting all thc Gauls hc
thought ol bcncting mc as wcll, lor ! was a Gaul and hc includcd
mc, il not in my own namc, thcn in that ol my nation. Thcn again, !
shall owc to him not a pcrsonal scrvicc but a communal onc. As onc
mcmbcr ol a community, ! shall contributc, not on my own bchall
but on bchall ol my country. (rq.) !l somconc lcnds moncy to my
country, ! shall not say that ! am in his dcbt, nor shall !, as a candidatc
lor o cc or a dclcndant, dcclarc thc dcbt, yct ! shall pay my sharc
towards discharging thc dcbt. Thus ! dcny that ! am in dcbt lor that
scrvicc that is givcn to cvcryonc, bccausc hc gavc it to mc but not
bccausc ol mc, and bccausc hc gavc it to mc, but was unawarc that hc
was giving it to mc. Noncthclcss, ! know that ! must pay somcthing
bccausc thc scrvicc has rcachcd mc, though by a circuitous routc. For
an act to put mc undcr obligation, it must bc donc on my account.
(zo.r) !n that way, somconc says, you do not owc anything to
thc moon or thc sun, lor thcy arc not in motion on your account.
8ut whcn thcy arc in motion with thc aim ol conscrving thc uni
vcrsc, thcy arc in motion also lor mc, lor ! am part ol thc univcrsc.
(zo.z) Add to this that our position is dicrcnt lrom thcirs, lor thc
pcrson who docs mc a scrvicc in ordcr to do himscll a scrvicc through
mc, has not conlcrrcd a bcnct, bccausc hc has madc mc thc mcans
to his own advantagc, but thc sun and thc moon, cvcn il thcy do us
a scrvicc lor thcir own sakc, arc noncthclcss not doing a scrvicc with
thc aim ol doing thcmsclvcs a scrvicc through us. For what can wc
bcstow on thcm:
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(zr.r) ! might acccpt, hc says, that thc sun and thc moon wish
to do us a scrvicc, il thcy wcrc ablc not to wish it, but thcy arc not
pcrmittcd not to bc in motion. !n short, just lct thcm stand still and
intcrrupt thcir work. Scc in how many ways this can bc rclutcd.
(zr.z) A pcrson is not lcss willing bccausc hc cannot bc unwilling,
in lact, it is thc grcatcst prool ol a xcd intcntion that it cannot bc
changcd. For a good man it is impossiblc not to do what hc docs, lor
hc will not bc a good man unlcss hc docs it, thcrclorc it is cqually truc
that a good man docs not conlcr a bcnct, bccausc hc is doing what
hc ought to do, but it is in lact impossiblc lor him not to do what hc
ought to do. (zr.) 8csidcs, it makcs a grcat dicrcncc whcthcr you
say, Hc is not ablc not to do this, bccausc hc is lorccd to do it, or
Hc is unablc not to want to do this. For il it is ncccssary lor him
to do it, ! owc a bcnct not to him but to thc pcrson who applics thc
lorcc, il it is ncccssary lor him to want to do it bccausc hc has noth
ing bcttcr that hc wants to do, hc is lorcing himscll, thcrclorc, what !
would not owc him on thc ground that hc is lorccd, ! owc him on thc
ground that it is hc who is lorcing. (zr.) Lct thcm ccasc wanting
to, hc says. At this point lct this considcration occur to you: Vho is
so mad as to say that an intcntion that is in no dangcr ol ccasing or
changing to thc rcvcrsc is not an intcntion, whcn, on thc contrary,
no onc dcscrvcs to bc pcrccivcd as having an intcntion as clcarly as
thc pcrson whosc intcntion is so xcd that it is cvcrlasting: r il
cvcn that pcrson counts as willing who can at any momcnt bccomc
unwilling, will not a pcrson appcar to bc willing whosc naturc docs
not allow him to bc unwilling:
(zz) All right thcn, hc says, lct thcm comc to a halt il thcy can.
You arc in ccct saying this: Lct all thosc hcavcnly bodics, scparatcd
by hugc distanccs and arrangcd to protcct thc univcrsc, dcscrt thcir
posts, lct stars collidc with stars in a suddcn conlusion ol mattcr and
lct thc divinc cntitics slip into dcstruction with thc harmony ol mat
tcr disturbcd, lct thc systcm ol swiltcst movcmcnt lail in midcoursc
to rcgulatc thc scqucncc promiscd lor so many ccnturics, and thc
bodics that now comc and go in altcrnation balancing thc world
and kccping it in cquilibrium suddcnly bc consumcd in rc, and lct
cvcrything in its grcat varicty bc dissolvcd and combinc into onc, lct
rc takc ovcr cvcrything, which a thick darkncss will thcn claim, and
lct a dccp chasm swallow all thosc divinc bcings. !s it worth hav
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ing all this collapsc in ordcr to convincc you: Thcy do you a scrvicc
cvcn against your will, and thcy movc lor your sakc cvcn il thcy havc
anothcr, morc lundamcntal rcason.
(z.r) Add to this that cxtcrnal lactors do not lorcc thc gods, but
thcir own ctcrnal will takcs thc placc ol law lor thcm. Thcy havc
madc rcsolutions with thc aim ol not changing thcm, thcrclorc thcy
cannot appcar to cmbark on somcthing dcspitc bcing unwilling, sincc
thcy havc lormcd thc intcntion to continuc doing whatcvcr thcy arc
unablc to ccasc doing, and gods ncvcr rcpcnt ol thcir rst dccision.
(z.z) Vithout doubt thcy cannot stop and dcscrt to thc opposing
sidc, but only bccausc thcir own powcr kccps thcm to thcir pur
posc. Nor do thcy stay on coursc bccausc ol wcakncss, but bccausc
thcy havc no wish to abandon thc bcst coursc ol action, and it was
dccidcd that thcy would procccd in this way. (z.) !ndccd, in that
rst disposition, whcn thcy arrangcd cvcrything, thcy gavc thought
to our aairs and took account ol man. Thcrclorc thcy cannot bc
vicwcd as orbiting and lullling thcir task only lor thcir own sakc,
sincc wc arc in lact part ol that task. Thcrclorc wc arc indcbtcd
to thc sun and thc moon and thc rcst ol thc hcavcnly bodics bc
causc, cvcn il thcy havc morc compclling rcasons lor which thcy risc,
thcy do ncvcrthclcss hclp us whilc on thcir way to grcatcr things.
(z.) Add to this that thcy hclp us on purposc, and wc arc undcr ob
ligation prcciscly bccausc wc arc not stumbling upon a bcnct lrom
thosc who know nothing about it, rathcr, thcy kncw wc would rcccivc
what wc arc rccciving, and although thcy havc a grcatcr purposc and
gain grcatcr lruits lrom thcir labors than just hclping mortal bcings,
thcir mind was noncthclcss locuscd on our nccds lrom thc bcgin
ning ol things, and thc world was ordcrcd in such a way as to makc it
clcar that caring lor us was not among thcir lcast conccrns. (z.) Vc
owc rcvcrcncc to our parcnts, yct many couplcs havc lormcd a union
without intcnding to procrcatc. Thc gods cannot bc thought not to
havc known what thcy wcrc bringing about whcn thcy providcd to
all mcn rcady nourishmcnt and assistancc, nor did thcy inadvcrtcntly
crcatc bcings lor whom thcy havc lurnishcd so many things. Naturc
had us in mind bclorc shc crcatcd us, nor arc wc so trivial a crcation
as to slip hcr mind. (z.6) Scc how much shc has grantcd us in that
thc tcrms ol human dominion arc not limitcd to thc human racc,
scc how lar our bodics can roam, bodics shc has not conncd within
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thc limits ol hcr lands but has scnt into cvcry part ol hcrscll, scc how
much daring our minds cvincc, how thcy arc alonc in cithcr know
ing or sccking thc gods and in joining thc company ol divinc bcings
by scnding
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thcir thoughts alolt: you will rcalizc that man is not a
random and unintcndcd crcation. (z.) Among thc grcatcst ol hcr
works, Naturc has nothing ol which shc boasts morc or ccrtainly
no othcr to which shc can boast. Vhat madncss is this, to disputc
with gods ovcr thcir gilt! How can somconc bc gratclul to thosc to
whom a lavor cannot bc rcturncd without cost, il hc dcnics that hc
has rcccivcd anything lrom bcings lrom whom hc has rcccivcd thc
most, bcings who arc always rcady to givc and ncvcr rcady to rcclaim:
(z.8) 8ut what pcrvcrsity it is not to bc indcbtcd to somconc bc
causc hc is gcncrous cvcn without acknowlcdgcmcnt, and to call this
vcry unintcrruptcd scrics ol bcncts prool that hc givcs ol ncccssity!
! do not want it! Lct him kccp it! Vho is asking him lor it: Add
to thcsc all thc othcr rcmarks that bcspcak a shamclcss attitudc. Hc
has not trcatcd you any lcss wcll just bccausc his gcncrosity cxtcnds
to you cvcn whilc you rcjcct it. Thc lact that hc will givc to you cvcn
whcn you grumblc is in lact thc grcatcst ol his bcncts.
(z.r) o you not scc how parcnts constrain thcir childrcn during
thc tcndcr ycars ol inlancy into acccptancc ol wholcsomc things:
Although thcy cry and rcsist, thc parcnts look altcr thcir bodics with
scrupulous carc and, to prcvcnt thcir limbs lrom bccoming crookcd
through prcmaturc lrccdom ol movcmcnt, apply swaddling bands so
thcy cmcrgc straight, and soon bcgin to lorcc on thcm a libcral cdu
cation, using lcar to combat rcsistancc, nally thcy introducc thcir
rccklcss youth to thrilt, shamc, and good habits, by lorcc il thcrc is
rcluctancc. (z.z) As thcy grow up and bccomc thcir own mastcrs,
cvcn thcn, il thcy rcjcct rcmcdics through lcar or lack ol disciplinc,
lorcc and rcprcssion arc applicd. And so thc grcatcst bcncts arc
thosc that wc rcccivc lrom our parcnts whilc wc arc cithcr unawarc
or unwilling.
(z.r) Thcrc is a rcscmblancc bctwccn thcsc pcoplc who arc un
gratclul and rclusc bcncts, not bccausc thcy do not want thcm but
to avoid obligation, and thosc who by contrast arc too gratclul, who
arc accustomcd to pray lor somcthing unlavorablc to happcn to thosc
to whom thcy arc undcr obligation, somcthing unlortunatc which
cnablcs thcm to dcmonstratc an attitudc mindlul ol having rcccivcd
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a bcnct. (z.z) Thc qucstion is whcthcr thcy do this rightly and
out ol a dutilul dcsirc. Thcir attitudc is vcry likc thosc aamc with
pcrvcrsc lovc who wish lor thcir bclovcds cxilc so that thcy can ac
company hcr whcn shc is isolatcd and in ight, who wish lor hcr
povcrty so that thcy may givc whcn shc is in grcatcr nccd, who wish
lor hcr sickncss so that thcy may sit by hcr, and who pray as lovcrs
lor whatcvcr an cncmy might wish. And so hatrcd and dcrangcd lovc
havc virtually thc samc outcomc.
(z.) Thc samc kind ol thing also bclalls thosc who wish un
lavorablc things on thcir lricnds so that thcy can rcmovc thcm and
arrivc at bcncccncc through injury, whcn it is bcttcr to do noth
ing than to scck an opportunity lor scrvicc through wrongdoing.
(z.) Vhat il a pilot should ask thc gods lor thc most dangcrous
storms and tcmpcsts so that his skill would bc morc apprcciatcd
through dangcr: Vhat il a commandcr should pray to thc gods lor a
mighty lorcc ol thc cncmy to surround his camp and ll thc trcnchcs
through a suddcn chargc and tcar down thc rampart, whilc his army
trcmblcs, and plant thcir hostilc standards in thc vcry gatcs ol thc
camp, so that hc can comc to thc rcscuc ol a shattcrcd and ruincd
situation with grcatcr glory: (z.) All ol thcsc pcoplc dclivcr thcir
bcncts by an odious routc, calling on thc gods to work against thosc
whom thcy intcnd to hclp and wishing lor thcm to bc prostratcd
bclorc thcy arc raiscd up. To wish somcthing advcrsc on a pcrson
whom you cannot honorably lail to hclp shows thc inhuman naturc
ol a mind with a pcrvcrtcd scnsc ol gratitudc.
(z6.r) My praycr, hc rcplics, docs not harm him bccausc ! wish
lor his dangcr and his rcscuc at thc samc timc. You mcan not that
you do not commit a wrong, but that you commit a lcsscr wrong than
il you wcrc to wish lor thc dangcr without thc rcscuc. !t is wickcd
ncss to submcrgc somconc in ordcr to pull him lrom thc watcr, to
throw somconc down in ordcr to pick him up, to connc somconc
in ordcr to rclcasc him. Thc ccssation ol injury is not a bcnct, nor
is it cvcr an act ol kindncss to havc rcmovcd what onc has imposcd.
(z6.z) ! prclcr you not to wound mc rathcr than to curc mc. You
can acquirc gratitudc il you curc mc bccausc ! am woundcd, not il
you wound mc in ordcr to curc mc. A scar has ncvcr givcn plcasurc
cxccpt in comparison with a wound, bccausc, whilc wc arc glad that
it is hcaling, wc would prclcr that it had not cxistcd. !l you wishcd
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this on somconc lrom whom you havc had no bcnct, it would bc
an inhuman wish, how much morc inhuman to wish it on somconc
to whom you owc a bcnct!
(z.r) At thc samc timc, hc says, ! pray that ! may bc ablc to
bring him hclp. First, to stop you in thc midst ol your praycr, you arc
alrcady ungratclul, ! do not yct hcar what you want to givc him, but !
know what you want him to sucr. You call down on him anxicty and
lcar and somc grcatcr cvil. You pray that hc may nccd hclp: that is
against his intcrcsts, you hopc that hc may nccd your hclp: that is in
your intcrcst. You do not wish to hclp him, but to pay him: whocvcr
is in such a hurry wants to bc paid up, not to pay. (z.z) And so thc
onc thing in your praycr that could sccm honorablc is itscll shamclul
and ungratclul, namcly, that you do not wish to bc in dcbt, lor you
arc asking not that you should havc thc mcans to rcturn thc lavor,
but that hc should bc undcr thc ncccssity ol cntrcating your hclp. You
put yourscll abovc him, andwhat is inlamousyou makc somc
onc who has donc you a lavor knccl at your lcct. How much bcttcr
would it bc to rcmain indcbtcd with an honorablc intcntion than to
dischargc thc dcbt through a bad onc. (z.) !l you wcrc to dcny what
you had rcccivcd, you would commit a lcsscr wrong: lor hc would
losc nothing cxccpt what hc had givcn. As it is, you want him to bc
subordinatc to you and, by his loss ol propcrty and changc ol status,
to bc so rcduccd that hc grovcls to thosc hc bcnctcd. Vill ! think
you gratclul: Spcak your praycr bclorc thc man you wish to hclp. o
you call it a praycr whcn it can bc sharcd by a gratclul pcrson and a
hostilc onc, and you would not hcsitatc to attributc it to an opponcnt
and an cncmy, wcrc thc last portion omittcd: (z.) ncmics too havc
praycd to capturc ccrtain citics in ordcr to sparc thcm and to conqucr
ccrtain pcoplc in ordcr to pardon thcm, but thcsc praycrs still do not
ccasc to bc hostilc whcn what is most mcrcilul comcs in thc wakc ol
cruclty. (z.) Finally, what kind ol praycrs do you think thosc can bc
which no onc wants to succccd lcss than thc pcrson lor whom thcy
arc madc: You dcal vcry ill with him whom you wish to bc injurcd
by thc gods and hclpcd by you yoursclland vcry unjustly with thc
gods, lor you assign thc harshcst rolc to thcm, thc humanc onc to
yourscll, so that you can hclp, thc gods will havc to injurc.
(z.6) !l you wcrc to instigatc an accuscr in ordcr subscqucntly
to call him o, il you wcrc to cntanglc somconc in a lawsuit in ordcr
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immcdiatcly to quash it, no onc would havc any doubt about your
crimc. Vhat dicrcncc docs it makc whcthcr your attcmpt is madc
by dcccption or by praycr, cxccpt that in thc lattcr casc you arc scck
ing morc powcrlul opponcnts lor him. (z.) You cannot say, Vhat
harm am ! doing him: Your praycr is cithcr lutilc or harmlul, in lact
it is harmlul cvcn il madc in vain. Vhatcvcr you lail to achicvc is a
gilt ol god, but whatcvcr you pray lor is in truth an injury. That is
cnough, wc should bc no lcss angry with you than il you succccdcd.
(z8.r) !l my praycrs, thc objcction runs, had succccdcd, thcy
would havc succccdcd in this too, that you would bc salc. !n thc rst
placc, you wishcd lor mc ccrtain dangcr subjcct to unccrtain hclp.
Sccond, supposc both arc ccrtain: thc injury comcs rst. (z8.z) 8c
sidcs, you know thc tcrms ol your praycr: a storm has ovcrwhclmcd
mc whcn ! am not surc ol gaining thc protcction ol a harbor. Think
how ! was torturcd in nccding hclp, cvcn il ! rcccivcd it, in bcing
tcrricd, cvcn il ! was savcd, in plcading my casc, cvcn il ! was ac
quittcd. Thcrc is no lcar whosc rcmoval is so wclcomc that rm and
unshakcn sccurity is not morc so. (z8.) Pray that you may bc ablc
to rcpay a bcnct to mc whcn ! nccd it, but do not pray that ! may
nccd it. !l what you pray lor wcrc in your powcr, you would yourscll
havc brought about what you pray lor.
(zq.r) How much morc honorablc is thc lollowing praycr: ! pray
that hc may always bc in a position to distributc bcncts and ncvcr to
bc in nccd ol thcm, that thc mcans ol giving and hclping, which hc
uscs so gcncrously, may attcnd him, that hc should ncvcr lack bcncts
to conlcr nor rcgrct what hc has givcn, that his naturc, so pronc in
itscll to pity, kindncss, and clcmcncy, should bc stimulatcd and chal
lcngcd by a throng ol gratclul pcoplc, whom hc is lucky cnough to
nd but has no nccd to put to thc tcst, that hc may bc implacablc
towards no onc nor havc to placatc anyonc, that lortunc may con
tinuc to trcat him with such gcncrous indulgcncc that no onc is ablc
to show gratitudc to him cxccpt by bcing awarc ol it.
(zq.z) How much morc appropriatc arc thcsc praycrs, which do
not dclcr you to anothcr occasion but show immcdiatcly that you
arc gratclul. For what prcvcnts you lrom rcturning a lavor whcn hc
is cnjoying prospcrity: How many ways thcrc arc ol bcing ablc to
rcturn what wc owc, cvcn to thc lortunatc! Loyal advicc, constant
communication, charming convcrsation that is plcasing without at
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tcry, attcntivc cars, should hc wish to consult, salc oncs, should hc
wish to condc, and thc intimacy ol lricndship. Good lortunc has
raiscd no onc so high that hc docs not lccl thc nccd ol a lricnd, all
thc morc bccausc hc lacks lor nothing.
(o.r) That opportunity you invokc is grim and should bc cx
cludcd and uttcrly banishcd lrom cvcry praycr. To bc capablc ol
gratitudc, do you nccd thc angcr ol thc gods: ocs not cvcn this lact
alcrt you to your lault, that things go bcttcr lor somconc to whom
you arc ungratclul: Put bclorc your mind prison, chains, disgracc,
cnslavcmcnt, war, povcrty: thcsc arc thc opportunitics you pray lor.
!l anyonc has madc a contract with you, it is through such mcans
that hc is rclcascd. (o.z) Vhy not wish instcad that thc pcrson to
whom you owc most may bc powcrlul and happy: Vhat, as ! said
bclorc, prcvcnts you lrom rcturning a lavor cvcn to thosc who cnjoy
thc hcight ol good lortunc: For doing this, you will havc amplc and
varicd mcans. Vhat: o you not know that thcrc is such a thing as
paying a dcbt cvcn to thc rich:
(o.) ! shall not bclabor you against your will. Grantcd that opu
lcnt good lortunc has rulcd out cvcrything, ! will show you what
thosc in thc highcst positions lccl thc nccd ol, what is lacking to
thosc who havc cvcrything: somconc, in lact, to tcll thcm thc truth
and to libcratc thcm lrom thc lalschoods constantly chantcd in uni
son whcn thcy arc stupccd by thosc who lic to thcm and arc drivcn
to ignorancc ol thc truth by thc vcry habit ol listcning to attcry
rathcr than lact.
(o.) o you not scc how such pcoplc arc drivcn to thcir ruin
by thc supprcssion ol lrcc spccch and thc transmutation ol loyalty
into scrvilc sycophancy: (o.) Vhilc no onc adviscs thcm honcstly
lor or against a coursc ol action, but thcrc is instcad a compctition
in attcry and thc onc conccpt ol duty among all thcir lricnds con
sists in vying with cach othcr in dccciving thcm most obscquiously,
thcy bccomc unawarc ol thcir rcal powcr and, bclicving that thcy arc
as grcat as thcy hcar thcmsclvcs dcscribcd, thcy cmbark on point
lcss wars that cndangcr cvcrything, thcy shattcr thc harmony that is
usclul and ncccssary, and, lcd on by angcr that no onc has discour
agcd, thcy shcd thc blood ol many and ultimatcly spill thcir own.
(o.6) Vhilc thcy maintain as ccrtaintics vicws that havc not cvcn
bccn cxamincd, think that bcing dissuadcd is just as shamclul as
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bcing conqucrcd, and bclicvc that what has rcachcd its highcst pcak
and is tottcring to a lall will last lorcvcr, thcy bring hugc kingdoms
crashing down on thcm and thcirs. Nor do thcy undcrstand, whilc
on that stagc rcsplcndcnt with cmpty and quickly passing goods, that
thcy ought to havc cxpcctcd nothing but advcrsity lrom thc timc
whcn thcy wcrc unablc to hcar a word ol truth.
(r.r) Vhcn Xcrxcs was dcclaring war on Grcccc,
8
his mind,
swollcn with pridc and lorgctlul ol thc lragility ol thc things in
which hc placcd his trust, lound nothing but cncouragcmcnt. nc
pcrson was tclling him that thc cncmy would not withstand thc an
nounccmcnt ol war and would takc ight at thc rst rumor ol his ar
rival, (r.z) anothcr was saying that thcrc was no doubt that, with his
mighty lorccs, Grcccc could bc not mcrcly conqucrcd but crushcd,
that thcrc was morc rcason to lcar that thcy would nd cmpty and
abandoncd citics and that with thc cncmy in ight, vast arcas ol
dcsolation would rcmain to thcm whcrc thcy could not dcploy thcir
grcat strcngth, (r.) anothcr was saying that thc world was scarccly
su cicnt lor him, that thc scas wcrc narrow lor his ccts, thc camps
lor his soldicrs, thc plains lor dcploying his cavalry, thc sky scarccly
widc cnough lor all his archcrs to dischargc thcir arrows. (r.) Vhcn
on all sidcs many such boasts wcrc bcing madc, which wcrc stirring
up a man who alrcady ovcrcstimatcd himscll, cmaratus thc Spar
tan
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alonc told him that thc vcry hordc ol which hc was so proud,
bcing disorganizcd and pondcrous, should arousc lcar in its lcadcr,
lor it had not strcngth but wcight, that cxccssivcly largc lorccs could
not bc controllcd, and that what could not bc controllcd would not
last long.
(r.) At thc vcry rst mountain thc Spartans will lacc you and
givc you a dcmonstration ol what thcy can do. Thrcc hundrcd will
hold in chcck thosc thousands upon thousands ol nations, thcy will
stand xcd at thcir post and guard thc path cntrustcd to thcm with
thcir arms and obstruct it with thcir bodics, all Asia will not shilt
thcm lrom thcir position, thosc mighty thrcats ol war and thc on
slaught ol almost thc wholc human racc a tiny band will halt. (r.6)
Vhcn naturc, altcring hcr laws, has allowcd you to cross thc sca,
you will bc hcld up on a lootpath, and you will calculatc your luturc
losscs by counting what thc pass ol Thcrmopylac cost you, you will
rcalizc that you can bc put to ight whcn you havc rcalizcd that you
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can bc chcckcd. (r.) Thc cncmy will yicld to you in many placcs, as
il swcpt away by a torrcnt that gushcs down, causing grcat tcrror at
rst, thcn lrom hcrc and thcrc thcy will risc up and crush you with
your own might. (r.8) !t is truc what is bcing said, that your instru
mcnts ol war arc grcatcr than thc rcgions that you mcan to attack
can hold, but this lact is against us. 8ccausc ol this vcry lact, that shc
cannot hold you, Grcccc will conqucr: you cannot usc all you havc.
(r.q) 8csidcs, your only hopc lor salvation will bc impossiblc
namcly, to conlront thc rst attack and rcinlorcc thosc who wavcr,
to support and shorc up thosc who arc lailing, you will bc conqucrcd
long bclorc you know that you arc ovcrcomc. (r.ro) Thcrc is no
rcason to think that your army cannot bc rcsistcd, just bccausc its
numbcrs arc unknown cvcn to its lcadcr, nothing is so largc that it
cannot bc dcstroycd: il thcrc arc no othcr lactors, its own sizc givcs
birth to thc causc ol its dcstruction.
