1

1he human eye is ar rom being a perect optical

organ. 1he most commonly used correction o ision problems
are mounted lenses - eyeglasses - not only at present, but also
during the last ew centuries. During the 18th and 19th centuries
Lnglish-speaking populations uniersally called these
contriances spectacles`. 1he term spectacles` speciically
reers to eyeglass rames that hae side pieces, or temples, to
hold the glasses to the eyes. 1his article proides accurate
inormation about spectacles styles aailable during the 1835
through 180 period. During this period, the term eye-glasses`
reerred to rames that did not hae side pieces or temples, and
were held to the ace simply by sitting on or clamping to the
nose. Lye-glasses` ,also called nose spectacles and, later,
pince-nez`,, goggles, eye shades and eye protectors will be
considered in a uture article. 1he term eyeglasses` did not
come into use until later decades. Primary source materials
proided irtually all o this painstakingly researched
inormation - this approach being used to eliminate
misattributions and mistakes published and repeated in
secondary sources oer the years.
Although this article ocuses on the use o spectacles
immediately beore and during the Ciil \ar, the styles under
discussion were widely and commonl y aailable rom
approximately 1835 through 180. Basic types did not change
signiicantly during this period, howeer, the spectacles
manuactured rom around 1835 to about 180 do hae speciic
characteristics. Understanding these styles and characteristics
are important to understanding the correct and authentic types
o eyewear manuactured and worn during these years. Larly
photography, artwork, adertisements, illustrated optical
catalogues and spectacle rames marked by manuacturers and
retailers supply much o the inormation we used to accurately
assess the types and styles o spectacles used during this period.
American colonists brought with them
arious types o eyewear, both to improe their
sight and to protect their eyes rom damage.
lor the irst two hundred years ater their
arrial almost all o these ision aids came
rom Lngland or Lurope. Domestic
manuacture rapidly increased ater the \ar
o 1812, and hundreds o Americans worked
as spectacle makers during the next six
decades.
Until approximately 1860, these cratsmen
made spectacles one pair at a time, rom start
to inish. 1his included cutting, iling, itting,
soldering and inishing all parts, edging lenses
to shape and itting them into the rames. In
the decades prior to the Ciil \ar, mechanics
deised labor-saing deices that improed
these processes - stamping or cutting out some
parts using punches and dies, and deising
improed soldering techniques. Occasionally
steam powered machinery came into play,
especially or polishing. Steam power, howeer,
was not a major actor. lor example, the
company that became the American Optical
Company, the largest spectacle manuacturer
in the world, did not replace water-powered
machinery with steam power until 1853.
1
Since
most spectacle rames were handmade
throughout the period, cratsmen would
sometimes create unusual, innoatie or one-
o-a-kind spectacles. 1hese atypical examples
are beyond the scope o this article,
consequently, we discuss only the common
styles used during this period.
Unidentiied Union soldier wearing oblong spectacles with wide sliding
temples. Adjusted or contrast. ,Library o Congress,.
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9+&"): -); <7$/& $=/ 1">"5 ?-&8 @ABC 0 @ADE
by Alan R. McBrayer and 1homas l. Valenza
2012 Alan R. McBrayer & 1homas l. Valenza. All Rights Resered
2
1%24%)/)$# %7 34/.$-.5/ ,&-2/#
All spectacle rames, despite dierences in material,
style and orm, are made o the same basic components. 1hey
are:
-F G=/ %4$".#, known as spectacle glasses, the eyes`, and,
rarely during this period, lenses. 1he optics can be correctie
or ar or near sight, or can be lat colored glass. Although
many spectacles were itted by opticians to the indiidual
consumer ,especially in larger cities,, most were purchased by
persons who tried on seeral, or many, spectacles until one
pair seemed to work. Merchants oten allowed their customers
a period o time to exchange glasses until happy with their
ision improement.
HF G=/ /'/ I"&/ - 1his metal, tortoiseshell or horn rame
surrounds the optics. ,Some rameless`, rimless` or
skeleton` spectacles do not hae eye wires - the bridge and,or
the joints attached directly to the spectacle glasses. 1hese did
not appear in American optical catalogues until ater 180. \e
do not discuss them here,.
