Fundamental of Solar Energy

Prof. (Dr.) H.P.
Garg
IREDA Chair Emeritus Professor
Centre for Energy Studies
Indian Institute of Technoogy! Hau" #has!
$e% Dehi&''((')! India
Te. $o. *'&''&+),* '+-* (office)
*'&''&+,(. //-- (res.)
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S:9AR E$ERG;

Energy reated issues for India<
=ider access to eectricity
Significant in>estment needs
Choice of current ? emerging

technoogy that address
En>ironmenta 6rotection4
cimate concerns ? increasing
C:
+
emissions
Energy security
Economic gro%th
Institutiona! financia and

technoogica 1arriers
Afforda1iity issues
I
S
S
8
E
S

The SUN
The SUN
Source of
Source of
all Energy
all Energy
Produces
Produces
Energy
Energy
from H
from H
2 2

What is Solar Energy?
:riginates %ith the

thermonucear fusion
reactions occurring in the
sun.
Re6resents the entire

eectromagnetic s6ectrum
(>isi1e ight! infrared!
utra>ioet! 3&rays! and
radio %a>es).
The sun is! in effect! a

continuous fusion reactor
%ith its constituent gases
as the @containing >esseA
4H 4H
1 1
He He
4 4
+ 2 + 2
+ +
+ 2 + 2 + 25 MeV + 25 MeV
E = mc E = mc
2 2
retained 1y gra>itationa forces. The fusion reaction in
%hich hydrogen (i.e. four 6rotons) com1ines to form
heium (i.e. one heium nuceus) accom6anied 1y a (./
6ercent oss of mass and con>erted to energy is the
source of energy in the S8$.

Global Solar Energy Balance
(TeraWatts)
'(( Ca6tured 1y Pant Photosynthesis
-(!((( 8sed to E>a6orate =ater (=eather)
.+!((( A1sor1ed and Then Refected as Heat
,B!((( Refected to S6ace Immediatey
,(&
+(((
Soar Energy Potentia (Practica)
'+(!((( Soar Energy Potentia (Theoretica)
'B Tota Energy 8sed 1y Human Society
'/.!((( Soar Energy In6ut

Soar Radiation
=e are concerned a1out the 6ortion of the

eectromagnetic radiation emitted from the run in
the %a>eength range of (.+, C B.( m (micron).
=e are aso concerned a1out the soar geometry

i.e. sun and its 6osition in the sDy! the direction of
direct (1eam radiation) on >ariousy incined and
oriented surfaces.
=e are aso concerned a1out the e3traterrestria

radiation on a hori"onta surface %hich is the imit
of the soar radiation on the surface of the earth.
=e are aso concerned a1out the earthE its

motion! orientation and tit %ith res6ect to the sun
effecting the a>aia1iity of soar radiation.
=e are aso concerned a1out the earthAs

atmos6here res6onsi1e for the reduction due to
a1sor6tion! scattering and refection of soar
radiation.

The SunAs Structure
The sun is, in effect, a continuous fusion

reactor with its constituent gases as the
containing vesse! retaine" #$ gravitationa
forces% The most acce&te" fusion reaction is
in which h$"rogen 'i%e% four &rotons(
com#ines to form heium 'i%e% one heium
nuceus() the mass of the heium nuceus is
ess that of the four &rotons, mass having
#een ost in the reaction an" converte" to
energ$%
4H
1
He
4
+ 2
+
+ 2 + 25 mev, E = mc
2
The sun is a s&here of *ntense$ hot gaseous The sun is a s&here of *ntense$ hot gaseous
matter with a "iameter of 1%+, matter with a "iameter of 1%+,
1- 1-
, ,
m an" is, m an" is,
on an average, 1%5 on an average, 1%5
1- 1-
11 11
m from the earth% m from the earth%
The sun has an effective The sun has an effective

#ac.#o"$ tem&erature of #ac.#o"$ tem&erature of
5///.% The tem&erature in the 5///.% The tem&erature in the
centra interior region is centra interior region is
various$ estimate" at 0 various$ estimate" at 0
1- 1-
1 1
to to
4- 4-
1- 1-
1 1
2 an" the "ensit$ is 2 an" the "ensit$ is
estimate" to #e a#out 1-- times estimate" to #e a#out 1-- times
that of water% that of water%

The Suns Structure
The 3un is +++,4-- times more massive than the Earth
an" contains ,,%014 of the mass of the entire soar
s$stem
*t consist of /04 H$"rogen, 2-4 Heium an" 24 of other
eements
*t is estimate" that ,-4 of the energ$ is generate" in the
region of - to -%2+ 5 'where 5 is the ra"ius of the sun(,
which contains 4-4 of the mass of the sun an" "ensit$ is
a#out 1-
5
.g6m
+
%
7t a "istance -%/ 5 from the centre, the tem&erature
"ro&s to a#out 1+-,--- 2 an" "ensit$ "ro&s to /- .g 6 m
+
)
an" the 8one from -%/ to 1%- 5 is .nown as convective
8one, where tem&erature "ro&s to a#out 1--- 2 an"
"ensit$ to a#out 1-
95
.g6m
+

The Suns Structure
The outer ayer of the
con>ecti>e "one is caed the
6hotos6here! %hose edge is
shar6y defined! o6aFue! gases
here are strongy ioni"ed and is
the source of most radiation.
The emitted soar radiation is
the com6osite resut of se>era
ayers that emit and a1sor1
radiation of >arious
%a>eengths.

The Suns Structure
:utside the
6hotos6here is a
ayer of cooer gases
se>era hundred
Diometers dee6
caed the re>ersing
ayer and after this
'(!((( Dm dee6 ayer
caed
Chromos6here.
2urther there is
Corona %ith >ery o%
density and of >ery
high tem6erature.

The Earth
The earth is shaped as an oblate spheroid a sphere flattened at the

poles and bulging in the plane normal to the poles. For most
practical purposes e consider the earth as a sphere ith a diameter
of about !2"#$$ %m and a mean density of about &.&!' g(cm
)
.
Earth has a central core of about 2&*$ %m in diameter hich is more

rigid than steel. +eyond ,entral ,ore is the mantle" hich forms
about '$ percent of the earth-s mass" and beyond this is the outer
crust hich forms about ! per cent of the mass.
The earth describes an ellipse round the sun" ith the later at one of
the foci. The apparent path of the sun as seen from the earth is
%non as the ecliptic.
The eccentricity of the earth-s orbit is .ery small /e0$.$!*')1" so that

the orbit is in fact .ery nearly circular. The shortest distance is
2p 0 a/!3e10!4'.!$!$
*
%m
and longest distance is
2a 0 a /!5e1 0 !&2.!$ !$
*
%m
6here 7a- is the semi3measure a8is of the earth-s orbit.
The mean earth sun distance is the mean of 2p and 2a and its
numerical .alue is !49.&9#& !$
*
%m.
:n ;anuary !" the earth is closest to the sun and on ;uly ! the earth is
most remote to the sun.

The earth ma%es one rotation about its a8is e.ery 24

hrs and completes a re.olution around the sun in a
period of )*&.2& days appro8.
The earth-s a8is of rotation is tilted 2).& deg. ith

respect to its orbit about the sun. <n its orbital
mo.ement" the earth %eeps its a8is oriented in the
same direction.
This tilted position of the earth" alongith the earth-s

daily rotation and yearly re.olution" accounts for the
distribution of solar radiation o.er the earth surface"
the changing length of hours of daylight and night
length" and the changing of the seasons.
The Earth
(contd.)

Earth Data
0ean distance from the Sun4 '.-*) 3 '(
.
Dm
0a3imum distance from the Sun4 '.,+' 3 '(
.
Dm
0inimum distance from the Sun4 '.-/' 3 '(
.
Dm
0ean or1ita >eocity4 +*.. Dm5s
Siderea 6eriod4 B),.+,) days
Rotation 6eriod4 +B.*B-, hours
Incination of eFuator to or1it4 +B
(
+)A
Diameter (eFuatoria)4 '+!/,) Dm
0ass4 ,.*/) 3 '(
+-
Dg
0ean density4 ,,+( Dg5m
B
Esca6e s6eed4 ''.+ Dm5s
Surface tem6erature range4 0a3imum4 )(
(
C
0ean4 +(
(
C
0inimum4 & *(
(
C

A a
A a
Interna Structure of the Soid Earth

The Solar Constant
The geometry of the sun & earth reationshi6 is

schematicay sho%n in the figure.
The eccentricity of the earthAs or1it is such that the

distance 1et%een the sun and earth ('.-*, '(
''
m)
>aries 1y './ 6er cent.
The sun su1stends an ange of B+G at the earth 1ecause

of its arge si"e and distance.
The radiation emitted 1y the sun reaches unattenuated

u6to the outside of the atmos6here and thus is a fi3ed
intensity.
The soar constant (Ion) is the energy recei>ed from

the sun! 6er unit time! on a unit area of surface
6er6endicuar to the direction of radiation! at a mean
earth&sun distance! outside the earth atmos6here.
The atest >aue of soar constant is 'B)).. t -.+

%atts5m
+
or -BB Htu5ft
+
hr or -.*+' 0I5m
+
hr or '.*)(
ca5cm
+
min.

The Soar Constant (contd.)
In oden days %hen rocDet or s6ace craft faciities %ere not

a>aia1e! soar radiation measurements %ere made on
ground and at different heights of mountains and
e3tra6oations and corrections for attenuations 6roduced
1y different constituents of the atmos6here for different
6ortions of the soar s6ectrum %ere made and >aue of soar
constant %as determined.
Pioneering studies %ere done 1y C.G. A11ot in Smithsonian

9a1oratories %ho ga>e a >aue of 'B++ =5m
+
%hich got
re>ised 1y 2.S. Iohnson ('*,-) to 'B*, =5m
+
.
9ater %ith the a>aia1iity of >ery high atitude aircraft!

1aoons! and s6ace craft! direct measurement of soar
radiation outside the earth atmos6here %as made and
re6orted 1y se>era scientists iDe A.I. Drummond! 0.P.
TheDaeDara! C.2rohicD etc. and ga>e a >aue of 'B,B =5m
+
%ith an error of t '., 6er cent.
9ater C. 2rohicD ree3amined the >aue of 'B,B =5m

+
in >ie%
of ne% 6yrheiometric scae and %ith some additiona s6ace
craft measurements and %ith three rocDet fights the =ord
Radiation Centre (=RC) ado6ted a ne% >aue of soar
constant as 'B)/ =5m
+
.

S6ectra Distri1ution of E3traterrestria Radiation
In addition to the tota energy in the soar s6ectrum (i.e.

the soar constant)! it is usefu to Dno% the s6ectra
distri1ution of the e3traterrestria soar radiation! that is!
the soar radiation that %oud 1e recei>ed in the a1sence
of the atmos6here.
A standard s6ectra irradiance cur>e 1ased on high

atitude and s6ace measurements is sho%n here %hich is
found to 1e simiar to the ,///# 1acD1ody s6ectrum.
2rom this figure foo%ing o1ser>ations are made4
The 6eaD soar intensity is +(+... %5m

+
at a %a>eength
of (.-. m.
The soar s6ectrum >aries from (.+ C B.( m!
The energy in >arious s6ectra ranges is as foo%s4

/$.'# ).$ m1
*2)
4*
/$.)# $.'# m1
*&*
4#
$.2 $.)#m1
##
*
6a.elength
Energy /6(m
2
1
Percent
<nfrared =isible Ultra.oilet

The =RC standard s6ectra irradiance
cur>e at mean earth&sun distance

3oar 5a"iation 3&ectrum

Jariation of Distri1ution of E3traterristria Radiation
There is a >ery sma >ariation in the e3traterrestria

soar radiation %ith different 6eriodicities and
>ariation reated to suns6ot acti>ities. 2or 6ractica
and engineering a66ications and due to >aria1iity
of atmos6heric transmission! the energy emitted 1y
the sun can 1e considered as fi3ed.
Ho%e>er due to >ariation in the earth&sun distance

there is a >ariation of tB 6ercent in the
e3traterristria radiation fu3 and the same is sho%n
in figure %ith time of year and can aso 1e cacuated
from the foo%ing eFuation.
,
_
+
365
360
cos 033 . 0 1 (
n
I I
sc on
:here *
on
is the entraterristria ra"iation
measure" on the &ane norma to the ra"iation
on the n
th
"a$ of the $ear an" *
sc
is the soar
constant%

Global Radiation Budget

Scattering of >ight
Scattering of >ight
Solar radiation Solar radiation
passing through passing through
earth?s earth?s
atmosphere is atmosphere is
scattered by scattered by
gases" aerosols" gases" aerosols"
and dust. and dust.
@t the horiAon @t the horiAon
sunlight passes sunlight passes
through more through more
scatterers" scatterers"
lea.ing longer lea.ing longer
a.elengths a.elengths
and redder and redder
colors re.ealed. colors re.ealed.

De6etion of Soar Radiation 1y the Atmos6here
The earth is surrounded 1y an atmos6here containing

>arious gases! dust and other sus6ended 6artices!
%ater >a6our and couds of >arious ty6es. The soar
radiation during its 6assage in the atmos6here gets
6arty a1sor1ed! scattered and refected in different
%a>eength 1ands seecti>ey.
Radiation gets a1sor1ed in %ater >a6or! :"one! C:
+
!
:
+
in certain %a>eengths.
Radiation gets scattered 1y moecues of different

gases and sma dust 6artices Dno%n as Rayeigh
scattering %here the intensity is in>ersey 6ro6ortiona
to the fourth 6o%er of %a>eength of ight ( '5
-
).
If the si"e of the 6artices are arger than the

%a>eength of ight then 0ie Scattering %i taDes
6ace.
There %i 1e a refection of radiation due to couds!

6artices of arger si"e and other materia in the
atmos6here.
Considera1e amount of soar radiation aso gets

a1sor1ed 1y couds %hich are of se>era ty6es.

Some radiation gets refected 1acD in the

atmos6here due to refection from the ground! from
the couds! and scattering. This fraction of radiation
refected 1acD is caed a1edo of the ground and on
an a>erage the a1edo is (.B.
The soar radiation %hich reaches on the earth

surface unattenuated (after scattering! refection and
a1sor6tion) is caed direct radiation or 1eam
radiation.
The radiation %hich gets refected! a1sor1ed or

scattered is not com6etey ost in the atmos6here
and comes 1acD on the surface of the earth in the
short %a>eength region and caed sDy or diffuse
soar radiation.
The sum of the diffuse and direct radiation on the

surface of the earth is caed go1a or tota soar
radiation.
De6etion of soar radiation 1y the atmos6here (contd.)

The distance tra>eed 1y the sun1eam in the earthAs atmos6here is res6onsi1e
for the amount of scattering! a1sor6tion and refection of soar radiation. The
shortest distance tra>eed 1y the sun1eam in the atmos6here is %hen the sun is
at the Kenith and is ongest %hen the sun is rising or setting. Airmass @mA is
defined as 4
AC
AB
atmosphere the of depth vertical
travelled length path actual
m
L cosec L Sec
K
m L ( %hen outside the earth atmos6here
m L ' %hen sun is at the Kenith
m L + %hen Kenith ange is )(

0oon ('*-() has 6ro6osed standard cur>es for

cacuating transmittence.
2or Indian conditions a standard atmos6here

com6osed of foo%ing conditions is defined as4
Standard atmos6here 4 6 L/)( mm
L+( mm
d LB(( 5 cm
B
o"one L +.. mm
2or m L ( to , for Indian atmos6here
2
/
) 3135 . 0 ( 1
1246
m w
m
I
DN
+
This eFuation in India is used e3tensi>ey for com6uting direct

radiation at norma incidence for se>era stations.
De6etion of soar radiation 1y the atmos6here

Hasic Earth C Sun Anges
2or cacuating soar radiation and designing soar

de>ices! the Dno%edge of sunAs 6ath in the sDy! on >arious
days in a year at a 6articuar 6ace is a 6re&reFuisite.
Soar atitude ange () and soar a"imuth ange (A") are

the t%o coordinates ocating the sun in the sDy.
The a66arent soar 6ath on a 6articuar day is sho%n in the

figure there1y sho%ing sunAs "enith ange (
"
)! atitude ()
and a"imuth ange (A") at a 6articuar 6osition of the sun.
The atitude ange of the sun () is defined as the ange in

a >ertica 6ane 1et%een the sunAs rays and the hori"onta
6roMection of the sun rays.
The a"imuth ange (A
"
) is the ange in the hori"onta 6ane
measured from the south (northern hemis6here) to the
hori"onta 6roMection of the sun rays. Dis6acements east
of south are negati>e and %est of south are 6ositi>e.
The "enith ange (
"
) is the ange 1et%een sunAs rays and
the ine 6er6endicuar to the hori"onta 6ane i.e. the ange
of incidence of 1eam radiation on a hori"onta surface ( N
"
L 5+)

Soar "enith! atitude and a"imuth anges (northern hemis6here)!
"
L "enith ange! Lsoar atitude! A
"
Lsoar a"imuth

To s6ecify the ocation of a 6ace on the earth! t%o anges

the atitude (9) and ongitude ange () are r eq uir ed.
To understand 9 and ! 6ease see the figure in %hich! the

6oar a3is is sho%n 1y $:S! the earthAs centre 1eing at (.
The great circe AHDA! norma to the 6oar a3is! is Dno%n
as eFuator.
9atitude (9) of a 6ace (say C in figure) is the ange 1et%een

the ines Moining the 6ace %ith the centre of the earth and
the eFuator %ith the centre of earth or it is the anguar
dis6acement of the 6ace north or south of the eFuator!
north 6ositi>e! &*( 9 *(.
The ange 1et%een the 6rime meridian (a semicirce

6assing through the 6oes and o1ser>atory at Green%ich!
8#) and the meridian (a simiar semicirce 6assing through
the 6ace! C! and the 6oes) is caed ongitude! ! of that
6ace. In the figure $GIS re6resents the 6rime meridian
and $CHS re6resents the meridian of the 6ace. The 6rime
meridian has "ero ongitude. In the figure the ongitude of
the 6oint C is
'
! east and that of 6oint D is
+
%est and
%ritten as
'
E and
+
= res6ecti>ey.
Hasic Earth C Sun Anges

9atitude and ongitude

2rom this figure it can 1e seen that soar

decinations (defined as the anguar dis6acement of
the sun from the 6ane of the earthAs eFuator)! >ary
from N+B., on Iune ++ to ( at the eFuino3es
(0arch +' and Se6tem1er +-) to &+B., on Decem1er
++.
The >aues of sunAs decaration! ! can 1e found out

from the ta1e or figure as sho%n here and gi>en as4
Hasic Earth C Sun Anges (contd.)
1
]
1
,
_
365
284
360 sin 45 . 23
n
=here n is the day of the year. The e3act >aue of

for a 6articuar day can 1e read from $autica
AmanaD since the decination >aries sighty to the
same day from year to year.
&+B.-,N+B.-,
2or a day decination may 1e assumed constant and
for 6ractica 6ur6oses the >aues as sho%n
gra6hicay can 1e con>enienty used.