(r.rr) vcrything happcncd as cmaratus had prcdictcd. Thc
man who was attacking things divinc and human, and altcring what
cvcr stood in his way, was ordcrcd to halt by thrcc hundrcd mcn, and
whcn hc was laid low cvcrywhcrc throughout Grcccc, thc Pcrsian
undcrstood how much a mob dicrs lrom an army. And so Xcrxcs,
morc dcspondcnt bccausc ol his shamc than bccausc ol his losscs,
thankcd cmaratus, bccausc hc alonc had told him thc truth, and
allowcd him to ask lor anything hc wantcd. (r.rz) Hc askcd to cntcr
Sardis, thc grcatcst city ol Asia, in a chariot, wcaring a tiara crcct on
his hcad, a privilcgc givcn only to kings. Hc had dcscrvcd his rcward,
at lcast until hc askcd lor it. 8ut how pitilul wcrc thosc pcoplc among
whom thcrc was no onc to tcll thc king thc truth, cxccpt somconc
who was not in thc habit ol tclling it to himscll!
(z.r) Thc ivinc Augustus rclcgatcd his daughtcr,
J0
who was
immoral bcyond any rcproach lor immorality, and madc public thc
misconduct ol thc impcrial housc: that shc admittcd groups ol adul
tcrcrs, that shc roamcd through thc city in nocturnal rcvcls, that thc
vcry lorum and platlorm lrom which hcr lathcr had passcd a law on
adultcry
JJ
was hcr choscn vcnuc lor dcbauchcry, that shc visitcd thc
statuc ol Marsyas
J2
rcgularly whcn, turning lrom adultcry to pros
titution, shc sought thc right to cvcry indulgcncc in thc arms ol an
unknown adultcrcr. (z.z) Thcsc crimcs hc broadcast, unablc to con
trol his angcrcrimcs that dcscrvcd to bc punishcd as much as thcy
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dcscrvcd to bc conccalcd, sincc thc shamc attachcd to ccrtain acts rc
bounds on thc punishcr. Thcn whcn, altcr a lapsc ol timc, shamc took
thc placc ol angcr, hc groancd at thc thought that hc had not kcpt
silcnt about mattcrs ol which hc had rcmaincd in ignorancc until it
was shamclul to spcak ol thcm, and cricd out rcpcatcdly, Nonc ol
this would havc happcncd to mc il cithcr Agrippa or Macccnas had
bccn alivc! So hard was it lor somconc who had availablc so many
thousands ol mcn to rcplacc just two. (z.) Lcgions wcrc butchcrcd
and immcdiatcly rccruitcd again, thc cct was wrcckcd and within
a lcw days anothcr was aoat, public buildings wcrc dcstroycd by
rc and bcttcr oncs rosc in thcir placc. 8ut lor thc rcst ol his lilc,
thc placc ol Agrippa and Macccnas rcmaincd cmpty.
J3
Vhat thcn:
Should ! supposc thcrc wcrc no mcn likc thcm who could bc cnlistcd,
or that it was thc lault ol Augustus himscll, in that hc prclcrrcd to
sulk than to scarch: (z.) Thcrc is no rcason to think that Agrippa
and Macccnas wcrc accustomcd to tcll him thc truth, had thcy livcd,
thcy would havc bccn among thc disscmblcrs. !t is charactcristic ol
thc royal attitudc to praisc what is lost, in contcmpt ol what is prcs
cnt, and to attributc thc virtuc ol spcaking thc truth to thosc lrom
whom thcrc is no longcr any dangcr ol hcaring it.
(.r) 8ut to rcturn to my subjcct: you scc how casy it is to rcturn
a lavor to thc lortunatc and thosc placcd at thc summit ol human
powcr. Tcll thcm not what thcy want to hcar, but what thcy will wish
thcy had hcard all along. From timc to timc, lct a truthlul voicc cntcr
cars llcd with attcry, givc thcm usclul advicc. (.z) You ask what
you can ocr a lortunatc man: 8ring it about that hc distrusts his
good lortunc, that hc rcalizcs that it must bc maintaincd by many
laithlul hands. Vill you havc bcstowcd too littlc on him il you shakc
out ol him thc loolish conviction that his powcr will last lorcvcr,
and tcach him that thc things chancc has givcn arc volatilc and that
thcy dcpart with grcatcr spccd than thcy arrivc and that onc docs
not dcsccnd by thc samc stcps by which onc asccndcd to thc top, but
that oltcn thcrc is no intcrval bctwccn thc hcight ol lortunc and thc
dcpth: (.) You do not know how grcat is thc valuc ol lricndship il
you do not undcrstand that you will bc giving somconc a grcat dcal
by giving him a lricnd, somcthing rarc not only in palaccs but in
ccnturics, nowhcrc morc lacking than whcrc it is thought to abound.
(.) Vhat thcn: o you think thosc notcbooks, which ncithcr thc
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mcmory ol thc nomenclator nor his hands can casily hold, contain lists
ol friends: Thosc arc not lricnds who, in a long linc, knock at your
door, who arc dividcd into rst and sccond audicnccs.
J4
(.r) !t is an old custom ol kings and thosc who act thc part
ol kings to dividc thc company ol thcir lricnds, and it is a mark ol
arrogancc to placc a high pricc on crossing or cvcn touching thcir
thrcshold and to conlcr as an honor pcrmission to sit ncarcr thc cn
trancc, to sct loot carlicr in thc housc in which thcrc arc many doors
that arc closcd cvcn to thosc who arc admittcd. (.z) Among us it
was Gaius Gracchus and Livius rusus who wcrc thc rst to scparatc
into groups thcir own throng ol visitors and rcccivc somc in privatc,
somc in a group, and othcrs cn massc. And so thcy had lricnds ol
thc rst rank and lricnds ol thc sccond rank, but thcy ncvcr had truc
lricnds. (.) o you call a lricnd somconc whosc grccting is al
lottcd a turn: r can you havc acccss to thc loyalty ol somconc who
docs not so much cntcr as slidc around doors that arc grudgingly
opcncd: Can anyonc approach unbridlcd lrccdom ol spccch whcn
his grccting, Good daythc standard and common tcrm uscd cvcn
by strangcrscan only bc uttcrcd whcn it is his turn: (.) Vhcn
cvcr you visit onc ol thosc whosc rcccption disrupts thc wholc city,
know that cvcn il you scc thc strccts bcsicgcd by a hugc crowd and
thc roads jammcd by throngs ol pcoplc coming and going, you arc
noncthclcss approaching a placc lull ol pcoplc but cmpty ol lricnds.
(.) !t is in thc hcart that onc sccks a lricnd, not in thc vcstibulc, it
is thcrc that hc must bc wclcomcd, thcrc rctaincd and storcd in oncs
acctions. Tcach this lcsson: that is gratitudc.
(.r) You think ill ol yourscll il you arc usclcss cxccpt to somconc
in distrcss, il you arc otiosc whcn things arc going wcll. Just as you
bchavc wiscly in doubtlul, in advcrsc, and in happy circumstanccs in
that you handlc doubtlul oncs prudcntly, advcrsc oncs bravcly, and
happy oncs with modcration, similarly, in all circumstanccs you can
show yourscll usclul to a lricnd. o not dcscrt him in advcrsity nor
wish that hc should cxpcricncc it, noncthclcss many circumstanccs
will arisc in such a grcat varicty ol situations: circumstanccs that,
cvcn without your wishing it, will ocr you an opportunity to cxcr
cisc your loyalty. (.z) Considcr somconc who prays lor richcs lor
somconc in thc hopc that hc will acquirc a sharc in thcm: although
hc sccms to bc praying lor that pcrson, hc is looking altcr himscll. So
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too a pcrson who prays lor somc ncccssity to bclall his lricnd, which
hc will rclicvc by his hclp and loyalty, puts his own intcrcsts ahcad
ol his lricndswhich is an ungratclul thing to doand thinks thc
lricnds miscry is a pricc worth paying il hc himscll counts as gratclul,
whilc lor this vcry rcason hc provcs himscll ungratclul, lor hc wishcs
to rclicvc himscll ol a burdcn and lrcc himscll ol a hcavy wcight.
(.) !t makcs a grcat dicrcncc whcthcr you hurry to rcturn a lavor
in ordcr to rcpay thc bcnct or in ordcr not to owc onc. Thc pcrson
who wants to rcpay will adapt himscll to his bcnclactors convcnicncc
and will wish lor an opportunity that suits him, thc pcrson who
wishcs only to bc lrccd himscll will dcsirc to achicvc that by any
mcans, which is a sign ol thc worst intcntion. (.) That cxccssivc
hastc,
iv
somconc objcctsis it a sign ol bcing ungratclul: ! cannot
cxprcss thc point morc clcarly than by rcpcating what ! said: you do
not wish to rcturn a bcnct rcccivcd, but to cscapc onc. You sccm
to bc saying, Vhcn will ! bc clcar ol it: ! must strivc in cvcry way
not to bc undcr obligation to him. !l you wcrc wishing to rcpay him
lrom his own pockct, you would appcar to bc vcry lar lrom gratclul.
Thc thing you arc wishing lor is morc unlair, lor you arc calling down
curscs on him and hcaping imprccations on thc hcad ol somconc
who should bc sacrcd to you. (.) No onc, ! think, would havc any
doubts about thc wickcdncss ol your intcntion il you opcnly callcd
down on him povcrty or imprisonmcnt, or hungcr and lcar. 8ut what
dicrcncc docs it makc whcthcr that wish constitutcs what you say in
your praycr, or what you mean: For you arc wishing lor onc ol thcsc
mislortuncs. 8ut go now and rcgard as thc work ol a gratclul pcrson
somcthing that not cvcn an ingratc would do, providcd hc did not go
as lar as hatrcd but limitcd himscll to rcpudiation ol thc bcnct.
(6.r) Vho will call Acncas
J5
dutilul il hc wishcd his nativc
land to bc capturcd so that hc might rcscuc his lathcr lrom cap
tivity: Vho will point to thc Sicilian youths as good modcls lor
childrcn il thcy praycd lor Actna, burning and alight, to dischargc
an abnormally largc torrcnt ol amc, in ordcr to lurnish thcm with
an opportunity to show dutilulncss by snatching thcir parcnts lrom
thc midst ol thc amcs: (6.z) Romc owcs nothing to Scipio il hc
cncouragcd thc Punic Var in ordcr to cnd it, nothing to thc ccii
lor saving thcir lathcrland by dying, il thcy had praycd bclorchand
that somc dirc ncccssity would ocr an occasion lor thcir highly
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couragcous dcvotion.
J6
!t is a highly disgracclul practicc lor a doctor
to manulacturc work, many doctors, having incrcascd and aggravatcd
discascs in ordcr to win grcatcr glory by curing thcm, havc not bccn
ablc to dispcl thcm or havc ovcrcomc thcm only through grcat sul
lcring on thc part ol thcir poor paticnts.
(.r) Thcy say that whcn Callistratus (at lcast this is what Hcca
ton writcs) was going into cxilc along with many whom his turbulcnt
city, which was libcral to thc point ol liccnsc, had cxpcllcd, somconc
praycd that somc ncccssity might compcl thc Athcnians to rcstorc
thc cxilcs, but Callistratus praycd that thcrc should bc no rcturn un
dcr thosc conditions.
J7
(.z) ur Rutilius,
J8
showing cvcn morc spirit,
whcn somconc was consoling him and saying that civil war was im
mincnt and it would not bc long bclorc all cxilcs would bc rcturning,
rcplicd, Vhat cvil havc ! donc that you should wish on mc a rcturn
worsc than my dcparturc: ! would rathcr havc my country blush lor
my cxilc than wccp lor my rcturn! That is not cxilc, whcn no onc is
lcss ashamcd than thc condcmncd. (.) Just as thcsc mcn obscrvcd
thc duty ol good citizcns by not wishing thcir homcs to bc rcstorcd
to thcm at thc pricc ol a common disastcrbccausc it is bcttcr lor
an unjust calamity to bc visitcd on two pcoplc than a public calam
ity on allso that pcrson docs not maintain thc scntimcnts ol a
gratclul pcrson, who wants somconc who has dcscrvcd wcll ol him
to bc bcsct
v
by di cultics that hc himscll can rcmovc: lor, cvcn il his
intcntion is good, his wish is cvil. Thcrc is no dclcnsc, lct alonc glory,
in cxtinguishing a rc that you havc causcd.
(8.r) !n somc statcs an impious praycr has bccn rcgardcd as a
crimc. Ccrtainly, at Athcns, cmadcs
J9
sccurcd thc condcmnation
ol a man who sold cquipmcnt lor luncrals whcn hc provcd that
thc man had praycd lor grcat prot, which could not accruc to him
without many dcaths. Yct thc qucstion is oltcn raiscd, whcthcr hc
was rightly condcmncd. Pcrhaps hc praycd not that hc might makc
many salcs, but that hc might achicvc a largc prot margin,that
is, that hc might buy chcaply what hc would bc sclling. (8.z) Vhcn
his busincss consists in buying and sclling, why imputc his praycr to
onc sidc ol his activity, sincc thcrc is prot to bc dcrivcd lrom both:
8csidcs, you could condcmn cvcryonc involvcd in that tradc, lor thcy
all wishthat is, inwardly praylor thc samc thing. You will bc
condcmning a largc portion ol mankind, lor who docs not prot to
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somconc clscs disadvantagc: (8.) !l thc soldicr prays lor glory, hc
prays lor war, thc high pricc ol grain chccrs up thc larmcr, numcr
ous lawsuits boost thc pricc ol cloqucncc, a ycar ol ill hcalth makcs
gains lor thc doctors, thc dcgcncracy ol youth cnrichcs thc vcndors
ol luxurics, il houscs arc not damagcd by storms or rc, thc building
tradc will collapsc. nc mans praycr was rcvcalcd, but cvcryoncs is
thc samc.
(8.) r do you not rcalizc that Arruntius and Hatcrius and thc
rcst ol thosc who havc madc a prolcssion ol lcgacy hunting cspousc
thc samc praycrs as luncral dircctors and undcrtakcrs:
20
8ut thc lattcr
do not know whosc dcaths thcy pray lor, thc lormcr wish thcir clos
cst conncctions to dic, thosc whosc lricndship holds out thc highcst
hopcs. Thc lattcr do not sucr loss lrom anyoncs rcmaining alivc,
but whocvcr puts o dying cxhausts thc paticncc ol thc lormcr. Thcy
pray, thcrclorc, not only to rcccivc what thcy havc carncd through
shamclul scrvitudc, but also that thcy may bc dclivcrcd lrom thc
burdcn ol paying tributc. (8.) Thcrc is thcrclorc no doubt that thcsc
pcoplc pray morc intcnscly lor what was condcmncd in thc casc ol
that onc man, sincc whocvcr will prot thcm by dying injurcs thcm
by living. Yct thc praycrs ol all mcn ol this kind arc as wcll known
as thcy arc unpunishcd. Finally, lct cvcryonc scrutinizc himscll and
withdraw into thc rcccsscs ol his hcart and obscrvc what hc has
praycd lor in silcncc. How many arc thc praycrs that hc is ashamcd
to admit cvcn to himscll ! How lcw arc thosc that wc can makc
bclorc a witncss!
(q.r) 8ut not cvcrything that is to bc dcplorcd is also to bc con
dcmncdas, lor cxamplc, this praycr ol a lricnd that wc arc consid
cring, a lricnd who makcs ill usc ol his good intcntion and lalls into
thc vcry vicc that hc is trying to avoid, lor cvcn as hc hurrics to show
his gratclul intcntion, hc is ungratclul. (q.z) This is what hc says:
Lct him lall undcr my control, lct him long lor my inucncc, lct him
bc unablc to bc salc, honorcd, and sccurc without mc, lct him bc so
wrctchcd that whatcvcr is rcpaid to him counts as a bcnct. This is
what thc gods hcar: Lct houschold plots cntrap him, which ! alonc
can supprcss, lct a powcrlul and lcarlul cncmy, a hostilc armcd mob,
thrcatcn him, lct a crcditor prcss him hard, or an accuscr.
(o.r) Scc how lairmindcd you arc! You would not havc praycd
lor any ol thcsc things il hc had not conlcrrcd a bcnct on you. To
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say nothing ol your morc scrious ocnsc in rcquiting somcthing vcry
good with somcthing vcry bad, you ccrtainly crr in this, that you do
not wait lor thc appropriatc timc lor cach thing, lor thc pcrson who
docs not kccp up with it and thc pcrson who anticipatcs it arc cqually
at lault. Just as a bcnct is not always to bc acccptcd, so it is not, in
cvcry casc, to bc rcpaid. (o.z) !l you wcrc rcpaying somcthing to mc
whcn ! did not nccd it, you would bc ungratclul, how much morc
ungratclul you arc to lorcc mc to nccd it. Vait! Vhy do you not want
my gilt to stay with you: Vhy do you nd it irksomc to bc undcr an
obligation: Vhy do you hurry to squarc your account, as il with a
harsh moncylcndcr: Vhy do you try to makc troublc lor mc: Vhy
do you invokc thc gods against mc: How would you bchavc whcn
cxacting paymcnt, il you makc rcpaymcnt to mc likc this:
(r.r) Abovc all, thcn, Libcralis, lct us lcarn this lcsson: to havc
no misgivings about bcing indcbtcd lor bcncts and to look lor, but
not to manulacturc, opportunitics to rcpay thcm. Lct us rcmcmbcr
that this vcry dcsirc to lrcc oncscll at thc carlicst momcnt is that ol
an ingratc. For no onc is happy to rcpay what hc owcs against his
will, and what hc docs not wish to kccp hc rcgards as a burdcn, not
a gilt. (r.z) How much bcttcr and morc just it is to havc lrcsh in
oncs mind thc lavors ol oncs lricnds and to ocr thcm, not prcss
on thcm, a rcpaymcnt, and not to rcgard oncscll as a dcbtor, sincc a
bcnct is a common bond and links two pcoplc togcthcr. Say, ! do
not dclay giving back what is yours, ! hopc you will rcccivc it gladly.
!l somc ncccssity bclalls onc ol us and somc latc brings it about that
cithcr you arc lorccd to rccovcr a bcnct or ! to rcccivc anothcr, lct
thc givcr bc thc pcrson in thc habit ol giving. ! am rcady:
!t is not lor Turnus to dclay.
2J
This is thc attitudc ! will display as soon as thc timc comcs, mcan
whilc, thc gods arc my witncsscs.
(z.r) ! rcgularly obscrvc in you, my dcar Libcralis, and, so to
spcak, put my ngcr on, this lccling ol agitatcd lcar lcst you bc too
slow in pcrlorming any obligation. Anxicty docs not bccomc thc
gratclul mind, on thc contrary, all worry should bc rcmovcd by thc
suprcmc scllcondcncc and awarcncss ol truc lovc. Acccpt a rcpay
mcnt is as much a rcproach as You owc. Lct this bc thc rst law in
giving a bcnct: that thc donor picks thc timc to rcccivc. (z.z) 8ut
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! am alraid that mcn will spcak unlavorably ol mc. Thc pcrson who
is gratclul bccausc ol his rcputc, not his conscicncc, bchavcs badly.
You havc two judgcs ol this casc: thc bcnclactor, whom you ought
not to lcar, and you yourscll, whom you cannot lcar. Vhat thcn: !l
no opportunity ariscs, shall ! owc in pcrpctuity: You will owc, but
you will owc opcnly, but you will owc lrccly, but you will rcgard what
has bccn lclt in your kccping with grcat plcasurc. Thc pcrson who
is vcxcd at not yct having rcpaid a bcnct rcgrcts having rcccivcd it.
Vhy should thc pcrson who sccms to you worthy ol giving you a
bcnct sccm unworthy ol bcing owcd onc lor a long timc:
(.r) Thcy arc mircd in scrious crror who bclicvc it is thc part ol
a grcat mind to ocr, to givc, to ll thc pockcts and houscs ol many
pcoplc, whcn in lact it is not a grcat mind that docs this, but a grcat
lortunc, thcy do not know how much grcatcr and morc di cult it
is to takc than to lavish gilts. Fornot to dctract lrom onc ol thcm,
sincc both arc ol cqual valuc whcn pcrlormcd by virtucit is not
thc mark ol a lcsscr mind to owc than to conlcr a bcnct, thc lormcr
is in lact morc di cult than thc lattcr, to thc dcgrcc that grcatcr
diligcncc is nccdcd to protcct things wc rcccivc than things wc givc.
(.z) Thcrclorc, wc should not worry how quickly wc pay, nor rush
into it at an inappropriatc timc, sincc thc pcrson who lails to rcturn
a lavor at thc right timc and thc pcrson who hurrics to do so at thc
wrong timc arc cqually at lault. Hc has dcpositcd it with mc, ! lcar
ncithcr on his account nor on my own. Hc has good sccurity, hc can
only losc this bcnct along with mcin lact, not cvcn along with mc.
! havc cxprcsscd thanks to him, that is, ! havc rcturncd thc lavor.
(.) Thc pcrson who thinks too much about rcpaying a bcnct
bclicvcs that thc othcr party thinks too much about rccciving thc
rcturn. Lct him show himscll casy in both rcspccts. !l hc wants his
bcnct rcturncd, lct us rcturn and rcpay it gladly, il hc prclcrs to
havc it guardcd by us, why do wc dig up his trcasurc: Vhy do wc
rclusc to guard it: Hc dcscrvcs to bc pcrmittcd to havc his way. Lct
us rcgard rcputc and glory as things that should not lcad but lollow
our actions.
.66 Book ,
(r.r) Chccr up, my dcar Libcralis:
Land is in sight: ! wont dctain you now with a lcngthy song
Vinding its way through lcngthy prologucs.
J
Thc prcscnt book rounds up thc lcltovcrs, now that thc subjcct mat
tcr is uscd up, ! am looking around not to scc what ! should say, but
what ! havc lclt unsaid. Plcasc takc it in good part il thcrc is somc
supcruity in this book, it will bc thcrc lor your sakc. (r.z) !l ! had
wantcd to curry lavor lor myscll, thcn this work should havc lormcd
a gradual crcsccndo, with that part hcld back which cvcn thc satcd
rcadcr would hungcr lor. !nstcad, ! pilcd up at thc start all thc most
important thcmcs. And now ! am just rounding up anything that
might havc slippcd by mc. And good hcavcns! !l you ask mc, ! do
not think it contributcs much to thc topic, oncc you havc dcalt with
thc instructions conccrning charactcr, to chasc down othcr thcmcs
that havc bccn workcd up not to hcal thc mind but only to givc our
intcllcct somc cxcrcisc. (r.) cmctrius thc Cynic
2
makcs thc point
vcry wcllhc is in my judgmcnt a grcat man cvcn whcn sct bcsidc
thc grcatcstwhcn hc says that it is morc bcnccial il you posscss
just a lcw philosophical prcccpts, but kccp thcm rcadily availablc lor
rapid usc, than il you lcarn many things but do not havc thcm to
hand. Hc says:
(r.) Thc grcat wrcstlcr is not thc onc who has mastcrcd all thc
movcs and holds, thc oncs that you rarcly nccd whcn conlronting
an opponcnt, rathcr, thc grcat wrcstlcr is thc onc who has traincd
himscll wcll and thoroughly in onc or two movcs and watchcs
carclully lor thc chancc to usc thcm. (For it docs not mattcr how
many hc knows, providing hc knows cnough to gct thc win.) Sim
ilarly, in philosophical study thcrc arc many movcs that cntcrtain,
but lcw that bring succcss. (r.) Though you may bc ignorant ol
thc causcs ol thc cbb and ow ol thc tidcs, why cvcry scvcnth ycar
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marks a ncw stagc ol lilc, why a colonnadc docs not maintain a
constant width whcn vicwcd lrom a distancc but thc lurthcr cnd
gcts narrowcr until cvcntually thc gap bctwccn thc columns disap
pcars, how twins arc conccivcd scparatcly but born togcthcr (docs
onc act ol intcrcoursc producc two cmbryos or arc thcrc distinct
acts ol conccption lor cach:), why thc latcs ol thosc born undcr
thc samc circumstanccs arc dicrcnt and thosc whosc births arc
cxtrcmcly closc ncvcrthclcss lacc vcry dicrcnt outcomcsit will
not do you much harm to skip ovcr such topics, which arc ncithcr
possiblc nor usclul to know. Truth is conccalcd, hiddcn in thc
dcpths.
3
(r.6) And wc cannot complain about naturcs hostility,
sincc thc only things it is di cult to discovcr arc thc oncs lrom
whosc discovcry thc only prot is thc vcry act ol discovcry. vcry
thing that will makc us bcttcr or happicr pcoplc is cithcr out in thc
opcn or ncarly so. (r.) !l our mind has comc to trcat chancc cvcnts
with disdain, il it has riscn abovc its lcars and docs not grasp with
grccdy ambition lor what is boundlcss but instcad has lcarncd to
scck richcs lrom itscll, il thc mind has climinatcd thc lcar ol gods
and mcn and knows that wc havc littlc to drcad lrom humans and
nothing lrom god, il it disdains cvcrything that brings tormcnt to
our lilc whilc cnriching it, and has rcachcd thc point ol sccing
that dcath is not thc sourcc ol anything bad, but rathcr puts an
cnd to many bad things, il hc
4
has dcdicatcd his mind to virtuc
and thinks ol any pathway to which virtuc summons him as bcing
smooth and lcvcl, il, bcing by naturc a social animal and born lor
thc common good, hc looks upon thc world as a common homc
lor all and has opcncd up his privatc thoughts to thc gods, living
always as though undcr public scrutiny and morc in lcar ol himscll
than ol othcrsthcn this man has cscapcd thc storms and takcn a
stand on rm ground undcr a clcar sky, hc has rcachcd thc sum
mit ol all usclul and ncccssary knowlcdgc. vcrything clsc is but
an amuscmcnt lor his lcisurc. For oncc his mind has withdrawn
to salcty, thcn hc can also havc rccoursc to thc studics that bring
sophistication rathcr than strcngth to thc intcllcct.