.F G=/ H&";:/ - 1his sel-describing part connects the ront
two eye wire mounts, and rests upon the nose.
;F G=/ J%")$# - 1hese are the hinges attached to the outside
edge o the eye wire mounts, joining the eye wires and the
temples.
/F G=/ $/245/# - 1hese are the side pieces or bars that run
rom the joints across the sides o the head, thus holding the
spectacles to the ace. Up through the Ciil \ar, the majority
o spectacle temples ,except curl temples, had loops at the
end. 1hese loops grew progressiely smaller during the period
- some ound on late period steel wire spectacles are barely
larger than the eye o a needle.
1hese ie components, plus arious screws, pins and
riets, are common to spectacle rames made prior to 180.
Ater 180, the popularity o rameless` spectacles and o
eye-glasses o all styles ,what are commonly called pince-nez,
dramatically changed the market.
1he optics used in spectacles during this period are
generally not releant to rame style, so we will limit the
discussion o optics to the basics. Imported lenses, or spectacle
glasses`, were used by almost all American spectacle makers
until well ater the end o the Ciil \ar. 1he lenses, regardless
o eye wire shape, were originally round, and chipped and
ground into the eye wire shapes described below. 1he common
glasses in use were double conex ,or ar-sighted persons,,
double concae ,or near-sighted or myopic persons,, periscopic
lenses ,or both ar and near-sighted persons, depending on
the coniguration o the lens,, and plano ,lat, glass ,or colored
and protectie spectacles,. All o these optic types were in use
both by soldiers and by the general population. Most clear
lenses were made o glass, but slabs o clear quartz crystals,
called pebbles`, were also used. Pebbles were harder and
considerably more expensie, so most spectacles had glass
lenses. Biocal spectacles, irst described by Benjamin lranklin,
were also aailable. 1he lranklin biocal, sometimes called
double ision spectacles`, consisted o two hal lenses
mounted in each eye wire - the upper hal-lens or distant sight,
and the lower hal lens or close-up sight, such as reading. A
second rarely-used type o biocal lens had a single glass in
each eye wire ground to dierent ocal lengths.
1he style` or type` o spectacles comes down to
ariations o appearances caused by the eye wire ,and lens, shape,
the type o bridge, the type o joints, and the type o temples.
1he heaier weight rames with round lenses o the 100`s and
early 1800`s slowly gae way to oal lenses ater the 180`s. By
1820, the oal glass spectacle rame dominated the market.
loweer, whether haing round or oal glasses, the earlier
rames o iron, steel and siler ,and rarely gold, ell rom aor
during the 1830`s, and by 1840 most rames were lighter-weight
newer styles. 1here was ew signiicant changes in commonly
aailable spectacles until the 180`s. Prior to 1835, the majority
o spectacle rames had nose bridges known to modern
collectors as the C` bridge ,lig. 1,. By the mid 1830`s, the
crank` or Lnglish` style bridges gained popularity and were
almost ubiquitous by the 1840`s ,lig. 2,. 1he X` bridge was
sometimes used on spectacles or the myopic and on
inexpensie imported spectacle rames. ,lig. 3,
2
. 1he similar
K` bridge can be seen in the illustrations o the Coquille`
spectacles and the Inisibles`, both shown on the ollowing
pages. During the late 1850`s, a bridge type appeared that
simpliied the assembly process. 1hese bridges had upturned
langes or scrolls` where the bridge attached to the rames.
One o Lincoln`s spectacles in the Library o Congress has a
(Source: Ophthalmic Surgerv and Treatment. with Advise on the
Use and Abuse of Spectacles, John Phillips, Chicago, 1869, p. 34).
3
scroll bridge`, which are also shown in an 1866 patent
drawing.
3
Our opinion is that most o these bridges, especially
those with an exaggerated scroll-like cure at either end, are
post-war examples.