The 6osition of a 6oint P on the earthAs surface %ith

res6ect to the sunAs rays can 1e determined at any
instant if the atitude of the 6ace 9! hour ange % and
the sunAs decination are Dno%n as sho%n in the
figure.
Point P in the figure re6resents a 6ace in the northern

hemis6here. The hour ange is the anguar
dis6acement of the sun east or %est of the oca
meridian due to rotation of the earth on its a3is at ',
6er hour! morning negati>e and afternoon 6ositi>e.
At soar noon the sun is highest in the sDy and at that

time hour ange is "ero. The hour ange e36ress the
time of day %ith res6ect to soar noon. :ne hour of
time eFuas ', of hour ange.
Hasic Earth C Sun Anges (contd.)

S:9AR TI0E A$D EO8ATI:$ :2 TI0E
Soar time is the time used in a sun&ange reationshi6 and it
does not coincide %ith oca cocD (standard time) time. T%o
corrections are reFuired to con>ert standard time to soar time.
The first correction is due to difference in ongitude (9) 1et%een
o1ser>erAs meridian (ongitude!
oc
) and the meridian on %hich
the oca standard time is 1ased (
st
). The sun taDes - minutes to
tra>erse ' deg. of ongitude.
The second correction is due to eFuation of time (E in minutes)!
%hich taDes into account the 6ertur1ations in the earthAs rate of
rotation %hich affect the time the sun crosses the o1ser>erAs
meridian. The difference in minutes 1et%een soar time and
standard time is 4
Soar time C Standard time L - (
st
&
oc
) N E
Soar noon L
2or India
st
L ongitude of standard meridian L Aaha1ad L .+.,
EFuation of time as sho%n in the figure can 1e re6resented as 4
E L *../ Sin +H C /.,B cos H & '., Sin H
%here
H L B)( (n&.') 5 B)-
E
st loc
,
_
15
12

Ange of Incidence on Hori"onta and Incined Panes
Since! most soar eFui6ments (e.g. fat&6ate coectors) for
a1sor1ing radiation are tited at an ange to the hori"onta! it
1ecomes necessary to cacuate the soar fu3 that fas on a tited
surface. This fu3 is the sum of the 1eam and diffuse radiations
faing directy on the surface and the radiation refected on the
surface from the surroundings.
Athough the earthGs 6ath around the sun is ei6tica and the soar
day is not +- hours! the 6osition of the sun at any instant reati>e to
a 6ace on the s6inning earth can 1e easiy determined in terms of
>arious anges as descri1ed 1eo%. Some anges used are4
9 L atitude of 6ace north or south of eFuator (north 6ositi>e)
L decination of sun (north 6ositi>e)
L hour ange from soar noon (morning 6ositi>e and afternoon
negati>e)
"
L "enith ange
L atitude of sun
L tit of 6ane from hori"onta
L ongitude of 6ace
A
"
L a"imuth of sun from south
A
"s
L a"imuth of surface from south! east 6ositi>e and %est negati>e
i
L ange of incidence of 1eam or direct radiation on a surface.

It is aso seen in the figure that a surface ocated
at the atitude 9! tited to%ards the eFuator at an
ange from the hori"onta surface is 6arae to
a hori"onta surface at the atitude (9&) degrees.
Thus EF.(') can 1e %ritten as4
cos
t
= cos(!) cos cos " sin (!) sin (#)
sin = cos cos cos " sin sin ($)
Ange of Incidence on Hori"onta and Incined
Panes (contd.)
%ro& the 'igure one can easily calculate the altitu(e
() o' the sun at any gi)en *oint o' ti&e+ *lace an(
(ay as gi)en belo,-
:here :here
t is the ange of inci"ence on an t is the ange of inci"ence on an

incine" surface% incine" surface%

At the time of soar noon! the atitude of the

sun!
n
! can 1e determined 1y 6utting L( in eF.
(')4
n
L *( & (9&) (B)
Sunrise hour ange or sunset hour ange!
s
!
can aso 1e determined from EF.(') 1y 6utting
L(.
Cos
s
L & tan 9 tan (-)
Day ength or 6ossi1e sunshine hours! $! is

gi>en 1y
Ange of Incidence on Hori"onta and
Incined Panes (contd.)
) tan tan (
15
2
15
2
1
L Cos N
s

(.)

2or an incined 6ane cos A
s
L & tan (9&) tan ! %here
A
s
is the sunrise or sunset hour ange for an incined
6ane.
As %e ha>e deri>ed the e36ression for sin ! simiary an
e36ression for cos A
K
can aso 1e deri>ed4
cos A
K
cos L sin 9 cos & cos 9 sin ())
and aso
sin A
K
cos L cos sin (/)
and aso!

sin
tan cos cos sin
cot
L L
A
Z

(/)
Ange of Incidence on Hori"onta and
Incined Panes (contd.)

The general expression for angle of incidence (
i
) of the sn!s ra"s
on an" srface can #e deri$ed and is gi$en as%
cos
i
& (cos ' cos ( sin ' sin cos )
*s
)
cos cos ( cos sin sin sin )
*s
( sin (sin ' cos + cos ' sin cos )
*s
) (,)
-o. the intensit" /
t
incident on a gi$en plane is gi$en #"
/
t
& /
-
cos
i
or /
t
& /
-
0(cos ' cos ( sin ' sin cos )*s)
cos cos ( cos sin sin )
*s
)1
( sin (2in ' 3os + 3os ' 2in 3os )
*s
(10)
The intensities and the angle of incidence on hori*ontal and $ertical
srfaces can #e o#tained #" ptting & 0 (for hori*ontal) and & ,0
(for $ertical) in 45s. (10) and (,) respecti$el".
Ange of incidence on hori"onta and incined
Panes (contd.)

2actors Go>erning a>aia1iity of soar
energy on the earth
Earth sun distance
Tit of the earthAs a3is
Atmos6heric Attenuation
2actors Affecting Soar Energy a>aia1iity on a
Coector Surface
Geogra6hic ocation
Site ocation of coector
Coector orientation and tit
Time of day
Time of year
Atmos6heric conditions
Ty6e of coector

0a(iation 1nstru&ents
Pyranometer
Pyrheiometer
Pyrgeometer
$et Radiometer
Sunshine Recorder
These instruments are cassified either as
first cass or second cass or third cass
de6ending on their sensiti>ity! sta1iity and
accuracy.

Solar 0a(iation Co&*onents
DIRECT RADIATI:$
Direct transmission of soar radiation to earth
surface
DI228SE S:9AR RADIATI:$

Scattered 1y moecues and aerosos on
entering the earthAs atmos6here
G9:HA9 S:9AR RADIATI:$ L DIRECT

RADIATI:$ N DI228SE S:9AR RADIATI:$
Concentrators use Direct Radiation 6us a Sma

Portion of Scattered Radiation
2at Pate coectors use Direct and Diffuse

Soar Radiation and aso refected Radiation

I$STR80E$TS 8SED
G9:HA9 S:9AR RADIATI:$4

Direct N diffuse radiation on hori"onta surface
P;RA$:0ETER
DI228SE S:9AR RADIATI:$4

Short %a>e radiation from entire hemis6herica sDy
P;RA$:0ETER =ITH SHADI$G RI$G
DIRECT RADIATI:$
Direct radiation from sun P;RHE9I:0ETER
RE29ECTED S:9AR RADIATI:$

Short %a>e radiation refected from ground
P;RA$:0ETER 2ACI$G D:=$=ARDS
9:$G=AJE RADIATI:$
(i) Emitted from ground (u6%ard direction)
(iM) Atmos6heric radiation (Do%n%ard direction)
P;RGE:0ETER ? $ET P;RADI:0ETER

DETECT:RS 2:R RADIATI:$ 0EAS8RE0E$T
CA2013ET01C SE4S20S
The ra(iant energy is inci(ent on a high con(ucti)ity

&etal coate( ,ith a nonselecti)e blac5 *aint o' high
absor*tance6
T7E0323EC7A41CA SE4S20S
The ra(iant 'lu8 is &easure( through ben(ings o' a

bi&etallic stri*6
T7E032EECT01C SE4S20S
Consists o' t,o (issi&ilar &etallic ,ires ,ith their

en(s connecte(6
972T2EECT01C SE4S20S
9hoto)oltaic instru&ents are &ost nu&erous in the

'iel( o' solar ra(iation &easure&ent6 A *hoto)oltaic
(e)ice is &a(e o' a se&icon(ucting &aterial such
as silicon6

Radiation 0easurement in India
All 1nstru&ents shoul( be *erio(ically calibrate(
$6 Syste&atic &easure&ent o' solar an( terrestrial
ra(iation in 1n(ia starte( (uring 1G: $;.<!./
#6 4ational 0a(iation Centre+ 9224A has absolute ca)ity
ra(io&eter ,hich is use( as *ri&ary stan(ar(6
=6 13> 4ational 0a(iation Centre+ 9224A not only ser)es
as 4ational 0a(iation Centre but also as a W32
0egional 0a(iation Centre 'or Asia6
?6 13> 4ational 0a(iation Centre &aintains a set o'
re'erence+ ,or5ing an( tra)elling stan(ar( instru&ents
'or ensuring the accuracy o' ra(iation &easure&ents on
a 4ational an( 0egional le)el6

0EAS8RE0E$T :2 DI228SE RADIATI:$
Sa&e 1nstru&ent as use( 'or the 3easure&ent o' Total

or Global 0a(iation
A Suitable >e)ice (>isc or Sha(o, 0ing) is use( to

*re)ent >irect Solar 0a(iation 'ro& reaching the recei)er
(9yranorneter)6
%actors A''ecting the Accuracy are gi)en belo,-
3ulti*le 0e'lection ,ithin the Glass Co)er A''ects the

Accuracy o' the 3easure&ent6
1n Calculating the Correction %actor+ it is Assu&e( that

the S5y is 1sotro*ic6
A 9art o' the Circu&solar 0a(iation is also *re)ente(

'ro& reaching the recei)er by the Sha(ing >e)ice6
The >i&ensions o' the 0ecei)ers are not A(e@uately

Stan(ar(iAe(6

PARA0ETERS :2 P;RA$:0ETERS
1&*ortant *ara&eters associate( ,ith a
*yrano&eter inclu(es the 'ollo,ing-
SE4S1T1B1T:
Sensiti)ity+ 0 is 0atio o' 2ut*ut Signal+ CS+ to the

recei)e( irra(iance+ 16
0 = SD1+ E41T - &B D WD&
#
TE396 C2E%%1C1E4T 2% SE4S1T1B1T:

100
/
T
R R
C
cos l
100
3osine
6
r Pranomete of reading Actual

Error
8$IT 4 C
&'
C2S14E E0020

AKI08THA9 ERR:R
Bariation in out*ut o' the *yrano&eter as
AAi&uthal Angle alone is change(6
9I$EARIT;
2ut*ut o' the 9yrano&eter shoul( be
9ro*ortional to the intensity o' the
1rra(iance but it is not so in the true sense6
PARA0ETERS :2 P;RA$:0ETERS
(contd.)

PARA0ETERS :2 P;RA$:0ETERS (contd.)
TI9T ERR:R
Cai1ration 2actor Changes if the tit of the Instrument is
changed from ( to any other >aue.
E66ey PSP mode sho%s no tit error.
SPIRIT 9EJE9
If the detector is not horio"nta! it %i record the radiation
higher or o%er than the actua >aue. Hori"ontaity is assured
1y s6irit e>e.
TI0E C:$STA$T
Re6onse of 6yranometer to a ste6 function.
STAHI9IT;
Jariations of cai1ration factor %ith time. Coating 6ees off!
%ith time.
SPECIA9 RESP:$SE
Res6onse shoud 1e uniform o>er (.B to B.( m range.
RE9ATED SIT8ATI:$S
0:IST8RE Siica Ge
DEP:SITI:$ 2rost! De%! Hird
$EGATIJE JA98ES Detector irradiates at night
READI$G EPCEEDS(I
on
) Defection from coud or 1uiding

@bsent
@bsent
High
High
High
=. Bood
Bood
Poor
+ad
+ad
>o
Bood
High
High
high
@ll
&
2
!.2
$.4 $.'&
,alorimetric
Thermoelectric
Photoelectric
Photographic
=isual
Selecti.ity >inearity Sensiti.ity 6a.e length
/m1
Effect used
Genera characteristics of sensors for radiant
energy measurements

Cassification of 6yrheiometers
STA$DARD P;RHE9I:0ETERS
A1soute ca>ity radiometer
Angstrom eectrica com6ensation 6yrheiometer
A11ot si>er C disD 6yrheiometer
2IRST C C9ASS P;RHE9I:0ETER
0icheson 1imetaic 6yrheiometer
9inDe C 2eussner iron C cad 6yrheiometer
$e% e66ey 6yrheiometer (tem6erature com6ensated)
;anishe>sDy thermoeectric 6yrheiometer
SEC:$D C9ASS P;RHE9I:0ETERS
0o C Gorc"ynsDi 6yrheiometer
:d E66ey 6yrheiometer (not tem6erature com6ensated)
The smithsonian %ater C fo% 6yrheiometer %as omitted from the ist
of standard instrument! 1ut it has 1een one of the 6rimary standard of
the 8nited States.

A P;RA$:0ETER SH:89D HAJE THE
2:99:=I$G CHARACTERSTICS
The calibration 'actor &ust be in(e*en(ent o'

te&*erature
1t shoul( not be ,a)elength!selecti)e
Absence o' Aero (ri't
Calibration 'actor &ust be in(e*en(ent o' the intensity
0es*onse ti&e shoul( be as s&all as *ossible
Calibration %actor &ust be in(e*en(ent o' ti&e
Te&*erature res*onse shoul( be &ini&u&
Cosine an( aAi&uthal res*onse or s*atial )ariation in

the sensiti)ity o' the (etector shoul( be &ini&u&
Sensiti)ity shoul( be as large as *ossible

Typical thermopile used in pyranometers

0
e
a
s
u
r
e
m
e
n
t

o
f

g
o
1
a

a
n
d

d
i
f
f
u
s
e

s
o
a
r

r
a
d
i
a
t
i
o
n

o
n

h
o
r
i
"
o
n
t
a

s
u
r
f
a
c
e

0easurement of Direct radiation at norma incidence

E**ley 9recision 9yrano&eter

$:R0A9 I$CIDE$CE P;RHE9I:0ETER

Go1a radiation a>aia1iity in India

16 80.30 12.13 3hennai
55, 73.85 18.48 8ne
6 88.45 22.60 9o:atta
216 77.33 28.63 -e. ;elhi
<eight a#o$e
sea le$el (=)
'ongitde
(4)
'atitde
(-)
2tation
Geogra6hica 6arameters for four ty6ica Indian Stations

!#.$4 !'.2! !9.!! 2$.'$ !9.*9 !#.)* 2$.$9 22.*4 24.)) 2&.*) 24.9& 2!.!* H
T
!&.&2 !&.)' !'.'# 2$.!* !9.#4 !#.'9 2$.#4 2).4$ 24.)$ 24.44 22.&4 !#.4' H ,hennai
2!.&* 22.!' 2).$$ !9.)' !*.2$ !&.'' 2$.4& 24.*9 2&.&* 2&.9& 2&.*$ 2).$$ H
T
!'.!$ !#.22 2$.)# !#.'* !*.42 !*.24 2!.49 2&.9* 2&.&* 24.!9 2!.92 !#.*! H Pune
!9.4$ 2$.*) !#.)* !*.$2 !*.!* !&.'' !*.4& 2!.'# 22.)2 2!.9* 2$.#4 !9.!9 H
T
!4.*& !*.!* !&.9& !&.)' !*.42 !*.49 !'.2# 22.*# 22.!$ 2$.$9 !'.4* !4.9* H Col%atta
!9.#) 22.!$ 2).4) 2!.)! !'.*4 !'.#9 2!.)# 24.9! 2&.!$ 24.'* 22.&$ !9.*! H
T
!).#2 !*.2' !9.2* 2$.!* !#.!# !9.!9 2).&4 2*.2! 24.9& 22.$' !#.$$ !4.)) H Ne Delhi
Dec No. :ct Sept @ug ;ul ;un Eay @pr Ear Feb ;an
Daiy go1a radiation on hori"onta surface and on o6timum
tit for four different Indian Stations (8nit4 0I m&+ day&')
H L daiy go1a radiation on hori"onta surface
H
T
L daiy go1a radiation at annua o6timum tit

Variation of 5a"iation with Tit for a 3outh
;acing 3urface
;i<e" 3urface
7
n
n
u
a

m
e
a
n

"
a
i
$

s
o
a
r

r
a
"
i
a
t
i
o
n

'
M

=

6

m
2

"
a
$
1
(
>ew
?ehi
@une
2o.at
ta
Ahenn
ai
Tit of 3urface '"egrees(

D8RATI:$ :2 S8$SHI$E H:8RS
A Dno%edge of the daiy and houry records of the amount of
sunshine is necessary for estimating go1a soar radiation
>aues using regression eFuations and for o6timi"ing the
design of a 6articuar soar coector. This measurement is
sim6er and sunshine recorders are far ess e36ensi>e than
soar radiation measuring eFui6ments.
The sunshine hours are e3tensi>ey measured a o>er the
%ord using Cam61e StoDes sunshine recorders. It consists
essentiay of a gass s6here a1out '( cm in diameter %ith an
a3is mounted in a section of a s6herica 1o% 6arae to that of
the earth! the diameter of %hich is such that the SunGs rays are
focused shar6y on a card hed in groo>es in the 1o%.
The s6here acts as a ens and the focused image mo>es on a
s6eciay 6re6ared 6a6er 1earing a time scae. Hright sunshine
1urn a 6ath aong this 6a6er. The method of su66orting the
s6here differs according to %hether the instrument is reFuired
for o6eration in 6oar! tem6erate or tro6ica atitudes.
Three o>era66ing 6airs of groo>es are 6ro>ided in the
s6herica segment to taDe cards suita1e for different seasons
of the year. The chief reFuirement of the s6here is that it shoud
1e of uniform! %e anneaed and coouress gass.