(z.r) My lricnd cmctrius urgcs thc progrcssor
5
to hang on to thcsc
lcssons with both hands, ncvcr to lct thcm goin lact, cvcn to lastcn
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onto thcm and makc thcm a part ol himscll, and by practicing thcm
daily to gct to thc point that hcalthy thoughts comc ol thcir own ac
cord, that thc objccts ol our dcsirc arc instantly availablc, and that wc
should scc without dclay thc dicrcncc bctwccn what is shamclul and
what is honorablc. (z.z) Hc should know thcrc is nothing bad cxccpt
what is shamclul, and nothing good cxccpt what is honorablc. Hc
should allot his activitics in lilc in accordancc with this guidclinc: hc
should do and judgc cvcrything by rclcrcncc to this law and should
dccm thc most wrctchcd among mortals thosc who, no mattcr how
much glittcring wcalth thcy posscss, arc dcdicatcd to thcir own grccd
and lustpcoplc whosc minds arc stagnant with slothlul incrtia. Hc
should say to himscll, Plcasurc is vulncrablc, shortlivcd, subjcct to
borcdomthc morc cagcrly onc consumcs it thc quickcr it turns into
its oppositc, and straightaway you must rcgrct it or bc ashamcd ol
it. Thcrc is nothing grand in plcasurc, nothing that bcts thc naturc
ol man, who is sccond only to thc gods. Plcasurc is basc, scrving thc
intcrcsts ol thc shamclul or worthlcss parts ol our bodics, in thc cnd
it is disgusting. (z.) Thc plcasurc that is worthy ol a human bcing
and worthy ol a rcal man is not to ll up thc body, not to stu it,
not to stimulatc thc dcsircs, which arc salcst whcn lclt quicsccnt, it
is lrccdom lrom disturbanccs, both thc upsct produccd by thc strilc
ol human ambition and thc unbcarablc turmoil that comcs lrom on
high whcn wc havc put our laith in myths about thc gods and judgcd
thcm by thc standard ol our own viccs. (z.) This balanccd, stcady
plcasurc, which ncvcr gcts tircd ol itscll, is what is lclt by thc pcrson
wc havc just now bccn skctching out: somconc who, as ! might put
it, is an cxpcrt in divinc and human law.
This is thc pcrson who rcjoiccs in thc prcscnt and is not dc
pcndcnt on thc luturclor anyonc who rclics on unccrtaintics has
no solid ground. Thcrclorc, bcing lrcc ol major worrics that tor
mcnt his mind, hc hopcs lor nothing and dcsircs nothing, not com
mitting himscll to what is unrcliablc, hc is contcnt with himscll.
(z.) And you should not think that in doing so hc is contcnt with lit
tlc. vcrything bclongs to him, but not in thc scnsc that it all bclongcd
to Alcxandcr: though hc stood on thc shorcs ol thc !ndian ccan, hc
lackcd morc tcrritory than hc had yct travcrscd. vcn thc things hc
rulcd and had conqucrcd did not bclong to him. Vhcn ncsicritus,
who had bccn scnt ahcad as an cxplorcr, was roaming thc occan and
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looking lor wars on thc unchartcd sca,
6
(z.6) was it not prctty obvious
that hc was impovcrishcd: Hc lcd his army bcyond thc bounds ol
naturc, in blind grccd hc plungcd hcadlong into thc uncxplorcd and
boundlcss dccp. Vhat dicrcncc docs it makc how many kingdoms
hc stolc, how many hc gavc away, how many lands hc opprcsscd
by cxacting tributc: Vhatcvcr hc dcsircs is somcthing hc lacks.
(.r) This vicc isnt limitcd to Alcxandcr, who was drivcn by his
boldncss and good lortunc along thc paths troddcn by ionysus
and Hcrculcs. !t bclongs to cvcryonc whom lortunc, by satislying
his dcsircs, has arouscd cvcn morc. Considcr Cyrus, Cambyscs, and
thc wholc Pcrsian royal linc.
7
Vho among thcm will you nd who
limitcd his cmpirc bccausc hc was satiscd: Vho didnt nish his
lilc still brooding on somc plan lor going lurthcr: And this is not
surprising. Vhatcvcr dcsirc acquircs is complctcly consumcd and
packcd away, it makcs no dicrcncc how much you pour into a bot
tomlcss pit.
(.z) Thc sagc is thc only onc who posscsscs cvcrything and can
rctain it without di culty. Hc docs not nccd to scnd gcncrals across
thc sca, cstablish outposts on thc cncmys sidc ol thc rivcr, and lay out
carclully lorticd garrisons. Hc docs not nccd an army or squads ol
cavalry. Just as thc immortal gods rulc thcir domains without wcapons
and kccp thcir posscssions salc as thcy look down lrom thcir tranquil
pcaks, so too thc sagc pcrlorms his lunctions, as widcranging as thcy
arc, without troublc, and gazcs down upon thc human racc bclow, thc
most powcrlul and bcst ol mankind. (.) Sco il you want, but it
takcs a grcat spirit to survcy thc world lrom cast to wcst, with a mind
that pcnctratcs to distant arcas scparatcd lrom us by wastclands, to
gazc upon so many animals and thc trcmcndous varicty ol blcssings
bcstowcd by naturc in hcr gcncrosity, and thcn to uttcr this godlikc
claim: All thcsc things arc minc! This is how thc sagc comcs to
dcsirc nothing, sincc thcrc is nothing bcyond cvcrything.
(.r) You say, Thats what !vc bccn waiting lor! !vc got you now!
! want to scc how you can wrigglc out ol thc nct youvc lallcn into
all on your own. Tcll mc, how can anyonc makc a gilt to thc sagc il
all things bclong to thc sagc: For thc vcry thing that onc givcs to
him alrcady bclongs to him. So thc sagc cannot bc givcn a bcnct,
whatcvcr is givcn to him comcs lrom what hc alrcady owns. 8ut you
pcoplc
8
say that thc sagc can bc givcn things. Takc noticc as wcll that
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! am asking thc samc qucstion about lricnds. You pcoplc say that
cvcrything is sharcd among lricnds, and so no onc can givc any gilt
to a lricnd, sincc hc is giving him somcthing that is alrcady sharcd
with him.
(.z) Thcrc is no rcason why somcthing cannot bclong both to
thc sagc and also to thc pcrson who posscsscs it, to whom it has bccn
givcn and allottcd. Undcr civil law, all things bclong to thc king,
ncvcrthclcss, thc things that lall undcr thc kings unrcstrictcd claim
ol posscssion havc bccn distributcd to individual owncrs, cach and
cvcry thing is posscsscd by somc onc pcrson. And so wc can givc to
thc king a housc, a slavc, or somc moncy and it is not said that wc
givc him somcthing that hc alrcady owns. For thc king has authority
ovcr cvcrything, but individuals havc owncrship. (.) Vc rclcr to
thc domains ol thc Athcnians or thc Campanians, but as ncighbors
cach population thcn dividcs up its land among thcmsclvcs with
individual boundarics. !ts cntirc tcrritory ccrtainly
i
bclongs to cach
commonwcalth, but thcn cach part ol it is assigncd to a particular
owncr. And so wc can givc our lands to thc commonwcalth, although
thcy arc said to bclong to it, lor thcy bclong to thc commonwcalth
and to mc in dicrcnt scnscs. (.) Surcly thcrc is no doubt that a
slavc along with his pcrsonal moncy bclongs to his owncr. Yct hc
givcs his mastcr a gilt. !t is not that a slavc owns nothing just bccausc
hc would not own anything il his owncr did not want him to. And
whcn thc slavc givcs willingly, it docs not lail to bc a gilt just bccausc
it could havc bccn takcn lrom him cvcn il hc did not want to givc it.
(.) How can wc pro.e all such cascs: At this point wc both agrcc
that all things bclong to thc sagc. Vc must usc argumcnt to inlcr
thc answcr to our qucstion, how thcrc can still bc any possibility ol
gcncrosity towards somconc to whom wc havc agrccd that all things
bclong. (.6) vcrything in thc posscssion ol his childrcn bclongs to
thc lathcr. 8ut cvcryonc knows that cvcn a son can givc a gilt to his
lathcr. All things bclong to thc gods. And yct wc havc placcd gilts on
thcir altars and thrown thcm our coins. Vhat is minc docs not ccasc
to bc minc just bccausc what is minc is yours. For thc samc thing can
bc minc and also yours.
(.) Thc objcction is madc, Hc to whom prostitutcs bclong
is a pimp, but all things bclong to thc sagc, prostitutcs too arc in
cludcd in all things, thcrclorc prostitutcs bclong to thc sagc, but hc
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to whom prostitutcs bclong is a pimp. Thcrclorc thc sagc is a pimp.
(.8) This is thc way thcy prcvcnt thc sagc lrom buying anything.
Thcy say, No onc buys his own propcrty, but all things bclong to thc
sagc, thcrclorc thc sagc buys nothing. This is thc way thcy prcvcnt
thc sagc lrom taking out a loan, sincc no onc pays intcrcst on his own
moncy. Thcy dcploy countlcss sophistical quibblcs ol thc kind, cvcn
though thcy undcrstand pcrlcctly what wc arc saying.
(.r) !n point ol lact, my claim is that all things bclong to thc sagc
in such a way that ncvcrthclcss cach pcrson has pcrsonal owncrship
ovcr his own things, just as in an idcal monarchy thc king posscsscs
cvcrything in virtuc ol his rulc whilc individuals posscss things in
virtuc ol owncrship. Thcrc will comc a timc lor pro.ing this point,
but mcanwhilc this is cnough lor thc qucstion bclorc us: ! can givc to
thc sagc that which in onc scnsc bclongs to thc sagc and in anothcr
scnsc bclongs to mc. (.z) And it is not surprising that somcthing can
bc givcn to somconc to whom cvcrything bclongs. ! rcntcd a housc
lrom you. Thcrc is somcthing ol yours in thc housc and somcthing
ol minc. Thc thing itscll bclongs to you, but thc usc ol your thing
bclongs to mc. And so you cannot lay a hand on thc crops, cvcn il
thcy arc produccd on your own land, il your tcnant larmcr dcnics you
pcrmission, lurthcr, il grain is too cxpcnsivc and thcrc is a laminc,
alas, you will scc a grcat pilc bclong to anothcrto no avail,
9
al
though it was produccd on your land, is locatcd on your land, and will
bc storcd in your granary. (.) And you will not sct loot in my rcntal
housc, cvcn though you arc thc owncr, nor will you takc away your
slavc, il ! havc hircd him, and whcn ! havc rcntcd a carriagc lrom you,
you will bc rccciving a bcnct il ! givc you pcrmission to ridc in your
own vchiclc. Thcrclorc you scc that it can bc thc casc that a pcrson
can acccpt a gilt whcn hc acccpts somcthing that bclongs to him.
(6.r) !n all thc cascs ! havc adduccd, thcrc arc two owncrs ol thc
samc thing. How can that bc: nc ol thcm owns thc thing and thc
othcr owns thc usc ol thc thing. Vc say that somc books arc Ciccros,
orus thc bookscllcr says that thc samc books arc his own, and both
claims arc truc. nc claims thc books on thc grounds that hc wrotc
thcm, thc othcr on thc grounds that hc bought thcm. And it is right
to say that thc books bclong to both, lor thcy do bclong to both, just
not in thc samc way. This is how Livy can rcccivc as a prcscnt or cvcn
buy lrom orus his own books. (6.z) ! can givc to thc sagc somc
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thing that is individually minc cvcn though all things bclong to him.
For sincc hc is awarc ol posscssing all things in thc way that a king
docs, whilc thc owncrship ol individual things is sprcad out among
individuals, thc sagc can rcccivc a gilt and owc and buy and rcnt.
(6.) Cacsar owns cvcrything, but his trcasury |scus|
J0
contains only
his own privatc propcrty, and all things arc in his powcr, but only his
pcrsonal posscssions bclong to his cstatc. nc can ask what bclongs
to him and what docs not without inlringing on his powcr, lor somc
thing that is adjudgcd to bclong to somconc clsc still bclongs to him
in a dicrcnt scnsc. !n this way thc sagc owns cvcrything mcntally,
but only his pcrsonal propcrty in thc scnsc ol lcgal owncrship.
(.r) 8ion
JJ
uscs argumcnts to inlcr rst that cvcryonc is impious
and thcn that no onc is. Vhcn hc aims to hurl cvcryonc lrom thc
Tarpcian Rock
J2
hc says, Vhocvcr took what bclongs to thc gods,
cmploycd it, and put it to his own usc is impious, but all things bc
long to thc gods, thcrclorc, what cach pcrson takcs hc takcs lrom thc
gods, to whom cvcrything bclongs, thcrclorc, whocvcr takcs anything
is impious. (.z) Thcn, whcn hc urgcs us to brcak into tcmplcs and
to plundcr thc Capitol
J3
with impunity, hc says that no onc is impi
ous bccausc whatcvcr was takcn is mcrcly bcing translcrrcd lrom onc
placc that bclongs to thc gods to anothcr placc that bclongs to thc
gods. (.) Thc answcr to this is that all things do indccd bclong to
thc gods, but not all things arc dcdicatcd to thc gods, wc notc impi
cty only in thc casc ol things that rcligious obscrvancc has assigncd
to a divinity. Thus thc cntirc world is thc tcmplc ol thc immortal
gods, in lact thc only onc that is worthy ol thcir scalc and grcat
ncss, but ncvcrthclcss sacrcd and prolanc arcas arc distinguishcd. !n
a littlc corncr dcsignatcd as a shrinc you cannot do cvcrything you
can do undcr thc opcn sky, in lull vicw ol thc stars. An impious man
ccrtainly docs not do harm to a god, who is protcctcd lrom attack
by his divinc naturc, but hc is ncvcrthclcss punishcd on thc grounds
that hc actcd as though hc wcrc harming a god. His vicw about his
action and ours makc him subjcct to punishmcnt. (.) Thcrclorc,
somconc who stcals somcthing sacrcd sccms to bc impious, cvcn
il whcrcvcr hc took what hc stolc is still a placc within thc bound
arics ol thc world, and in thc samc way cvcn thc sagc can bc robbcd.
For what is stolcn lrom him is not onc ol thc things that bclong to
his univcrsal domain, but rathcr onc ol thc things ol which hc is
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thc lcgally rcgistcrcd owncr and which bclong to him individually.
(.) Hc will asscrt his right ol owncrship in thc lormcr scnsc, but hc
will not want owncrship in thc lattcr scnsc, cvcn il hc can gct it. Hc
will uttcr that lamous statcmcnt madc by thc Roman commandcr
J4

whcn, as a rcward lor his couragc and scrvicc to thc commonwcalth,
hc was grantcd by dccrcc as much land as hc could plow around in
a day, hc said, You do not nccd a citizcn who nccds morc than onc
citizcns sharc. You will think him an cvcn grcatcr man lor having rc
jcctcd this gilt than lor having carncd it. Many pcoplc havc brcachcd
othcr mcns boundarics, but no onc has sct limits to his own.
(8.r) So whcn wc considcr thc mind ol thc sagc, in control ol cv
crything and lrcc to roam thc univcrsc, thcn wc say that all things bc
long to him. 8ut whcn wc look to thc mundanc lcgal situation, il hc
has to bc asscsscd, it will bc in thc lowcst ccnsus catcgory.
J5
!t makcs
a big dicrcncc whcthcr onc asscsscs his holdings by thc grcatncss ol
his mind or by his ccnsus rating. (8.z) Rathcr, hc will rcjcct thc idca
ol posscssing cvcrything in thc scnsc you mcan. ! will not mcntion
Socratcs, Chrysippus, Zcno, and othcrs, grcat mcn to bc surcall
thc grcatcr, in lact, bccausc cnvy docs not gct in thc way ol praisc lor
thc ancicnts. ! mcntioncd cmctrius a whilc back, it sccms to mc
that naturc brought him lorth in our agc to makc thc point that hc
could not bc corruptcd by us any morc than wc could bc castigatcd
by him. Though hc might dcny it, hc is a man ol supcrb wisdom,
with an unbcnding consistcncy in carrying out his intcntions and thc
kind ol cloqucncc that suits thc most scrious mattcrs, rathcr than thc
ornamcntal kind that lrcts ovcr thc nicctics ol dictionan cloqucncc
dctcrmincd to pursuc its subjcct with passionatc commitmcnt, with
truc grcatncss ol mind. (8.) ! am ccrtain that providcncc gavc him
thc way ol lilc hc has and thc rhctorical skill hc posscsscs so that
our agc would havc an cxamplc to lollow and a rcbukc to hccd. !l
somc god wantcd to givc our wcalth to cmctrius to kccp, on thc
condition that hc not bc allowcd to givc any ol it as a gilt, ! vcnturc
to claim that hc would rcjcct thc ocr, saying as lollows:
(q.r) ! ccrtainly will not tic myscll to that incscapablc burdcn, nor
will ! scnd my discncumbcrcd scll into thc dccp scwcrs ol wcalth.
Vhy do you loist on mc thc vcry things that harm all pcoplcs:
! would not acccpt it cvcn il ! wcrc going to givc it away, sincc !
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can scc that thcrc arc many things which it would not bct mc
to givc. ! want to takc a good look at thc things that blind thc
cycs ol nations and kings, ! want to gazc upon what has bccn
purchascd with your blood and livcs. (q.z) First, sct bclorc mc
thc spoils takcn lrom luxury, laid out in ordcrly array il you want,
ora bcttcr idcahcapcd up in a singlc pilc. ! scc tortoiscshcll
ncly workcd with painstaking ornamcntation, thc protcctivc cas
ing ol thc most rcvolting and slothlul animal, yct purchascd lor
an cnormous pricc, thc varicgatcd colors that plcasc thc cyc arc
thcmsclvcs tintcd with dycs applicd to makc thcm look rcal. ! scc
bclorc mc tablcs madc ol wood worth as much as thc scnatorial
ccnsus qualication,
J6
all thc morc cxpcnsivc il it comcs lrom an
illomcncd trcc
J7
and is gnarlcd with many knots in it. (q.) ! scc
bclorc mc crystal vcsscls whosc lragility incrcascs thcir pricc, thc
plcasurc takcn in anything by incxpcricnccd pcoplc is incrcascd
by thc risks it is subjcct to, a lactor that ought to climinatc oncs
cnjoymcnt. ! scc cups madc ol agatc! gucss luxury isnt prccious
cnough unlcss thcy drink toasts to cach othcr lrom gcmstoncs
bclorc thcy vomit up thcir winc. (q.) ! scc pcarls, not onc lor
cach carringlor by now cars havc bccn traincd to sustain thc
wcightbut in clustcrs, rst in pairs and thcn with othcrs addcd
to thc sct. Fcmininc madncss could not havc adcquatcly out
strippcd thc masculinc vcrsion unlcss two or thrcc inhcritanccs
had danglcd lrom cach car. (q.) ! scc silk garmcntsil you can
call thcm garmcnts! Thcrc is not cnough substancc thcrc to pro
tcct thc body, or cvcn its modcsty. Vhcn a woman is wcaring
thcm, shc cannot quitc makc an honcst claim not to bc nakcd.
Thcsc clothcs arc acquircd at cnormous cost lrom pcoplcs that arc
not cvcn on rcgular tradc routcsall so that our marricd womcn
wont bc showing morc to thcir lovcrs in thc boudoir than thcy
rcvcal in public.
(ro.r) Grccd! Vhat is going on with you: Your gold is out
priccd by thc cost ol so many commoditics. All thc things ! havc
mcntioncd arc morc valuablc than gold and morc apprcciatcd too.
Now ! want to inspcct your wcalth, gold and silvcr platc, which
blinds us with cupidity. (ro.z) My god! Altcr bringing lorth cv
crything that could bc usclul to us, thc carth has dug down and
buricd gold and silvcr, trcating thcm likc dangcrous substanccs
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whosc availability would bc a banc to all pcoplcs, and so piling hcr
wholc wcight on top ol thcm. ! scc that iron has bccn cxcavatcd
lrom thc samc dark pits that producc gold and silvcr, so that
mutual slaughtcr could havc suitablc wcapons as wcll as a propcr
payo. (ro.) 8ut so lar this kind ol wcalth has at lcast somc
substancc. Thcrc is anothcr kind, which lcads thc mind into thc
samc crror that accts thc cycs. ! scc bclorc mc documcnts, con
tracts, guarantccs, vain imagcs ol propcrtythc dark corncrs ol
a grccd that is plotting to cntrap a mind which takcs plcasurc in
bclicving cmpty gmcnts. Vhat are thcsc things: Vhat is dcbt,
what is a lcdgcr, what is intcrcst: Nothing but unnatural namcs
lor simplc human grccd. (ro.) ! could complain that Naturc did
not bury gold and silvcr cvcn dccpcr in thc ground, that shc did
not pilc on it a wcight too grcat cvcr to bc rcmovcd. Just what arc
thosc account books: Vhat arc your nancial calculations: Vhat
docs it mcan to put timc itscll up lor salc, with that bloodthirsty
ratc ol onc pcrccnt a month: Thcsc arc cvils, lrccly choscn and
gcncratcd by our lcgal systcm, but thcrc is nothing in thcm that
cycs can scc or that can bc hcld in oncs hand. Thcsc arc drcams
ol pointlcss grccd. (ro.) Vrctchcd is hc who nds plcasurc in thc
lat account book hc inhcritcd, in thc hugc cstatcs tillcd by mcn in
chains, in thc boundlcss hcrds ol cattlc that grazc wholc provinccs
and kingdoms, in slavcs morc numcrous than hostilc tribcs, and in
privatc homcs morc cxpansivc than grcat citics. (ro.6) Vhcn hc
has survcycd thc ways his wcalth is invcstcd, and spcnt and madc
himscll lccl proud about it, thcn lct him comparc what hc has
with what hc dcsircshc is still a poor man. Sct mc lrcc and lct
mc go back to my own richcs. ! know thc kingdom ol wisdom in
all its grcatncss and sccurity. ! posscss all things just in thc scnsc
that thcy bclong to cvcryonc.
(rr.r) And so whcn Gaius Cacsar
J8
ocrcd to givc him two hun
drcd thousand, cmctrius laughcd and rcluscd it, thinking that it
was not cvcn worth boasting about rcjccting that amount. Grcat gods
and goddcsscs in hcavcn! How smallmindcd Gaius was, whcthcr
hc was trying to honor him or to corrupt him. (rr.z) Lct mc bcar
witncss to this outstanding man, ! hcard him say somcthing magni
ccnt whcn hc was cxprcssing surprisc that Gaius was crazy cnough
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to supposc that hc could bc swaycd by that amount. Hc said, !l hc
rcally wantcd to put mc to thc tcst, hc should havc tcmptcd mc by
ocring thc cntirc cmpirc!
(rz.r) Thcrclorc a sagc can bc givcn somcthing cvcn though all
things bclong to thc sagc. Similarly, thcrc is no rcason why somcthing
cannot bc givcn to a lricnd, cvcn though wc say that lricnds havc
all things in common. For all things arc sharcd bctwccn mc and my
lricnd not in thc way thcy arc sharcd with a busincss partncr (onc
part bcing minc, onc part bcing his), but in thc way thc childrcn arc
sharcd by thc mothcr and thc lathcr. !l thcy havc two childrcn, thc
parcnts do not havc onc cach, but rathcr cach has both. (rz.z) First
ol all, ! shall now procccd to makc anyonc who ocrs to go into a
partncrship with mc know that hc sharcs nothing with mc. How so:
8ccausc this kind ol joint vcnturc only cxists among sagcs, among
whom lricndship cxists.
J9
thcr pcoplc arc no morc lricnds than thcy
arc partncrs. (rz.) Ncxt, thcrc arc many ways lor things to bc sharcd.
qucstrian scating bclongs to all Roman cquitcs,
20
but among thosc
scats thcrc is still onc that bclongs to mc: thc onc that ! am sitting
in. !l ! givc up this scat lor somconc clsc, thcn although ! havc givcn
up somcthing that is sharcd propcrty ! still think that ! havc givcn
him somcthing. (rz.) Thcrc arc somc things that bclong to ccrtain
pcoplc undcr xcd conditions. ! havc a scat in thc cqucstrian scction,
not to scll, not to rcnt, not to livc in, but lor just onc purposc: to scc
thc show. And that is why ! am not wrong to say that ! havc a scat in
thc cqucstrian scction. 8ut il, whcn ! gct to thc thcatcr, thc cqucstrian
scction is lull, thcn ! both havc a scat thcrc by right (bccausc ! am
allowcd to sit thcrc) and ! also dont havc a scat thcrc (bccausc it has
bccn takcn by thosc who sharc with mc thc right to sit thcrc). (rz.)
Think ol thc situation with lricnds as bcing thc samc. Vhatcvcr a
lricnd has is sharcd with us, but it is his bccausc hc posscsscs it. !
cannot usc it without his pcrmission. You say, Yourc joking with
mc, il what bclongs to a lricnd is minc ! should bc allowcd to scll
it. No, you arc not allowcd to scll it. For you also cannot scll scats
in thc cqucstrian scction at thc thcatcr and ncvcrthclcss thcy arc
sharcd bctwccn you and thc othcr cquitcs. (rz.6) !t is not a prool that
somcthing is not yours il you arc not allowcd to scll it, usc it up or
altcr it lor bcttcr or worsc. For somcthing that is yours undcr xcd
tcrms is still yours.
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! havc rcccivcd, but ccrtainly no lcss.
2J
Not to drag thc
point out, a bcnct cannot bc grcatcr. Vhat can bc grcatcr or morc
numcrous arc thc things by mcans ol which thc bcnct is givcn,
thcsc arc thc channcls that gcncrosity pours itscll into and whcrc
it indulgcs itscll thc way lovcrs do, thc cxtra kisscs and thc tightcr
hugs dont actually incrcasc thc lovc, but thcy givc it thc spacc to
cxprcss itscll.