About 1860, American companies began to use mass
production techniques to manuacture spectacles, this trend
quickened with the use o new production methods and new
patents. lor example, the 1859 patent o Memphis resident
1heodore Noel
4
introduced the concept o standard size lenses,
so that replacement or switching o lenses became a simple
task. 1his seemingly obious improement allowed any
merchant to oer or sale rames and lenses easily assembled
to order without need o special tools or training. Most
examples o the Noel patent are post-180.
Spectacles were inexpensie and readily aailable to
anyone requiring ision correction or eye protection. lor
example, just beore the Ciil \ar, the Philadelphia irms o
McAllister & Brother and James Queen & Company both
oered good quality` plated spectacles or 50 cents per pair,
or >3.50 a dozen. In Jackson, Mississippi the `inest quality
steel` or coin siler spectacles with best quality optics cost >1.00
and >1.0, respectiely.
5
Spectacle rames included those made rom gold,
siler, German siler, brass, plated brass or German siler,
tortoise shell, blued steel wire and common steel or iron wire.
A tari encouraged the domestic manuacture o spectacles.
Gold alloys used or spectacle rames had arying amounts o
siler, copper, and sometimes small amounts o other metals.
Oten made to order, these rames were aailable in alloys rom
8 karat to 18 karat.
Many aordable spectacle rames were made o a
siler alloy called coin siler` or pure coin`. 1he coin siler
alloy used in American coins was, by an act o Congress passed
on January 18, 183, 90 percent siler and 10 percent copper.
Modern tests, howeer, show that the siler alloys used by
spectacle makers ary rom as little as 80 percent siler to about
93 percent siler. During the 1830`s and aterwards, a new
inexpensie metal gained popularity or the manuacture o
spectacle rames and many other items. In New \ork City in
1829, German chemist Louis leuchtwanger introduced the alloy
German siler`, composed o arying amounts o copper,
zinc and nickel. Spectacle rames o this material became widely
aailable ater 1835. 1he cost and durability o German siler
spectacle rames made them ery popular, een as newspaper
articles warned the public about peddlers passing this material
o as genuine siler. Look Out - 1here is no trading in a
small way by which people are more grossly cheated than by
peddlers who deal in spectacles.`
6
Accused o either
misrepresenting rame materials or optical quality, traeling
spectacle peddlers had a disreputable reputation, despite the
honesty o some merchants.
All spectacles o the period are held together with
joints, the hinges that attach the temples to the eye wire.
Although there were innoatie exceptions, there were only
two basic designs that saw wide usage during the Ciil \ar
period. lirst, there are joints held together with a screw, and a
separate pin acts as the piot or the temples. 1his type was
widely used rom the inention o temple spectacles in the
early 100`s until replaced by updated designs rom the 180`s
orward. A second hinge type appeared about 1850, although
this date is uncertain. 1hese hinges were used on ery
inexpensie plated, brass and German siler rames, and used
a single screw or pin to both hold together the joint and to act
as piots or the temples. Lxamples were recoered rom the
cargo o the steamboat .rabia, which sunk in 1856, and are
now on display in a Kansas City museum. 1hese so-called
German spectacles` could be purchased or less than 50 cents,
and the customer got what he paid or - many opticians
disparaged them as the product o unscrupulous peddlers.
Ater 1843, American manuacturers made steel wire
spectacle rames in small numbers, although most were still
imported. Many o these had been blued` by heating the
polished rames on a hot plate. 1his treatment made the steel
harder and more lexible. I the bluing wore o it was a simple
matter to heat and re-blue the rames. 1hese rames were
extremely popular by the 1860`s, widely praised or being light
and durable.
Spectacle makers also produced tortoiseshell spectacle
rames throughout this period. 1hese were alued or being
light weight and or ease o polish, but the rames were easily
broken. 1ortoiseshell comes rom plates on the shell o the
hawksbill turtle ,Lretmochelys imbricate,. Imported plates o
horn, principally rom cattle, sheep and goats had also been a
popular material or the manuacture o spectacle rames. Both
tortoiseshell and horn largely ell out o ashion by the 1860`s,
although both materials were still used in manuacturing
lorgnettes, a spectacle ront held to the eyes with a handle.