The Cam61e&StoDes sunshine recorder

Estimation of A>erage daiy go1a soar radiation
Angstro& *ro*ose( the 'ollo,ing e&*irical correlation 'or co&*uting the a)erage
(aily global ra(iation on a horiAontal sur'ace-
p
a
c
!
!
" a
#
#
> >+
,here
#
= &onthly a)erage (aily ra(iation on a horiAontal sur'ace+
c
#
aF + bF = e&*irical constants+
a
! = &onthly a)erage (aily actual hours o' sunshine+
p
!
= &onthly a)erage (aily *ossible sunshine hours
c
#
There is an a&biguity in (e'ining clear (ay an( hence to get +
o
#
p
a
o
!
!
" a
#
#
+
= a)erage clear s5y (aily ra(iation 'or the location an( &onth in @uestion+
the abo)e 'or&ula ,as &o(i'ie( using e8traterristrial
solar ra(iation+
($)
(#)

%here H
o
is the e3traterristria soar radiation on a hori"onta surface and
can 1e cacuated as4
Estimation of A>erage daiy go1a soar
radiation (Contd ... )
%here =
s
in the sunset hour ange in degrees! n is the a>erage day for the
%hoe month and is in radians
is measured >aue of actua sunshine hours and measured using
Cam61e StoDes sunshine recorder. The 6ossi1e sunshine hours! S
6
!
can 1e cacuated for a 6ace using the formua
,
_
+ n lon #
365
360
cos 33 . 0 1
24
0

,
_
sin sin
180
sin cos cos L
$
$ L
s
s
) tan tan ( cos
15
2
15
2
1
L
$
!
s
p

(=)
a
!
(?)

Estimation of A>erage daiy go1a soar
radiation (Contd ... )
EFuation (+) can 1e used for cacuating a>erage daiy go1a radiation at
a ocation %hen data on actua sunshine hours! Sa ! 6ossi1e sunshine
hours! S6 ! e3traterrestria soar radiation! H
(
and >aues of a and 1 are
Dno%n for a near1y ocation %ith a simiar cimate. The constants a and
1 for a 6ace is found out 1y 6otting a gra6h 1et%een Dno%n >aues of
H 5 H
(
and S
a
5 S
6
! as foo%s4
Slo*e b
a
S
a
D S
*
0
#
#

0.44 0.30 3hennai
0.42 0.28 3alctta
0.43 0.31 8ne
0.57 0.25 -e. ;elhi
b a >ocation
The regression constants a an( b 'or 'e,
1n(ian stations are-
Esti&ation o' A)erage (aily global
solar ra(iation (Cont( 666 )

8ses of Soar Energy
Heating of =ater
Heating of Houses (acti>e

systems)
Distiation of =ater
CooDing of 2ood
Greenhouse Heating
Drying of 2ood
Po%er Generation
Refrigeration and Airconditioning
Passi>e Heating and Cooing
Production of Jery High

Tem6eratures
Industria Process Heat Systems
Pum6ing of =ater
Direct Con>ersion of Eectricity

(PJ)

29AT P9ATE C:99ECT:RS
The fat 6ate coector forms the heart of any soar

energy coection system and can 1e em6oyed to heat
fuid (iFuid or air) from am1ient to near '((C.
The term @fat 6ateA is sighty miseading since the

a1sor1ing surface may not necessariy 1e fat 1ut may
1e groo>ed and other sha6es.
2at 6ate coectors are under in>estigation for the ast

B(( years. The first re6orted fat 6ate coector %as
demonstrated 1y 0r. H.H. Saussure! a S%iss scientist
during the second haf of the se>enteenth century.
During the ast si3 decades scientists in se>era

countries mainy in 8SA! 8#! Austraia! Israe! Germany!
South Africa! China and India ha>e 1uit! tested! studied
and o6timi"ed different ty6es of fat 6ate coectors
mainy iFuid heating fat 6ate coector.

Pioneering %orD on soar fat&6ate coectors ha>e

1een done 1y Hotte! =hiier and Hiss in 8SA %ho
mathematicay modeed the coector and ga>e
Hotte&=hiier&Hiss eFuations to understand the
coectors.
9ater Prof. H.Ta1or in Israe has done significant

%orD on understanding the 1eha>iour of coectors
and ga>e se>era origina ideas iDe con>ection&
su66ression! seecti>e 1acD coatings and e>acuated
coectors.
Significant %orD on fat&6ate coectors %as done 1y

Prof. H.P.Garg in India and ga>e methodoogy for
o6timi"ing the coector configuration! designing the
coector! therma rating 6rocedure of coectors!
therma oss o6timi"ation! coector tit o6timi"ation
and dirt correction factor! etc.

2at 6ate coectors are of t%o ty6e4 iFuid heating

ty6e and air heating ty6e!
The most o1>ious difference 1et%een the t%o is the

mode of heat transfer 1et%een the a1sor1er 6ate
and the heated fuid!
In the 1est ty6e of iFuid C 6ate coector! %hich

generay maDes use of a fin&tu1e construction! heat
a1sor1ed is transferred to the tu1es 1y conduction!
In a con>entiona fat&6ate air heater there is a duct

(6assage) 1et%een the a1sor1ing 6ate and rear
6ate. Thus the difference 1eing in the heat transfer
e3changer design.
:ther com6onents iDe ga"ing! insuation! casing!

orientation! tit! e36osure! etc. remain the same.

Schematic cross&section of a ty6ica fat 6ate soar
coector iustrating the maMor functiona 6arts

Flat Plate ,ollectors
The main 6ur6ose of the coector is to a1sor1 the sunAs

energy and transfer this energy efficienty to the iFuid
fo%ing in it. There is a great >ariety of fat 6ate
coectors! 1ut a tu1e in 6ate ty6e of coector! is %idey
used. The coector can 1e a metaic or 6astic! singe
ga"ed or dou1e ga"ed! seecti>ey coated or ordinary
1acD 6ainted de6ending on the tem6erature of
o6eration and outside cimatic conditions.
As is seen earier! a fat 6ate coector has the foo%ing

com6onents4
A 1acDened or seecti>ey coated fat C a1sor1ing

6ate! normay metaic! %hich a1sor1s the incident
soar radiation! con>ert it into heat and conducts the
heat to the fuid 6assages.
Tu1es! channes or 6assages attached to the

coector a1sor1er 6ate to circuate the fuid reFuired
to remo>e the therma energy from the 6ate.

,:EP:NENTS :F F>@T P>@TE ,:>>E,T:2 /contd.1
Insuation materia 6ro>ided at the 1acD and sides of the

a1sor1er 6ate %hose 6rinci6a function is to reduce heat
oss from the 1acD and sides of the a1sor1er 6ate.
A trans6arent or transucent co>er or co>ers %hose

6rinci6a functions are to reduce the u6%ard heat osses
and to 6ro>ide %eather 6roofing.
An encosing 1o3 %hose 6rinci6a functions are to hod

the other com6onents of the coector and to 6rotect the
coector 6ate and insuation materia from the %eather.
Coectors generay a>aia1e in the marDet! athough
confirming to the a1o>e genera design! ha>e some
differences 1et%een them. The com6onents most often
changed are the a1sor1er 6ate configuration! the 1acD
coating on the a1sor1er 6ate! and the ga"ing.

Im6ro>ing Efficiency of a 2at&Pat Coector
The e''iciency can be i&*ro)e( by-
1&*ro)ing trans&ittance ! absortance *ro(uct+
0e(ucing ther&al losses (con(uction+

con)ection an( ra(iation)+
1&*ro)ing heat trans'er coe''icient 'ro&

absorbing *late to the ,or5ing 'lui(+
2*ti&iAing collector con'iguration 'or better heat

e8changer e''iciency+
2*ti&iAing tilt+ orientation an( e8*osure o'

collector

Trans6arent Co>er Pate
The function of co>er 6ates are-
Transmit ma3imum soar radiation!
0inimi"e u6%ard heat oss from a1sor1er 6ate to the
en>ironment!
Protecting the a1sor1er 6ate from %eather.
The most critica factors for the co>er 6ate materias are-
Strength
Dura1iity
$on&degrada1iity
Cost
Soar&energy and therma energy transmittance
Tem6ered gass is the most common co>er materia for
coectors 1ecause of its 6ro>en dura1iity and sta1iity
against 8J radiation. Tem6ered gass co>er! if 6ro6ery
mounted! is highy resistant to 1reaDage 1oth from therma
cycing and natura e>ents.

Antirefecti>e coatings
A trans6arent materias (iDe gass) refect some ight from
their surfaces. Hy using a thin fim ha>ing a refracti>e inde3
1et%een that of air and trans6arent medium! the refectance of
the interfaces can 1e changed. 2or norma incidence! the
fraction of ight refected is gi>en 1y4
2
1 2
1 2
,
_
n n
n n
R
=here n
+
and n
'
are the refracti>e indices of the trans6arent
sheet and the medium res6ecti>ey. Coating the surface
%ith a non&a1sor1ing fim %i reduce the refectance.

Insuation materias for 2at&Pate
Coectors
Se>era therma insuating materias %hich can 1e

used to reduce heat osses from the a1sor1ing 6ate
and 6i6es are commony a>aia1e.
The desired characteristics of an insuating materia

are4
9o% therma conducti>ity!
Sta1iity at high tem6erature (u6to +((C)!
$o degassing u6to around +((C!
Sef&su66orting feature %ithout tendency to sette!
Ease of a66ication!
$o contri1ution in corrosion! and
9o% cost.
Some of the good insuating materias are4 gass %oo!

fi1re gass! rocD %oo! 6oyurethane! corD etc.

SE9ECTIJE H9AC# C:ATI$GS
%or e''icient collection o' solar ra(iation+ the

absorber sur'ace shoul( absorb &ore solar
ra(iation an( e&it less ther&al ra(iation6
This selecti)e beha)ior is *ossible since solar

ra(iation is in the ,a)elength range o' G6# #6.
& ,hile ther&al ra(iations e&itte( 'ro& a
sur'ace at te&*erature &ore than $GGC is
abo)e .6G &6
An i(eal selecti)e coating ,oul( be one ,ith

absor*tance () = $ in the range o' G6# #6. &
an( e&ittance ()=G in the o*erating
te&*erature range (abo)e $GGC or =6G <6G
& ,a)elength range)6
9ractical selecti)e blac5 coating ,ill ha)e D as

high as *ossible6

SE9ECTIJE H9AC# C:ATI$GS
(contd.)
There are 'our *rinci*al ty*es o' selecti)e

sur'ace (o*ague)6
The 'irst is one ,hich absorb an( e&it as &uch

ra(iation as *ossible at all ,a)elengths an( is
5no,n as blac5 bo(y6
The secon( sur'ace ,ill absorb &ore solar

ra(iation an( e&it less ra(iation6 The e8a&*le
is nic5el blac5 on a *olishe( substrate6
The thir( sur'ace ,ill absorb less solar ra(iation

an( e&it &ore ra(iation6 The e8a&*le is ,hite
*aint on a &etal sheet6
The 'ourth sur'ace ,ill absorb less solar

ra(iation an( e&it less ra(iation6 The e8a&*le is
alu&iniu& 'oil6

Refectance of seecti>e coatings

'. Integra construction
Tu1e %a shoud 1e thicD to %ithstand fuid 6ressure and
6re>ent corrosion.
Here tu1e thicDness is one haf the 6ate thicDness
resuting in an utra thicD %eight and costs ,(Q more
than tu1e and fin a1sor1er.
Coector C Pate configuration
+. Tu1e and 2in construction (0echanica Iointing)
Sim6e construction 1ut sho%s 6oor 1onding resuting in
6oor heat transfer.
Therefore the contact area shoud 1e arge and Moint shoud
1e uniformy tight.
B. Tu1e and 2in construction (Adhesi>e or sodered 1onding)
This ty6e of Mointing is 1etter than mechanica Mointing 1ut suffers from
o% therma conducti>ity.
2or 1etter heat fo% arge contact area! and thin and continuous ayer of
1onding materia are necessary.
The 1onding materia may deteriorate %ith aging and therma cycing.
-. Tu1e and 2in construction (metaurgica 1ond)
A good Moint from mechanica strength 6oint of >ie% 1ut sho%s
o% therma conducti>ity com6ared to soder 1onding.
High 6ate thicDness reFuired.
,. Tu1e and 2in construction (2orge %eding )
Tu1e and 2in of different materias can 1e used.
High therma conducti>ity.

The usefu energy deri>ed from a fat 6ate coector is the difference
1et%een the energy a1sor1ed and the energy ost from the coector.
2or a fat 6ate coector of area Ac the energy 1aance eFuation is
%ritten as 4
a
ic
u e Tt
%
d
d
% % T I + +
1
) (
(')
=here
(T)
e
L effecti>e transmittance&a1sor6tance 6roduct of the a1sor1er
gi>en as
d

) 1 ( 1
E$ERG; HA9A$CE :$ A 29AT P9ATE C:99ECT:R

The fat 6ate coectors are a%ays oriented and tited (fi3ed) so that they
recei>e ma3imum soar radiation during the desired season of use. Hut the
soar radiation is generay measured on the hori"onta surfaces so these
>aues reFuire con>ersion to use on tited surfaces.
In unit time! an unit area of the a1sor1er %i a1sor1 energy F
a
gi>en 1y
D! R R I R I R I I %
R R R Th d d d dh D D D dh Th a
1 ) 0 + + (+)

8nder steady state conditions! the heat 1aance of the a1sor1er is
gi>en 1y the sim6e eFuation4
(usefu heat coected) L (heat a1sor1ed 1y the 6ate) & (heat osses)
F
u
L I
Tt
()
e
& 8
9
(T
6
& T
a
) (B)
(Cont.)
8suay the 6ate tem6erature T
6
gi>en in eFuation (B) is not
Dno%n and is difficut to cacuate or measure since it is a
function of se>era 6arameters discussed earier.
0ore usefu for design is a reation in %hich T
6
is re6aced 1y
the inet fuid tem6erature Ti and the %hoe right hand side is
muti6ied 1y a term 2
R
! the heat remo>a efficiency factor!
%hich de6ends on coector design detais and fuid fo% rate.
F
u
L 2
R
RI
Tt
()
e
& 8
9
(T
i
& T
a
)S (-)
The three design factors! 2
R
! ()
e
and 8
9
are measures of therma
6erformance and com1ine to yied o>era coector efficiency in terms
of the o6erating >aria1es of tem6erature and insoation.

Tt c
u
c
I A
%

(.)
8suay! the efficiency is com6uted o>er a finite time 6eriod! ! and
therefore the e36ression for a>erage efficiency is as foo%s4
o
Tt c
o
u
c
d I A
d %
(H)
%here is the time 6eriod o>er %hich the 6erformance is a>eraged.
Thus instantaneous efficiency using eFuation - ? , of the fat 6ate
coector is gi>en as4
T
a
L R e R
I
T T
& ' '
i
) (
) (

(<)
The instantaneous efficiency of a coector!
c
is sim6y the ratio of the
usefu energy deri>ed to the tota soar energy faing on the coector!
or
(Cont.)