(r.r) Thc ncxt qucstion too has largcly bccn dcalt with in prc
vious books,
22
and so it will bc touchcd upon only bricy. For thc
argumcnts applicd to othcr qucstions can bc applicd to this onc as
wcll. Thc qucstion is whcthcr somconc who has madc cvcry cort
to rcturn a bcnct has in lact rcturncd it. (r.z) Thc opponcnt says,
Thc lact that hc madc cvcry cort to rcturn it should tcll you that
hc did not rcturn it. So it is clcar that thc thing which hc lackcd thc
opportunity to do was not in lact donc. And somconc who lookcd
all ovcr lor his crcditor in ordcr to pay his dcbt, but did not nd him,
has not paid him thc moncy. (r.) Somc actions arc such that thcy
ought to succccd, lor othcrs, making cvcry cort to succccd counts as
succcss. !l a doctor makcs cvcry cort to curc his paticnt, thcn hc has
donc his job. And cvcn il thc dclcndant is lound guilty, thc dclcnsc
lawycrs rcsponsibility has bccn lulllcd, providing hc has cmploycd
all his powcrs. !l a military lcadcr carrics out his rcsponsibilitics with
intclligcncc, hard work, and couragc, thcn hc is praiscd lor his gcn
cralship cvcn il hc is dclcatcd in battlc. (r.) Hc madc cvcry cort
to rcpay thc bcnct, but your good lortunc got in his way. Nothing
advcrsc happcncd to you to tcst thc truth ol his lricndship. Hc was
unablc to givc you a gcncrous gilt, sincc you arc rich, to sit by your
bcdsidc, sincc you arc in good hcalth, to comc to your rcscuc, sincc
you cnjoy good lortunc. 8ut hc rcturncd your lavor cvcn il you did
not rcccivc a bcnct. Furthcrmorc, somconc who dcvotcs a lot ol
attcntion and carc to this, constantly locuscd on it and always on
thc lookout lor thc opportunity to rcpay, puts morc work into it
than somconc lucky cnough to makc a quick rcturn ol thc lavor.
(r.) Thc casc ol thc dcbtor is dicrcnt, lor him it is not cnough to
havc gonc looking lor thc moncy unlcss hc actually rcpays it. For in
his casc thcrc is an cxacting crcditor looming ovcr him, somconc who
ncvcr lcts a day go by lrcc ol chargc, whilc in thc casc ol a bcnct thc
crcditor is thc soul ol kindncss, and whcn hc sccs that you arc run
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ning around in a statc ol ncrvous anxicty hc says, Put thosc worrics
out ol your mind,
23
stop upsctting yourscll. ! havc all ! nccd lrom
you and it would bc an insult il you thought that ! wantcd anything
morc lrom you. Your good intcntions havc gottcn through to mc loud
and clcar. (r.6) Thc objcction is madc: Tcll mc, il hc had rcpaid
thc bcnct you would say that hc had rcturncd thc lavor. So arc thcy
in thc samc situation, thc onc who rcpaid thc bcnct and thc onc
who did not: Vcll, on thc othcr hand think ol it this way. !l hc had
lorgottcn that hc had cvcr rcccivcd a bcnct and il hc had not cvcn
tricd to bc gratclul, you would ccrtainly dcny that hc had rcturncd
your lavor. 8ut thc man wc arc considcring worc himscll out day and
night, sct asidc all ol his othcr rcsponsibilitics to locus on and dcvotc
himscll to this onc thing, not to miss any opportunity. So will thcy bc
in thc samc situation, thc man who rcluscd to carc about rcturning
thc lavor and thc man who ncvcr ccascd dwclling on it: You arc bcing
unjust il you dcmand concrctc rcpaymcnt whcn you can scc that my
intcntions havc not bccn wanting.
(r.r) !n bricl, imaginc thc lollowing sccnario. You havc bccn cap
turcd and ! borrow moncy, using my own propcrty as sccurity with
thc lcndcr, and sail, thc wintcr thcn
iii
bcing harsh, along shorcs bcsct
by bandits, cnduring all thc dangcrs that cvcn a pacicd sca prcscnts.
! cross all thc dcscrts and wastclands, scarching lor thc vcry pcoplc
whom cvcryonc trics to avoid, and thcn at last ! rcach thc piratcs. 8ut
somconc clsc has alrcady ransomcd you. Vould you say that ! had
not rcturncd thc lavor: And il on that journcy ! was shipwrcckcd and
lost all thc moncy ! had borrowcd to pay your ransom, and il ! was
myscll imprisoncd in thc vcry chains ! was trying to lrcc you lrom,
would you say that ! had not rcturncd thc lavor: (r.z) 8ut by god,
thc Athcnians rclcr to Harmodius and Aristogciton as tyrannicidcs!
24

And thc hand that Mucius lclt bchind on thc altar ol thc cncmy was
as good as Porscnnas dcath!
25
\irtuc constantly struggling against
lortunc shincs lorth cvcn il it docs not carry out its intcndcd ac
tion. Thc man who pursucd clusivc opportunitics and graspcd at
onc mcans altcr anothcr to rcturn thc lavor providcd you with morc
than somconc who, without brcaking a swcat, was madc a gratclul
man by thc rst opportunity that camc along. (r.) Thc objcction
is madc, Hc providcd you with two things, his willingncss and thc
propcrty. And so you owc two things to him. This would bc a lair
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rcply to somconc who rcpaid you with slothlul intcntions, but you
cannot say this to thc man who wants and trics and lcavcs no stonc
unturncd. For hc docs providc you with both things, to thc cxtcnt
that it is in his powcr. (r.) Furthcrmorc, thcrc is not always a onc
toonc corrcspondcncc, somctimcs onc thing has thc wcight ol two,
and so a dcsirc to rcpay that is so cnthusiastic and cagcr can stand in
lor thc matcrial propcrty. 8ut il intcntions without thc propcrty do
not su cc to rcturn a lavor, thcn no onc is gratclul to thc godsour
intcntions arc thc only thing wc ocr thcm. (r.) Thc rcply is, Ycs,
but that is all wc can providc to thc gods. 8ut il ! cannot in lact pro
vidc anything morc to thc pcrson to whom ! am supposcd to rcturn a
lavor, thcn why would ! not bc considcrcd gratclul to a human bcing
whcn ! do not ocr anything morc, not cvcn to thc gods:
(r6.r) 8ut il you ask my considcrcd opinion and want it signcd
and scalcd: thc original givcr should considcr that hc has had his
bcnct rcciprocatcd, but thc original rccipicnt should bc awarc that
hc has not rcpaid it. Thc lormcr should rclcasc him lrom his obliga
tion, but thc lattcr should bind himscll. Thc lormcr should say, !
havc rcccivcd, and thc lattcr should say ! still owc. (r6.z) !n han
dling cvcry qucstion, lct us kccp in vicw thc public good. !ngratcs
should bc dcprivcd ol cxcuscs, so that thcy cannot takc covcr among
thcm and usc thcm to hidc thcir rcpudiation. ! did all ! could. So
kccp on doing it now. (r6.) Vhat: o you think our anccstors wcrc
so loolish that thcy could not scc that it is cxtrcmcly unlair to trcat
as cquals thc man who squandcrcd his crcditors moncy on lust and
gambling and thc man who, through rc or robbcry or somc othcr
sad mislortunc, lost somconc clscs moncy along with his own: Thcy
madc no provision lor cxcuscs, so that pcoplc should know that onc
must always maintain good laith. !t would in lact bc bcttcr to rclusc
to acccpt a rcasonablc cxcusc lrom a lcw pcoplc than to havc cvcry
onc trying out somc cxcusc or othcr. (r6.) You madc cvcry cort to
rcpay: That should bc cnough lor him, but not lor you. For il thc
pcrson to whom thc lavor should bc rcturncd allows constant hcroic
corts to bc trcatcd as pointlcss, hc is unworthy ol thosc corts,
but by thc samc tokcn you arc ungratclul unlcss thc lact that hc has
rclcascd you makcs you cvcn happicr to continuc to lccl indcbtcd
to thc man who has acccptcd your good intcntions as paymcnt. You
should not grasp at thc rclcasc lrom obligation, and you should not
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dcclarc it bclorc witncsscs. cspitc bcing rclcascd, you should kccp
on looking lor opportunitics to rcpay. Rcpay onc man bccausc hc
sccks rcpaymcnt, rcpay thc othcr bccausc hc lcts you o. Thc lattcr
bccausc hc is good, thc lormcr bccausc hc is bad.
(r6.) And hcrc is a qucstion which thcrc is no rcason lor you
to think mattcrs to you: Should somconc rcturn thc bcnct hc has
rcccivcd lrom a sagc il hc has ccascd to bc a sagc and has bccomc
bad: For you would rcturn a dcposit that you had takcn lrom a sagc,
cvcn to a bad man you would rcturn a loan. Vhy wouldnt you rcturn
a bcnct too: Just bccausc hc has changcd, should that changc you:
(r6.6) Vhat: !l you had acccptcd somcthing lrom a hcalthy pcrson,
would you not rcturn it to him whcn hc got sick: For wc always owc
morc to a lricnd who is in a wcakcncd condition. Vcll, thc pcrson
wc arc talking about is sick in his mind. So lct him bc assistcd, lct
him bc tolcratcd. Folly is just a mcntal illncss.
(r.r) To makc thc mattcr clcarcr, ! think thc lollowing distinction
nccds to bc madc. Thcrc arc two kinds ol bcnct. Thc rst is that
which can only bc givcn by a sagc to a sagc, this is thc complctc and
gcnuinc bcnct. Thc sccond is common and ordinary, thc kind that
wc noncxpcrts tradc in. (r.z) Vith rcgard to this lattcr kind, thcrc
is no doubt that ! ought to makc a rcpaymcnt to thc givcr no mat
tcr what his charactcrwhcthcr hc turncd out to bc a murdcrcr or
a thicl or an adultcrcr. Crimcs arc covcrcd by thc rclcvant laws, and
it is bcttcr lor a judgc to corrcct thc wrongdocrs than lor an ingratc
to do so. ont lct anyonc makc you into a bad pcrson just bccausc
hc is. ! will throw a bcnct to a bad man and makc rcpaymcnt to a
good manto thc lattcr bccausc ! am in his dcbt, to thc lormcr to
gct out ol his dcbt.
(r8.r) Thcrc is a dcbatc about thc othcr kind ol bcnct. !l ! could
not havc acccptcd it unlcss ! was a sagc, thcn ! cannot rcpay it to any
onc but a sagc. 8ut supposc that ! do rcpay him, hc cannot rcccivc
it, hc is no longcr capablc ol bcing rcpaid, having lost his knowlcdgc
ol how to makc usc ol it. Vhat would happcn il you urgcd mc to
rcturn thc ball to a man who had lost his hand: !t is stupid to givc
anyonc somcthing that hc cannot rcccivc. (r8.z) !n rcsponsc, ! will
start lrom your last point. ! will not gi.e to anyonc somcthing that
hc cannot rcccivc, ! will, howcvcr, return it cvcn il hc cannot rcccivc
it. For ! cannot put him undcr obligation unlcss hc rcccivcs it, but il
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! havc madc a rcturn thcn at lcast ! can bc lrccd lrom obligation. Hc
cannot makc usc ol it: Lct him worry about that, thc lault is with
him, not with mc.
(rq.r) Thc rcjoindcr is, To rcturn somcthing is to hand it ovcr
to somconc who will rcccivc it. So thcn: !l you owc somconc somc
winc and hc tclls you to pour it into a nct or a sicvc, will you say
that you rcturncd it: r will you bc prcparcd to rcturn somcthing
that is bound to bc lost in thc translcr lrom onc to thc othcr:
(rq.z) To rcturn somcthing is to givc back what you owc to thc pcr
son it bclongs to, il that pcrson wants it. That is all ! havc to do. That
hc should actually posscss what hc rcccivcd lrom mc is a distinct is
suc. ! owc him good laith, not thc scrviccs ol a guardian, it is a much
bcttcr situation lor him not to posscss it than lor mc not to rcturn it.
(rq.) ! will rcpay my crcditor cvcn il hc is going to go straight o and
squandcr it on lancy loods, il hc assigns my dcbt to a mistrcss, ! will
cvcn makc that paymcnt. And ! will givc him his moncy cvcn il hc
takcs thc coins and lcts thcm lall through thc holcs in his pockcts.
26

My job is to makc thc rcturn, not to protcct and look out lor it oncc
! havc donc so. Vhat ! owc him is guardianship ol thc bcnct that
! rcccivcd, not thc onc that ! rcpaid. ! will scc that it is salc whilc it
is with mc. 8ut cvcn though it will just run through thc ngcrs ol
thc rccipicnt, onc must still givc it back to him whcn hc asks. ! will
rcturn a bcnct to a good man whcn it is constructivc to do so, to a
bad man whcn hc asks lor it.
(rq.) Thc rcply is, You will not bc ablc to rcturn thc kind ol
bcnct you rcccivcd, sincc you acccptcd it lrom a sagc but arc rcturn
ing it to a lool. Not so. ! rcturn to him thc sort ol thing that hc is
now capablc ol rccciving. !t is not my doing that ! will rcturn what
! rcccivcd in a worsc condition, it is his doing, sincc il hc rcgains his
wisdom thcn ! will bc rcturning it in thc samc condition in which !
rcccivcd it, but whilc hc is a bad man ! will bc rcturning thc bcnct
in thc condition in which hc can rcccivc it.
(rq.) Thc rcply: Vhat il hc hasnt just bccomc bad, but a vcri
tablc wild bcast, a monstcr likc Apollodorus or Phalaris:
27
Vill you
still rcturn to him thc bcnct that you rcccivcd: Naturc docs not
pcrmit ol so grcat a changc in thc charactcr ol thc sagc, onc docs
not lall dircctly lrom thc bcst statc to thc worst. Somc traccs ol thc
good must rcmain cvcn in a bad pcrson. \irtuc is ncvcr so thoroughly
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snucd out that it docs not lcavc bchind somc marks on thc mind
that arc too xcd to bc crascd by any changc ol charactcr. (rq.6) !l
bcasts arc raiscd by humans and thcn cscapc into thc wild, thcy rctain
somc ol thcir original tamcncss, thcy arc as dicrcnt lrom thc truly
gcntlc spccics as thcy arc lrom rcally wild bcasts that havc ncvcr bccn
handlcd by humans. No onc who has cvcr clung to wisdom lalls into
thc dcpths ol wickcdncss, hc is dycd so dccply that thc tint could
ncvcr bc complctcly washcd out and rcplaccd by a truly bad color.
(rq.) Ncxt point: ! will ask whcthcr his bcastlincss is only an
intcrnal lcaturc ol thc mans mind or whcthcr it makcs lorays bcyond
and docs rcal harm to othcrs. For you put to mc as cxamplcs Phalaris
and anothcr~ tyrant,
iv
il a bad man has thcir naturc but kccps it
insidc, thcn why shouldnt ! rcturn his bcnct to him to avoid having
any lurthcr dcalings with him: (rq.8) 8ut il hc docs not just cnjoy
human blood but actually lccds on it and puts his insatiablc cruclty
to work in torturing pcoplc ol all agcs, raging not bccausc ol simplc
angcr but bccausc ol somc crazy bloodlust, il hc stranglcs childrcn
bclorc thc cycs ol thcir parcnts, il hc is not satiscd with just killing
pcoplc but torturcs thcm to dcath, docs not just burn thcm but cooks
thcm until thcy arc wcll donc, il his citadcl drips with blood that is
always lrcshowingwcll, in that casc it is not cnough to dcclinc
to rcturn a bcnct. Vhatcvcr thcrc oncc was that conncctcd him to
mc has bccn scvcrcd by thc brcaking ol our bond ol sharcd humanity.
(rq.q) !l hc had providcd mc with somc bcnct but thcn took arms
against my homcland, hc would havc lost all crcdit lor his gilt and it
would bc thought a crimc to rcturn his lavor. !l hc docs not attack my
homcland but is a thrcat to his own and tormcnts it whilc kccping his
distancc lrom my pcoplc, ncvcrthclcss this kind ol mcntal pcrvcrsion
cuts him o, cvcn il it docsnt makc him my cncmy, it makcs mc hatc
him. Thc undcrstanding ! havc ol my rcsponsibility to thc human
racc comcs rst, and it counts lor morc than my rcsponsibility to
any onc pcrson.
(zo.r) 8ut dcspitc all ol this, and cvcn though ! havc a complctcly
lrcc hand against him cvcr sincc hc rcmovcd any lawlul rcstrictions
on action against himscll by uttcrly dcstroying thc sanctity ol law,
still ! bclicvc that ! should obscrvc this limit with rcspcct to him: il
thc bcnct ! givc to him will not incrcasc his luturc strcngth or cvcn
consolidatc thc powcrs hc has in such a way as to producc widcsprcad
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dcstruction, but will bc somcthing that ! can rcpay to him without
doing public harm, thcn ! will rcpay him. (zo.z) ! will savc thc lilc ol
his inlant childwhat harm will this bcnct do to any ol thc victims
ol his vicious cruclty: ! will not supply moncy that hc can usc to pay
his bodyguard. !l hc has a dcsirc lor marblc statucs and nc clothing,
thc mcans lor supplying his luxurics will not harm anyonc, ! will not
undcrwritc his army and wcapons. (zo.) !l hc rcqucsts as a grand
gilt actors, whorcs, and things that will soltcn his lcrocious naturc,
! will bc happy to providc thcm. ! would not scnd him trircmcs and
armorcd ships, but ! will scnd him plcasurc cralt, luxury yachts, and
thc othcr playthings ol royalty who likc to lrolic at sca. And il thcrc
is no hopc whatsocvcr lor his sanity, thcn with thc samc strokc
28
!
will rcturn thc lavor and conlcr a bcnct on cvcryonc. For such cor
rupt charactcrs, dcath is a curc, il hc is ncvcr going to comc back to
himscll thcn it is bcst lor him to makc his cxit.
(zo.) 8ut that kind ol wickcdncss is unusual and is always con
sidcrcd to bc a portcnt,
v
likc a gap opcning up in thc carth or blasts
ol rc crupting lrom undcrsca cavcrns. And so lct us back o lrom
this wickcdncss, and spcak rathcr ol thosc viccs which wc hatc but
do not drcad. (zo.) ! will makc rcpaymcnt to this kind ol bad pcrson,
thc sort you can nd in cvcry markctplacc and whom individuals lcar,
lor a bcnct that ! havc rcccivcd. !t isnt right that his wickcdncss
should work to my advantagc. Things that arc not rcally minc should
go back to thcir owncr. Vhat dicrcncc docs it makc whcthcr hc is
good or bad: ! would invcstigatc that qucstion with grcat carc il it
wcrc a mattcr ol making a gilt to him rathcr than rcturning onc.
(zr.r) This topic calls lor a story. A ccrtain Pythagorcan had pur
chascd a pair ol spccial whitc shocs lrom a cobblcr, it was a major
purchasc, madc on crcdit. Somc days latcr hc wcnt to thc cobblcrs
shop to pay up, and whcn hc had bccn knocking on thc door lor a
long timc somconc camc by and said, ont wastc your timc. Thc
cobblcr you arc looking lor is dcad, crcmatcd alrcady. This is sad lor
us, no doubt, sincc wc losc our lovcd oncs lorcvcr, but not so sad
lor you, sincc you know that hc will cvcntually bc rcbornhc was
poking lun at thc Pythagorcan. (zr.z) 8ut without hcsitation our
philosophcr wcnt homc with his thrcc or lour dcnarii, jingling thcm
lrom timc to timc. Thcn, whcn hc had criticizcd his own sccrct plca
surc at not having to pay lor thc shocs and rcalizcd that hc had bccn
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gloating ovcr that bit ol pcrsonal prot, hc wcnt back to thc samc
shop and said, !n your cycs hc is alivc, so pay what you owc. Thcn
hc put lour dcnarii into thc shop, through thc shuttcr whcrc a crack
had opcncd up, punishing himscll lor his unprinciplcd grccd so that
hc would not gct uscd to bcing in dcbt.
(zz.r) Try to nd somconc to whom you can pay back what you
owc, and il no onc asks lor rcpaymcnt, thcn dcmand it ol yourscll.
!t makcs no dicrcncc to you whcthcr hc is good or bad. Rcpay him
rst, thcn criticizc him. You havc lorgottcn how thc rcsponsibilitics
arc dividcd up bctwccn you. Thc givcr has bccn ordcrcd to lorgct thc
gilt, but wc havc instructcd you, thc rccipicnt, to rcmcmbcr it.
29
8ut
it is a mistakc to think that whcn wc say that thc pcrson who gavc
thc bcnct ought to lorgct it, wc arc stripping him ol all mcmory ol
so honorablc a dccd. Somctimcs wc givc cxaggcratcd advicc, so that
it can achicvc its propcr and intcndcd rcsult in thc cnd. (zz.z) Vhcn
wc say, Hc ought not to rcmcmbcr, wc mcan this: Hc should not
publicizc thc bcnct, or boast ol it, or bc obnoxious about it. For
thcrc arc somc pcoplc who go around tclling cvcryonc about thc
bcncts thcy havc givcn. Thcy talk about it whcn sobcr and can
not kccp thcir mouths shut whcn drunk, thcy prcss thc inlormation
onto strangcrs and tcll it to thcir lricnds in condcncc. So in ordcr
to rcprcss this cxccssivc, scolding lorm ol mcmory, wc instructcd thc
givcr to lorgct, by dcmanding morc than could bc achicvcd, wc havc
at lcast urgcd him to silcncc. (z.r) Vhcn you cannot quitc trust thc
pcoplc to whom you arc giving ordcrs you must dcmand morc ol
thcm than what is nccdcd, so that thc right lcvcl ol compliancc is
achicvcd. Thc point ol hypcrbolc is, in cvcry casc, to gct to thc truth
by way ol a lalschood. So whcn \irgil rclcrrcd to somconc who
surpasscd snow in whitcncss and thc winds in spccd,
30
hc dcscribcd
somcthing impossiblc in ordcr to communicatc thc notion as much
as was possiblc. And whcn vid said, morc stablc than thc rocks,
morc tumultuous than a rushing rivcr,
3J
hc did not rcmotcly supposc
that hc would pcrsuadc pcoplc that anyonc was morc stablc than a
rock. (z.z) Hypcrbolc ncvcr cxpccts to achicvc all that it aspircs to,
instcad, it claims thc unbclicvablc in ordcr to sccurc thc bclicvablc.
Vhcn wc say, Lct thc givcr ol thc bcnct lorgct it, wc arc rcally
saying, Lct him bc like somconc who has lorgottcn, lct his mcmory
not bc apparcnt or intrusivc. (z.) Vhcn wc say that it is not right
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to ask lor rcpaymcnt ol a bcnct, wc do not uttcrly climinatc such
rcqucsts, lor oltcn bad pcoplc nccd somconc to dun thcm and cvcn
good pcoplc can usc a rcmindcr. Vcll thcn: Should ! not suggcst a
suitablc opportunity lor rcpaymcnt to somconc who has not noticcd
it: Shall ! not rcvcal my nccds to him: Vhy should hc bc allowcd
to dcny that hc kncw my nccds, or rcgrct that hc didnt: Thcrc is
somctimcs room lor a rcmindcr, but a gcntlc onconc that docs not
makc dcmands or thrcatcn lcgal action.
(z.r) Socratcs oncc said to his lricnds who wcrc in attcndancc,
!l ! had thc moncy, ! would havc bought a cloak. Hc did not ask
anyonc lor a cloak, but hc rcmindcd thcm all. Thcrc was a compcti
tion ovcr whom hc would rcccivc it lromnaturally cnough. For
it was a small cnough gilt to givc to Socratcs, but it was a vcry big
thing to bc thc onc lrom whom Socratcs rcccivcd it. (z.z) Hc could
not possibly havc criticizcd thcm morc gcntly. Hc said, !l ! had thc
moncy ! would havc bought a cloak. Altcr hc said this, anyonc who
rushcd to givc was still latc in doing so, Socratcs was alrcady in nccd.
8ccausc ol crucl collcction agcnts, wc lorbid rcmindcrsnot so that
no onc cvcr rcminds, but so that it is donc sparingly.
(z.r) ncc whilc savoring a pcrlumc Aristippus said,
32
A cursc
upon thosc lops lor giving a bad namc to such a nc thing! Similarly
wc should say, A cursc upon thosc wickcd, incxiblc pcoplc who
would likc to takc you to court ovcr thcir bcncts lor having dc
stroycd such a nc thing as rcmindcrs among lricnds. Ncvcrthclcss
! will rcly on thc rights ol lricndship and scck rcpaymcnt ol a bcnct
lrom somconc lrom whom ! would havc askcd it in thc rst placc,
somconc who will think ol thc opportunity to rcpay thc rst bcnct
as bcing itscll a sccond bcnct. (z.z) ! wont say, cvcn whcn ! am
complaining, ! took you in, shipwrcckcd and hungry, and was crazy
cnough to sharc my kingdom with you.
33
This isnt a rcmindcr, its a
rcbukc. This is how bcncts gct rcduccd to hatrcd, this is thc way to
makc ingratitudc sccm pcrmissiblc, cvcn plcasant. !t is cnough and
morc to prod his mcmory with quict and lricndly words: !l ! havc
cvcr bccn ol scrvicc to you or il ! havc cvcr plcascd you. . . .
34
Thcn
hc can say in rcply, l coursc you havc. You took mc in whcn ! was
shipwrcckcd and hungry.
(z6.r) Thc rcply is, 8ut supposc this docsnt gct us anywhcrc. Hc
prctcnds not to know what ! am talking about. Hc has lorgottcn.