Gold octagon eye wires with loop-slide temples and crank bridge. ,Author`s collection,.
4
1he Ciil \ar apparently slowed urther deelopment
o spectacles and eye glasses. Not only did inentors concentrate
on war-related ideas, many spectacle makers joined the ranks
as soldiers - as examples, lenry l. Chandler sered with the
22nd Connecticut Volunteer Inantry, and Llbridge C. loward
sered with the 6th Battery Massachusetts Light Artillery. 1he
only U.S. ision aid patent granted during the \ar years went
to a gentleman rom Birmingham, Lngland or an improement
in eye-glasses ,later known as pince nez`,. In the thirty-ie
years prior to the Ciil \ar, there were only twenty-two U.S.
patents related to spectacles or ision aids, in the ie years
ollowing the \ar, twenty-nine patents were granted, many o
these attempting to make eyewear lighter in weight and easier
to manuacture.
1%22%) 34/.$-.5/ K/)# 3=-4/#
1he most isible characteristic o a pair o spectacles
is the shape o the lens, this surrounded by the eye wire. 1he
eye wire has an inside channel or grooe to accommodate the
edge o the lenses. 1he outside o the eye wire could be rounded
or lat. 1hree lens shapes made up the oerwhelming
preponderance o spectacle rames during this period:
@F L>-5 #=-4/; #4/.$-.5/#. lrom about 1810 through
approximately 1830, the great majority o all spectacles used
in America or ision correction had oal lenses. Styles rapidly
changed during the 1830`s and by the end o the decade the
sale o oblong and octagon shaped spectacles ar exceeded
that o oal spectacles. 1his remained so until the 1850`s when
oal spectacles began to come back into ogue. Dr. lenry \.
\illiams, writing in 1862, stated that, At present and or some
time the preailing ashion - and a most sensible one - has
been a large oal or approaching to an oal orm.`

According
to Cincinnati optician \alter Alden, writing in 1866, spectacle
purchasers in the South and \est preerred oal spectacles to
oblong or octagon spectacles.
8
,In Alden`s iew, the \est`
reerred to what we think o as the mid-western states, i.e. Ohio,
Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, \isconsin, etc.,. 1he oal shaped
spectacle predominated all other styles during the post Ciil
\ar period through the irst \orld \ar.
MF
Source: revivg tar |\ashington, D.C.|, October 20, 1856
.
MF LH5%): #=-4/; #4/.$-.5/#. 1he oblong, or square shape
became the most popular style by 1840, and remained popular
through the 1860`s. Illustrations in adertisements during this
period use the oblong shape more than the oal or octagon
shapes. Optician \alter Alden stated that the oblong and
octagon styles were preerred to the oal styles in the Last.
8
During the 1840`s and 1850`s, some examples o oblong shaped
spectacles had sharper corners orming an almost true rectangle,
as opposed to the more rounded corners o most examples.
1he use o oblong spectacles declined ater the Ciil \ar, largely
replaced by oals by the 1880`s.
BF L.$-:%) #=-4/; #4/.$-.5/#. Adertisements in newspapers
seeking the return o lost spectacles eriy the use o octagon
spectacles in this country by 181. Merchants in Baltimore sold
octagon spectacles by 1825. Based on suriing examples and
Oblong spectacles could ary in shape. 1hese examples are
illustrated in the same catalogue. ,Source: James Queen & Company
Catatogve of Oticat v.trvvevt., 181, pp. 6-,.
Detail oI CDV - Captain Thomas B. GriIIith, 3rd Massachusetts
Volunteer InIantry, wearing steel wire D-Frames. GriIIith was
discharged June 26, 1863. (Author`s collection).
1ypical D-rame style. 1hese were oten made with steel wire or siler.