Indicating that if is 6otted against (T
i
C T
a
)5I
T
a straight ine %i resut!
%ith a so6e of 2
R
8
9
and y& interce6t of 2
R
()
e
. This is the %ay actua
6erformance data for soar coectors are 6resented. The coector
heat remo>a factor may 1e cacuated from the foo%ing eFuation 4
,
_
1
1
]
1

p
p c L
c L
p
R
C m
' A &
A &
C m
'
exp 1
(/)
(Cont.)
re te=perat flid local at the is srface a#sor#er
entire the if collected energ" sefl
collected energ" sefl actal
p
'
=here! 2
6
L coector 6ate efficiency factor.
The EF. (B) can no% 1e %ritten as4
) ( ) ( 0
a m L e T p
c
u
T T & I '
A
%

(;)
=here! T
m
is the a>erage fuid tem6erature

1
1
]
1
+
+ + +
' D $ D & C D(
m
Dh
w
& I
'
L " t
t
fi
L
p
) ( 0
1 1 1
/

($G)
=here
% L centre&to&centre tu1e s6acing
D L outside diameter of the tu1e
h
fi
L tu1e&to&fuid (fim) heat transfer coefficient
#
t
L therma conducti>ity of tu1e
C
1
L 1ond conductance ( L #
1
15t)
#
1
L 1ond materia therma conducti>ity
1 L 1ond %idth
t L 1ond thicDness
m
t
L tu1e thicDness
2 L fin efficiency factor gi>en as4
2 / ) (
1 2 / ) ( tanh0
D w a
D w a
'
($$)
The 6ate efficiency factor (26) for a tu1e in 6ate ty6e of coector may 1e
cacuated from the foo%ing eFuation4
(Cont.)

dhc
w&
L
heat transfer resistance from inner surface of tu1e to

the fuid!
t
t L
d(
m w&
conduction of heat from outside %a to inside %a

of tu1e!
"
L
C
w&
conduction of heat from the fin to the tu1e through the
tu1e fin 1ond!
+ )) ( > ( " w ' " &

w&
L
L
conduction of heat aong the fin to%ards the
6i6e!
(Cont.)
,here

The o>era heat oss coefficient 8
9
LO
5(T
6
&T
a
) is made u6 of three
com6onents C to6 oss coefficient 8
t
! the 1ottom oss coefficient 8
1
! and
the edge oss coefficient 8
e
4
8
9
L 8
t
N 8
1
N 8
e
TTTT..('+)
The 1ottom oss coefficient! 8
1
! is sim6y the ratio of the therma
conducti>ity of the insuation (#
i
) 1eneath the a1sor1er 6ate to the
thicDness
i
4
8
1
L #
i
5
i
A
c
TTTT.. ('B)
9iDe%ise! the edge oss coefficient is the ratio of the therma conducti>ity
of the insuation at the edge to the thicDness! times the ratio of the area
of edge A
e
to the coector effecti>e a6erture area A
c
4
,
_

Ac
Ae
&e
edge at the inslation of thic:ness
edge at inslation of t" condcti$i ther=al
TT..('-)
9:SS C:E22ICIE$T :2 29AT P9ATE
C:99ECT:RS

The &o(i'ie( e@uation as gi)en by Garg 'or E
t
is -
[ ]
C m w
N
f N
N
Ta Tp Ta Tp
hw
L f N Ta Tp L Tp
N
&t
)
g p p
2
2 2
252 . 0
3
/
1 2
) 1 ( 0425 . 0
1
) )( (
1
/ ) /( ) ( cos ) / 42, . 204 (
1
'
+
+
+
+ +
+
'
+
+
TT(',)
%here f L (*5h
& B(5h
+
) (Ta5B').*) ('N(.(*' $)
%here T
6
L a1sor1er 6ate tem6erature (D)
9:SS C:E22ICIE$T :2 29AT P9ATE C:99ECT:RS
(Cont.)

T
a
L am1ient tem6erature (D)
$ L num1er of trans6arent co>er 6ates
6
L therma emissi>ity of a1sor>er 6ate surface
g
L therma emissi>ity of the co>er 6ate (for gass!
g
L (...)
L Coector so6e (degrees)
L Stefan C Hot"man constant L ,.)/ '(
&.
=5m
+
D
-
h
%
L con>ecti>e heat transfer coefficient due to %ind (%5m
+
C)
L +.. N B.( J
J L =ind s6eed (m5sec)
9 L ga6 s6acing 1et%een a1sor1er 6ate and ga"ing (m)
9:SS C:E22ICIE$T :2 29AT P9ATE C:99ECT:RS
(Cont.)

C:99ECT:R C:$2IG8RATI:$
The collector syste& consi(ere( here is o' the *i*e an( 'in
ty*e as sho,n belo,-
Which is su**ose( to be the best choice 'or (o&estic as ,ell

as in(ustrial ,ater heating re@uire&ents6 The *ossible
&aterials o' the 'in (I
*
) &ay be co**er+ alu&inu&+ steel or
gal)aniAe( iron o' thic5ness (&
*
) G6G;$ c&+ G6G<$ c&+ G6G.H
c&+ G6G?H c& an( G6G=/ c&6 Si&ilarly the *i*e &ay be o'
co**er+ alu&inu&+ steel or gal)aniAe( iron o' inner (ia&eter
(() as $6#< c&+ $6;$ c& an( #6.? c&+ s*ace( (,) at #6.+ .6G+
<6.+ $G6G+ $#6.+ $.6G+ $<6.+ or #G6G c&6 The bon( con(uctance
is ta5en as $G+ #G+ =G+ ?G (WD&C)6

C:99ECT:R C:$2IG8RATI:$
Thus 'ro& all abo)e (escri*tion ,e conclu(e that the tube

s*acing+ its (ia&eter+ its &aterialJ 'in &aterial an( its
thic5nessJ heat trans'er coe''icientJ bon( con(uctanceJ heat
loss coe''icient are all (irectly relate( to the syste&
*er'or&ance6
There'ore the ai& o' the (esigner shoul( be the best cost
e''ecti)eness ,hich is a 'unction o' e''iciency an( cost6 The
&ain sco*e 'or re(ucing the cost lies in selecting the
o*ti&u& co&bination o' *i*e s*acing an( 'in thic5ness 'or a
*articular &aterial o' *i*e an( 'in6 3aterial cost ,ill be
re(uce( by increasing the s*acing bet,een *i*es an( by
&a5ing the *late thinner6
7o,e)er this lea(s to a re(uction in 'in e''iciency+ *late

e''iciency 'actor an( o)erall syste& *er'or&ance6 There'ore
the ai& shoul( be to (eter&ine the co&bination o' *i*e
s*acing an( *late thic5ness+ ,hich ,ill &ini&iAe the ratio o'
cost to use'ul energy collecte( by the syste&

:6timi"ation of coector configuration
2*ti&iAation o' collector con'iguration &eans the selection

o' best co&bination o' *late an( *i*e &aterials *i*e to gi)e
&a8i&u& e''iciency at &ini&u& cost6
Se)eral *ara&eters an( co&binations o' &aterial that can

be use( 'or a 'lat!*late collector as sho,n in the e@uation o'
*late e''iciency 'actor ha)e been use( along ,ith the
associate( cost o' each co&bination an( &ini&u& )alue o'
CD%* (costDe''iciency) 'or each geo&etry calculate(6
The o*ti&iAe( con'iguration 'or a &ini&u& )alue o'

costDe''iciency is 'or the 'ollo,ing s*eci'ications o' 'lat!*late
collector-
9late &aterial - Alu&inu&
Thic5ness o' *late - #/ SWG
Tube &aterial - Gal)anise( 1ron
Tube (ia&eter - $; &&
Tube to tube s*acing - $G c&

The 6hotogra6h of an o6timised coector 6ate

:6timi"ation of Coector Tit and :rientation
A fat&6ate coector is a%ays tited and oriented (fi3ed) in such a
%ay that it recei>es ma3imum soar radiation during the desired
season of use.
Since in northern hemis6here such as in India! sun a66ears to 1e
mo>ing from east to %est >ia south! the coector shoud face
e3acty to%ards the south. De>iation of ,&'( degrees from south
to%ards east or %est %i not effect the 6erformance much. The
e3act south at a 6ace can 1e determined at soar time using 6um1
ine.
A detaied scientific anaysis for finding out o6timum tit for fat
6ate coectors %as conducted 1y Prof. H.P.Garg considering! direct
and diffuse soar radiation se6aratey! transmittance of gass co>er
%ith ange of incidenceE 6ace(9)! date() and time of day() and
deri>ed an e36ression of o6timum tit(o6t).
Hased on this eFuation and cur>es de>eo6ed for different Indian
stations! foo%ing thum1 rues are deri>ed for coector tit4
2or =inter 6erformance ($o>em1er&2e1ruary)! the coector tit
can 1e atitude of the 6ace 6us ', degrees (9N',
(
)!
2or summer 6erformance (0arch&:cto1er)! the coector tit can
1e atitude of the 6ace minus ', degrees (9&',
(
)!
2or year round 6erformance (Ianuary&Decem1er)! the coector
tit can 1e (.* times the atitude((.*9
(
).

There are )ariety o' solar collectors an( each beha)e
(i''erently un(er (i''erent cli&atic con(itions+ o*erating
*ara&eters an( (esign )ariables6
7ence there ,as a nee( o' uni'ie( a**roach 'or ther&ally
rating the collectors 'or 'in(ing out instantaneous e''iciency+
e''ect o' angle o' inci(ence o' solar ra(iation an(
(eter&ination o' collector ti&e constant (a &easure o'
e''ecti)e heat ca*acity)6
4ational Bureau o' Stan(ar(s (4BS) o' ESA in $;<?
(e)elo*e( the 'irst *roce(ure 'or testing an( ther&al rating o'
collectors (as *ro*ose( earlier by Garg K Gu*ta) ,hich ,as
later &o(i'ie( by AS70AE in $;<< an( is 5no,n as AS70AE
Stan(ar( ;=!<<6 The AS70AE ;=!<< ,as a(o*te( ,ith so&e
&inor changes in &any countries o' the ,orl( inclu(ing 1n(ia6
THER0A9 TESTI$G :2 S:9AR C:99ECT:RS

L
u
= A
c
%
0
M1
Tt
()
e
E
(T
i
!T
a
)N (2)
Tt
I
T T & '
'
I A
*
a i L R
e R
Tt c
u
i
) (
) (

Tt c
i o p
i
I A
T T C m ) (
These e@uations are the basis o' the stan(ar( test *roce(ures6
The collector *er'or&ance e@uation as (iscusse( earlier are-
) (
i o p u
T T C m *
($)
(=)
(?)
(contd.)

(contd.)
The general test *roce(ure is to o*erate the collector in the test
'acility un(er nearly stea(y con(itions+ &easure the (ata to
(eter&ine L
u
'ro& E@uation ($)+ an( &easure 1
Tt
+ Ti+ an( Ta ,hich
are nee(e( 'or analysis base( on E@uation =6 2' necessity+ this
&eans out(oor tests are (one in the &i((ay hours on clear (ays
,hen the bea& ra(iation is high an( usually ,ith the bea& ra(iation
nearly nor&al to the collector6 Thus the trans&ittance absor*tance
*ro(uct 'or these test con(itions is a**ro8i&ately the nor&al
inci(ence )alue an( is ,ritten as ()
n
6
Tests are &a(e ,ith a range o' inlet te&*erature con(itions6 To
&ini&iAe e''ects o' heat ca*acity o' collectors+ tests are usually &a(e
in nearly sy&&etrical *airs+ one be'ore an( one a'ter solar noon+ ,ith
results o' the *airs a)erage(6 1nstantaneous e''iciencies are
(eter&ine( 'ro&
i
=&C
*
(T
o
)DA
c
1
Tt
'or the a)erage( *airs+ an( are
*lotte( as a 'unction o' (T
i
!T
a
)D1
Tt
)6 A sa&*le *lot o' (ata ta5en at 'i)e
test sites un(er con(itions &eeting AS70AE ;=!;< s*eci'ications+ is
sho,n in 'igure6

1' E
+ %
0
+ an( ()
n
,ere all constant+ the *lots o'
i
)ersus
(T
i
!T
a
)D1
Tt
,oul( be straight lines ,ith interce*t %
0
()
n
an(
slo*e %
0
E
6 7o,e)er+ they are not+ an( the (ata scatter6

We 5no, that E
is a 'unction o' te&*erature an( ,in( s*ee(+

,ith (ecreasing (e*en(ence as the nu&ber o' co)ers
increases6 Also+ %
0
is a ,ea5 'unction o' te&*erature6
An( so&e )ariations o' the relati)e *ro*ortions o' bea&+
(i''use+ an( groun(!re'lecte( co&*onents o' solar ra(iation
,ill occur6
Thus scatter in the (ata are to be e8*ecte(+ because o'
te&*erature (e*en(ence+ ,in( e''ects+ an( angle o'
inci(ence )ariations6 1n s*ite o' these (i''iculties+ long ti&e
*er'or&ance esti&ates o' &any solar heating syste&s+
collectors can be characteriAe( by the interce*t an( slo*e Mi6e6
by %
0
()
n
an( %
0
E
N6
(contd.)

9er'or&ance cur)e o' a solar collector

9ongterm A>erage Performance of 2at&Pate Coectors
Generay the 6erformance of soar coectors is gi>en 1y instantaneous
efficiency on cear days.
The true 6erformance of soar coector %i de6end on coudiness of
atmos6here and >arying ange of incidence.
9ongterm 6erformance can he6 in o6timi"ing the design and e>auation
of economics.
T%o methods are generay em6oyed for ongterm 6erformance4
i3) Com6uter simuation method using ongterm %eather data
ii) 8tii"a1iity (U) method as gi>en 1y 9iu and Iordan using monthy
a>erage houry radiation and tem6erature data
8sing Hotte&=hiier&Hiss eFuations and ongterm monthy a>erage
soar radiation and am1ient tem6erature data! utii"a1iity cur>es %ere
6roduced for >arious coudiness indices or cities of 8SA.
8sing the same anaogy design cur>es of se>era Indian stations 1oth
for summer months and %inter months %ere 6roduced 1y Garg for fat&
6ate iFuid heating coectors.

Design cur>es for 2at Pate Coector
for %inter use
for summer use

A ty6ica air&heating soar coector

A Con)entional air heater is ty*ically a 'lat *assage

bet,een t,o *arallel *lates6 2ne o' the *lates is
blac5ene( to absorb inci(ent solar ra(iation6 2ne or
&ore trans*arent co)ers are locate( abo)e the
absorbing sur'ace6 1nsulation aroun( the si(es an( base
o' the unit is necessary to 5ee* heat losses to a
&ini&u&6
There are eight )ariables that a (esigner concerns

hi&sel' ,ith in the construction o' an air heaterJ
Heater configuration is the as*ect ratio o' the (uct an( the
length o' the (uct through ,hich the air *asses6
Airfo%- Air &ust be *u&*e( through the heaterJ increasing the
air )elocity results in higher collection e''iciencies+ but also in
increase( o*erating costs6
The ty6e and num1er of ayers o' glaAing &ust be consi(ere(
an( s*ectral trans&ittance *ro*erties &ust be e8a&ine(6
2at 6ate air heating coectors

A1sor1er 6ate materia- although selecti)e sur'aces

can signi'icantly i&*ro)e the *er'or&ance o' solar air
heaters by increasing the collector e''iciency+ blac5!
*ainte( solar heaters are co&&only use( (ue to the
cost o' selecti)e sur'aces6 The absorber nee( not be
&etal+ since the air to be heate( is in contact ,ith the
entire absorbing sur'ace This &eans that the
ther&al con(ucti)ity o' the absorber *late is relati)ely
uni&*ortant6
$atura con>ection 1arriers- a stagnant air ga*

inter*oses a high i&*e(ance to con)ecti)e heat 'lo,
bet,een the absorber *late an( the a&bient air6 The
losses+ both o' ra(iation an( con)ection+ can be
re(uce( to lo, )alues by the use o' &ulti*le co)ers or
honeyco&bs+ but the conse@uent re(uction in
trans&ission o' solar ra(iation &a5es &ore than one
air ga* o' (oubt'ul )alue6
(contd.)

Pate&to&air heat transfer coefficient- the absorber

can be roughene( an( coate( to increase the
e''ecti)e coe''icient o' heat trans'er bet,een the air
an( the *late6 The roughness ensures a high le)el o'
turbulence in the boun(ary layer o' the 'lo,ing air
stea&6 %or this reason+ cru&*le( or corrugate(
sheets an( ,ire screens are attracti)e as absorbing
&aterials6
Insuation is re@uire( at the absorber base to

&ini&iAe heat losses through the un(ersi(e o' the
heater6
Soar radiation (ata corres*on(ing to the site are

nee(e( to e)aluate heater *er'or&ance6
(contd.)

T8H89AR S:9AR E$ERG; C:99ECT:RS
There are t%o methods for im6ro>ing the
6erformance of soar coectors. The first
method increases soar fu3 incident on the
a1sor1er 1y using some ty6e of concentrators.
The second method in>o>es the reduction of
heat oss from the a1sor1ing surface.

Tu1uar coectors or e>acuated tu1e coectors
(ETC) %ith their inherenty high com6ressi>e
strength and resistance to im6osion! are the
most 6ractica means for eiminating
con>ection osses 1y surrounding the a1sor1er
%ith a >acuum of the order of '(
&-
mm of Hg.

Tu1uar coectors ha>e se>era ad>antages.

They may 1e used to get sma
concentration ratio ('.,&+.() 1y forming a
mirror from 6art of the interna conca>e
surface of a gass tu1e. This refector can
focus radiation on to the a1sor1er inside the
tu1e.
Performance may aso 1e im6ro>ed 1y

fiing the en>eo6e %ith high&moecuar&
%eight no1e gases. E3terna concentrators
of radiation are generay used in an
e>acuated recei>er for im6ro>ement of its
6erformance.
TEBEA0 S2A0 E4E0G:
C2ECT20S (cont(6)

Se>era >ersions of e>acuated tu1e
coectors are manufactured 1y industries
such as Phii6s in Hoand and Sanyo in
Ia6an. =ith the recent ad>ances in
>acuum technoogy. e>acuated tu1e
coectors are reia1y mass 6roduced
mainy in China. Their high tem6erature
effecti>eness is essentia for the efficient
o6eration of soar air&conditioning
systems and 6rocess heat systems and
no% e>en for %ater heating.
T8H89AR S:9AR E$ERG; C:99ECT:RS (contd.)