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Vhat should ! do thcn: You arc asking about an absolutcly vital is
suc, onc that dcscrvcs to bc thc culmination ol this discussion: how
wc should handlc ingratcs. Vith a tranquil, mild, and highmindcd
attitudc. (z6.z) ont cvcr lct a pcrson who is so uncivilizcd, thought
lcss, and ungratclul upsct you so that you arc not still glad that you
gavc to him. ont cvcr lct such an ocnsc drivc you to say, ! wish
! had ncvcr donc it! vcn your unlruitlul acts ol gcncrosity should
plcasc you. !t will always causc him rcgrct il it docs not causc you
rcgrct cvcn now. Thcrc is no nccd to lccl outragcd, as though somc
thing unprcccdcntcd had happcncd. You ought rathcr to havc bccn
amazcd il it didnt happcn. (z6.) nc pcrson is put o by thc cort
involvcd, anothcr by thc cxpcnsc, somconc clsc by thc risk, anothcr by
a shamclul scnsc ol cmbarrassmcnt (thc lcar that by rcpaying a bcn
ct hc will bc admitting that hc has rcccivcd onc), somconc clsc by
just not knowing his rcsponsibilitics, somconc clsc by sloth, anothcr
by his busy schcdulc. Look at how boundlcss human grccd gapcs
at cvcry turn and always dcmands morc. You cannot bc surpriscd
that no onc rcpays a bcnct whcn no onc thinks hc has bccn givcn
cnough. (z6.) Vho is thcrc among thcm with such a rcliablc and
upright charactcr that you could salcly cntrust him with a bcnct:
Hcrcs somconc insanc with lust, somconc clsc a slavc to his bclly,
anothcr all wrappcd up in his moncy, considcring only how much hc
has, not how hc got it, somconc clsc sucrs lrom cnvy, anothcr lrom
suicidally blind ambition. Factor in mcntal incrtia and old agc, and
on thc othcr sidc rcstlcss cmotional uphcavals and constant upscts.
Factor in an inatcd scnsc ol scllworth and ovcrbcaring pridc in
things that ought to bring condcmnation. ! will not cvcn mcntion
thc stubborn pursuit ol corrupt aims and cklcncss that its this way
and that. (z6.) You can add to this uttcr rccklcssncss, lcar (always an
unrcliablc adviscr), and thc thousands ol mistakcs wc gct wrappcd
up in: thc boldncss ol thc worst cowards, thc strilc among thc closcst
lricnds, and thc univcrsal lailing ol putting our trust in what is lcast
rcliablc and bcing dissatiscd with what wc havc, things wc could
ncvcr havc hopcd to achicvc. !n thc midst ol thc most rcstlcss pas
sions do you scck good laith, somcthing that is cxccptionally calm:
(z.r) !l you cntcrtain a truc vision ol our lilc, you will sccm to
scc bclorc you thc picturc ol a rcccntly capturcd city, in which all
thought lor what is right and dcccnt has bccn lost, whcrc violcncc
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is in chargc as il it had givcn thc signal to procccd with a plan ol
complctc dcstruction. Ncithcr rc nor stccl arc rcstraincd. Crimcs
havc brokcn lrcc lrom lcgal control. Not cvcn rcligion, which ocrs
protcction to supplicants during armcd conict, puts any rcstraints
on thosc who go racing altcr plundcr. (z.z) Thcy stcal lrom privatc
homcs, thcy stcal lrom public placcs, thcy stcal lrom unconsccratcd
and sacrcd ground alikc. Thcy brcak down walls and lcap ovcr thcm.
Frustratcd with narrow allcys, thcy knock down thc walls that bar
thcir way and gct thcir loot amidst thc ruins. Somc plundcr without
killing, and othcrs carry o thcir spoils in bloodstaincd hands, cvcry
onc takcs somcthing that bclongs to somconc clsc. !n thc midst ol
this spcctaclc ol human grccd, how can you lorgct our common latc
and go looking among thc plundcrcrs lor somconc who is rcturning
somcthing: (z.) !l you arc outragcd that thcrc arc ungratclul pco
plc, bc outragcd too that somc pcoplc arc sybaritic, bc outragcd that
somc arc grccdy, bc outragcd that somc arc unchastc, bc outragcd
that somc arc sick, misshapcn, old, and palc. !ngratitudc is a tcrriblc
lailing, it is insupportablc, and it dcstroys thc bonds bctwccn human
bcingstcars apart, thcn scattcrs thc rcmains ol thc harmony by
which thc wcakncss ol human naturc is sustaincd. 8ut it is so com
monplacc that cvcn thosc who complain about it lall prcy to it.
(z8.r) Rccct on whcthcr you havc rcturncd thc lavor to thosc to
whom you arc indcbtcd, whcthcr you havc cvcr allowcd a rcsponsibil
ity to dic in your hands, whcthcr you livc constantly with an awarc
ncss ol all thc bcncts you havc bccn givcn. You will rcalizc that thc
bcncts givcn to you as a littlc boy ladcd bclorc you wcrc a tccnagcr,
that what you wcrc givcn as a youth has not madc it all thc way to
your old agc. Somc wc havc lost, somc wc havc discardcd, somc havc
gradually droppcd out ol sight, lrom othcrs wc havc dclibcratcly
avcrtcd our gazc. (z8.z) ! can makc cxcuscs lor your wcakncss. First
ol all, our mcmory is a lrail vcsscl, not big cnough lor thc mob ol
things in it. So it is ncccssary that it should losc as much as is put
into it, that it should bury thc oldcst contcnts bcncath thc most cur
rcnt. That is how it has comc about that your nurscmaid has virtually
no inucncc on you, bccausc thc passagc ol timc has distanccd hcr
bcncts lrom you. That is how it has comc about that you havc no
rcspcct lor your tcachcr. This is how it has comc about that, whcn
you campaign lor thc consulship or arc a candidatc lor pricsthoods,
.
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you complctcly lorgct thc man who supportcd you lor thc quacstor
ship.
35
(z8.) !l you cxaminc yourscll carclully, maybc you will nd
in your own hcart thc lault that you complain about. !t is not lair to
gct angry at a crimc wc all commit, it is stupid to gct angry at your
own. To win lorgivcncss, grant lorgivcncss. You will makc thc ingratc
a bcttcr pcrson by putting up with him, and you will ccrtainly makc
him worsc by upbraiding him. Thcrc is no rcason lor you to sticn
his rcsolvc. !l hc has any scnsc ol shamc lclt, lct him hang on to it.
ltcn cnough thc ringing voicc ol a critic has dcstroycd a wavcring
scnsc ol dcccncy. No onc is alraid to bc what hc alrcady sccms to bc.
ncc hc is caught in thc act, hc loscs his shamc.
(zq.r) 8ut ! havc wastcd my bcnct. Surcly wc do not say wc
havc .asted things that wc havc ocrcd to thc gods, do wc: 8ut a
bcnct, il conlcrrcd propcrly, ranks among things ocrcd to thc gods,
cvcn il it turns out badly. Hc did not turn out thc way wc hopcd. Vc
should bc thc way wc wcrc, dicrcnt lrom him. That is not whcn thc
loss was incurrcd, that is whcn it bccamc visiblc. !l his ingratitudc is
rcvcalcd, it brings shamc on us too, sincc a complaint about a wastcd
bcnct is an indication that thc bcnct was not givcn propcrly.
(zq.z) As much as possiblc, wc should plcad on his bchall bclorc
oursclvcs as judgcs. Maybc hc wasnt ablc to rcturn thc lavor. Maybc
hc didnt know. Maybc hc is still going to do it. A wisc and paticnt
lcndcr makcs somc bad accounts good by carrying thcm and support
ing thcm with cxtcnsions. Vc should do thc samc thing. Vc should
nursc back to hcalth a scnsc ol good laith that is ailing.
(o.r) 8ut ! havc wastcd my bcnct. !diot! You dont rcalizc
whcn it was that you took your loss. You lost it, but at thc timc whcn
you gavc it. Now it has comc out in thc opcn. And cvcn in cascs that
sccm to bc writcos, a balanccd approach oltcn works bcst. As with
bodics, so with minds: wc should handlc wcakncsscs gcntly. ltcn
a string you could untanglc with paticncc is brokcn il you yank on
it.
vi
Vhat is thc point ol cursing him: Squabbling: \icious attacks:
Vhy lrcc him lrom his bond: Vhy lct him o: !l hc is ungratclul,
thcn hc alrcady owcs you nothing. (o.z) Vhat rcason do you havc
to cmbittcr somconc to whom you havc bccn gcncrous: Thc rcsult
will bc to convcrt him lrom somconc unrcliably lricndly to somconc
rcliably hostilc, and to cncouragc him to dclcnd himscll by slan
dcring you. Thcrc will bc no lack ol talk~
vii
such as, ! dont know
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why hc couldnt stand somconc to whom hc owcs so much. !s thcrc
somcthing bchind it: Complaints incvitably bcsmirch thc dignity
ol thc supcrior party, cvcn il thcy do not stain it. And no onc scttlcs
lor making up minor complaints whcn hc can gain crcdibility by
tclling biggcr lics.
(r.r) !t is a much bcttcr stratcgy to nd a way to prcscrvc thc
appcarancc ol lricndship with him and, il hc is rcady to rcgain his
sanity, thcn cvcn to prcscrvc rcal lricndship. Stubborn kindncss
ovcrcomcs bad pcoplc, and no oncs charactcr is so mcan and hard
hcartcd in thc lacc ol what mcrits acction that cvcn whilc wrong
ing thcm hc cannot lail to lovc thc good pcoplc to whom hc owcs a
lurthcr dcbt lor bcing allowcd to cvadc paymcnt with impunity. (r.z)
And so turn your thoughts to this linc ol rccction. My lavor was
not rcturncd. Vhat am ! to do: Vhat thc gods, thc pcrlcct givcrs
ol all things, do. Thcy bcgin by giving bcncts to somconc unawarc
ol thcm, and thcy carry on giving thcm to thc ungratclul. (r.) nc
philosophcr blamcs thc gods lor ignoring us, anothcr blamcs thcm
lor thcir unlairncss. Anothcr
36
situatcs thcm outsidc his cosmos and
lcavcs thcm thcrc in thc darklazy, slack, with no work to do. An
othcr
37
calls thc sun somc kind ol rock, or a sphcrc ol accidcntally
asscmblcd bits ol rcanything othcr than a godalthough wc
owc it to thc sun that wc dividc our timc bctwccn work and rcst, that
wc arc not plungcd into darkncss and havc cscapcd lrom thc chaos
ol ctcrnal night: thc sun, who rcgulatcs thc ycar with his orbit and
who nourishcs our bodics by bringing lorth thc crops and ripcning
thc lruit. (r.) 8ut ncvcrthclcss, likc idcal parcnts who smilc whcn
curscd by thcir childrcn, thc gods do not stop hcaping bcncts upon
thosc who havc doubts about thc sourcc ol thosc bcncts, but with
undisturbcd calmncss thcy sprcad thcir gilts among thc raccs and
pcoplcs ol thc carth. Thcy only havc onc capacity, to providc bcnct,
and so thcy sprinklc thc lands with wclltimcd rain showcrs, stir thc
scas with winds, mark thc passagc ol timc by thc movcmcnt ol thc
stars, tcmpcr thc cxtrcmcs ol summcr and wintcr by scnding mildcr
brcczcs, and cndurc thc mistakcs ol our lailing souls with tranquility
and kindlincss. (r.) Lct us cmulatc thcm. Lct us givc, cvcn il many
ol our gilts arc in vain. Lct us ncvcrthclcss givc to othcrs, lct us givc
to thc vcry pcoplc on whosc account wc havc alrcady sucrcd loss.
Thc collapsc ol a housc docs not dctcr anyonc lrom building a ncw
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onc, and whcn rc has dcstroycd our old houschold gods wc lay ncw
loundations whcn thc ground is still warm, whcn a city is swallowcd
up, wc oltcn rcbuild it on thc samc sitc. That is how stubbornly
optimistic our charactcr is. !l wc wcrc not willing to try again whcn
prcvious corts havc lailcd, thcn human cndcavor would ccasc on
land and sca.
(z) Hc is ungratclul. Hc has not harmcd mc, only himscll. ! got
my bcnct whcn ! gavc to him. And ! wont bc any slowcr to givc, just
morc carclul. ! will rccovcr lrom othcrs what ! lost on him. 8ut ! will
cvcn givc a bcnct to this samc lcllow again, and likc a good larmcr
! will ovcrcomc thc barrcnncss ol thc land by carclul cultivation. Thc
bcnct is a loss lor mc, but hc is a loss to mankind. Thc mark ol a
grcat mind is not to givc a bcnct and to losc it, thc mark ol a grcat
mind is to losc a bcnct and to givc.
.. Notes
Introduction
r. Scvcral ol thc morc important thcmcs that appcar in On Benets play
an important rolc in Aristotlcs discussions ol lricndship (philia) in Eudemian
Ethics , (c.g., ,..c) and Nicomachean Ethics (c.g., ..., .., .,) and ol
gcncrosity (Nicomachean Ethics ..) and justicc (Nicomachean Ethics . ..ab.
..a). Thcy also appcar in Ciccros On Duties, and ol coursc ancicnt litcraturc
contains many rccctions on and discussions ol social rclations and rcciprocal
obligations. 8ut although wc know that many works on thc topic oncc cxistcd,
no othcr work dcvotcd just to this thcmc survivcs.
z. Scc M. T. Gri n, De Beneciis and Roman Socicty, JFS (acc),
a...
. !n this rcspcct, books , arc prcscntcd as bcing similar to Letter ..
Scc 8. !nwood, Feading Seneca (xlord acc), ,6.
. This conccption ol what an action is gocs back to thc carly pcriod ol
thc schools history. Scc 8. !nwood, Ethics and Human ction in Early Stoicism
(xlord .), and !nwood acc, chaptcr , Politics and Paradox in Scnccas
De Beneciis.
. This is suggcstcd by thc closing words ol .....
6. For Hccaton as a sourcc, scc !nwood acc, ,c,a, and F. R. Chaumartin,
Le De beneciis de Senque, sa signication philosophique, politique, et sociale
(Lillc and Paris, .), chaptcrs .. For a discussion ol kathkon in Stoicism,
scc The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy, chaptcr a., Stoic thics
(8. !nwood and P. onini), cspccially 6,6. !n Scncca thc scnsc ol o cium
is somctimcs closcr to rcsponsibilitics than to dutics, onc ol thc traditional
translations lor thc Latin tcrm.
. Scc .a6a,, lor cxamplc, whcrc two scnscs ol ingratitudc arc distin
guishcd in ordcr to clarily a Stoic paradox, also ... Thc Stoics, morc than
somc othcr ancicnt philosophcrs, oltcn rcsolvcd philosophical problcms by
carclul spccication ol mcanings.
8. Scc M. T. Gri n, Seneca: Philosopher in Politics (xlord, and cd., .a),
a,c, and Nero: The End of a Dynasty (London .), c, scc also Picrrc
Grimal, Senque (Paris ..), ..a.
q. And possibly also his pcrsonal lcclings. At .a.a it is hard not to think ol
Scnccas own lathcr amidst thc list ol cxamplcs lrom Roman history.
ro. Thc traditional lcgal powcr ol a Roman malc hcad ol thc houschold
ovcr thc cntirc familia.
rr. Scc 8rutus in a lcttcr to Atticus (Ciccro Ep. ad Brut. ...,.6): Dominum
.a
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ne parentem quidem maiores nostri .oluerunt esse (ur anccstors did not want
that cvcn a parcnt should bc a lord and mastcr).
rz. \irtuc on thc torturcrs rack is introduccd at .a..6. Plato also acknowl
cdgcs in thc Fepublic that just bchavior normally brings mundanc advantagcs
as wcll as its intrinsic rcwards.
r. Thc notion that thc gods do so in ordcr to honor thc anccstors or
dcsccndants is onc that Scncca should no doubt qucstion morc than hc docs, tra
ditional thcological bclicls havc clcarly bccn absorbcd by Stoicism on this point.
r. Scc M. T. Gri n, Scnccas Pcdagogic Stratcgy, in Greek and Foman
Philosophy zcc BC to :cc D, cds. R. Sorabji and R. V. Sharplcs, BICS Supplc
mcnt (London acc,), ...
r. Scc, lor cxamplc, Epp. ., , .a, 6..aa, ...a., ..,...
r6. Cl. .6.., ...., .a.., .c.., .. abovc.
r. At thc samc timc Scncca is ablc to criticizc thc pcttincss ol narrow lcgal
intcrprctations hcrc. Cl. Ep. ..
r8. Scc a... and ,..,...
Book r
r. Palliata lr. inc. ,c Ribb.
z. Thc namc Gracc (Charis in Grcck, Gratia in Latin) is also thc tcrm lor
lavor givcn or rcturncd, and lor gratitudc.
. Thc \cstals wcrc sacrcd virgins in thc Roman cult ol \csta, thc hcarth
goddcss, thcir vow ol virginity was lor thirty ycars, and violation ol it was
punishcd by dcath.
. Scncca is pcrhaps thinking ol Hcrmcs Logios, who was associatcd with
thc Charitcs (Graccs), ratio and oratio arc thc two Latin words uscd, at lcast
sincc Ciccro, to capturc thc mcaning ol thc Grcck tcrm logos. Scc On the Fe-
public a.66, Tusculan Disputations ., .6c, On Duties ..c..
. Hrai.
6. Vc acccpt rasmuss cmcndation patrimonii (inhcritancc) lor matrimonii
(marriagc). Thc namc urynomc mcans widcly sprcad.
. Scncca alludcs hcrc to thc grcatcst political and cconomic lcar ol Roman
aristocrats: a rcvolutionary plan to canccl dcbts (no.ae tabulae, thc bringing in
ol lrcsh account lcdgcrs). Thc climination ol all awarcncss ol bcncts would
bc as big a moral disastcr as thc climination ol all dcbt rccords would bc a
nancial disastcr.
8. Thc Latin is recte factum, a translation ol thc Grcck katorthmaa tcch
nical tcrm lor a virtuous act in Stoicism.
q. A military dccoration consisting ol a collar madc ol twistcd mctal.
ro. Thc toga praetexta, a toga with a purplc bordcr, worn by highranking
magistratcs.
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rr. \irgil Georgics ..a, adaptcd (animo rcplacing \irgils animis).
rz. For hunting, shing, or gladiatorial ghts.
r. Translating recta .oluntas.
r. C. Sallustius Crispus Passicnus (cos. su. a,, cos. !! ord. ), adoptcd son
ol C. Sallustius Crispus, thc condant ol Augustus who was thc adoptcd son
ol Sallust thc historian. 8orn in thc rcign ol Augustus, hc cntcrcd thc Scnatc
undcr Tibcrius, and during thc rcign ol Claudius marricd and divorccd Ncros
aunt omitia and thcn marricd his mothcr Julia Agrippina. His background
and carccr cxplain why hc could and would comparc thc cmpcror Augustus
with Claudius. A giltcd orator and a wit, as this anccdotc indicatcs, hc was
dcad by ,. Scncca praiscs his shrcwdncss in judging charactcr at Natural
Questions , prcl. 6.
r. That is, thc worthlcss judgmcnt ol Claudius is intimatcly conncctcd
with thc gilt hc gavc. So onc might think it odd to scparatc thc thing givcn
lrom thc judgmcnt that lay bchind it. 8ut thcy must bc cvaluatcd scparatcly,
sincc thcrc is a rcason to acccpt thc gilt (cvcn though thc bad judgmcnt ol thc
donor prcvcnts it lrom bcing a truc bcnct) and rcjcct thc judgmcnt lormcd
by thc givcr. (!maginc that Claudius ocrs you a gilt bccausc hc valucs your
noblc lincagc and docsnt carc about your virtuc, thc judgmcnt is worthlcss,
but onc may still acccpt thc gilt.)
Book a
r. Thc mcntion ol an intcrmcdiary is surprisingly rarc in Scncca, thc trcat
mcnt in a..a bcing thc only discussionand a hostilc oncol a practicc
that was in lact common in Scnccas day.
z. Palliata lr. inc. ,. Ribb.
. Quintus Fabius Maximus \crrucosus (cos. \ ac, dict. a.,). Altcr thc
Roman dclcats against Hannibal at Cannac (a.6 ncv) and Trasimcnc (a.,
ncv), hc brought about thc Carthaginian dclcat in thc Sccond Punic Var by
a campaign ol attrition, attracting thc nicknamc Cunctator (claycr). Scncca
cclcbratcs his achicvcmcnt at On nger ......
. Tibcrius is oltcn an cxamplc ol stingincss in Scncca, but this cpisodc
provokcs Scncca (an amicus principis) to makc a statcmcnt ol policy. Marius
Ncpos is not namcd in thc accounts ol Tibcriuss bchavior in Tacitus nnals
.., and Suctonius Life of Tiberius ,, but Tacitus namcs him in a. among
thosc indcbtcd proigatcs rcmovcd lrom thc Scnatc or allowcd to withdraw
by thc princcps.
. iogcncs Lacrtius ., supplics thc namc ol thc lricnd as Ctcsibius,
Plutarch (Moralia 6) and Julian (Oration a....cd) tcll thc samc story.
6. Thc triumviratc was authorizcd by law in Novcmbcr ol ncv, whcn
a board ol thrccC. Julius Cacsar ( Julius Cacsars adoptivc son ctavian),
.
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6
M. Antonius, and M. Acmilius Lcpiduswcrc givcn dictatorial powcrs lor vc
ycars. Thc proscriptions, in which hundrcds wcrc dcclarcd to bc outsidc lcgal
protcction and had thcir propcrty conscatcd, ocrcd many moral cxamplcs,
cl. .a on slavcs rcscuing thcir mastcrs.
. For Givc mc back to Cacsar! and this thcmc gcncrally, comparc Scncca
thc ldcrs Contro.ersiae ....
8. Thc cmpcror usually known as Caligula. Scc also a.a.., ...a, ,......
q. Thc story ol Pompcius Pcnnus may or may not bc thc scqucl to thc
story told in io .a6. and Joscphus Je.ish ntiquities ..a., who call thc
scnator Pomponius and Pompcdius rcspcctivcly, and rcport his pardon altcr
involvcmcnt in a conspiracy against Caligula.
ro. Thc lclt loot was thought to bc advcrsc, harmlul, cvcn immoral.
rr. This is a rclcrcncc to Gaiuss pcnchant lor wcaring military loot
wcar (hcncc thc nicknamc Caligula hc carncd whilc still young). Thc labcl
cmpcror originally rclcrrcd to thc posscssion ol suprcmc military rank. Thc
allusion to hobnails also alludcs to thc pcarls that studdcd thc slippcrs Gaius
was wcaring.
rz. Thc Stoics rcgardcd obligations or dutics (o cia) as bcing rclativc to
oncs social rolcs (personae)c.g., husband, child, mastcr (cl. Ep. ..)to
which Scncca alludcs at a.....
r. Thc public largcssc (congiaria) usually consistcd ol distributions ol lood,
oil, or winc: in thc Rcpublic givcn by magistratcs or privatc individuals, in
Scnccas day by thc princcps to thc plcbs. Vith in thcir pockct, Scncca rclcrs
to littlc prcscnts scattcrcd in thc thcatcr, circus, or amphithcatcr, which could
bc kcpt in thc lold ol thc toga that scrvcd as a pockct.
r. A vcry largc sum ol moncy.
r. A trivially small sum.
r6. Scncca similarly disapprovcs ol Cynics bcgging in On the Happy Life
.., whcrc hc says that his lricnd cmctrius (who also appcars in book , ol
On Benets) did not bcg. Cynics in particular wcrc supposcd to dcmonstratc
thcir scllsu cicncy by actual povcrty.
r. Thc othcr cxamplcs ol rcciprocal obligations givcnlathcrson and
husbandwilcarc bascd on xcd social rolcs, hcrc thc bcnclactor and bcnc
ciary bccomc linkcd in lricndship, a rcsult ol thc initial bcnct (a...).
r8. Thc tyrant is Jason ol Phcrac, and a similar story appcars in Ciccro On
the Nature of the Gods .,c, Pliny Natural History ,..66, \alcrius Maximus ..,
cxt. 6, and Plutarch Moralia C.
rq. Thc vicw hcrc that thc lion did not act with intcntion lollows Stoic
doctrinc, takcn ovcr lrom Aristotlc, that animals, bcing irrational, arc not ca
pablc ol moral action. Cl. thc story in Aulus Gcllius N .., lor which hc
claims an cycwitncss sourcc, in which Androclcs publicly paradcs thc lact that
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thc lion who savcd him in thc arcna was rcturning thanks lor a bcnct and
mcdical hclp.
zo. 8rutus, who lought lor Pompcy at Pharsalus in ncv (thc battlc
rclcrrcd to in ac.a), was pardoncd by Cacsar and in ncv bccamc onc ol his
assassins. Scncca alludcs to cxcrciscs in thc rhctorical schools, which com
monly dcalt with dilcmmas ol thc civil war. Comparc Plutarch Comp. Dion
. Brutus ..
zr. Scncca criticizcs Hccatons cxamplc on thc assumptions ol Roman law:
a Roman citizcn whosc lathcr was alivc had no indcpcndcnt propcrty, though
hc might bc allowcd thc managcmcnt ol a sum callcd his peculium. Thc gilt in
qucstion, thcn, would bc a thclt bccausc thc gilt camc lrom thc propcrty ol his
lathcr. !t would havc to bc rcstorcd as soon as thc lathcr lound out. Thc lcgal
arrangcmcnts at Rhodcs, Hccatons city, arc not known, but undcr Athcnian
law thc lathcrs control ol his sons propcrty cndcd whcn thc son rcachcd thc
agc ol cightccn, and cvcn whcn hc was a minor thc lathcrs powcr did not
approximatc to thc Roman patria potestas. . M. Macowcll, The La. in
Classical thens (London .,): , ..
zz. Caligula.
z. C. Caninius Rcbilus, consul succt in ,, and cvidcntly thc samc man
as thc dissolutc, rich lcgal cxpcrt whosc suicidc in 6 is rcportcd by Tacitus
(nn...c). Thc cpisodc mcntioncd hcrc occurrcd in , or cv, whcn
Caligula was princcps, bccausc Caninius Rcbilus was consul in , and Julius
Graccinus dicd in or c. Paulus Fabius Pcrsicus (similarly judgcd in On
Benets .c.a) had bccn consul in cv, so both wouldbc bcnclactors wcrc
scnators ol thc highcst rank.
z. Ciccro at On Duties a.6 dcscribcs in strongcr tcrms this lcar lclt by rich
mcn ol standing who prclcr dcath to thc namc ol cliens. Clicntagc is not ccn
tral to thc nctwork ol bcncts, as Scncca sccs it (Gri n acc, ), and thc
pcoplc hcrc arc mcn ol standing (dignitas), not pcrmancnt clicnts (scc P. Vhitc,
Promised !erse: Poets in the Society of ugustan Fome |Cambridgc, MA: .|, .).