5
period photographs, octagon spectacles were more popular in
America than in Lngland or Lurope. 1hese tiny lenses were
oten derided as being too small, but they were still popular
into the 180s. American oculist James \. Powell wrote in
184 that the octagon shaped lenses that are so ashionable at
present are certainly unnatural in shape, they are not at all to
be recommended.`
9
Oal spectacles gradually supplanted the
octagon style by the 1880`s.
Although not as common as the oal, oblong or
octagon styles, ie other eye wire shapes desere mention. 1wo
are closely related. 1he D` and D-horseshoe` shaped rames
had our glasses arranged in a wrap-around` coniguration.
Both styles were worn throughout the period and into the early
20
th
century. Makers o these spectacles used practically eery
ariation o rame materials, temple styles, and optic
combinations.
1he our-glass wrap around` type o spectacles was
not limited to the D` and D-horseshoe` shaped glasses. Oal,
oblong, and octagon spectacles all were aailable with our
lenses or glasses instead o two - oten called double-eyed
spectacles`. 1he supplementary lenses swung to the side, like
swinging a gate. 1hese glasses had a ariety o uses, depending
on the intention o the manuacturer. Many were itted with
our lat colored glasses, to proide extra protection against
light. Some our-lens spectacles sered as biocals - the ront
glasses worked or ar sight with the supplementary lenses
pioted to the side. loweer, when swieled inward on top o
the ront lenses, the superimposed optics conerted these
spectacles to close-up reading glasses. One unusual pair, when
the ront and supplementary optics were superimposed, ar-
sight spectacles became a non-magniying pair o colored
glasses. At other times, the supplementary sides held no glass
at all, but were instead had ine metal mesh, or ine green silk
panels stretched on a rame, or solid panes o tortoiseshell -
these combinations limited only by the imagination o the
spectacle maker.
A style particularly popular in the Midwestern states
were the pantoscopic spectacles. 1his hal-lens` design allowed
the user needing spectacles only or reading or close-up work
to look oer the top o the rames. 1he glasses were tilted at an
angle ,rather than ertically, so that the user need simply to
shit their gaze downward to read books or examine documents.
Pantoscopic rames replaced an earlier style known as pulpit
or clerical spectacles. Both pulpit and pantoscopic styles were
orerunners o today`s modern hal-eye.`
linally, round lenses desere mention. Despite the
eorts o well-known Lnglish optician John larrison Curtis
that encouraged the general use o round lenses, they were
rarely used in this country rom around 1820 until the early
20th century, thought to be heay and unstylish. Lxceptions
were made or patients that required unusually thick lenses and
or some types o protectie eyewear.
Anyone could, and oten did, hae older pairs o
spectacle rames reitted with updated lenses. Period
photographs proe that badly out-o-style spectacles continued
in use or decades, especially by older Americans. 1his is still
true today, although styles change more requently than in the
past. As or non-correctie colored lens spectacles, with no
change o glass needed or optical reasons, an older pair o
rames worked as well as a new pair, regardless o style
considerations.
1%22%) G'4/# %7 34/.$-.5/ G/245/#
All spectacle rames, as opposed to eye-glasses ,pince
nez`, are held to the ace by the use o temples, also known as
sidepieces, side bars or bows. Spectacle temples during the
period are o our main types:
D-horseshoe spectacles in siler, with crank bridge and loop-slide
temples. Marked Pure Coin`, denoting the use o coin siler or the
rames. 1he owner probably hid an eye injury. ,Author`s collection,.
Pantoscopic rames in gold, with crank bridge and band slide
temples. Made by Lucius Moses, Indianapolis, Indiana, c1860.
Illustration rom a Ciil \ar patriotic enelope
6
@F 35";"): $/245/#. 1hese temples slide ,or extend, to a longer
length or wearing, and collapse to a shorter length or storage.
1here are three main styles o sliding temples:
0 $=/ 5%%4 #5";/ ,also called the Jack Downing` or J. D.`
slide,, this slide came into use between 1834 and 183.
10
0 $=/ H-); #5";/, this temple appeared by 1830.