Schematic diagram of concentric-tube collector
optics; (b) cut-way view of evacuated tube solar
collector manufactured by Owens-Illinois, Inc., S!

Chinese Soar tu1e coector

Chinese Solar Tubes
Borosilicate Glass (3.3)
Glass-glass seal (not metal to glass)
Selective absorber coating (sputtered)
Thermal absorption of !"
#$cellent thermal insulation %

performance
&assivel' trac( sun throughout the da'
Silver (barium getter) vacuum indicator
Strong (e$cellent hail resistance)
)ong lasting performance
Cheap and eas' to replace if damaged

S:9AR P:$D
A soar 6ond is a 1ody of %ater that coects and stores soar energy. Soar
energy %i %arm a 1ody of %ater (that is e36osed to the sun)! 1ut the
%ater oses its heat uness some method is used to tra6 it. =ater %armed
1y the sun e36ands and rises as it 1ecomes ess dense. :nce it reaches
the surface! the %ater oses its heat to the air through con>ection! or
e>a6orates! taDing heat %ith it. The coder %ater! %hich is hea>ier! mo>es
do%n to re6ace the %arm %ater! creating a natura con>ecti>e circuation
that mi3es the %ater and dissi6ates the heat. The design of soar 6onds
reduces either con>ection or e>a6oration in order to store the heat
coected 1y the 6ond.
A soar 6ond can store soar heat much more efficienty than a 1ody of
%ater of the same si"e 1ecause the sainity gradient 6re>ents con>ection
currents. Soar radiation entering the 6ond 6enetrates through to the o%er
ayer! %hich contains concentrated sat soution. The tem6erature in this
ayer rises since the heat it a1sor1s from the sunight is una1e to mo>e
u6%ards to the surface 1y con>ection. Soar heat is thus stored in the
o%er ayer of the 6ond.
The soar 6ond %orDs on a >ery sim6e 6rinci6e. It is %e&Dno%n that
%ater or air is heated they 1ecome ighter and rise u6%ard. Simiary! in an
ordinary 6ond! the sunAs rays heat the %ater and the heated %ater from
%ithin the 6ond rises and reaches the to6 1ut oses the heat into the
atmos6here. The net resut is that the 6ond %ater remains at the
atmos6heric tem6erature. The soar 6ond restricts this tendency 1y
disso>ing sat in the 1ottom ayer of the 6ond maDing it too hea>y to rise.
A shematic >ie% of a soar 6ond is gi>en in 2igure.

Salt gradient solar pond with heat e"changer

+uilt in !9#$.
Problems li%e
lea%ing" algae groth
F mineral impurities
ere obser.ed.
E8perience"
material beha.iour"
monitoring F
modeling.
2.$ !$$ Pondicherry
/<ndia1
Supplying process
heat to a dairy
:perating
e8perience" material
beha.iour and
possible applications
).$ *$$$ +huG
/<ndia1
Betting heated"
designed to supply 2$
C6. 2an%ine cycle
turbines.
:perating
e8perience and
applications for
poer production.
2.) !*$$ +ha.nagar
/<ndia1
Ea8. Temp. #$
$
, in
!9'2. 6or%ed for
to years.
:perating
e8perience and
beha.iour of
materials
!.2 !2!$ +ha.nagar
/<ndia1
@chie.ements Eain :bGecti.es Depth
/m1
@rea /m
2
1 >ocation
0AI:R SA9T C GRADIE$T S:9AR P:$DS (in
India)

@sia-s largest solar pond of *$$$ m
2
area at +huG" BuGarat in !99$(9!

Soar Concentrators
Solar concentrators are o*tical (e)ices ,hich increase the

'lu8 on the absorber sur'ace as co&*are( to the 'lu8 inci(ent
on the concentrator a*erture6 2*tical concentration is
achie)e( by the use o' re'lecting or re'racting ele&ents
*ositione( to concentrate the inci(ent 'lu8 onto a (esire(
absorber sur'ace6
A solar concentrator usually consists o' (i) an o*tical (e)ice

to 'ocus solar ra(iation (ii) a blac5ene( &etaliic absorber
*ro)i(e( ,ith a trans*arent co)er+ an( (iii) a trac5ing (e)ice
'or continuously 'ollo,ing the sun6
Te&*eratures as high as =GGGC can be achie)e( ,ith such

(e)ices an( they 'in( a**lications in both *hotother&al an(
*hoto)oltaic con)ersion o' solar energy6

Cassifications
Solar concentrators &ay be broa(ly classi'ie( into three

categories+ na&ely+
(i) *oint 'ocusing
(ii) line 'ocusing+ an(
(iii) line 'ocusing o' li&ite( e8tent
9oint 'ocusing concentrators ha)e circular sy&&etry an( are
generally use( ,hen high concentration is re@uire(6 These
syste&s re@uiring t,o a8is trac5ing can generate te&*erature in
the range /GG!=GGGC6 9oint 'ocusing concentrators are being
use( 'or solar ther&al *o,er generation *ur*oses6
ine 'ocus concentrators ha)e cylin(rical sy&&etry an( are
generally use( ,hen inter&e(iate concentration is re@uire( to
&eet the (e&an( o' a (esire( tas56 Te&*eratures in the range
o' $GG!=.GC can be generate( using line 'ocus concentrators6
These syste&s can be utilise( 'or solar ther&al *o,er
generation as ,ell as 'or in(ustrial *rocess heat a**lications6
Soar Concentrators (contd.)

Schematic diagrams of different soar concentrators
(a) 2at a1sor1er %ith fat refectors! (1) Para1oic cencentrator!
(c) Com6ound 6ara1oic concentrator! (d) 2resne ens!
(e) Cyindrica 6ara1oic concentrator

THER0:D;$A0IC 9I0ITS T: C:$CE$TRATI:$
The concentration has an u66er imit that de6ends on %hether the
concentrator is a 6oint focus (three dimensiona geometry) or ine focus
(t%o dimensiona geometry) ty6e. The ma3imum 6ossi1e concentration
achie>a1e %ith a concentrator that ony acce6ts a the incident sunight
%ithin an acce6tance haf ange O
m
is gi>en 1y
m
D
!in
C
2
) 3 ( =ax
1
m
D
!in
C
1
) 2 ( =ax

=here
m
is the haf of the anguar su1stance of the sun at any 6oint on
the earth ( L ')G ).
The ma3imum achie>a1e concentration for these t%o ty6es of
concentrators are a1out. -,!((( and +', res6ecti>ey.
In 6ractice! ho%e>er! these e>es of concentration are not achie>a1e
1ecause of tracDing errors and 6resence of surface im6erfections in the
surface of refecting or refracting eement.
Soar Concentrators (contd.)

P:I$T 2:C8SI$G C:$CE$TRATI:$S
To achie>e high efficiencies at high tem6eratures one needs concentrations
6roducing 6oint focus. These concentrations reFuire t%o a3is tracDing.
Concentrator designs %hich fa in this category are C a 6ara1ooid of
re>oution! centra to%er recei>er system and circuar freshne ens etc.
Para1ooid of Re>oution
The surface 6roduced 1y rotating a 6ara1oa a1out its o6tica a3is is caed a
6ara1ooid. =ith 6erfect o6tica surfaces! a 6arae 1eam of ight 6roduces a
6oint focus. Ho%e>er! a some%hat enarged foca 6oint or image is
6roduced due to finite anguar su1stance of the sun.
The concentration ratio for a 6ara1ooid can 1e determined easiy from 1asic
geometry 1ut de6ends on the sha6e of the a1sor1er. 2or a s6herica
a1sor1er it is gi>en 1y
0
2
2
4
!in
!in
C
r
sph

Where
r
is the ri& angle o' the *arabola6
0a3imum concentration is achie>ed for
2

r

Para1oic Trough Concentrator
9inear concentrators %ith 6ara1oic cross section ha>e

1een studied e3tensi>ey 1oth anayticay and
e36erimentay! and ha>e 1een 6ro6osed and used for
a66ications reFuiring intermediate concentration
ratios and tem6eratures in the range of '(( to ,((C.
2igure sho%s a coector of this ty6e %hich is 6art of a
6o%er generation system in Caifornia. The recei>er
used %ith this concentrator is cyindrica and is
encosed in an e>acuated tu1uar co>er E fat recei>ers
ha>e aso 1een used %ith refectors of this ty6e.
Designed in a 6o%er range of B( C ',( 0=.
=orDing Princi6e4
Soar Recei>er consists of a arge array of 6ara1oic

trough refectors that refects the sunight to a
recei>er tu1e ocated aong the troughAs foca ine.
Heat transfer fuid (HT2) fo%ing in the tu1e is heated
and then trans6orted to a heat e3changer 5
e>a6orator for steam and 6o%er generation.

TracDing
System
Edge Ange
2oca 9ength
A1sor1er Diameter
Refector (Para1oic Trough)
A6erture
@ara#oic Trough
@ara#oic Trough
Aoncentrator
Aoncentrator
T t

2s. 2&$$(m
2
2s. 4$$$(m
2
,ollector ,ost
)'H )$H Turbine ,ycle efficiency
#$E6 !$E6 Unit ,apacity
'#H *&H :ptical Efficiency
4$$, 2$$, :perating Temperature
9$m 2$m >ength
&.'*m !.#m @perture
To From Feature
Im6ro>ements in the 6ara1oic trough
concentrators and systems since '*.+

A arge area soar dish has 1een de>eo6ed to 6ro>ide
6rocess heat for miD 6asteuri"ation at a dairy of
0aharashtra RaMya SahaDari Dugdh 0ahasangh 0aryadit
(0RSD00)! 0aharashtra under a R?D 6roMect s6onsored
1y 0$RE to IIT Hom1ay Mointy %ith 05 s. CiFue
De>eo6ments P>t. 9td. (CDP9)! 0um1ai. The soar dish
has 1een instaed and commissioned.
The technica s6ecifications of the soar system are
A6erture Area ')( m+
Refector area '+B m+
Therma 6o%er (annua a>erage) ,(&/( D=th
Annua o6erating hours B+((&BB,( hours5 year
Annua fue sa>ings (2urnace oi) ') to +- Dio itre5 year
:6erating %ind s6eed u6 to ,- Dm6h
Sur>i>a %ind s6eed u6 to '-( Dm6h
Aeria cear s6ace reFuired for the dish +, m 3 +( m 3 '. m
height Cear area reFuired on ground 5 roof B m 3 B m
TracDing 6o%er ,(( =
T t
9arge Area Soar Dish at 0iD Dairy at
9atur! 0aharashtra

Soar =ater Heating
Soar =ater Heaters (S=H) ha>e 1een e3tensi>ey

used for the ast more than . decades.
The countries %here these are e3tensi>ey studied are

8SA! Austraia! 8.#.! Israe! South Africa and India.
The countries in %hich Soar =ater Heaters are

e3tensi>ey used are 4 8SA! Austraia! 8.#.! Germany!
India! Iordan! Israe! Cy6rus! China! Greece! Ia6an!
S%eden and se>era other countries.
In recent years considera1e Dno%edge has 1een

de>eo6ed a1out soar hot %ater systems.
Hasicay soar %ater heaters are either for domestic

a66ications! arge a66ications or s%imming 6oo
%ater heating a66ications.

T;PES :2 S:9AR =ATER HEATER
Huit&in&storage ty6e Soar =ater Heater

(Integrated C coector storage ty6e)
Domestic Soar =ater Heaters

($atura Circuation ty6e 5 thermosy6hon ty6e)
9arge Si"e Soar =ater Heater

(Industria ty6e)
S%imming Poo =ater Heater

0any different designs of soar %ater heaters are 6ossi1e and they
may 1e cassified in many %ays. Each ty6e has its o%n ad>antages
and disad>antages! and de6ending on the situation a 6articuar
design is recommended. Some of the soar %ater heating
configurations are as foo%s 4
A direct natura circuation soar %ater heater.
An indirect natura circuation soar %ater heater.
An indirect forced circuation ty6e soar %ater heater.
A singe cyinder indirect forced circuation soar %ater heater.
An indirect system %ith air heat coectors.

In genera it can 1e said that a soar %ater heating system consists of
the foo%ing com6onents 4
2at 6ate coectors
Storage tanD
Heat e3changer
Automatic contro
Pum6s! 6i6e %orD! >a>es and fittings

Domestic Soar =ater Heaters

Con>entiona Domestic Soar =ater Heater
=orDing Princi6e of Soar =ater Heating System

$atura circuation ty6e soar %ater heater
(Schematic)

1t has been e8*eri&entally obser)e( that in a
SW7+ the inlet (Ti) an( outlet (To) ,ater
te&*erature rise 'or a collector is nearly
constant an( generally it is about $GC6 Thus
Sim6e mode for $atura Circuation Ty6e S=H
(To!Ti) = $GC
Thus ,e can calculate the natural 'lo, rate
) (m using collector e@uation
[ ] ) ( ) ( Ta Ti & e # A ' *
L C R u

Tf Cp m Ti To Cp m *
u

) (
an(
Tf Cp
Ta Ti & e # A '
m
L C R
) ( ) ( 0
Thus
Substituting the )alues o' %
0
,e get+
40 m
litres D&
#
hr

Coector inet (T
i
) and outet (T
o
) tem6erature for a
natura circuation %ater heater
(Ti)
(To)

THE ST:RAGE TA$#
The storage tan5 stores the heat collecte( (uring the (ay
'or use ,hen nee(e(6 %or the storage o' hot ,ater+
co**er+ steel+ gal)aniAe( iron+ alu&iniu&+ concrete+ *lastic+
an( so&eti&es ,oo(en tan5s are use(6 The tan5 shoul(
be siAe( to hol( bet,een $6. an( # (ays su**ly o' hot
,ater6 The au8iliary heating arrange&ents &ay be electric
or gas booster an( ther&ostat shoul( be 'itte( in the
central *art o' the tan5 an( not in the botto& o' the tan56
%or (o&estic *ur*oses+ the ther&ostat setting is (one
bet,een .G!HGC6 There are &any )ariations in the tan5
(esign an( a 'e, are liste( belo, -
o
Bertical or horiAontal ty*e
o
9ressure or non!*ressure ty*e
o
Gas+ electric or soli( 'uel booster+ o''!*ea5 or continuous
tari''+ or
o
1nternally or e8ternally &ounte(6
There is )ery little in'or&ation a)ailable on syste&
*er'or&ance 'or the abo)e storage ty*es6

Some Common 9iFuid to 9iFuid Heat E3changer Designs for Soar Energy 8se

Recommended =ay of Connecting HanD of Coectors
Positioning of Differentia Controer

Sche&atic o' 'orce( circulation solar hot ,ater syste&
,ith = (i''erent sche&es 'or su**lying au8iliary energy

Solar Water 7eaters
Hot ater at *$3#$

o
, for hotels"
hospitals" restaurants" dairies" industry
and domestic use.
System comprises one or more

collectors" storage tan%" piping etc.
Heat e8changer and pumps added" if
necessary.
@bout 2.!& million sI.m. collector area

installed.
+<S standard for collectors introduced

in !99$(!992. Standards updated
recently.
*$ +<S appro.ed manufacturers ith

production capacity of o.er )$$"$$$
sI. m. collector area per annum.

As 1oier feed %ater for steam generation

Goda>ari 2ertii"ers ? Chemicas 4 '!+(!((( 6d
9td.! #aDinada
Ouinn India 9td.! Hydera1ad 4 /,!((( 6d
Shi>amrut Dudh 8t6adaD 4 B(!((( 6d
SahaDari Sangh 9td.! ADuM
Hot %ater for mutistoried residentia com6e3

DS #uDarni De>eo6ers 9td.! Pune 4 ,)!-(( 6d at )(
o
C
'+(!((( 9PD CAPACIT; S:9AR =ATER HEATER
AT G:DAJARI 2ERTI9ISER ? CHE0ICA9S 9TD.

S:9AR D:0ESTIC H:T =ATER S;STE0S I$ ISRAE9
S:9AR D:0ESTIC H:T =ATER S;STE0S I$ Pune (India)

=hy Soar CooDers <
High cost or 8na>aia1iity of

commercia fues C #erosene! Coa!
Gas! Eectricity
Deforestation caused 1y Increasing

2ire%ood Consum6tion
8se of Dung and Agricutura =aste as

2ues Instead of for Soi Enrichment
Di>ersion of Human Resource for 2ue

Gathering

Ty6es of Soar CooDers
Direct or focusing ty6e soar cooDer

In these cooDers some Dind of singe or mutifacet soar energy concentrator
(6ara1oic! s6herica! cyindrica! fresne) is used %hich %hen directed to%ards the
sun focus the soar radiation on a foca 6oint or area %here a cooDing 6ot or frying
6an is 6aced. In these cooDers the con>ection heat oss from cooDing >esse is
arge and the cooDer utii"es ony the direct soar radiation.
Indirect or Ho3 ty6e Soar CooDer

In these cooDers an insuated hot 1o3 (sFuare! rectanguar! cyindrica)
6ainted 1acD from inside and insuated from a sides e3ce6t %indo%
side %hich is dou1e ga"ed is used. Singe 6ane or muti6e 6ane
refectors are used. Some times these are aso Dno%n as o>en ty6e soar
cooDers. These can 1e eectrica cum soar cooDers and some cooDers
utii"e a Dind of atent heat storage materia.
Ad>anced ty6e Soar CooDer

In these cooDers! the 6ro1em of cooDing outdoors is a>oided to some
e3tent. The cooDers use either a fat 6ate coector! cyindrica (PTC)
concentrator! or a mutifacet or arge 6ara1oic (mosaic ty6e)
concentrator %hich coect or focuses the soar heat and transfers or
refect from a secondary refector to the cooDing >esse. The cooDing in
some cases can either 1e done %ith stored heat or the soar heat is
directy transferred to the cooDing >esse in the Ditchen.