Thc obligations thcy lail to carry out must bc opcn oncs, likc turning out lor
thc salutatio in thc morning, or accompanying thc bcnclactor to thc lorum.
z. Gaius Furnius (cos. ., ncv). Hc obtaincd thc pardon lor his lathcr altcr
thc battlc ol Actium in . ncv, latcr Furnius bccamc a scnator and lought
thc succcsslul war against thc Cantabrians lor Augustus as a commandcr in
Spain.
z6. This is thc third vivid mctaphor Scncca owcs to Chrysippus, altcr thc
imagcs ol thc dancing Graccs and ol thc ballgamc. Chrysippus was a long
distancc runncr bclorc hc took up philosophy (iogcncs Lacrtius ,..,).
z. Cn. Cornclius Lcntulus (cos. . ncv). Financially assistcd by Augustus,
hc wcnt on to govcrn a 8alkan provincc, won a victory ovcr thc Gctac, and
.6
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bccamc proconsul ol Asia in a ncv. Hc was also a lricnd ol Tibcrius, whom

hc madc his solc hcir on his dcath in a cv altcr an abortivc prosccution lor
trcason. Thc libertini mcntioncd hcrc cannot bc his own lrccdmcn, who would
bc callcd liberti. Scncca comparcs Lcntuluss wcalth to that ol thc impcrial
lrccdmcn who, particularly undcr Claudius and Ncro, wcrc rcscntcd by thc
govcrning class lor thc labulous wcalth thcy had amasscd through proximity to
thc princcps. S.s own lortunc is givcn by his dctractors in Tacitus nn. ..a.
and io 6...c. as thrcc hundrcd million scstcrccs, thc samc as thc lortunc
ol Pallas (nn. .a.). Thc round gurc ol lour hundrcd million hcrc is also
attributcd to him (io 6....) and to Narcissus (6c..).
z8. Thc ungratclul philosophcrs considcrcd hcrc may includc picurcans.
Scc, c.g., Lucrctius .a..
zq. !n nglish, an old sailor. !n Latin, a sca dog is a scal.
Book
r. Scnccas lathcr (Scncca thc ldcr) includcs two contro.ersiae (rhctorical
cxcrciscs dcbating ctional lcgal cascs) that prcsupposc that ingratitudc is ac
tionablc: Contro.. a. and ... Thc dcclaimcr Cassius Scvcrus playcd a jokc on
anothcr dcclaimcr by accusing him bclorc thc practor on this chargc. Contro..
prcl. .,, scc M. Vintcrbottom, The Elder Seneca: Declamations (Cambridgc,
MA, .,), , n. , ,., n. .. Juvcnal ,..6 mcntions ungratclul husbands
among ctional rhctorical cascs.
z. !n ..,.., Scncca admits no cxccption to thc gcncral rulc, and in ..a
it is apparcnt that thc punishmcnt imposcd on a soldicr guilty ol ingratitudc
by Philip ol Maccdon was an act ol military disciplinc, not a lcgal dccision.
So thc rcmark hcrc may just bc an cxaggcration ol that cpisodc.
. An arbiter in Scnccas day was usually a spccial kind ol judgc (iudex) ap
pointcd by thc practor, though thc partics to a disputc could also agrcc bctwccn
thcmsclvcs on an arbiter to scttlc a disputc. Ciccro (In Defense of Foscius the Co-
median .a.) makcs a point similar to Scnccas hcrc: that thc practors formula
binds thc iudex to givc or dcny what is spccicd, whcrcas thc practors formula
addrcsscd to an arbiter lcavcs him scopc to dccidc on an cquitablc scttlcmcnt.
!n suggcsting that thc arbiter is not bound by a formula at all, only by his scnsc
ol intcgrity (religio), Scncca is indulging in rhctorical cxaggcration.
. Judgcs (iudices), sclcctcd lrom citizcns who wcrc ol lrcc birth and had
inhcritcd cqucstrian ccnsus (lour hundrcd thousand scstcrccs), wcrc on an
o cial list (album).
. That is, to rclcasc him lrom thc risk ol bondagc to his crcditor so that
hc could work o his dcbt.
6. Litcrally, sccurcd him scating in thc rst lourtccn rows ol thc thcatcr,
which wcrc rcscrvcd lor thc cqucstrian ordcr.
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.,
. That is, undcr Roman law. Grcck law and custom pcrmittcd childrcn
grcatcr latitudc against thcir parcnts.
8. Scncca dcals morc lully with this di culty in 6..., and thcn again in
Ep. ..
q. !n Romc, thc lcgal datc lor a ycar was indicatcd by spccilying thc consuls
who scrvcd during that ycar.
ro. That is, thcrc arc no natural slavcs according to Stoic doctrinc.
Cl. Ciccro On Duties ....
rr. Thc o cial in qucstion is thc prclcct ol thc city (scc Gri n .a, a6,c,
6c6. lor discussion).
rz. That is, hc could cithcr rclusc thc bcnct or lrcc thc slavc bclorc rccciv
ing it.
r. An annalistic historian ol thc Sullan pcriod. This anccdotc is lragmcnt
c in H. Pctcr, HFF vol. .. Thc cpisodc datcs lrom thc Social Var in c
ncv. Grumcntum is in Lucania in thc south, whcrc somc ol thc toughcst
rcsistancc was put up by thc !talians who rcscntcd bcing rcluscd thc Roman
citizcnship.
r. Anothcr story lrom thc Social Var, this timc about onc ol thc gcncrals
ol thc Marsi. P. \cttius Scato is callcd dux Marsorum by his contcmporary
Ciccro (Philippics .a.a,), so Scnccas usc ol praetor probably just mcans com
mandcr. Thc Roman gcncral is Cn. Pompcius Strabo, lathcr ol Pompcy thc
Grcat, and thc datc ncv.
r. This vcrsion ol thc story ol Ncros Pompcian anccstor, L. omitius
Ahcnobarbus (cos. ncv), who surrcndcrcd and was pardoncd by Cacsar at
Cornium, is morc attcring than that lound in Pliny Natural History ,..6,
Plutarch Caesar , or Suctonius Life of Nero apcrhaps out ol dclcrcncc to
thc cmpcror. Lucan dcpicts him in an cvcn bcttcr light (a.c,a, cl. ,.a.ac,
,.,6.6). 8ut thc discrcditablc vcrsion may rccct posthumous hostility to
wards thc cmpcror. Hc lought against Cacsar again at Massilia and Pharsalus,
whcrc hc was killcd trying to cscapc.
r6. Hcrc Scncca spcaks ol thc trcason (maiestas) chargcs that Tacitus rc
gards as a bad lcaturc cvcn ol thc carly part ol Tibcriuss rcign (nn. .6.a).
Ncithcr Paulus nor Maro is othcrwisc known.
r. thcrwisc unknown.
r8. Animal sacricc was rcgularly madc to thank thc gods whcn thc cm
pcror rcturncd lrom a journcy, hcncc Ruluss rathcr daring jokc at Augustuss
cxpcnsc.
rq. That is, thc tax lor which a mastcr was liablc whcn manumitting a
slavc was paid lrom thc gilt Augustus gavc to Rulus as a sign ol bcing lully
lorgivcn.
zo. Aristocratic houscholds kcpt wax masks ol anccstors and paintcd lamily
trccs on display in thc atrium, whcrc visitors could scc thcm.
.
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zr. Thc lathcr by patria potestas had thc powcr to acknowlcdgc or rc

lusc to acknowlcdgc a child born to him. !n thc lattcr casc thc child was
cxposcd, usually in thc countrysidc whcrc it would dic or bc lound and pos
sibly rcarcd by othcrs. So thc bcnct ol lilc could bc said to bcgin with lormal
acknowlcdgcmcnt by thc lathcr.
zz. Marcus \ipsanius Agrippa (cos. ,, a, a, ncv) was Augustuss grcat
gcncral and associatc, and ultimatcly his soninlaw (scc 6.a.a). Hc was
born into a nonscnatorial lamily and prclcrrcd not to usc his lamily namc
(ldcr Scn. Contro.. a...). For his naval victory ovcr Scxtus Pompcius in
6 ncv hc won thc naval crown (Plin. NH .6.,)an accomplishmcnt that
was not quitc uniquc, having bccn matchcd only by onc othcr, M. Tcrcntius
\arro. Agrippa was principally rcsponsiblc lor Augustuss victory at Actium
in . ncv. His building works in Romc, on which hc lavishcd his grcat wcalth,
includcd thc Panthcon, public baths, a bridgc, and two aqucducts, thc Aqua
Julia and Aqua \irgo.
z. Augustuss biological lathcr was Gaius ctavius, practor in 6c ncv, who
dicd without rcaching thc consulship, his son was adoptcd by Julius Cacsar thc
dictator, whosc grcatncphcw hc was through his mothcr Atia: hcncc his namc
Gaius Julius Cacsar ctavianus. Altcr a, ncv hc bccamc known as (!mpcrator)
Cacsar Augustus, altcr dcath hc was dcicd and rclcrrcd to as Di.us ugustus
(ivinc Augustus). Scnccas point is that Augustuss biological lathcr was lcss
important to his political carccr than was his adoptivc lathcr.
z. Publius Cornclius Scipio Alricanus. Hc is dcscribcd as praetextatus, rc
lcrring to thc distinctivc toga worn by aristocratic Roman youths until thc agc
ol manhood. Hc is said by Livy (a..6.,) to havc savcd his lathcrs lilc at thc
battlc ol Ticinus in a. ncv. Hc would thcn havc bccn about scvcntccn, somc
what latc lor thc changc ol garb by latc rcpublican and carly impcrial standards.
z. Roman culturc grantcd grcat advantagcs, lcgal and social, to lathcrs.
Morcovcr, in an cort to raisc thc birth ratc, both Julius Cacsar and Augustus
had grantcd additional privilcgcs to lathcrs.
z6. A lamous story. Two Sicilian youths namcd Amphinomos and Anapias
(Strabo 6.a.a6C) pcrlormcd this cxploit at Catania. Thc story was a lcgcnd by
thc midlourth ccntury ncv (Lycurgus Oratio in Leocratem ) and, with dicr
cnt namcs, was datcd to thc midlth ccntury by Aclian. !t lorms thc climax ol
thc hcxamctcr pocm etna, which is usually datcd to Scnccas timc. Claudian
Carmina Minora ., still cclcbratcs thc statucs ol thc youths in Catania, and
thcir hcads appcar on Sicilian and Roman coins.
z. Hcrc, as in On nger .a.., Scncca conluscs thc Maccdonian king
Antigonus with his son cmctrius Poliorcctcs, who in c6 ncv won Cyprus
lrom Ptolcmy lor his lathcr.
z8. Scncca plays on thc namc ol thc lathcr, L. Manlius Capitolinus !mpc
riosus (thc Tyrannical), but lails to notc his dictatorship in 6 ncv. Scncca
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also omits othcr dctails includcd in thc othcr sourccs lor thc story (Ciccro On
Duties ...a, Livy ,., \alcrius Maximus .., 6...)notably, thc namc ol
thc tribunc ol 6a ncv, M. Pomponius, and thc principal chargcs against thc
lathcr, which wcrc conncctcd with his conduct as dictator.
Book |
r. Thc phrasc cum cura (carclul) lound at Jugurthine !ar .. sccms to bc
what Scncca rclcrs to hcrc.
z. Comparc Platos Euthyphro .. on thc problcmatic notion ol carc lor
and bcnct to thc gods.
. \irgil Georgics a...
. \irgil Eclogues ..6.c.
. Livy ...a.6 has Romulus promising Jupitcr, il hc stops thc Roman ight
in a battlc against thc Sabincs, a tcmplc to Jupitcr Stator (thc Staycr). Scncca
gocs on to cxplain thc rationalc lor applying to thc divinc rcason thc namcs
and cpithcts ol thc pagan gods: thcy arc intcrprctcd as allcgorical dcscriptions
ol thc divinc powcrs and thcir conscqucnccs (.,.a, ..), oltcn with thc aid ol
ctymology (cl. Ciccro On the Nature of the Gods a.6c, .6a).
6. Roman namcs typically had thrcc componcnts: c.g., praenomen Lucius,
nomen Annacus, cognomen Scncca. Hcrc Scncca lists thcm in rcvcrsc ordcr.
. Scncca no doubt has in mind Plato Fepublic ., .C, in which thc dc
nition ol justicc as rcturning dcposits is rclutcd by arguing that rcturning
a wcapon to somconc who has sincc bccomc mad cannot bc just. Cl. Ciccro
On Duties ..
8. Conscientia, clscwhcrc usually translatcd as (scll)awarcncss (c.g., .a..).
Cl. n. .c at .a.. bclow.
q. Scncca is addrcssing picurcans.
ro. Scncca has adaptcd vid mores ..Vho docsnt do it bccausc shc
cant, docs itto t his point about giving.
rr. Comparc Plato Phaedo ac on thosc who arc virtuous bccausc thcy arc
alraid ol dishonor and a bad rcputation.
rz. Vomcn, minors, and (as hcrc) thc insanc had kccpcrs (curatores),
appointcd by thc practor to administcr thcir propcrty.
r. For thc Stoics, oikeisis (appropriation) saw to it that onc procccdcd
lrom sclllovc (cl. Scncca Ep. .a..6.) to lovc ol lamily mcmbcrs and bcyond
(Stobacus .6,., ,6,, ..,- Long and Scdlcy, The Hellenistic Philosophers |Cam
bridgc .,|, ,G, Ciccro On Ends .6a6).
r. !n thc myth ol Platos Protagoras (at aa), told by Protagoras himscll,
Zcus scnds a scnsc ol justicc and mutual rcspcct to human bcings in ordcr to
strcngthcn thcir political and coopcrativc abilitics and so makc thcm strongcr
in thcir rcsistancc to wild animals.
acc
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6
r. Conscientia, clscwhcrc (c.g., ..a.) translatcd as conscicncc or, morc
oltcn, as (scll)awarcncss. Cl. n. at ..a. abovc.
r6. At ....6, Scncca uscd wills as an cxamplc ol altruism in giving, hcrc
hc uscs thcm as an cxamplc ol altruism in showing gratitudc. !n Romc, tcsta
tors had grcat lrccdom in disposing ol thcir propcrty and rccognizing and
rcwarding lavors, lricndship was a strong social prcssurc, though thc grcat
majority lclt lamily mcmbcrs as actual hcirs. Scc . Champlin, Final Judgments
(8crkclcy ..), .c., chaptcr 6.
r. Publius ccius Mus thc cldcr, consul during thc Latin Var ol c ncv,
and Publius ccius Mus thc youngcr, consul during thc Samnitc Var ol a
ncv, arc said to havc vowcd thc sacricc ol thc cncmy and thcmsclvcs to thc
gods in rcturn lor Roman victory, and thcn to havc plungcd into thc midst ol
battlc to bc killcd (scc Livy ....c, .c.a)an act ol de.otio.
r8. For thc tradition about Gaius Mucius Scacvola, scc notc on ,...a.
rq. Marcus Furius Camillus, whcn laccd with a largc nc altcr bcing chargcd
probably with pcculation, wcnt into voluntary cxilc, probably in . ncv Scc
Livy .a. with R. M. gilvic, Commentary on Li.y: Books z (xlord .6),
6. Scncca alludcs to thc story, probably ctional but prcscrvcd in Livy
.,.,, that whcn Camillus was rccallcd as dictator thc ncxt ycar during thc
sicgc ol Romc by thc Gauls, hc prcvcntcd thc Romans lrom paying thc Gauls
a ransom, and thcn dclcatcd thc Gauls in battlclor which hc was hailcd as
lathcr ol his country and sccond loundcr ol Romc.
zo. Rcccntly, rclativc to thc consulship ol Ciccros son in c ncv, suggcsts
Cn. Cornclius Cinna (cos. cv), but that Cinna was too young to havc lought
with othcr lollowcrs ol Pompcy against ctavian in thc civil war. Scncca
should mcan L. Cornclius Cinna (cos.su. a ncv), his lathcr or oldcr brothcr.
8ut hc may havc conatcd thc two, as in On Clemency .., whcrc hc uscs thc
similar phrasc in hostium castris in.enissem. Scc Gri n .a, .., n.a.
zr. !nscriptions show that hc was pontifex, sodalis ugustalis, and frater
r.alis (PIF
2
F .). Thc grcat patrician clan ol thc Fabii includcd Hannibals
archcncmy Q. Fabius Maximus \crrucosus, as wcll as Q. Fabius Maximus
Allobrogicus, who took thc agnomcn lor subduing thc tribc ol thc Allobrogcs
in Transalpinc Gaul in .a. ncv. Roman tradition had it that in ,, ncv, c6
mcmbcrs ol thc Fabian clan lcll ghting against thc truscans ol \cii, with
only onc young boy surviving altcrward to continuc thc stock (Livy a. c).
zz. Philip Arrhidacus, son ol thc dynast Philip ol Maccdon and hallbrothcr
ol Alcxandcr thc Grcat, whothough widcly thought unt to rulcbccamc
King Philip !!! ol Maccdon in a ncv but was murdcrcd in ., by Alcxan
dcrs mothcr, lympias, who wantcd his corulcr, Alcxandcrs posthumous son
Alcxandcr !\, to bc solc rulcr.
z. Thc lathcr ol Gaius Cacsar (Caligula) is Ncro Claudius rusus
Gcrmanicus, callcd altcr his adoption by Tibcrius in cv Gcrmanicus Julius
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ac.
Cacsar, as Scncca sccms to bc thinking ol blood rclativcs, thc grandlathcr
will bc thc cmpcror Tibcriuss brothcr Ncro Claudius rusus, thc grcat
grandlathcr mcant could bc Ti. Claudius Ncro or, morc probably, thc cmpcror
Augustus, grandlathcr ol Caligulas mothcr Agrippina.
z. cspitc thc changc lrom thc third to thc sccond pcrson, many com
mcntators think this is a continuation ol thc criticism ol divinc providcncc
( J. M. Coopcr and J. F. Procop, Seneca: Moral and Political Essays |Cambridgc
.|, a n. 6). 8ut it is odd to attributc indignation (rcscnting in ...)
to providcncc, which is purcly rational, and thc start ol thc ncxt chaptcr (a)
appcars to comparc thc gods bchavior with what has bccn dcscribcd bclorc.
Scaurus was consul in a. cv. That thc principcs in ccct chosc thc consuls by
this datc (Tacitus Histories ..,,) is not an objcction. Scnatorial and popular
clcctions wcrc still hcld and, in thcory, dctcrmincd thc outcomc.
z. Scc PIF
2
A 6,,. Hc was a consular, acquittcd ol trcason in a cv. Thc
cpisodc should prcccdc Scauruss consulship ol a. cv.
z6. Scnccas rcadcrs would surcly havc dctcctcd an allusion to his savagc
portrayal ol thc cmpcror Claudius in thc pocolocyntosis, cspccially at .a.
His anccstorsthc samc as thosc ol Gcrmanicus, his brothcr (scc n. .. on
...a)had bccn virtuous cnough to support thc point madc hcrc.
z. Thc passagc ol Plato cannot bc idcnticd. Scncca probably citcs
Plato lrom mcmory, pcrhaps inaccuratcly. Hc may bc thinking ol Phaedrus
a,.da,ab.
z8. Zcno ol Citium, loundcr ol thc Stoic school.
zq. This is thc cquivalcnt ol two ycars pay lor a lcgionary soldicr. 8ut
lour hundrcd dcnarii would havc bought about an acrc ol cultivatablc land
(Columclla ..), and thc propcrty qualication lor a Roman scnator was
ac thousand dcnarii.
Book
r. This supposcdly ancicnt prohibition was apparcntly still in lorcc during
thc Roman pcriod.
z. n thc Fabii, scc .c.a and notc. According to lcgcnd, M. Atilius
Rcgulus (cos. a6, ncv) was capturcd by thc Carthaginians in thc First Punic
Var and scnt by thcm to ask thc Roman Scnatc to cxchangc captivcsundcr
oath to rcturn il hc lailcd. Hc adviscd thc Scnatc against thc proposal, and
thcn rcturncd to Carthagc to bc torturcd.
. Cynics wcrc not rcally nakcd, thcy worc a cloak ol coarsc matcrial with
out undcrwcar (iogcncs Lacrtius 6.aa). 8ut in thc Roman pcriod thcrc is
a statuc ol iogcncs nudc, thc nudity rcprcscnting lrccdom lrom want and
contcmpt lor thc body (P. Zankcr, Te Mask of Socrates |8crkclcy and Los An
gclcs .|, .,66). Anccdotcs havc iogcncs dcspising thc gilts ocrcd by
aca
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Alcxandcr thc Grcat (iogcncs Lacrtius 6.), Scncca may bc thinking hcrc ol
thc story ol iogcncs trampling on Platos carpct (iogcncs Lacrtius 6.a6).
. Rcadcrs ol Platos Gorgias would rcmcmbcr thc crimcs ol thc Maccdo
nian king Archclaus rccountcd thcrc (,c,.) and rcalizc thc plausibility ol
what Scncca has alrcady said at a...6, about not bcing ablc to rclusc a gilt
lrom a crucl and irritablc tyrant.
. Comparc Aristotlcs discussion ol doing injusticc to oncscll in
Nicomachean Ethics ....
6. Scc also Ep. ...a lor this maxim ol thc cldcr Cato.
. Scncca alludcs hcrc to thc doctrinc ol oikeisis (appropriation), by which
naturc dcsigns human bcings so that thcy try to prcscrvc thcmsclvcs, and
dirccts thcm toward choosing what is bcnccial to thcmsclvcs and avoid
ing what is harmlul (scc Ep. .a..6., also Ciccro On Ends ..6., iogcncs
Lacrtius ,.).
8. !n Ep. ., thc samc imagc ol untying knots is uscd to condcmn ca.il-
latio, long puzzlcs, and captious argumcnts. !t is uscd again in Ep. a.. to
condcmn dialcctic altogcthcr. Vith thc usc ol thc sccond pcrson hcrc, Scncca
may hint at Libcraliss activc rolc in cncouraging such discussion (...a).
q. Pyxis originally dcnotcd a woodcn box (lor thc wood, pyxacanthus, scc
Pliny Natural History .a..), but a mctal box can also bc callcd pyxis, cl. thc
nglish iron, uscd lor an implcmcnt no longcr madc ol that mctal.
ro. vid Metamorphoses ...6.
rr. Scnccas cxamplcs ol ingratitudc to oncs lathcrland start with an anony
mous gcncralization about commandcrs with imperium (symbolizcd by thc ax
in a bundlc ol rods callcd thc lasccs) who turn thc armics assigncd to thcm by
Romc on thc city itscll. l thc cxamplcs that lollow, only Marius (who rcas
scmblcd his vctcrans along with ncw voluntccrs in 6 ncv), Sulla, and Cacsar
t this mould, and Cacsar is qucstionablc. Thc ordcr ol cxamplcs is chrono
logical cxccpt lor Catilinc, which suggcsts that Scncca intcnds a crcsccndo.