11
0 $=/ NI";/O8 N#$%+$O %& NH&%-;O #5";"): $/245/, reerred
to as the pin-in-slot slider` by modern collectors. ,1he pin`
is actually a riet,. In use by about 1800, spectacles with this
style temple could be still purchased into the early 180`s. Some
were actually quite narrow, and some later ersions would more
properly termed a tab-in-slot` sliding temple, a tab` ormed
rom one end o the moable temple piece was bent up through
the slot, replacing the riet.
An uncommon temple ariation has with one section
sliding into the other, much like the tubes on a telescope or
spyglass. 1hese spectacle temples are patented - one patent
being an improement` upon the irst.
11
A limited number o
the later patent were manuactured during or ater 1860.
MF K-;"/#P $/245/# ,also called single joint temples,. 1hese
began to appear by the early 1830`s. Adertisements oered
spectacles o a light and conenient article, with single temples,
or ladies` wear`
13
, quickly called ladies` spectacles. 1hese had
single straight temples that reached past the tops o the ears.
Although reerred to as ladies` spectacles` throughout the
1%22%) 34/.$-.5/ G/245/# %) <2/&".-)02-;/ 34/.$-.5/ ,&-2/# @ABE 0 @ADE
Sliding temples: top - loop slide or Jack Downing ,J. D., slide. Appeared c1835, middle - band slide. In use by 1830, bottom -
wide or broad slide ,modern collectors call these pin-in-slot` or tab-in-slot`,. 1hese can ary greatly in actual width.
Ladies` or straight temple. Most Ciil \ar and earlier examples hae loops at the end.
Piot or turn-pin temples. Oten seen on blue steel or common steel wire spectacles.
Curl or hook temples. 1hese are made rom a single strand o blue or common steel wire.
1he cable` type curl temples ,made o ine twisted wire, are 1880`s and later. Only used
or myopic lenses or colored glasses rom c1850 to about 1885.
,continued on page 9,

1op: Green octagon siler spectacles, loop slides, crank bridge, by James Peters,
Philadelphia. Bottom: Blue oal siler spectacles, band slides, scroll bridge, by
Julius Rosendale, Philadelphia.
1ypical steel wire spectacles c1850-180
Riding temple spectacles ,Inisibles,. Blue glasses, made o ine blued steel wire.
Gold ladies` spectacles. Oblong lenses,
ladies temples. Red Morocco leather case.
8
Lxamples o inexpensie spectacles made o brass and German siler. 1op: Oal German siler spectacles with loop
slide temples. 1he joints are the most common type, using a screw to hold the joint hales together, and a separate pin
or the temple piot. Bottom: Oblong brass spectacles, German siler bridge and loop slide temples. 1his is the other
common joint o the period. 1he single screw holds together the joint hales and also seres as the temple piot.
Close-up o the singe pin joint ound on inexpensie spectacles. Same joint, rom a dierent angle.
1he most common type o spectacle joint, used or 150 years. A
screw holds together the two hales o the joint. 1he temples are
attached using a separate pin. 1his style o joint was used on siler,
gold, steel, German siler and plated spectacles.
Some spectacles makers or retailers had their name and location
stamped on their spectacle cases. 1homas Nowlan was a silersmith
and jeweler located in Petersburg rom 1848-1861. 1his case held an
unmarked pair o siler octagon spectacles with band slide temples.
9
period, they were used by both sexes. 1he 1848 and 1856
catalogues o Benjamin Pike, Jr. said this type o temple had
single branches` and they were conenient or ladies - not
disturbing the hair, and or gentlemen requiring expedition in
placing them on.`
14
BF Q">%$ %& $+&)4") $/245/#. Starting around the end o the
18th century, spectacles rames were made with pioting
temples. 1he popularity o this type o temple aded somewhat
ater about 1820, and judging rom suriing examples, were
not as widely used in the United States as were sliding temples.
1he earlier examples were mounted on heaier rames o siler,
brass, steel, horn, tortoiseshell, iron and occasionally gold. Piot
temples did, howeer, remain a popular choice on rames o
thin steel or iron wire.