H:P S:9AR C::#ER

Dull blac% painted stable upto
2&$,
=ery good adhesi.e
characteristics
!.2 mm thic%
To pots dia 2$$ m
To pots dia !&$ mm
Depth of pots *' mm
@luminium alloy
sheet
Stainless Steel sheet
,oo%ing
,ontainers
2eflecti.ity J #&H
Scratch resistant
2esistant to solar radiation
and atmospheric .ariation
4 mm thic%
&4 8 &4 cm
Sil.ered or
Blass aluminiAed
2eflector
/Eirror1
Double glass system must be
air tight
Transmittance J #&H
)34 mm thic%
&$ 8 &$ cm siAe
spacing beteen sheets
! cm
6ater hite glass
/Temperated (
toughned1
BlaAing /Double
glass lid1
Free from resin binders Stable
upto 2&$,
& cm or more thic%
% 0 $.$&2 6(m C
Blass fibres in the
form of pads
<nsulation /+ac%
and side1
Painted dull blac%
Should not touch outer body
$.&* mm thic%
/&$ 8 &$ 8 !$ cm1
@luminium <nner ,oo%ing
+o8
2esistant to ultra.iolet
radiation and atmospheric
.ariations
$.4# mm thic%
/*$ 8 *$ 8 !' cm1
$.&* mm thic%
/*$ 8 *$ 8 !' cm1
2 mm thic%
/*$ 8 *$ 8 !' cm1
Bal.anished iron
@luminium
F2P
:uter +o8
2eIuirements ( 2emar%s Thic%ness ( siAe Eaterial ,omponent
Soar Ho3 C ty6e CooDer 4 Design Detais

Solar Bo8!ty*e Coo5er - Coo5ing
Ti&e 'or 0eci*es
1t ta5es about # #6#. hours 'or coo5ing
(e*en(ing u*on the 5in( o' 'oo( an(
season6 >i''erent ite&s li5e (al+ rice+
)egetables etc6 are nor&ally coo5e(
si&ultaneously in se*arate containers6
The ti&e ta5en 'or coo5ing is less in
su&&er than in ,inter6

SI ! Ty*e Solar Coo5ers
(SI!$G+ SI!$#+ SI!$?+ SI!;/)
SI Solar Coo5er uses *arabolic re'lector

&a(e o' thin+ har( alu&iniu& sheets ,ith
*rotecte(+ high re'lecting sur'ace &ounte( at a
rigi( bas5et structure6
0e'lector ,ith short 'ocal (istance 'or sa'ety

reasons+ long trac5ing inter)als an( high
e''iciency6
Coo5ing *ot in a stan(ar( $# litres *ot o' blac5

ena&ele( steel ,ith a (ia&eter o' #/ c&6
Trac5ing is (one by &o)ing the ,hole coo5er

(aAi&uth) an( by turning the re'lector aroun(
the horiAontal a8is (ele)ation)+ a(Oust&ent o' the
re'lector to the sun by use o' a sha(o, in(icator6

Technica Data (S# Ty6e Soar CooDer)
0e'lector (ia&eter - $?G c&
4o&inal e''ecti)e *o,er - G6H 5W
9ot ca*acity - $# litres
9ot (ia&eter - #/ c&
3a86 te&*erature - #GGC
Ca*acity - Boils ?/ litre

o' ,ater in a (ay
Trac5ing - 3anual
Cost - 140 0s6 HGGGD!
Coo5ing %oo( - $G!$. *eo*le at a ti&e

&arabolic solar coo(er
&arabolic solar coo(er
*
*
not onl' for coo(ing +
not onl' for coo(ing +
+ but also for
ba(ing* fr'ing*
conserving*
and much
more +

Parabolic Domestic Solar ,oo%er /SC !41

Worl(Fs argest Solar Stea& Coo5ing
Syste& at Tiru*ati+ An(hra 9ra(esh
9ocation
Instaed at the tem6e to%n of Tirumaa! Andhra Pradesh %ith neary
,( 6ercent funding from 0$RE.
System
Em6oys automatic tracDing soar dish concentrators to con>ert
%ater into high 6ressure steam %hich Is used for cooDing 6ur6ose
in the community Ditchen.
Technica Detais
Soar dish concentrators ('() $os) %ith tota refector area of a1out
'(((m
+
.
0oduar in nature and consists of se>era units (6arae ? series)
connected to centra 6i6e&ine system.
Each dish consists of scheffer mirrors %ith an a6erture area of *.-
sF.m.
Generates -!((( Dg of steam 6er day at '.(VC and '( #g5cm
+
.
CooD meas for around ',!((( 6ersons 6er day.
The cooDer sa>es a1out '!+(!((( itres of diese 6er year.
The tota cost of the system is a1out Rs. ''( aDh.
Im6ementing Agency
0inistry of $e% ? Rene%a1e Energy (0$RE).

=ordAs 9argest Soar Steam CooDing System

=:R9DAS 9ARGEST S:9AR STEA0
C::#I$G S;STE0 AT TIR8PATI

Solar Steam ,oo%ing System at @rmy
Eess" >ada%h" ;ammu F Cashmir
/<nstallation !2.$4.$&1

Soar Ho% CooDing Concentrator
>e)elo*e( at Centre 'or Scienti'ic 0esearch+

Auro)ille
Ca*able o' Coo5ing 'oo( 'or $GGG *eo*le6
Syste& consists o' -
$. &6 (ia&eter non!trac5ing solar Bo,l concentrator
Auto&atic trac5ing recei)er
Ese o' ther&ic 'lui( to trans'er energy collecte( by

recei)er 'or generating stea&
7eat storage tan5 ,ith heat e8changer
>ouble Oac5ete( coo5ing *ots

Ho% Concentrator (', m dia) for Community CooDing
('((( 6eo6e) at Auro>ie! Pondicherry

Reasons for the non&acce6tance of the soar cooDers
Too e36ensi>e for indi>idua famiy o%nershi6
Incom6ati1e %ith traditiona cooDing 6ractices
too com6icated to hande
cooDing can 1e done ony in the direct sun
can not cooD at night
can not cooD in coudy %eather
can not cooD indoors
danger of getting 1urned or eye damage
are not ocay a>aia1e
ess dura1eE needs re6air or re6acement of 6arts %hich are not
easiy a>aia1e
The cooDer needs freFuent adMustment to%ards the sun and
e36osure of the cooDing 6ot to the 1o%ing dust and sand
effected the food taste
Easy a>aia1iity of aternati>e cooDing fues iDe %ood and fue
%ood
There is no 6ro>ision of storing the heat therefore cooDing of
food %as not 6ossi1e %here there are couds or sun is not
strong
$o 6ro6er education! training and in>o>ement of %omen foD

Technical issues nee( attention 'or the
,i(er use o' solar coo5ers
0eliability
E''iciency
Luality
>urability
Etility
3aintenance
Weight
Ser)icing
A''or(ability
Cost e''ecti)eness
Co&*atibility ,ith 'oo( habits
Training an( e(ucation
3icro le)el 'inancing
3ar5eting strategy
ocal a)ailability
1n)ol)e&ent o' rural 'ol5
>e(ication an( co&&it&ents
9ro)ision o' storage &aterial
Coo5ing in(oors

The function of a Huiding or a house is to 6ro>ide sheter to its
occu6ants from %eather.
Since %eather conditions >ary from one 6ace to another and >ary
%idey o>er the year! and humans fee comforta1e %ithin certain
range of tem6eratures and humidities! the house are made to 6ro>ide
e>eryday i>ing comfort.
The heating of house in %inter and cooing in summer to 6ro>ide
comfort using soar energy or other natura conce6ts is an ancient
conce6t and is in use since men started to 1uid ha1itations.
Hasicay soar heating or cooing systems are of t%o ty6es 4 Passi>e
heating and cooing and acti>e heating ? cooing.
Passi>e systems do not need any mechanica system and are
designed such as the ga"ed area! %as and roofs are made use of
coecting! storing and distri1uting the heat indoors 1y natura
6rocesses of con>ection! conduction and radiation.
2i>e 1asic conce6ts of 6assi>e heating are 4 direct gains! coector
storage %a! suns6ace coector & storage roof and con>ecti>e "one.
Com6onents of acti>e heating system are 4 (I) soar coector! (ii)
storage de>ice! (iii) au3iiary heating system (i>) Distri1ution system
incuding fan! duct and contros.
To 6ro>ide near comfort conditions the most cost effecti>e method is
to Iudiciousy maDe use of 1oth 6assi>e and acti>e systems.
Soar Huidings

E>ery1ody needs a comforta1e house %here acti>ities iDe sitting!
see6ing! dinning! food 6re6aration! storing! studying! recreation!
1athing! ho11ies! etc. can 1e conducted.
Huiding site and ocation is >ery im6ortant. The natura to6ogra6hy
and micro cimate may significanty effect the 6erformance.
The three thermo 6hysica 6ro6erties! the therma resistance! heat
ca6acity and soar a1sor6tion of surface are >ery im6ortant.
There is no fi3ed thum1 rue to find out the o6timum com1ination of
>arious reFuirements or features. This can 1e done 1y using
economic methodoogies! and 6erformance 6rediction methods
using com6uter simuation.
Se>era cimatic 6arameters effecting the 6erformance of the
1uiding are soar radiation! air tem6erature its diurna >ariation and
e3treme! air humidity! 6reci6itation its Fuantity and distri1ution!
%ind its s6eed and direction! incoming and outgoing radiation! sDy
tem6erature and sDy conditions! sunshine duration! day ength and
night ength.
There are se>era factors %hich are res6onsi1e for therma comfort
such as air tem6erature! mean radiant tem6erature! air humidity! air
motion! cothing and acti>ity e>e.
A6art from Cimatic 6arameters and thermo6hysica 6ro6erties of
materias used in the 1uidings! the Huiding site! sha6e! ocation!
orientation! 6an! ee>ation! to6ogta6hy! microcimate! etc.
significanty effect the 6erformance.
Soar Huidings (contd.)

Soar Passi>e Huiding of Soar Energy Centre

The 3oar @assive Bui"ing of @unCa#
Energ$ ?eveo&ment 7genc$ at
Ahan"igarh

S:9AR PASSIJE H8I9DI$G
STATE HA$# :2 PATIA9A! SHI09A

PARA0ETERS 2:R S:9AR DR;I$G
The drying of 6roduct de6ends on e3terna >aria1es iDe
tem6erature! humidity and >eocity of air stream and interna
>aria1es %hich is a function of drying materia and de6ends on
6arameters iDe surface characteristics (rough or smooth surface)!
Chemica com6osition (sugar! starch! etc.)! 6hysica structure
(6orosity! density! etc.). and si"e and sha6e of the 6roduct. The rate
of moisture mo>ement from the 6roduct inside to the air outside
differ from one 6roduct to another and >ery much de6ends %eather
the materia is hygrosco6ic or non&hygrosco6ic. $on& hygrosco6ic
materias can 1e dried to "ero moisture e>e %hie the hygrosco6ic
materias iDe most of the food 6roducts %i a%ays ha>e a residua
moisture content.
The design of a soar dryer de6ends on 4 soar radiation!
tem6erature of air! reati>e humidity of air! moisture content of the
6roduct! amount of 6roduct to 1e dried! time reFuired for drying!
a>aia1iity of au3iiary energy! materia of construction of dryer
and the resource a>aia1iity.

PH;SICS :2 S:9AR DR;I$G
Heat by convection and radiation to Surface of

product
Goes to interior of 6roduct
Increase in tem6erature
2ormation of %ater >a6our

E>a6oration of moisture from Surface
Drying can 1e acceerated 1y4
Increasing fo% rate of air
Increasing tem6erature of drying air
Initia Drying & Surface drying! ater on drying

de6ends on ty6e of materias.
$on hygrosco6ic& drying 6ossi1e u6to "ero

moisture content.
Hygrosco6ic & grains! fruit! food stuff ha>e residua

moisture.

RATI:$A9E 2:R C:$TR:99ED DR;I$G
'. Grain
Im6ro>es 6roduct Fuaity!
Im6ro>es storage ca6a1iity!
Reduces time and s6ace reFuirement for drying!
2aciitates FuicD 6re6aration of fieds for ne3t cro66ing!
2aciitates %et season har>esting and storage!
Im6ro>es drying hygene.
+. Tim1er
Im6ro>es 6roduct Fuaity!
Reduces 6eriod ca6itotied u6 in drying stocD!
Im6ro>es o% e36ertise! o% ca6ita! im6ro>ed drying o6tions!
E36ands range of usa1e tim1er s6ecies!
Im6ro>es attaina1e drying e>e.
B. 2ruits! Jegeta1es ? 2ish
Reduces 6roduct seasona1iity!
Im6ro>es marDeting contro of farmer!
Reduces s6oiage!
Im6ro>es drying hygene!
Im6ro>es storage ca6a1iity!
Reduces nutritiona fuctuations.

C9ASSI2ICATI:$ :2 S:9AR DR;ERS
DIRECT T;PE DR;ERS4 In direct or natura con>ection ty6e

dryers! the agricutura 6roduct is 6aced in shao% ayers in a
1acDened encosure %ith a trans6arent co>er. The soar
radiations are directy a1sor1ed 1y the 6roduct itsef. The food
6roduct is heated u6 and the moisture from the 6roduct
e>a6orates and goes out 1y the natura con>ection.
I$DIRECT T;PE DR;ERS4 In these dryers the food 6roduct is

6aced in a drying cham1er. The air is heated in soar air
heaters and then 1o%n through the drying cham1er. In some
of the designs! dryers recei>e direct soar radiations and aso
heated air from soar air heaters. In these dryers mani6uation
of tem6erature! humidity and drying rate is 6ossi1e to some
e3tent.
2:RCED CIRC89ATI:$ T;PE DR;ERS4 In these dryers! hot air

is continuousy 1o%n o>er the food 6roduct. The food 6roduct
itsef is oaded or unoad continuousy or 6eriodicay. These
Dind of dryers are com6arati>ey thermodynamicay efficient!
faster and can 1e used for drying arge agricutura 6roduct.
These dryers can 1e of cross&fo% ty6e! concurrent fo% ty6e or
counter&fo% ty6e.

'c( ;orce" circuation t$&e soar "r$ers
'a( ?irect t$&e soar
"r$ers
'#( *n"irect t$&e soar
"r$ers
TD@E E; 3EF75 ?5DE53

585 ?lendale Tea @actor"A 3oonoorA T-
3,0 ?ernes" Tea @actor"A Broo:landA 3oonoorA T-
320 8andiar Tea @actor"A -ear ?dalrA T-
320 8ar:side Tea @actor"A -ear 3oonoorA T-
250 9il:othagiri Tea @actor"A Cil:othagiriA T-
220 9a$:al Tea @actor"A 9othagiriA T-
100 D8)2/ ;e=onstration Tea @actor"A 3oonoorA T-
112 ?olden <ills Tea @actor"A -ear 3oonoorA T-
130 CanEolai Tea @actor"A Tirnel$eliA T-
,ollector
area /m
2
1
>ocation
Details of few Solar Drying Systems for
Tea Drying in India

2!2 m
2
/BlaAed1 5 424 m
2
/unglaAed1
Flat Plate
Bal.aniAed <ron ith blac% paint
4 mm thic% tempered glass
& &.& %g s
3!
Solar ,ollector
Total @rea
Type
@bsorber
BlaAing
@ir Flo
!!N
''E
!9&$ m
Site
>atitude
>ongitude
@ltitude
Detais of a Roof Integrated Soar Air Heating
System Instaed at Coornoor! Tami $adu
In the 6eriod '**'&*, nine such units! ha>ing a tota coector area of
a1out +/(( m
+
! %ere instaed in South Indian Tea 2actories.
It is 6ossi1e to sa>e annuay an a>erage of +,Q of the fossi fue used
in the tea factories.
The 6ay1acD 6eriod for the system is ess than + years

Leather Dryer with Roof mounted Solar Air Heaters
( ! "#$m
%
area& at '(A( )hi*ar Hussain + Sons,
Ranipet, -hennai

L.ATH.R DRI.R /ITH S0LAR H0T AIR D1-TS
AT '2S '(A( )HI3AR H1SSAI4 + S04S, RA4I5.T

Im6ortant Concusions
E36erience o>er the 6ast four decades has sho%n that

ins6ite of high 6otentia of soar drying it has not taDen off.
Some of the reasons areE
Systematic %orD on soar dryer has 1een done ony in fe%

countries.
Soar dryer has not 1een de>eo6ed as a system.
In industrai"ed countries! there is great interest to%ards

soar drying. Ho%e>er! neither the tem6erature nor the
heat reFuirement can 1e achie>ed %ith soar coector.
Soar drying is considered more a66ica1e to o%

tem6erature in&storage ty6e drying in tro6ica and
su1tro6ica countries.
Pre&heaing of drying air in 1atch dryers has 1een

demonstrated to 1e techno&economicay >ia1e.
Soar drying shoud 1e disseminated for medium and o%

scae farmers for drying cash cro6s.
To 6o6uarise soar drying! 6iot demonstration foo%ed

1y training and %orDsho6 %i ha>e to 1e intensified.