Scc R. Maycr, Roman Historical xcmpla in Scncca, in . Rcvcrdin and
8. Grangc (cds.), Senque et la prose latine, entretiens sur l antiquite classique: 6
(Gcncva ..), .6.
rz. !n thc Rcpublic thc Scnatc rcgularly was approachcd by thc magistratc
or promagistratc wishing to triumph, it would instruct a tribunc to bring a
rogatio to thc pcoplc, allowing thc gcncral to rctain his imperium within thc
city boundarics. Thc Scnatc would havc to mcct outsidc thc city boundary
(pomerium) on such an occasion, usually in thc Tcmplc ol 8cllona, so that thc
gcncral could attcnd.
r. Scncca traccs to thc longtcrm hatrcd ol thc Gauls lor Romc, going
back to thc Gallic sicgc ol thc lourth ccntury ncv, thc adhcrcncc to Catilincs
conspiracy in 6 ncv ol somc cnvoys ol thc Allobrogcs, who wcrc in lact mo
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tivatcd by thc Scnatcs rclusal to grant thcir tribc dcbt rclicl as thcy had just
rcqucstcd. (Sallust Catiline c..). Thc busta Gallica (Gallic tombs) was a
placc in Romc whcrc tradition said that whcn thc Gauls wcrc bcsicging Romc
in c ncv thcy had intcrrcd, without duc ccrcmony, thc ashcs ol thosc among
thcm who had succumbcd to a pcstilcncc (Livy .., aa....., gilvic .6,
,,). Thcy arc now said to intcnd to ocr as human sacriccs Roman lcadcrs
killcd in Catilincs attack.
r. Vhcn Marius rcturncd to Romc in 6 ncv with Cinna altcr having
bccn cxilcd by Sulla, hc cngagcd in thc slaughtcr ol his cncmics. Scncca uscs
military languagc lor his giving thc command to his bodyguard to kill, and
thcn alludcs to his indicating that particular pcrsons wcrc to dic by rclus
ing to grcct thcm or acknowlcdgc thcir grccting (Plutarch Marius , Florus
a...6).
r. Sulla invcntcd thc proscriptions, a list ol pcoplc who could bc killcd
with impunity, and rcwardcd thc killcrs with immunity lrom prosccution and
nancial rcwards. Scncca jokcs that thcy wcrc all but awardcd thc corona ci.ica,
a military honour lor saving a citizcns lilc.
r6. Pompcy is thc only onc ol Scnccas cxamplcs hcrc who did not contcm
platc turning his army on Romc, so Scncca blamcs him instcad lor dividing
total political control ol Romc bctwccn himscll, Cacsar, and Crassus: thc so
callcd First Triumviratc ol 6c ncv. As Cacsar bccamc Pompcys lathcrinlaw,
Scncca can say that twothirds ol thc control was in his lamily. l thc cx
tra ordinary commands mcntioncd, Cacsar rcccivcd Cisalpinc Gaul and !l
lyricum, Crassus Syria, and Pompcy Spain.
r. Julius Cacsar.
r8. Porscnna, thc truscan gcncral, had campcd on thc Janiculum. vcn
thc hostilc Lucan at .,a says only that Cacsar brought somc unarmcd mcn
into thc city, Cacsar himscll (Ci.il !ar ..a..) says that on his rst visit to
Romc altcr lcaving his provincc, hc camc into thc city, lcaving his soldicrs in
ncarby towns. Lipsius suggcsts that thc Circus Flaminius was ncar thc tcmplc
ol Apollo outsidc thc city boundary, whcrc Cacsar hcld thc Scnatc. Hc could
havc brought somc soldicrs, probably in civilian drcss, to guard him.
rq. Thcrc is no othcr cvidcncc that Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony) jus
ticd Cacsars murdcr. Scncca is cxaggcrating Antonys lailurc to punish thc
assassins, in accordancc with thc amncsty ol . March , which Antony as
consul implcmcntcd. 8rutus and Cassius wcrc givcn curatorships ol thc corn
supply and thcn thc provinccs ol Crctc and Cyrcnc rcspcctivcly, though thcy
movcd on to Syria and Maccdonia.
zo. Clcopatra and hcr brothcr Ptolcmy X!\ arc prcsumably mcant. Actium
was rcprcscntcd as a victory against a lorcign quccn (Horacc Carmina ..,).
zr. Thc youngcr Cato was dclcatcd lor thc practorship ol but was clcctcd
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lor , hc was dclcatcd lor thc consulship ol . and ncvcr achicvcd it (cl. Con-
solatio ad Hel.iam ..).
zz. \irgil eneid .6.
z. A logical tcrm lor thc typc ol argumcnt that, procccding by small
and sccmingly harmlcss stcps, lcads to unacccptablc conclusions (cl. Ciccro
Lucullus ).
z. Scc .a... bclow. This striking vicw about lcgal pcrmissibility is antici
patcd by Aristotlc at Nicomachean Ethics ..., ..a6,.
z. Thc vctcran is rccalling an incidcnt ol thc civil war in Spain against
Pompcys sons, which cndcd with Cacsars victory at Munda in March ol .
Thc rivcr Sucro is thc modcrn Xucar, and in Scnccas day was in thc provincc
ol Hispania Tarraconcnsis.
Book 6
r. Rabirius was an Augustan poct who wrotc a pocm on thc 8attlc ol Ac
tium. Thc lragmcnt (8achr a) must rclatc to Antoniuss dclcat in that battlc
against ctavian, thc latcr Augustus.
z. Scncca rclcrs back to Antonius and his strugglc with ctavian, alluding
to his marriagc to ctavia and his link with ctavian as a lcllow triumvir lrom
to ncv and as his collcaguc in thc consulship in ncv.
. This problcm is thc major thcmc ol Ep. ., which dcals with a numbcr ol
spccial topics about bcncts comparablc to thosc discusscd in books ,.
. Scncca is thinking ol cascs in which thc dcbt is not actionablc at law
bccausc, lor cxamplc, thc dcbtor is a minor, thc ratc ol intcrcst is illcgal, or
thc dcbtor is protcctcd by an exceptio in thc practors lormula rcspccting thc
particular tcrms ol thc original loan.
. \irgil eneid ..6a6.
6. To thc two catcgorics distinguishcd at 6.,.., not knowing and not want
ing to hclp, Scncca now adds a third: wanting not to hclp, prcviously a sub
catcgory ol thc lattcr.
. Thc princcps oltcn gavc citizcnship and/or immunity lrom tributc to
communitics or individuals lor particular scrviccs to Romc. Thc cxtravagant
ocr hcrc docs not t any particular princcps to datc: Ncros gilt ol lrccdom
to thc Grccks (actually thc provincc ol Achaca) camc altcr Scnccas dcath.
Though Claudius is dcscribcd in thc pocolocyntosis as having dccidcd to
scc all Grccks, Gauls, Spaniards, and 8ritons wcaring thc toga, thcrc is no
cvidcncc lor citizcnship bcing givcn to any cthnic group by Claudius, nor is
immunity lrom taxation attcstcd lor any community in Spain (P. T. dcn,
Seneca: pocolocyntosis |Cambridgc .|, appcndix, .a). Hcrc and in thc
pocolocyntosis Scncca may havc had in mind Claudiuss spccch justilying his
admission to thc Scnatc ol somc Gallic notablcs (ILS a.a), lor Claudius thcrc
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(col.!..) mcntioncd thc cxtcnsion ol Roman citizcnship ovcr timc (scc M. T.
Gri n, Thc Lyons Tablct and Tacitcan Hindsight, CQ a |.a|, .6.,).
8. Thc lorccs ol Xcrxcs, king ol Pcrsia lrom 6 to 6 ncv, wcrc dclcatcd
by sca at thc 8attlc ol Salamis in c ncv and by land at Plataca in , ncv.
Scncca uscs Xcrxcs again as an cxamplc ol folie de grandeur in Natural Ques-
tions ....c (whcrc hc is callcd rex stolidissimus, cl. rex stolidus in On Constancy
.a) and in On Lifes Bre.ity .,.a (rex insolentissimus). Xcrxcs was uscd simi
larly in thc dcclamatory tradition (Scncca thc ldcr Suasoriae a..,., \alcrius
Maximus .a, cxt. , ., cxt. a).
q. cmaratus, thc urypontid Spartan king, rcigncd c. .. ncv, but was
dcposcd through thc machinations ol thc Agiad King Clcomcncs on a chargc
ol illcgitimacy, and cd to thc Pcrsian King arius (Hcrodotus 6.6.,c).
Hc accompanicd Xcrxcs on his cxpcdition against Grcccc and, according to
Hcrodotus (,..c., a), ocrcd advicc whcn askcd, altcr thc invading lorccs
had rcachcd Thracc, whcthcr or not thc Grccks would rcsist conqucst. Thc
advicc Xcrxcs rcccivcd lrom his Pcrsian adviscrs was not unilormly in lavor ol
thc invasion, and thc king himscll wavcrcd (Hcrodotus ,..).
ro. !n a ncv Augustus scnt his only child, Julia, his daughtcr by Scribonia,
to his villa on thc island ol Pandatcria. Hc madc hcr misdcmcanors public by
inlorming thc Scnatc ol thcm through a lcttcr rcad by his quacstor (Sucto
nius Life of ugustus 6.a). n thc possiblc political motivcs ol all conccrncd,
intimatcd by Scncca in On Lifes Bre.ity .6, scc R. Symc, Thc Crisis ol
a n.c., Bayerische kademie der !issenschaften, Philosophisch-Historische Klasse.
Sitzungsberichte, , (.,), ... =Foman Papers . xlord, ., .a6.
rr. Thc lex de adulteriis coercendis was passcd in or soon altcr . ncv (Cass.
io ..6) by Augustus.
rz. Marsyas was a satyr, a scrvant in Romc ol Fathcr Libcr. 8oth Marsyas
and Libcr wcrc associatcd with libcrty and liccnsc, so Marsyass statuc would
bc a natural placc lor a prostitutc to rccruit clicnts, though it is unlikcly that
Julia rcally bccamc a liccnscd prostitutc who did so.
r. 8oth mcn had bccn closc to Augustus lrom thc pcriod ol thc Triumvi
ratc: M. \ipsanius Agrippa, his principal gcncral, dicd in .a ncv, C. Macccnas,
diplomat and litcrary adviscr, dicd in ncv. Had thcy bccn alivc in a ncv,
thcy would both havc lound it vcry di cult to advisc in this situation, sincc
Agrippa was Julias husband and Macccnas had bccn thc advocatc ol thc mar
riagc (io .6.).
r. Thc nomenclator was a slavc who accompanicd his mastcr in ordcr to
prompt him with thc namc ol pcrsons hc cncountcrcd. This division into audi
cnccs (admissiones), cmploycd whcn largc numbcrs attcndcd a salutatio, was a
de facto systcm ol admission according to which, as Scncca cxplains in 6...
a, somc achicvcd cntry into inncr rooms and somc did not (A. Vintcrling,
ula Caesaris |Munich .|, .a.).
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r. 8oth Acncas and thc young Sicilians havc lcaturcd in .,..a as cx

amplcs ol childrcn outdoing thc bcncts rcccivcd lrom parcnts. Scncca thcrc
rcmarks on Acncass pietas or lial duty, and hcrc Acncas is givcn his \irgilian
cpithct pius, whilc pietas is ascribcd to thc Sicilian youths.
r6. This is prcsumably thc cldcr P. Cornclius Scipio Alricanus, victor ovcr
Hannibal in thc Sccond Punic Var. ccius Mus thc cldcr, in thc Latin Var
ol c ncv, and ccius Mus thc youngcr, in thc Samnitc Var ol a ncv, arc
said to havc vowcd thc sacricc ol thc cncmy and thcmsclvcs to thc gods in
rcturn lor Roman victory and thcn plungcd into thc midst ol battlc to bc killcd
(scc Livy ....c, .c.a)an act ol de.otio.
r. For Hccaton as a sourcc, scc thc introduction and notc 6. Callistratus,
Athcnian orator and statcsman, wcnt into cxilc in 6. ncv.
r8. An adhcrcnt ol thc Stoa, P. Rutilius Rulus, though widcly bclicvcd to
bc innoccnt, was condcmncd in a ncv lor cxtortion by an cqucstrian jury
altcr scrving as lcgatc to thc incorruptiblc Q. Mucius Scacvola, govcrnor ol
Asia, who had curbcd thc abuscs ol thc cqucstrian tax collcctors. Hc wcnt into
cxilc at Smyrna among thc pcoplc hc was supposcd to havc dcspoilcd. His
condcmnation lor cxtortion in a was lollowcd soon altcr by thc Social Var
and thc civil war bctwccn thc lollowcrs ol Sulla and Marius. Scncca admircd
his uprightncss in advcrsity (..,.a, On Pro.idence .).
rq. An important Athcnian statcsman and orator ol thc lourth ccntury
ncv.
zo. Arruntius and Hatcrius cannot bc idcnticd with ccrtainty.
zr. \irgil eneid .a....
Book y
r. \irgil Georgics a.6. Thc quotation ol \irgil is slightly altcrcd, with
longo (lcngthy) in linc substitutcd lor cto (madc up, articial).
z. A contcmporary ol Scncca, cmctrius is charactcrizcd as a Cynic again
in On the Happy Life .. (scc also rclcrcnccs to him at Epp. 6a.a, 6,.., ...,
Natural Questions , prcl. ,, On Pro.idence .). Tacitus shows that cmctrius
was an associatc ol thc virtuous scnators Thrasca Pactus and 8arca Soranus
(nn. .6.). Hc was banishcd undcr \cspasian in ,. (io 66...., Suc
tonius Life of !espasian .).
. An allusion to cmocritus 8.., (iclsKranz).
. Scncca docs not draw attcntion to thc lact that thc subjcct is no longcr
thc mind (animus) but thc pcrson himsclla natural cnough slippagc, givcn
that Stoics oltcn idcntily thc pcrson with thc rational mind.
. !n Stoic thcory, somconc advancing on thc path to virtuc (Grcck
prokoptn).
6. ncsicritus was Alcxandcrs hcad stccrsman, hc scrvcd on thc voyagc
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to thc Pcrsian Gull in aa ncv and latcr wrotc a attcring account ol
Alcxandcr.
. Cyrus (thc Grcat), and his son Cambyscs, kings ol Pcrsia in thc midsixth
ccntury ncv, turncd a small kingdom that was subjcct to thc Mcdian king into
a largc cmpirccmbracing Mcdia, Lydia, Cyprus, 8abylonia, ccntral Asia,
and gyptwith an imprcssivc lcgal and administrativc systcm.
8. Scncca no doubt mcans to rclcr to thc Stoics hcrc. Thc imagincd intcr
locutor hcrc should not bc idcnticd with thc addrcsscc ol thc work, Libcralis.
q. \irgil Georgics ....
ro. This scntcncc is onc ol thc most important picccs ol cvidcncc lor
nancc undcr thc Principatc. Scncca clcarly parallcls thc cmpcrors scus hold
ing pri.ata with his patrimonium holding propria. Fiscus is thc prcdominant
tcchnical tcrm in spcaking ol thc impcrial wcalth, cspccially in lcgal sourccs
(F. Millar, Thc Fiscus in thc First Two Ccnturics, JFS |.6|, a). Scncca
hcrc uscs it to mcan thc pcrsonal propcrty ol thc princcps.
rr. A Cynic philosophcr activc in thc third ccntury ncv, lrom thc city ol
8orysthcncs on thc 8lack Sca.
rz. A stccp cli ncar thc southcrn summit ol thc Capitolinc Hill, ovcrlook
ing thc Roman Forum, thc Tarpcian Rock was uscd during thc Rcpublic as an
cxccution sitc lor thosc condcmncd lor murdcr, trcason, and sacrilcgc.
r. Thc Capitolinc Hill was thc sitc ol thc grcat tcmplc to Jupitcr, Juno,
and Mincrva.
r. M. Curius cntatus, rcnowncd lor his lrugality, thc story can bc lound
in \alcrius Maximus ..b and Pliny Natural History ....
r. Scncca alludcs to thc class ol thc capite censi, who had no propcrty to
dcclarc.
r6. Sct at onc million scstcrccs undcr Augustus.
r. An infelix arbor is a trcc dcdicatcd to thc gods ol thc undcrworld, uscd
lor hanging condcmncd criminals.
r8. Caligula.
rq. !n strict Stoic doctrinc, only sagcs can bc gcnuinc lricnds ol cach othcr,
and all nonsagcs arc cncmics ol cach othcr.
zo. Knights, thc moncycd class in Roman socicty outsidc thc scnatorial
class.
zr. Altcr thc lacuna, which is ol unccrtain lcngth, Scncca is still discussing
lricnds having all things in common, but now turns to thc lact that cach can
posscss and bc givcn dicrcnt amounts ol it.
zz. Scc csp. a., .c..a.
z. \irgil eneid 6..
z. Scncca agrccs with Thucydidcs (..ac, 6.) that Harmodius and Aris
togciton, though honorcd as tyrannicidcs, did not kill thc tyrant Hippias but
only his brothcr Hipparchus.
ac
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z. Vhcn thc truscan king Lars Porscnna was bcsicging Romc in thc
lth ccntury ncv, Gaius Mucius lamously sncakcd into thc truscan camp
and attcmptcd to murdcr him. Mucius was capturcd and dcclarcd that hc
was onc ol thrcc hundrcd Romans willing to givc thcir own lilc to kill Por
scnna (Livy a..a). Porscnna ordcrcd Mucius to bc cast into thc amcs, an act
Mucius prccmptcd by thrusting his hand into thc rc and giving no sign ol
pain. !mprcsscd by thc youths couragc, Porscnna lrccd Mucius. 8ccausc ol
his maimcd right hand, Mucius was lorcvcr altcr known as Scacvola (lclty
or lclthandcd) (a..).
z6. Litcrally, cvcn il hc puts thcm into thc lold ol his toga and thcn carc
lcssly lails to cinch his toga at thc waist, so that thc coins lall to thc ground.
z. Two notoriously crucl tyrants: Phalaris ol Agrigcntum in thc sixth ccn
tury ncv, and Apollodorus ol Cassandrca in Maccdonia in thc third.
z8. Litcrally, with thc samc hand. Gummcrc thinks this is an allusion to
supplying thc mcans ol suicidc to thc mad tyrant. Though this makcs scnsc
ol abire (makc his cxit), thc traditional rcsponsc to a vicious tyrant is tyran
nicidc, and hand (manus) is morc suggcstivc ol striking a blow than ol sup
plying a wcapon. Scncca no doubt has in mind Platos rcmarks on incorrigiblc
cvildocrs at Gorgias a8a6A.
zq. Cl. a..c. abovc.
o. \irgil eneid .a..
r. vid Metamorphoses ..c..
z. Aristippus ol Cyrcnc was a lollowcr ol Socratcs and loundcr ol thc
hcdonistic Cyrcnaic school ol philosophy.
. \irgil eneid .,,. ido addrcsscs Acncas. Scncca changcs thc
thirdpcrson objcct to thc sccond pcrson to t this contcxt.
. \irgil eneid ..,.. ido addrcsscs Acncas.
. Scncca is rclcrring to thc stagcs ol thc scnatorial carccr. Thc quacstorship
is thc rst o cc that carrics mcmbcrship in thc Scnatc. !n a.a,., Scncca lists
thc tribunatc and practorship on thc way to thc consulship and sccond consul
ship. Hcrc hc mcntions pricsthoods altcr thc consulshipa common progrcs
sion, though somc gaincd pricsthoods carlicr. Magistracics and pricsthoods
wcrc ccctivcly in thc gilt ol thc princcps, whosc rccommcndation countcd
hcavily in thc Scnatcs voting, but lormal clcction by thc pcoplc and cooptation
by thc mcmbcrs ol thc rclcvant pricstly collcgc lollowcd altcrward.
6. picurus.
. Anaxagoras.
ac Textual Notes
Book r
i. Thcrc is a gap in thc tcxt hcrc. Vc acccpt thc supplcmcnt proposcd by
Lipsius (nocentius quam bctwccn dixerim and quod benecia), though scvcral
othcr solutions havc bccn proposcd.
ii. This is Lipsiuss corrcction and supplcmcnt, acccptcd by Hosius, lor thc
obvious lacuna.
iii. !t has long bccn rccognizcd that thcrc is a substantial gap in thc tcxt
at this point. Thc tcxt rcsumcs in thc midst ol what sccms to bc a digrcssion
(scc ...c..).
iv. Rcading inde certissimum with N.
v. Acccpting thc cmcndation ibi lor sibi, as do Procop and Coopcr, scc
V. H. Alcxandcr , Furthcr Notcs on thc Tcxt ol Scnccas De Beneciis, CQ
. (.,), , and V. H. Alcxandcr, Lucius Annacus Scncca De Beneciis Libri
!II: Thc Tcxt mcndcd and xplaincd, Uni.ersity of California Publications
. (.ca), ,. !l wc rctain thc rcading ol thc archctypc N and rcad sibi, wc
could cxplain bcing usclul to oncscll as lollows. According to thc jurists,
thc catcgory ol usclul cxpcnscs consists ol thosc that improvc, and not mcrcly
prcscrvc, oncs propcrty. 8y analogy, thc usclul things hcrc would cnablc thc
pcrson to bc indcpcndcnt ol othcrs bcncts, usclul to himscll and hcncc to
othcrs (cl. Otio ., quisquis bene de se meretur hoc ipso aliis prodest quod illis
profuturum parat, though thcrc hc is spcaking ol scllimprovcmcnt through
thc lilc ol contcmplation).
vi. Acccpting Prchacs cmcndation, qui.is lor quis.
Book a
i. Vc rcad facit in fortes inrmitas, lollowing Alcxandcrs suggcstion (.,,
6), whcrc hc also prclcrs fortes to frontis (rightly, in our vicw). Alcxandcr docs
not rcpcat this suggcstion in (.ca).
ii. Hosius inscrts hcrc a phrasc dcrivcd lrom a mcdicval intcrpolation.
iii. Thc subjcct ol this scntcncc is not cxplicit in thc Latin. !t may bc
thc pridc, good lortunc, or thc givcr ol an advcntitious lavor associatcd with
both.
iv. Femissae is an cmcndation lor Ns remisse, suggcstcd by Gcrtz and by
Alcxandcr (.,, 6, cl. Alcxandcr .ca, .c..), with Procop and Coopcr.
v. Acccpting Haascs supplcmcnt et ut in amicitiam.
a.c
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vi. Vc agrcc with thosc cditors who takc this as a statcmcnt and not a
qucstion.
vii. Acccpting thc mcdicval supplcmcnt et qui meminit.
viii. Acccpting, with Prchac, thc manuscript rcading aut me.
ix. Acccpting pusilli oris with onc carly manuscript, though oris may in lact
bc a mcdicval cmcndation.
x. Somc cditors lollow a mcdicval corrcctor and add et tertius (and third).
xi. Acccpting Madvigs cmcndation, iuste lor iusta.
Book
i. Acccpting Hamiltons |in|gratus lor thc manuscript rcading ingratus (a
corrcctor in N anticipatcs Hamiltons intcrprctation by inscrting non bclorc
ingratus, which has thc samc ccct). Thc unaltcrcd manuscript rcading can
bc rctaincd (this is thc prclcrcncc ol Hosius, Prchac, Gri n, 8asorc, and
Mcnghi), but Alcxandcr (.ca, ..), argucs pcrsuasivcly lor thc cmcnda
tion, which is also acccptcd by Coopcr/Procop, on thc grounds that thc trans
mittcd rcading givcs a wcak or muddlcd scnsc no mattcr how onc translatcs
thc uncmcndcd Latin.
ii. Hcrc wc lollow thc rcasoning ol Alcxandcr (.,, ,, and .ca, .6)
on thc ow ol argumcnt and division ol spcakcrs.
iii. Thcrc must bc a lacuna in thc tcxt hcrc, and/or possibly thc ordcr ol thc
paragraphs in this scction has bccn disturbcd. Following Sonntag and Coopcr/
Procop, wc rcvcrsc thc ordcr ol paragraphs a and .
iv. Acccpting thc punctuation suggcstcd by Alcxandcr (Notcs on thc De
beneciis ol Scncca, CQ a |.| and .ca, ac).
v. Acccpting thc cmcndation latent lor Ns habent (. R. Shacklcton8ailcy,
mcndations ol Scncca, CQ .,c, 6a).
Book |
i. Thc rcading praeferimus, prclcrrcd by Hosius, is rcjcctcd by N. Holmcs,
Fcrimus, CQ (acc), a, bccausc it is thc only instancc ol thc prcscnt
indicativc plural lorm ol fero or its compounds in Scncca, and was also avoidcd
by Ciccro. Holmcs prclcrs cithcr praeferamus or praeferam. As thc argumcnt
rcquircs an indicativc (lor it is thc lact ol our giving by choicc to thc poor that
is nccdcd to rclutc thc supposition that wc givc in hopcs ol a rcturn), praeferam,
lavourcd by Prchac, is to bc prclcrrcd.
ii. 8asorc supplics .itae~ in thc Locb cdition, Prchac .itae perpetuitati~
in thc 8ud. Vc lollow thc lormcr.
iii. Rcading quid rathcr than thc cmcndation by Gcrtz acccptcd by Hosius
(cui id). Scncca only rcvcrts to thc issuc ol choosing a bcncciary at thc cnd ol
:
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a..
thc rcbuttal with Itaque, cum eligo, cui dem (.), and only rcturns to it propcrly
at .c.. !n thc mcantimc thc discussion is broadcncd to includc othcr kinds ol
discrimination (cl. Ep. . listing whcn, what, whcrc, and how).
iv. Acccpting constantia, proposcd by Lipsius.
Book
i. Thc tcxt has bccn doubtcd. Lipsius rcad docuisset (had taught). !l .etuisset
(had lorbiddcn) is corrcct, thcn thc scnsc must bc, as 8asorc suggcsts, il hc
had taught him thc truc valucs ol lilci.c., not to bchavc autocratically, or
cvcn not to continuc as rulcr.
ii. Thcrc is a lacuna in N. Thc addition ol igitur non, hcncc thcrclorc hc is
not ungratclul (Prchac .6. ad loc.) or ol nullus itaque malus, hcncc and so
no bad man is ungratclul (Haasc .), rcstorcs thc scnsc.
iii. Vc acccpt supplcmcnts by Gcrtz and Madvig rcspcctivcly.
iv. Thc tcxt ol thc last clausc is clcarly corrupt. As Lipsius said, thc mcaning
is somcthing likc ad alios spectat .erum, thc othcrs arc clcarly wisc mcn or
thosc lurthcr along in virtuc.
v. Addition by Gcrtz, acccptcd by 8asorc and Prchac.
Book 6
i. Gcrtz divincd a hiatus in thc tcxt, and wc havc adoptcd his supplcmcnt.
ii. Vc acccpt Rossbachs cmcndation ut~, dcspitc Hosiuss hcsitation.
iii. Likc Alcxandcr and Prchac, wc lollow thc manuscripts in rcading data
hcrc (scc Alcxandcr .ca, ).
iv. Vc rcad nimia ingrati est with Prchac.
v. Acccpting thc supplcmcnt ol Gcrtz, destringi, rathcr than opprimi, which
is an inlcrior attcmpt in somc latcr manuscripts to ll thc gap lound in N.
Book y
i. Vc acccpt Hosiuss cmcndation utique lor a corrupt tcxt. thcr cditors
providc othcr solutions.
ii. Thcrc is a lacuna, possibly a long onc, at this point in thc tcxt. !t was
rst noticcd by Murctus.
iii. Rcading tum lor thc manuscripts tam, a suggcstion by Castiglioni dc
lcndcd by Alcxandcr (.ca, .).
iv. Thc addition alterum~ is by Hosius. Phalaris is thc archctypal tyrant,
so it would bc odd to say, as thc manuscripts do, Phalaris and a tyrantbut
it is not puzzling il thc morc obscurc Apollodorus mcntioncd at .. abovc
wcrc dcscribcd hcrc as just somc othcr tyrant.
a.a
:
v
x
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x
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v
s
v. Vith Alcxandcr .ca, , wc acccpt Castiglionis et lor est.
vi. Hosius acccpts potuit lrom carly cditors and .iolentia lrom Haupt.