S:9AR DESA9I$ATI:$ TECH$IO8ES
)$"$$$ &$"$$$ ppm Sea 6ater
2"$$$ 2"&$$ ppm Underground
Saline 6ater
!$$3!2& litres ( person ( day
/NE61
!&32& litres ( person ( day
/:>D1
Demand of Potable
6ater
2i.ers" >a%es" Ponds" 6ells etc. Sources of Potable
6ater
Domestic" <ndustries and
@griculture
2eIuirement
>ess than &&$ ppm Potable 6ater

=ATER DESA9I$ATI:$ TECH$:9:G;
Pota1e %ater (fresh %ater) suita1e for human

consum6tion shoud not contain disso>ed sats
more than ,(( 66m.
2or agricutura 6ur6oses! %ater containing sat

content of '((( 66m is considered as the u66er
imit.
Pota1e %ater is reFuired for domestic! agricuture

and industries.
Some a66ications in industries iDe cooing

6ur6oses! sea %ater is feasi1e des6ite the corrosion
6ro1ems %hie other industries use higher Fuaity
%ater than is acce6ta1e for drinDing %ater. 0odern
steam 6o%er generation 6ant need %ater %ith ess
than '( 66m.
Pota1e5fresh %ater is a>aia1e from ri>ers! aDes!

6onds! %es! etc.
8nderground saine51racDish %ater contains

disso>ed sats of a1out +!(((&+!,(( 66m.

0ETH:DS :2 C:$JERTI$G HRAC#ISH
=ATER I$T: P:TAH9E =ATER
DESA9I$ATI:$4 The saine %ater is e>a6orated using

therma energy and the resuting steam is coected and
condensed as fina 6roduct.
JAP:R C:0PRESSI:$4 Here %ater >a6our from 1oiing

%ater is com6ressed adia1aticay and >a6our gets
su6erheated. The su6erheated >a6or is first cooed to
saturation tem6erature and then condensed at constant
6ressure. This 6rocess is deri>ed 1y mechanica energy.
REJERSE :S0:SIS4 Here saine %ater is 6ushed at high

6ressure through s6ecia mem1ranes ao%ing %ater
moecues 6ass seecti>ey and not the disso>ed sats.
E9ECTR:DIA9;SIS4 Here a 6air of s6ecia mem1ranes!

6er6endicuar to %hich there is an eectric fied are used and
%ater is 6assed through them. =ater does not 6ass through
the mem1ranes %hie disso>ed sats 6ass seecti>ey.
In distiationE therma energy is used %hie in >a6our
com6ression! re>erse osmosis! eectrodiaysis! etc. some
mechanica and eectrica energy is used.

Ty6es of Soar Sti
Singe Effect Hasin Soar Sti
Tited Tray Soar Sti
0uti1asin Ste66ed Soar Sti
Regeneration Incined Ste6 Soar Sti
=icD Ty6e Soar Sti
0uti6e Effect Diffusion Soar Sti
Chimney Ty6e Soar Sti
0uti&Tray 0uti6e Effect Soar Sti
Dou1e Hasin Soar Sti
Humidification Dumidification Distier
0utistage 2ash Distier
Soar C Assisted %i6ed fim 0utistage 2ash Distier

C:0P:$E$TS :2 SI$G9E
E22ECT S:9AR STI99
Hasin
HacD 9iner
Trans6arent Co>er
Condensate Channe
Seaant
Insuation
Su66y and Dei>ery System

HASIC REO8IRE0E$TS :2 A G::D
S:9AR STI99
He easiy assem1ed in the fied!G
He constructed %ith ocay a>aia1e materias!
He ight %eight for ease of handing and

trans6ortation!
Ha>e an effecti>e ife of '( to +( ;rs.
$o reFuirement of any e3terna 6o%er sources!
Can aso ser>e as a rainfa catchment surface!
Is a1e to %ithstand 6re>aiing %inds!
0aterias used shoud not contaminate the

distiate!
0eet standard ci>i and structura engineering

standards! and!
Shoud 1e o% in cost.

Dou1e so6ed e36erimenta soar sti

S:9AR STI99 :8TP8T DEPE$DS
:$ 0A$; PARA0ETERS
'. Cimatic Parameters
Soar Radiation
Am1ient Tem6erature
=ind S6eed
:utside Humidity
SDy Conditions
+. Design Parameters
Singe so6e or dou1e so6e
Ga"ing materia
=ater de6th in Hasin
Hottom insuation
:rientation of sti
Incination of ga"ing
S6acing 1et%een %ater and ga"ing
Ty6e of soar sti

'. :6erationa 6arameters
=ater De6th
Preheating of =ater
Coouring of =ater
Sainity of =ater
Rate of Agae Gro%th
In6ut =ater su66y arrangement (continuousy

or in 1atches)
S:9AR STI99 :8TP8T DEPE$DS :$
0A$; PARA0ETERS
Cont(P

0ain Pro1ems of Soar Sti
o, (istillate out*ut *er unit area
ea5age o' )a*our through Ooints
7igh &aintenance
9ro(ucti)ity (ecreases ,ith ti&e 'or a

)ariety o' reasons
Cost *er unit out*ut is )ery high

C:$C98SI:$S :$ HASI$& T;PE S:9AR STI99
The soar sti out6ut (distiate) is a strong function of soar

radiation on a hori"onta surface. The distiate out6ut
increases ineary %ith the soar insoation for a gi>en
am1ient tem6erature. If the am1ient tem6erature increases or
the %ind >eocity decreases! the heat oss from soar sti
decreases resuting in higher distiation rate. It is o1ser>ed
for each '(C rise in am1ient tem6erature the out6ut
increases 1y '( 6ercent.
The de6th of %ater in the 1asin aso effects the 6erformance

considera1y. At o%er 1asin de6ths! the therma ca6acity %i
1e o%er and hence the increase in %ater tem6erature %i 1e
arge resuting in higher out6ut. Ho%e>er! it a de6ends on
the insuation of the sti. If there is no nsuaton! increase in
%ater tem6erature %i aso increase the 1ottom heat oss. It
has 1een o1ser>ed that if the %ater de6th increases from '.+
cm to B( cm the out6ut of sti decreases 1y B( 6ercent.

C:$C98SI:$S :$ HASI$& T;PE S:9AR
STI99 (contd.)
$um1er of trans6arent co>ers in a soar sti do not

increase the out6ut since it increases the
tem6erature of the inner co>er resuting in o%er
condensation of %ater >a6our.
9o%er co>er so6e increases the out6ut. 2rom

6ractica considerations a minimum co>er so6e of
'( deg. is suggested.
The ma3imum 6ossi1e efficiency of a singe 1asin

soar sti is a1out )( 6ercent.
2or higher recei6t of soar radiation and therefore

the higher yied the ong a3is of the soar sti
shoud 1e 6aced in the East&=est direction if the
sti is instaed at a high atitude station. At o%
atitude stations the orientation has no effect on
soar radiation recei6t.

ADDITI:$A9 C:$C98SI:$S DRA=$ 2R:0
EPPERI0E$TA9 ST8DIES :$ S:9AR STI99S
The &ain *roble& in a solar still 1s the salt (e*osition o' calciu&
carbonate an( calciu& sul*hate on the basin liner ,hich are ,hite
an( insoluble an( re'lect solar ra(iation 'ro& basin ,ater an(
basin liner an( thereby lo,ering the still out*ut6 1t is (i''icult to
sto* the salt (e*osition6
The *hysical &etho(s suggeste( to *re)ent the salt (e*osition
are %re@uent 'lushing o' the stills ,ith co&*lete (rainage K
0e'illing or continuous agitation o' the still ,ater by circulating it
,ith a s&all *u&*6
2nce the salt gets (e*osite( then the only ,ay is co&*letely
(raining the still an( then scrubbing the si(es an( basin liner an(
then re'illing the still6
Another serious obser)ation &a(e in Australia is the crystalline
salt gro,th ,hich ta5es *lace on the si(es o' the basin an( into
the (istillate trough e''ecting the *urity o' (istille( ,ater6
So&e success in *re)enting the crystalline salt gro,th is
achie)e( in Australia by *re!treating the 'ee( ,ater ,ith a
co&*le8 *hos*hate co&*oun( ,hich re(uces the rate o'
nucleation o' salt crystals6

ADDITI:$A9 C:$C98SI:$S DRA=$ 2R:0
EPPERI0E$TA9 ST8DIES :$ S:9AR STI99S
Saline ,ater in the still can be su**lie( either continuously or in

batches6
1n Australia continuous su**ly o' saline ,ater in the solar still is

*re'erre( at a rate o' about $6<G 1Ds@6& hr ,hich 1s t,ice the
&a8i&u& (istillate rate6
This hel*s in re(ucing the salt (e*osition 'ro& the salt solution6
%ro& ther&al e''iciency *oint o' )ie,+ batch 'illing i6e6 'illing o'
saline ,ater ,hen the basin ,ater is coolest (early &orning) is the
best but it in)ol)es greater labour costs an( s*ecial *lu&bing
arrange&ents6
Algae gro,th ,ithin the solar still also e''ects the *er'or&ance to a
little e8tent but its gro,th &ust be chec5e( since its gro,th is
unsightly an( &ay 'inally bloc5 the basin an( conta&inate the
(istillation troughs6
The algae gro,th can be chec5e( by a((ing co**er sul*hate an(

chlorine co&*oun(s in the saline ,ater in the still6

3ulti!E''ect 7u&i(i'ication >ehu&i(i'ication
Solar >istillation
Con>entiona methods of %ater desaination 1ased on 0S2! 0E!

R: use high energy sources and reFuire hea>y in>estment and
infrastructure.
A sim6e muti&effect humidification C dehumidification soar

distiation unit is schematicay sho%n in the figure. A
6hotogra6h of the unit is aso sho%n.
The com6ete unit consists of t%o 6arts4 (i) soar fat&6ace

coectors and storage tanD! and (ii) Distiation cham1er (in t%o
6arts4 e>a6orator and condenser).
Soar array consist of , fat C 6ate coectors each of +m

+
coector area and a hot %ater storage tanD of ,(( itres
ca6acity.
The distiation cham1er consists of e>a6oration ('.,( 3 (., 3

'.( m) and condensation to%er ('.,( 3 (.,( 3 (., m).

In the soar coector storage tanD oo6! %ater

gets heated and stored in the storage tanD.
The circuation is 1y natura circuation of
%ater.
In the distiation oo6! the saine %ater is

6reheated as it 6asses through the coi of the
condenser to%er and further heated through
the coi (heat e3changer) in the hot %ater
storage tanD. This hot %ater gets
automaticay s6rayed from the to6 in the
e>a6orator.
0uti&Effect Humidification C
Dehumidification Soar Distiation (contd.)

The 6artiay humidified air from the condenser side

mo>es through the e>a6orator (6acDed 1ed) in the
u6%ard direction! gets fuy humidified and goes to
the condenser! %ater from air gets condensed on the
outer side of the coi (heat e3changer) in the
condenser.
The 6ure (distied) %ater gets coected in the

1ottom of the condenser and 1rine from the 1ottom
of the e>a6orator.
The system is fuy automatic and no other energy

e3ce6t the soar energy is used in the 6rocess.
0uti&Effect Humidification C
Dehumidification Soar Distiation (contd.)

0uti&effect Soar Distiation System

Photogra6h of the muti effect H&D Soar Distiation unit at IIT Dehi

Types of Solar Green Houses
Passi>e Soar Green Houses4 The green houses

%here the energy is stored directy in hea>y
1ricD%as or rocD%as and5or %ater 6oos or %ater
containers e36osed to soar radiation and heat is
distri1uted inside the green house 1y natura
means! are Dno%n as 6assi>e greenhouses.
Acti>e Soar Green Houses4 In houses %here soar

energy is coected and stored and distri1uted and
%here some au3iiary energy is em6oyed either for
circuation or for distri1ution or for 1oth.
Generay a com1ination of 1oth acti>e and 6assi>e
features are em6oyed in soar green house %ith an
o1Mecti>e to minimi"e the use of au3iiary energy
either for heating the green house or for coection C
storage&distri1ution system.

Photogra6h of the Pi6e 2rame Soar Greenhouse

Soar Greenhouse in 9eh

D<2E,T
,:N=E2S<:N
1 Photo.oltaic
2 Photoemissi.e
3 Photogal.anic
4 Photomagnetic
S2A0
E4E0G:
T7E03A
E4E0G:
7EAT
E4G14E
EECT01C
GE4E0AT124
EEC6
E4E0G:
THER0A9 E$ERG;
B. Thermoeectric
-. Thermionic
,. 2erroeectricity
). 0agnetohydrodynamics
/. Eectrogasdynamics
2e% schemes of con>erting soar energy into eectricity

Solar Ther&al
9o,er Generation

Solar Thermal Technologies for Power
Generation: Global Trends
Hasic Systems
Coector
Recei>er
Trans6ort Storage
Po%er Con>ersion
0aMor Jarieties
Para1oic Trough Soar Energy Generating

Systems (SEGS)
Centra Recei>er Po%er Pants
Soar Chimney Po%er Pants
Dish Stering Systems
Soar Pond Po%er Pants

Solar Technologies 6Thermal
Soar To%er

Soar Technoogies

Soar Technoogies

Soar Technoogies

Soar Technoogies

It maDes use of 1oth direct and diffuse soar

radiation.
The natura storage medium C the ground

o6erates as a storage medium. 9arge ground
area %i o6erate the system throughout the +-
hours.
$o mo>ing 6arts e3ce6t tur1ine and generator.
$o %ater is reFuired to coo mechanica 6arts.
It features a sim6e! o%&cost design utii"ing

Dno%&ho% and materias ocay a>aia1e amost
e>ery%here.
0ost of the cost is a1our oriented and %oud

1enefit the oca a1our marDet %hie at the same
time he6ing to Dee6 o>era costs do%n.
Soar chimney has a arge 6otentia for 6o%er generation
and a num1er of technoogica and 6hysica ad>antages

Princi6e of o6eration of soar chimney

Soar Chimney
:ne +(( 0= 6ant is 6anned in Austraia
Interna estimates for ' 0= 6ant
Coection diameter of soar gass roof 4 '',B m
Chimney height 4 +,( m
Instaed Cost 4 Rs. B(.(( Cr.
C:G 4 Rs. ).+( 5 D=h

TracDing
System
Edge Ange
2oca 9ength
A1sor1er Diameter
Refector (Para1oic Trough)
A6erture
Soar Trough Technoogy
T t

Soar Trough
9ight Concentration through 6ara1oic troughs& Stee! A or mirrors
Trough 1eing >ery arge& ony singe a3is tracDing 6ossi1e
Hence o% coection efficiency C a1out ,,Q
Aso ma3. tem6 4 -,( Deg C
Runs a steam tur1ine C :>era system efficiency 4 a1out ',Q
To im6ro>e 6ant use!
hy1ridi"ation %ith 2ossi
2ues 6ossi1e

Soar Technoogies 4Therma
Soar Trough
The earier systems used @heat transfer fuidsA to coect heat
Steam generation through heat e3changers
9atest Ad>ancements4
Direct steam generation 4 To reduce cost and increase efficiency
The three 1asic DSG 6rocesses (once&through! inMection and recircuation)

9ro)en Technology- SEGS *lants
SEGS4 Soar Eectric Generating
System
* 6ants at three ocations (Daggett!
#ramer Iunction! Har6er 9aDe)!
0oMa>e desert (CA)
Indi>idua unit si"e4 '- to .( 0=e
Instaed 1et%een '*.- and '**(
Tota si"e4 B,- 0%e
Sti o6erating4 actua o6erator of units
III to IP is 2P9 EnergyE eectricity
customer is SCE

Soar Trough
Chea6est soar technoogy
=e esta1ished! mainy as hy1rid
9eading commercia instaations 4 in 8S! aso 6anned in 0athania!
RaMasthan
SEGS Pant Ist ;ear of
:6n
$et :ut6ut
(0=)
Soar 2ied
:ut6ut Tem6
(Deg C)
Soar 2ied
Area
(SF m)
Soar
Tur1ine Eff
(Q)
2ossi
Tur1ine
Eff (Q)
Annua
:ut6ut
(0=h)
I '*., 'B.. B(/ .+!*)( B'., & B(!'((
II '*.) B( B') '*(!BB. +*.- B/.B .(!,((
III ? IJ '*./ B( B-* +B(!B(( B(.) B/.- *+!/.(
J '*.. B( B-* +,(!(( B(.) B/.- *'!.+(
JI '*.* B( B*( '..!((( B/., B*., *(!.,(
JII '*.* B( B*( '*-!+.( B/., B*., *+!)-)
JIII '**( .( B*( -)-!B-( B/.) B/.) +,+!/,(
IP '**' .( B*( -.B!*)( B/.) B/.) +,)!'+,

$?G 3W argest 1ntegrate( Solar
Co&bine( Cycle (1SCC) 9o,er 9lant
Status of the ProMect
Jery Recenty A66ro>ed from Ca1inet Committee on Economic

Affair (CCEA) for an In>estment of Rs. ./' crore.
Techno&Economic Cearance (TEC) 1y Centra Eectricity

Authority (CEA) on +/ August '***.
Com6etion of ground %orD for a66raisa 1y #f%! 6roMect has

entered into Pre6aration Phase.
Cearance from State Poution Contro Hoard.
)(* 1ighas and ha>e 1een acFuired.
2inancia Assisting Agencies
Go>t. of India (Grant of Rs. ,( crore)
Go>t. of RaMasthan (Grant of Rs. ,( crore)
Go1a En>ironment 2aciity (GE2) (Grant of 8SW -* miion)
Go>t. of Germany through #f= (9oan of D0 +,( miion)
Im6ementing Agency
RaMasthan State Po%er Cor6oration 9imited (RSPC9) %ith

assistance from GE2! Df= and Go>t. of India.