Alcxandcr (.,, 6c and .ca, ) argucs that this is nccdlcssly intrusivc,
and suggcsts (drawing on 8ucks suggcstion) quod explicaris pertinacia trahenti
abruptum est, which wc attcmpt to translatc hcrc.
vii. Acccpting Rossbachs supplcmcnt .ox~, rathcr than Madvigs
cmcndation dicere lor desit.
a. Feferences
Alcxandcr, V. H. Notcs on thc De beneciis ol Scncca. CQ a (.): .
. Furthcr Notcs on thc Tcxt ol Scnccas De Beneciis. CQ . (.,):
6c.
. Lucius Annacus Scncca De Beneciis Libri !II: Thc Tcxt mcndcd
and xplaincd. Uni.ersity of California Publications . (.ca): .6.
Algra, K. ct al., cds. The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy. Cam
bridgc and Ncw York, ..
Champlin, . Final Judgments. 8crkclcy, ...
Chaumartin, F. R. Le De beneciis de Senque: Sa signication philosophique,
politique, et sociale. Lillc and Paris, ..
Coopcr, J. M., and J. F. Procop. Seneca: Moral and Political Essays. Cam
bridgc, ..
dcn, P. T. Seneca: pocolocyntosis. Cambridgc, ..
Gri n, M. T. Thc Lyons Tablct and Tacitcan Hindsight. CQ a (.a):
.6.,.
. Nero: The End of a Dynasty. London, ..
. Seneca: Philosopher in Politics. and cdition. xlord, .,6. Rcviscd
with postscript .a.
. De Beneciis and Roman Socicty. JFS (acc): a...
. Scnccas Pcdagogic Stratcgy. !n Greek and Foman Philosophy
zcc BC to :cc D, cditcd by R. Sorabji and R. V. Sharplcs, ... BICS
Supplcmcnt . London, acc,.
Grimal, Picrrc. Senque. Paris, ...
Holmcs, N. Fcrimus. CQ (acc): a6,.
!nwood, 8. Ethics and Human ction in Early Stoicism. xlord, ..
. Feading Seneca. xlord, acc.
Long, A. A., and . N. Scdlcy. The Hellenistic Philosophers. Cambridgc, .,.
Macowcll, . M. The La. in Classical thens. London, .,.
Maycr, R. Roman Historical xcmpla in Scncca. !n Senque et la prose
latine, cditcd by . Rcvcrdin and 8. Grangc. ntrcticns sur lantiquit
classiquc 6. Gcncva, ...
Mcnghi, M. Seneca: Sui beneci. 8ari, acc.
Millar, F. Thc Fiscus in thc First Two Ccnturics. JFS (.6): aa.
gilvic, R. M. Commentary on Li.y: Books z. xlord, .6.
Shacklcton8ailcy, . R. mcndations ol Scncca. CQ ac (.,c):c6.
Sonntag, M. De beneciis libri explanantur. Lcipzig, ...
Symc, R. Thc Crisis ol a 8.C. Bayerische kademie der !issenschaften,
a.
v
v
v
v
v
v
x
c
v
s
Philosophisch-Historische Klasse. Sitzungsberichte , (.,): ... =Foman
Papers . xlord, ., .a6.
Vhitc, P. Promised !erse: Poets in the Society of ugustan Fome. Cambridgc,
MA, ..
Vintcrbottom, M. The Elder Seneca: Declamations. Cambridgc, MA, .,.
Vintcrling, A. ula Caesaris. Munich, ..
Zankcr, P. Te Mask of Socrates. 8crkclcy and Los Angclcs, ..
a. Index
Acadcmy, .
Accius, xx
Achaca, acn,
Achacans, .a
Achillcs, .ca
Actium, .na, .naa, acnac,
acn.
Acbutius Libcralis, , .., .,, ,
6, , , 6., , 6, .c, ..,
.,, .c, ., .6, .66, acan,
ac,n
Acmilius Lcpidus, Marcus (consul
6 ncv), .n6
Acmilius Scaurus, Mamcrcus
(consul succt a. cv), .c6,
ac.nnaa
Acmilius Scaurus, Marcus (consul
.. ncv), .c6
Acncas, , .6., ac6n., acnn
etna (pocm), .na6
Actna (volcano), , .6.
Alranius 8urrus, Scxtus, viii
Agrippa. See \ipsanius Agrippa,
Marcus
Agrippina. See Julia Agrippina
Akalaitis, Joannc, xxv
Alcibiadcs, a
Alcxandcr thc Grcat, king ol
Maccdon, , c, a, ...6,
.66, accnaa, acan, ac,n6
Alcxandcr !\, king ol Maccdon
(a:.c ncv), accnaa
Allobrogcs, .a,, accna., acan.
Alps, .a,
Amcrica, xivxv
Amphinomos, .na6. See also
Sicily
Anapias, .na6. See also Sicily
Anaxagoras, acn,
Androclcs, .n.
Annacus Mcla, vii
Annacus Scncca. See Scncca, Lu
cius Annacus (thc youngcr)
nnals. See Tacitus
Annius Pollio, Gaius (consul a. cv),
.c6
Antigonus ! Monophtalmos, king
ol Maccdonia (c. ac. ncv),
, , .na,
Antonius, Marcus (consul
ncv), c, .a, ., .n6, acn.,
acnn.a
Apollo (god), acn.
Apollodorus, .., acna,
Arccsilaus (hcad ol Acadcmy lrom
c. a6 ncv), ,,
Archclaus, king ol Maccdon
(. ncv), ..,., acan
Argos, xxi
Aristidcs, .ca
Aristippus, ., ., acna
Aristo (lathcr ol Plato), ,
Aristogciton, .,, ac,na
Aristotclians, xi, xv. See also
Pcripatctics
Aristotlc, xiv, .n., Eudemian
Ethics, ..n., Nicomachean Ethics,
..n., acan, acna
Arruntius, .6, ac6nac
Asia, .a, .,, ., .6na,, ac6n.,
ac,n,
Astyanax, xxiii
Athcns/Athcnians, .6a, .,, ac6n.,,
ac6n.
a.6
i
x
b
v
x
Atia (mothcr ol Augustus), .na
Atilius Rcgulus, Marcus (consul
a, ncv), .., ac.na
Atrcus, xxi, xxii, xxiii
Atticus. See Pomponius Atticus,
Titus
Augustinc, xiv
Augustus, , a, , c, ., ,, c, .,
., .n., .n6, .na, .na,,
.,n., .naaa, .na,
ac.na, acnn.a, acnn.c..,
acn., ac,n.6
Aulus Gcllius, .n.
Aurclius, Marcus, x, xii, xv
8abylonia, ac,n,
8alcaric !slands, ix
8arca Soranus. See Marcius 8arca
Soranus, Quintus
8cllona (goddcss), acan.a
8ion, .,a
8octhius, xxiv
8ritannicus (son ol Claudius), viii
8ritons, acn,
8rutus. See Junius 8rutus, Marcus
8urrus. See Alranius 8urrus,
Scxtus
Cacsar (titlc ol Roman mpcror),
.,a
Caligula, vii, xx, , ., c, , .c,
.,, .n.., .nnaaa, accna,
ac,n.
Callistratus, .6a, ac6n.,
Calpurnius Piso, Gaius, ix
Cambyscs, king ol Pcrsia, .6,
ac,n,
Caninius Rcbilus, Gaius (consul
succt , cv), , , .na
Cannac, .n
Cantabrians, .na
Capitol, .,a, ac,n.
Carians, ..,
Carthaginians .., ac.na
Cassandra, xx
Cassius Longinus, Gaius, acn.
Cassius Scvcrus, .6n.
Catania, .na6
Catilinc. See Scrgius Catilina, L.
Cato. See Porcius Cato, M.
Christians, ix, xiv, xxv, xxvi
Chrysippus, x, , ,, a.aa, , c, ,a,
.,, .na6
Ciccro, x, xi, xiii, xiv, xv, .c, .a, .,.,
In Defense of Foscius the Come-
dian (Pro Foscio comoedo), .6n,
Lucullus, acna, On Duties (De
o ciis), xiv, ..n., .an, .na,
.,n.c, .na, .n,, On Ends
(De nibus), .n., acan,, On
the Nature of the Gods (De natura
deorum), .n., .n, On the
Fepublic (De republica), .an,
Philippics, .,n., son ol, .c,
accnac, Tusculan Disputations,
.an
Cimbri, .a,
Circus Flaminius, .a,, acn.
Claudian, .na6
Claudius, vii, viii, xvi, a, .nn..,
.6na,, ac.na6, acn,
Claudius rusus, Ncro, ac.na
Claudius Ncro, Tibcrius, ac.na
Claudius Quadrigarius, ,
Clcanthcs, x, xvii, .a, ., .
Clcmcnt ol Alcxandria, xiv
Clcomcncs, king ol Sparta, acn
Clcopatra, quccn ol gypt, acnac
Clytcmncstra, xx, xxi
Corduba, vii
Cornium, ,, .,n.
Corinthians, c
Coriolanus. See Marcius Corio
lanus, Gnacus
i
x
b
v
x
a.,
Corncillc, xxv
Cornclius Cinna, Gnacus (consul
cv), .c, accnac
Cornclius Cinna, Lucius (consul
, ncv), acn.
Cornclius Cinna, Lucius (consul
succt a ncv), accnac
Cornclius Lcntulus, Gnacus (con
sul . ncv), ., .na,
Cornclius Scipio Alricanus, Publius
(thc cldcr, consul ac, .), ,
c., .a, .6., .na, lathcr ol,
c., .na, ac6n.6
Cornclius Sulla, Lucius, thc icta
tor, .a,, acan.., acnn..,
ac6n.
Corsica, vii
Crassus. See Licinius Crassus,
Marcus
Crcon, xxi, xxii
Crctc, acn.
Crispus Passicnus. See Sallustius
Crispus Passicnus, Gaius
Ctcsibius, .n
Curius cntatus, Manius (consul
!!! a, ncv), ac,n.
Cynics, ., , .n.6, ac.n
Cyprus, , .na,, ac,n,
Cyrcnc, acn., acna
Cyrus, king ol Pcrsia (c. ,c
ncv), .6, ac,n,
arius !, king ol Pcrsia, acn
ccius Mus, Publius (thc cldcr and
thc youngcr), .ca, .6., accn.,,
ac6n.6
clrio, Martn Antonio, xxv
cmadcs, .6a
cmaratus, king ol Sparta (c..
. ncv), .,, acn
cmctrius thc Cynic, .a., .666,,
.,,, .n.6, ac6na
cmctrius Poliorcctcs, king
ol Maccdon (6aa ncv),
.na,
cmocritus, ac6n
cscartcs, xiv
idcrot, xx
ido, acnn
io Cassius, vii, .n, .6na,
iogcncs thc Cynic, xiv, ...,,
ac.n
iogcncs Lacrtius, x, .n, acan,
acan,
ionysus (god), c, .6
ivinc Augustus. See Augustus
ivinc Julius. See Julius Cacsar,
Gaius (thc ictator)
og Star, 6
omitia, .n.
omitius Ahcnobarbus, Lucius
(consul ncv), ,, .,n.
orus, .,.
rydcn, John, xxv
gypt, ac,n,
liot, T. S., xxiv
lizabcthans, xx, xxiv
mcrson, Ralph Valdo, xv
nlightcnmcnt, xii
pictctus, x, xii, xxi, xxii
picurcans, xv, , , , , .6na,
.n
picurus 6., ,, ,, acn6
rasmus, xx, .an6
truscans, accna.
uphratcs, ,,
uripidcs, xxiv, xxv
urynomc (goddcss), a.aa,
.an6
Fabius Maximus Allobrogicus,
Quintus (consul .a. ncv), .c,
accna.
a.
i
x
b
v
x
Fabius Maximus \crrucosus,
Quintus (consul \ ac ncv,
dictator a., ncv), 6, .ca, .c,
.n, accna.
Fabius Pcrsicus, Paullus (consul
cv), , .c, .na
Fabii, .., accna., ac.na
Fatc, xviii, xxi, , c, .6
Florus, acn.
Furius Camillus, Marcus, .ca, .a,
accn.
Furnius, Gaius (consul ., ncv), c,
.na
Gaius Cacsar. See Caligula
Gaul, .a,, accna, acn.6.
Gauls, ., accn., acan., acn,
Gcrmanicus. See Julius Cacsar,
Gcrmanicus
Gcrmany, .a,
Gctac, .na,
Gracchus. See Scmpronius Grac
chus, Gaius
Graccs (goddcsscs, Grcck
Charitcs), acaa, .ana, .an,
.na6
Grcccc, .,, acn
Grccks, ixx, .a, a., ..,, .,n,, acn,,
acn, Grcck languagc, xv
Grccnc, John, xxiv
Grotius, Hugo, xiv
Grumcntum, ,, .,n.
Gryllus (lathcr ol Xcnophon), ,
Hannibal, .n, accna., ac6n.6
Harmodius, .,, ac,na
Hatcrius, .6, ac6nac
Hccaton ol Rhodcs, 6, a., , , ,c,
.6a, ..n6, .na., ac6n.,
Hclvia (Scnccas mothcr), vii, viii, xvi
Hclvidius Priscus, Gaius, viii
Hcrculcs (hcro), c, c, .6, in
Scnccan tragcdics, xix
Hcrmcs (god), .an
Hcrodotus, acn
Hcsiod, a., aa
Hcywood, Jaspcr, xxiv
Hipparchus, ac,na
Hippias, ac,na
Homcr, a., aa, .6
Horacc, acnac
Hours (goddcsscs), a.
!llyricum acn.6
Janiculum Hill, acn.
Jason, xxii
Jason ol Phcrac, .n.
Joscphus, .n
Julia (daughtcr ol Augustus), .,
acn.c, acnn.a.
Julia Agrippina, viii, .n., ac.na
Julia Livilla, vii
Julian, .n
Julius Cacsar, Gaius (thc ictator),
xviii, ,, ,, .a,, ., .nac,
.,n., .na, .na, acan..,
acnn.6., acna, assassina
tion ol, xiii, ,, .a, acn., Ci.il
!ar, acn.
Julius Cacsar, Gcrmanicus, viii, .c6,
accac.na, ac.na6
Julius Cacsar ctavianus, Gaius
(ncphcw ol thc ictator). See
Augustus
Julius Graccinus, Lucius, , .na
Junius 8rutus, Marcus, xiii, ,,
..n.., .nac, acn.
Juno (goddcss), ac,n.
Jupitcr (god), a., aa, , .n,
ac,n.
Juvcnal, .6n.
i
x
b
v
x
a.
Kanc, Sarah, xxv
Kant, !mmanucl, xi, xiv
Kyd, Tomas, xxv
Laius, xxii
Latin Var, accn.,, ac6n.6
Lcibniz, xi
Lco, Fricdrich, xxiii
Libcr (god), c, acn.a
Libcralis. See Acbutius Libcralis
Licinius Crassus, Marcus (consul !!
ncv), acn.6
Livius rusus, Marcus (tribunc ol
thc plcbs . ncv), .6c
Livy, .,., .na, .na, .n,
accna,, accn., accna., acn.,
ac6n.6
Lucan, vii, ix, xiv, xv, .,n., acn.
Lucrctius, xvii, .6na
Lugdunum (Lyons),
Lycurgus, .na6
Lydia, ac,n,
Lynccus, .c
Maccdonia, 6, 6a, ..c, .., ..,,
acn., acna6
Macccnas, Gaius, , .c, ., acn.
Manlius Capitolinus !mpcriosus,
Lucius (dictator 6 ncv),
Manlius !mpcriosus Torquatus,
Titus (consul ,, , c ncv),
, .na
Marcius 8arca Soranus, Quintus
(consul a cv), ac6na
Marcius Coriolanus, Gnacus, .a,
Marius, Gaius (consul \! .cc ncv),
.a,, acan.., acn., ac6n.
Marius Ncpos, 6,, .n
Marlowc, Christophcr, xxv
Maro (inlormcr), ,,, .,n.6
Marston, John, xxv
Marsyas, ., acn.a
Massilia, .,n.
Mcdca, xxi, xxii, xxiii
Medea (Scncca), xix, xxiii
Mcdia, ac,n,
Mcrcury (god), a., c
Mincrva (goddcss), ac,n.
Mucius Scacvola, Gaius, .ca, .,,
accn., ac6n., acna
Munda, ., acna
Musonius Rulus, Gaius, ix, x, xiii
Mussato, Albcrtino, xxiv, xxv
Narcissus, .6na,
Ncro, vii, viii, ix, xiv, xvi, a, , .,
.6na,, acn,, quinquennium
Neronis, viii
Ncwton, Tomas, xxiv
Nilc, ..
Octa.ia (pscudoScncca), xix
ctavia, sistcr ol Augustus, acna
ctavius, Gaius (lathcr ol Augus
tus), c, .na
cdipus, xxi, xxii, xxiii, Scnccas
play, xix, xxi, xxiii, xxv
lympias, accnaa
On Benets (Scncca): and gilt
cxchangc, ., and law, 6,, .a,
.an.,, structurc, ., tcxt, .,
thcmcs, ..n.
ncsicritus, .66, ac6n6
vid, ., , ., .n.c, acan.c,
acn.
Pacuvius, Marcus, xx
Pallas, .6na,
Panactius, x, xv, 6
Pandatcria, acn.c
Paul, Saint, ix
Paulus (cxpractor), ,,, .,n.6
aac
i
x
b
v
x
Pausanias, mcmbcr ol Alcxandcrs
bodyguard, ..c
Pcripatctics, .a. See also
Aristotclians
Pcrsian Gull, ac,n6
Pcrsians, c, ..,, .6, acn
Pctrarch, xxiv
Phacdra, xxi, xxii, Scnccas play, xix,
xxii
Phalaris, ..a, acna,
Pharsalus, .nac, .,n.
Phidias,
Philip Arrhidacus, accnaa
Philip ol Maccdon, .c, ..c..,
.6na, accnaa
Pisonian conspiracy. See Calpurnius
Piso, Gaius
Plataca, acn
Plato, xi, xiv, xix, ,, .c,, .., .,
., ac.na,, acan, Euthyphro,
.na, Gorgias, acan, acna,
Phaedo, .n.., Phaedrus, ac.na,,
Platonism, xv, Protagoras, ,
.n., Fepublic, , , .an.a,
.n,
Plautus, xxv
Pliny (thc cldcr), .n., .,n.,
acan, ac,n.
Plutarch, xiii, .n, .n., .nac,
.,n., acn.
Polybius, viii, xvi
Polyxcna, xx
Pompcia Paulina, ix
Pompcii, xx
Pompcius Magnus, Gnacus
(consul !!! a ncv), .c, .a,,
.nac, .,n., acn.6, sons ol,
acna
Pompcius Magnus, Scxtus (consul
dcsignatc ncv), .c, .naa
Pompcius Pcnnus, c, .n
Pompcius Strabo, Gnacus (consul
ncv), .,n.
Pomponius, Marcus (tribunc ol thc
plcbs 6a ncv), .na
Pomponius Atticus, Titus, ..n..
Porcius Cato, M., thc cldcr (consul
. ncv), .., acan6
Porcius Cato, M., thc youngcr
(practor ncv), xviii, .a,
acna.
Po Rivcr, .
Porscnna, Lars, king ol Clusium,
.a,, .,, acn., acna
Posidonius, x, xv
Pracncstc, .a,
Prcsocratics, xvii
Ptolcmy ! Sotcr, king ol gypt
(6,/6aa ncv), .na,
Ptolcmy X!\, king ol gypt
(c. ncv), acnac
Punic Var: First, ac.na, Sccond,
.6., .n, ac6n.6
Pythagorcans, ., .
Quintilian,
Rabirius, Augustan (cpic poct), .,
acn.
Racinc, Jcan, xxv
Rhinc, ,,
Rhodcs, 6, .a, .na.
Romans, xxv, a, 6, .a, acna,
citizcnship ol, .,n., accn.6,
acn,, commandcrs, .a,, .,,
acan.., custom ol, ,, .n.,
.n., .nn, accn.6,
dclcats ol, .n, cquitcs, 6,
6, .,6, .6n6, ac6n., ac,nac,
nancc, ac,n.c, hcads ol housc
holds, ..n.c, .na., .na.,
.na, history ol, ..n, law
i
x
b
v
x
aa.
ol, .na., .,n,, .,n, acn,
acn.., namcs ol, .n6, pcoplc,
.a, ac,n., acn, Roman cm
pirc, ., scnatc, , .,, ac.na,
ac.na, ac.na, acan.a, acn.,
acn., acn,, ac,n.6, acn,
triumph ol, acan.a
Romc, vii, viii, ., .6., .,n, acn.,
acn.6, acn., acn., acna,
Agrippas building works, c,
.naa, Collinc gatc, .a,, ,
Gallic sicgc, accn., acan.
Romulus, .n
Rousscau, xiv
Rulus, ,, .,nn.,.
Rutcnbcrg, Michacl lliot, xxv
Rutilius Rulus, P. (consul .c ncv),
.a, .6a, ac6n.
Sabincs, .n
Salamis, acn
Sallust, .n., Catiline, acn.,
Jugurthine !ar, .n.
Sallustius Crispus, Gaius, .n.
Sallustius Crispus Passicnus, Gaius,
a, .n.
Salutati, Coluccio, xxiv
Samnitc wars, accn.,, ac6n.6
Sardis, .
Scaligcr, xxiv
Scipio. See Cornclius Scipio Alri
canus, Publius
Scribonia, acn.c
Scmpronius Gracchus, Gaius
(tribunc ol thc plcbs .a.aa
ncv), .6c
Scncca, Lucius Annacus (thc
cldcr), vii, xx, ..n, .n,, .6n.,
.naa, acn
Scncca, Lucius Annacus (thc
youngcr): pocolocyntosis, ac.na6,
acn,, Consolation to his Mother
Hel.ia, viii, xvi, acna., Consola-
tion to Polybius, viii, xvi, Essays,
xx, Letters to Lucilius, xii, xvi,
xvii, xviii, ., .., ..na, .n.a,
.,n, acann6, ac6na, lilc and
carccr, viiix, xiiixiv, .6na,,
acn, namc, c, .n6, Natural
Questions, xvii, .n., acn,
ac6na, On nger (De ira), xii,
xiii, .n, .na,, On Clemency,
vii, viii, a, accnac, On Constancy,
acn, On the Happy Life (De
.ita beata), ix, xvi, .n.6, ac6na,
On Lifes Bre.ity (De bre.itate
.itae), acn, acn.c, On Pro.i-
dence (De pro.identia), ac6n.,
ac6na, Stoic philosophy ol x,
xii, xiii, xvxix, .a, , .a, ..n6,
.an.. See also titles of tragedies
Scrgius Catilina, L., .a,, .a, acan..,
acan.
Scxtius, Quintus, vii
Scxtus mpiricus, x
Shakcspcarc, xxv
Sicily, , .6., ac6n.
Sidonius Apollinaris, xx
Smith, Adam, xiv
Smyrna, ac6n.
Social Var, .,nn.., ac6n.
Socratcs, ., a, ,, .., ..,., ..,
.,, ., dcath ol, vii, studcnt ol
(Acschincs), a, acna
Sophoclcs, xx, xxi, xxii
Sophroniscus (lathcr ol Soc
ratcs), ,
Spain, vii, xxiv, .na, acn.6,
acn,, acna
Spaniards, ., acn,
Spartans, .., .a, .,
Spinoza, xiv
aaa
i
x
b
v
x
Stoics, ixxv, xviii, xix, xxii ., ,, ,
.ca, .., .a, .a, .a6, ..n, ..n,,
.an., .an, .n.a, .n.,
.,n.c, ac6nn, ac,n, ac,n.,
oikeisis, .n., acan,, Stoic
paradoxcs, , 6,, ..n,
Sucro Rivcr, ., acna
Suctonius, vii, Life of ugustus,
acn.c, Life of Nero, .,n., Life
of Tiberius, .n, Life of !espa-
sian, ac6na
Suillius Rulus, P., ix
Sulla. See Cornclius Sulla, Lucius,
thc ictator
Syria, acn.6, acn.
Tacitus, vii, ix, .n, .na, .6na,,
.,n.6, ac.na, ac6na
Tarpcian Rock, .,a, ac,n.a
Tarquinius Supcrbus, Lucius, last
king ol Romc (.c ncv), ,
Tcrcntius \arro, Marcus, .naa
Tcbcs, xxii
Tcrmopylac, .,
Torcau, Hcnry avid, xv
Tracc, ..,, acn
Trasca Pactus, P. Clodius, viii, ac6na
Tucydidcs, ac,na
Tycstcs, xxi, xxii, xxiii, Scnccas
play, xix, xx, xxi, xxii, xxiii, xxv
Tibcrius Cacsar, vii, , 6,, ,, .,
.n., .n, .6na,, .,n.6,
accna
Ticinus .na
Trasimcnc, .n
Trcvct, Nicholas, xxiv, xxv
Ulysscs, xx
\alcrius Maximus, .n., .na,
acn, ac,n.
\cii, accna.
\cnus (goddcss), a.
\cspasian, ac6na
\csta (goddcss), .an
\cstal \irgins, a., .an
\csuvius, xx
\cttius Scato, P. (lcadcr ol thc
Marsi), ,, .,n.
\ipsanius Agrippa, Marcus
(consul !!! a, ncv), , ,c,
., .naa, acn.
\irgil, xv, ., .n.., .nn,
acnaa, acn, ac6n., ac6na.,
ac6n., ac,n, ac,na, acnc,
acnn
\oltairc, xi
Xcnophon, ,
Xcrxcs, king ol Pcrsia (6
6 ncv), .,, acnn
Zcno ol Citium, ix, .c, ..., .,,
ac.na
Zcus, xi, .n.