Soar Refrigeration and Air conditioning
Soar energy can aso 1e used for cooing 1uidings (generay
Dno%n as air&conditioning) or for refrigeration reFuired for
other a66ications.
Soar cooing a66ears to 1e attracti>e 6ro6osition due to the
fact that %hen the cooing demand is more! the sunshine is
strongest.
Athough! considera1e %orD on soar cooing systems has
1een done in the ast fi>e decades! due to its com6e3ity! 1oth
in conce6t and in construction! the utii"ation and
commerciai"ation of soar cooing is not as %ides6read as
other soar energy a66ications.
Ho%e>er! if soar cooing of 1uidings is com1ined %ith the
soar heating then the com1ined soar cooing and heating
systems can 1ecome economica.
Simiary! soar refrigerators or cooed s6ace (cod storage) %i
1e a 1oon and economica in isoated ocations for 6reser>ing
essentia drugs and food.

There are se>era %ays of using soar energy for cooing such as4
8sing the a1sor6tion cyce %ith iFuid a1sor1ents such as 9iHr C
H
+
:! $H
B
! 9iCI C H
+
:! $H
B
C 9in$:
B
! R++ C D02! $H
B
C $aSC$.
8sing the a1sor6tion cyce %ith soid a1sor1ents such as4 CaC
+
&
$H
B

8sing adsor6tion cyce %ith soid a1sor1ents such as4 Siicage
H
+
:! Keoites C H
+
:.
8sing the >a6or com6ression cyce em6oying a soar 6o%ered
RanDine engine.
8sing the >a6or com6ression .cyce %ith the com6ressor dri>en 1y
eectricity from 6hoto>otaic 6anes.
$octurna 6assi>e cooing.
Se>era 6rototy6e systems 1ased on some of the a1o>e 6rinci6es
ha>e aready 1een made and demonstrated 1ut these are sti under
de>eo6ment to 1e de6enda1e and commercia. The choice of a
6articuar system not ony de6ends on its economics 1ut aso on
oca factors such as cimate! a>aia1iity of cooing %ater! au3iiary
energy source! and the ty6e of coector a>aia1e.
(contd.)

A solar air con(itioning syste& is co&*licate( an( ,ill consist o'

&any co&*onents+ the &aOor ones being the solar collector 'iel(+
a heat storage (e)ice+ a solar cooling (e)ice (base( on
absor*tion or 0an5ine cycle) a col( storage (e)ice+ a heat
reOection (e)ice+ air han(ling syste&+ etc6 as sho,n
sche&atically in %igure6
A si&*le 'lat!*late collector or e)acuate( tube collector or

concentrating collector (e*en(ing on the te&*erature
re@uire&ent+ can be e&*loye( to heat a 'lui( ,hich is use( to
o*erate the cooling (e)ice6
A *art o' the heat can be store( in the storage unit6 The heat
collecte( 'ro& the buil(ing is reOecte( to the at&os*here using a
cooling to,er or any other suitable heat reOecting (e)ice6 1' air is
coole( by the cooling (e)ice then it is (irectly su**lie( to the
buil(ing to be coole( or i' chille( ,ater is *ro(uce( then it is
circulate( through 'an coil units an( a *art o' a chille( ,ater is
store( 'or use ,hen the cooling (e)ice is not in o*eration6
(contd.)

The 6erformance of a cooing 6rocess is Mudged from its C:P (coefficient of
6erformance)! %hich is the ratio of the amount of cooing 6roduced to the
energy in6ut. The o>era C:P for a RanDine cyce o6erated soar cooing
system is of a1out (.B to (.- %hich >ery much de6ends on the soar coector
efficiency. The main ad>antage of the soar RanDine >a6our com6ression
cooing 6rocess is that it can 1e used in the heat 6um6 mode! and aso for
eectricity generation %hen cooing is not reFuired. 0oreo>er! the system may
1e designed for any o6erating range of tem6eratures %ith minimum 6um6ing
o6erations.
The >a6our com6ression cooing 6rocess o6erated 1y 6hoto>otaic 6anes
gi>es a C:P in the range of (.+, to (.B, due to o%er soar ce efficiency. This
system can aso 1e used in the heat 6um6 mode! and the eectricity can 1e
used for other a66ications %hen cooing is not reFuired. Here no au3iiary
6um6s are reFuired.
The cooing system 1ased on cosed a1sor6tion cyce gi>es a C:P of a1out
(.'( to (.+( de6ending on the coector efficiency. The ad>antage of this
system is that it can 1e used %ith o% grade heat (e>en %aste heat) and is >ery
Fuiet in o6eration. In this system some au3iiary 6o%er is reFuired to dri>e fans
and 6um6s.
Cooing systems 1ased on adsor6tion cyce are sim6e! Fuiet in o6eration! and
o6erate at a C:P of a1out (.+. Here aso au3iiary 6o%er is reFuired to dri>e
fans and 6um6s. Some e36erimenta systems 1ased on adsor6tion cyce are
made 1ut considera1e research and de>eo6ment is reFuired to im6ro>e
6erformance and reia1iity.
(contd.)

Intermittent A1sor6tion Refrigeration System
Intermittent ty6e of soar a1sor6tion refrigeration systems are studied
1y many in>estigators 1ecause of its suita1iity in areas %here there is
no eectricity! and 1ecause of the intermittent nature of soar radiation.
The soar intermittent refrigerator may 1e used for maDing ice! or as
cod storage for food or >accine in remote areas or sma isands.
The o>era 6erformance of soar intermittent refrigerators so far
6roduced is o%! since they o6erate at o% efficiency. The
thermodynamic 6rocesses of intermittent o6eration are not re>ersi1e
and its o6eration de6ends on the a1sor1ent refrigerant com1ination
and concentration of refrigerant. Some of the most 6romising
refrigerant&a1sor1ent 6airs are gi>en in the ta1e.
6ater
Sodium Thiocyanide /NaS,N1
>ithium nitrate />iN:
)
1
,alcium chloride /,a,l
2
1
Strontium chloride /Sr,l
2
1
Dimethyl formamide /DEF1
@mmonia /NH
)
1
@bsorbents 2efrigerant
Refrigerant&a1sor1ent 6airs for intermittent cyce

Schematic diagram of intermittent soar
refrigerator and thermodynamic cyce

The soar intermittent refrigerator as descri1ed 1y E3e and #ornsaDoo in
Thaiand is descri1ed here. The fo% diagram is sho%n in figure. 2at&
6ate coectors of ,.( m
+
area %ith 6ane mirror 1oosters containing a1out
)/ Dg of -)Q $H
B
&H
+
: soution are used as generators from %here
ammonia gets >a6ori"ed 1y soar heating during the day %ith contro >a>e
A o6en %hie >a>es H and C cosed. The ammonia is condensed and
stored in a %ater cooed recei>er. In the e>ening the soution is ao%ed to
coo 1y o6ening the coector gass 6anes and cosing the >a>e A. The
>a>es H and C are then o6ened to 6roduce refrigeration in the e>a6orator
1y the e>a6oration of ammonia 6assing through the e36ansion >a>e H.
The ammonia >a6our goes through the 1ottom of the coector and gets
rea1sor1ed in the soutionE the heat of a1sor6tion esca6es from the
coector.
:n a>erage 1right days a1out '- Dg of ammonia %as distied and a1out +,
Dg of ice %as 6roduced on the foo%ing night from %ater at +.VC.
A simiar soar intermittent refrigerator %as much earier de>eo6ed at IIT
Dehi and the same is sho%n in the 6hotogra6h.
Intermittent A1sor6tion Refrigeration System
(contd.)
An e36erimenta soar intermittent refrigerator at IIT Dehi

Go1a Scenario of Soar Therma Energy
Soar therma instaations %ord%ide had reached 'B,

miion sF.m. of coector area at the end of +((/.
0aMority of the instaations are of domestic %ater

heaters! %ith around -. miion homes %ith soar
therma instaations.
China accounts for )BQ of the instaed ca6acity!

foo%ed 1y E8 %ith '+./Q! TurDey ().,Q)! Ia6an ()Q)!
Israe (B..Q)! Hra"i ('..Q)! 8SA ('..Q)! Austraia ('.-Q)!
and India ('.BQ).
The Chinese marDet is e36ected to gro% at ',Q 6er year!

%ith annua 6roduction reaching +( miion sF.m. 1y
+('( and cumuati>e instaations to B(( miion sF.m. 1y
+(+(.
E>acuated tu1e coectors are >ery 6o6uar in China!

%hich account for more than .,Q of the marDet.
There are more than '((( industries5deaers 6roducing

5seing soar %ater heaters in China.

China catches u6 on technoogy
Chinese firms are the go1a eaders in 6roducing

e>acuated tu1esE and they ha>e tu1e thermosi6hon
systems under contro. ;et %hen it comes to 6um6ed
soar heating systems! %hich are 6re&dominant in
Euro6e! and necessary for tasDs such as soar
cooing! there are certain deficitsE for e3am6e %ith
coector hydrauics or insuation. Ho%e>er! coector
manufacturers are catching u6 on these 6oints.
China 6ins its ho6es on soar heat iDe amost no other

country in the %ord. Hy the year +(',! the tota
instaed coector surface area shoud! ac&cording to
the Huichong Research Institute! %hich %orDs on
1ehaf of the go>ernment! reach +.B+ 1iion m
+
(the
eFui>aent of '!)+- G=th of therma out6ut). That
%oud 1e more than +( times as much as today. +( to
B( Q of the Chinese 6o6uation %i then 1e using the
sun to heat their domestic %ater.

Soar therma energy use in China
The annuay instaed out6ut has gro%n continuay! reaching '+.)
G=th in +((). Ho%e>er! there are aso contradictions 1et%een the
sources here for +(()! as %ith the tota 6roduction. The cumuati>e
instaed coector surface area stands at more than '(( miion m
+
. If
China %ishes to reach a tota instaed surface area of +.+B 1iion m
+
1y
+(',! it reFuires significanty faster rates of gro%th than in 6ast years.

The Chinese coector manufacturersA e36orts gre% from around
+((!((( m
+
in '*** to )((!((( m
+
in +((B. After ha>ing 6aused on
,((!((( m
+
! they rocDeted straight u6 to + miion m
+
. in +(()

Israe is sti at the soar to6
=ater heating in Israe means heating %ater %ith soar.
$ine out of ten Israei househods taDe sho%ers using soar energy.
The soar mirace in Israe had ha66ened due to Prof. Harry Ta1or! a
6hysicist %ho migrated from Great Hritain to Israe in '*-.! de>eo6ed
and demonstrated the first ad>anced e>e soar %ater heater using
nicDe 1acD seecti>e coating and e3hi1ited the same in the first
%ord congress on A66ied Soar Energy in Ari"ona! 8SA in '*,,.
Israe %as ranDed second in the coector statistics(-*. =
th
cumuati>e instaed coector 6o%er 6er '((( inha1itants) of the
Internationa Energy Agency (IEA) in +((,! 1ehind cy6rus on ),/ =
th
.
In third! fourth and fifth 6aces come Austria %ith +(, =
th
! Har1ados
%ith +(( =
th
and Greece %ith '*+ =
th
.
Soar heating maDes u6 B 6ercent of 6rimary energy consum6tion in
Israe. According to go>ernment figures this sa>es Israe . 6ercent of
its eectricity consum6tion.
In order to 6rotect the consumer from 1ad Fuaity! the state
introduced norms for coectors and storage tanDs! as %e as a
com6usory guarantee 6eriod of , years.
2amiies can 1uy a ty6ica thermosi6hon system %ith +.,m
+
of
coector area and a ',( itre tanD for +((( Israei $e% SheDe.

The Delhi Government has decided to make use of solar power compulsory
for lighting up hoardings and for street lighting and solar water heating
systems in several categories of buildings/residences.
A Step towards
achieving the Vision

Rene%a1e Energy4 Hasic Issues
to 1e Addressed
!. <nitial cost" financial .iability and financing mechanisms
High initial /capital1 cost
Site and application ( case specific financial .iability.
Una.ailability of attracti.e financing mechanisms.
2estricted a.ailability of different type/s1" siAe/s1 of

reneable energy de.ices to suit user taste ( need ( demand.
2eliability" Durability" 2epair and Eaintenance"

standardiAation /Kuality @ssurance1 and ,redibility 2elated
issues
Usually unreliable /problem/s1 of resource a.ailability

and technological appropriateness1.
Technologies being disseminated are not durable /rong

choice of materials" design1
@bsence of maintenance infrastructure" after sales

ser.ice.

!. 2ele.ant En.ironmental <ssues
Potential of reduction in greehouse gas emissions.
,lean De.elopment Eechanism

2. Policy Eeasures" absence of le.el planning field for 2ET-s
PrioritiAation
Pricing of fossil fuels .s. promotional measures for

reneables
Some
). <dentification of Niche @reas for Each Technology and
formation and implementation of specific measures.
0ene,able Energy- Basic 1ssues to
be A((resse(
(Contd..)

0ene,able Energy- Basic 1ssues to
be A((resse(
(Contd..)
'. >ac% of aareness" education and training" Human '. >ac% of aareness" education and training" Human
2esource De.elopment 2esource De.elopment
Eass le.el aareness programmes Eass le.el aareness programmes
Education of policy ma%ers" administrator Education of policy ma%ers" administrator
Education of technicians" mechanics Education of technicians" mechanics
Employment related issues. Employment related issues.

#. #. Support to 2esearch and De.elopment to de.elop and Support to 2esearch and De.elopment to de.elop and
disseminate appropriate reneable energy technologies disseminate appropriate reneable energy technologies
<dentification of problems and pro.ide solutions ( <dentification of problems and pro.ide solutions (
remedial measures. remedial measures.

By the year 2!" #ndia should achieve
$nergy #ndependence through solar power
and other forms of renewable energy %

Dr. &. '. (. &bdul )alam
'resident of #ndia
#ndependence Day *peech" 2+

Fundamental of Solar Energy

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Fundamental of Solar Energy

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Prof. (Dr.) H.P.

=ider access to eectricity

Significant in>estment needs

Choice of current ? emerging

Institutiona! financia and

:riginates %ith the

Re6resents the entire

The sun is! in effect! a

=e are concerned a1out the 6ortion of the

=e are aso concerned a1out the soar geometry

=e are aso concerned a1out the e3traterrestria

=e are aso concerned a1out the earthE its

=e are aso concerned a1out the earthAs

The sun is, in effect, a continuous fusion

The sun has an effective The sun has an effective

The earth is shaped as an oblate spheroid a sphere flattened at the

Earth has a central core of about 2&*$ %m in diameter hich is more

The eccentricity of the earth-s orbit is .ery small /e0$.$!*')1" so that

The earth ma%es one rotation about its a8is e.ery 24

The earth-s a8is of rotation is tilted 2).& deg. ith

This tilted position of the earth" alongith the earth-s

The geometry of the sun & earth reationshi6 is

The eccentricity of the earthAs or1it is such that the

The sun su1stends an ange of B+G at the earth 1ecause

The radiation emitted 1y the sun reaches unattenuated

The soar constant (Ion) is the energy recei>ed from

The atest >aue of soar constant is 'B)).. t -.+

In oden days %hen rocDet or s6ace craft faciities %ere not

Pioneering studies %ere done 1y C.G. A11ot in Smithsonian

9ater %ith the a>aia1iity of >ery high atitude aircraft!

9ater C. 2rohicD ree3amined the >aue of 'B,B =5m

In addition to the tota energy in the soar s6ectrum (i.e.

A standard s6ectra irradiance cur>e 1ased on high

2rom this figure foo%ing o1ser>ations are made4

The 6eaD soar intensity is +(+... %5m

The soar s6ectrum >aries from (.+ C B.( m!

The energy in >arious s6ectra ranges is as foo%s4

There is a >ery sma >ariation in the e3traterrestria

Ho%e>er due to >ariation in the earth&sun distance

The earth is surrounded 1y an atmos6here containing

Radiation gets scattered 1y moecues of different

If the si"e of the 6artices are arger than the

There %i 1e a refection of radiation due to couds!

Considera1e amount of soar radiation aso gets

Some radiation gets refected 1acD in the

The soar radiation %hich reaches on the earth

The radiation %hich gets refected! a1sor1ed or

The sum of the diffuse and direct radiation on the

0oon ('*-() has 6ro6osed standard cur>es for

2or Indian conditions a standard atmos6here

This eFuation in India is used e3tensi>ey for com6uting direct

2or cacuating soar radiation and designing soar

Soar atitude ange () and soar a"imuth ange (A") are

The a66arent soar 6ath on a 6articuar day is sho%n in the

The atitude ange of the sun () is defined as the ange in

To s6ecify the ocation of a 6ace on the earth! t%o anges

To understand 9 and ! 6ease see the figure in %hich! the

9atitude (9) of a 6ace (say C in figure) is the ange 1et%een

The ange 1et%een the 6rime meridian (a semicirce

2rom this figure it can 1e seen that soar

The >aues of sunAs decaration! ! can 1e found out

=here n is the day of the year. The e3act >aue of

The 6osition of a 6oint P on the earthAs surface %ith

0esonse ti&e shoul( be as s&all as ossible

Te&erature resonse shoul( be &ini&u&

Cosine an( aAi&uthal resonse or satial )ariation in

1&ro)ing trans&ittance ! absortance ro(uct+

2ti&iAing tilt+ orientation an( e8osure o'