RF3"):5/ I"&/ .+&5 %& =%%S $/245/#. Curl temples were irst
used on a ery speciic type o spectacle rame aailable by
1850. 1hese inisibles` or riding` spectacles had
oal lenses, and were used by myopic ,near-
sighted, indiiduals. 1hese were made o
extremely ine steel wire, and there were grooes
cut into the edges o the lenses to accommodate
the eye wire rame. 1oday`s modern semi-rimless
logo` styles use this same technique substituting
nylon ishing line or ine wire. 1he curl ,or hook,
temples wrapped around the ears and irmly held
the glasses close to the eyes. Although curl temples
became ery widely used in the latter part o the
nineteenth century on all types o spectacle
rames, only an extremely small number o these
are Ciil \ar period or earlier.
34/.$-.5/# ") $=/ 1">"5 ?-&
Low-ranking soldiers tended to be young -
by one estimate, the aerage age o the Union
army soldier was twenty-six, too young or most
o these men to require the use o spectacles.
Some soldiers howeer, had myopia, the medical
term or nearsightedness. People with myopia see
objects more clearly when they are close to the
eye, while distant objects appear out-o-ocus. By
ar the most common orm o myopia, physiologic
myopia, deelops in children sometime between
ie and ten years o age and gradually progresses
until the eye is ully grown.
15
Most myopic people
require ision correction rom an early age.
I we are ortunate to lie long enough, we
will eentually deelop presbyopia, commonly
known as old age sight, a natural part o the aging
process o the eye in which the crystalline lens o
the eye losses lexibility, causing diiculty ocusing
upon close objects. Presbyopia usually becomes
noticeable in our early to mid orties.
16
\e can
saely assume that during the Ciil \ar, or any
other period, younger people aected with
moderate to seere myopia would require
spectacles to unction normally, and many people
oer the age o orty, due to presbyopia, would
require spectacles or reading and other close
actiities.
Indiiduals claiming serice exemption
became a real problem or military serice. In act,
Source: igbt ava earivg, or Pre.errea, ava or o.t, by J. lenry Clark, Scribner, 1856
10
claiming serice exemption due to myopic sight
became quite popular in the North during the
Ciil \ar, so popular that the Proost General
changed the regulations so that myopic
indiiduals were required to sere in the Inalid
Corps.
1
A Pennsylania newspaper noted,
Near sighted men, instead o inding
themseles exempt, will obsere that they are
to be transerred to the Inalid Corps.
lenceorth, spectacles and eye glasses will not
be so popular.`
18
Len with myopia, some soldiers
engaged in serious combat. George
\hittemore, Jr. was ery near-sighted, and
constantly used glasses.` le enlisted as a
priate in the 1st Company o Massachusetts
Sharpshooters. lis promotion to sergeant
occurred by the time he was killed at Antietam
on September 1, 1862.
19
Priate Mason, o
the
th
Regiment New lampshire Volunteers
entered and beat his opponent in riendlier
combat`, an impromptu boxing match in camp.
1he unit historian said that he by daylight was
rather short-sighted, haing to wear glasses to
aid him most o the time.`
20
1he Union and Conederate armies
did not issue many spectacles, they were almost
entirely a priately purchased item. lor
example, 1he U.S. Sanitary Commission
reported that during the \ar in the Valley o
the Mississippi distributed only 20 pairs o
spectacles - this in comparison to oer 30,000
blankets and 150,000 cotton drawers.
21
As a
second example, 1he Northwestern Sanitary
Commission issued only 19 pairs.
22
Spectacles were purchased by both oicers
and enlisted men. A regimental history notes
that ater a ight at Chickasaw Bayou on
December 29, 1862, members o the
1hirteenth Regiment o Illinois Volunteer
Inantry saw their dead had been stripped o
clothing articles by Conederates in need, but
that personal eects had been careully laid
aside and not stolen: 1here were watches,
spectacles, knies, match-boxes, pipes,
tobacco, handkerchies, packs o playing-
cards, Bibles, combs, reolers, and pictures`
and many other items.
23
Conederate C. \oodward lutton, ighting
with lampton`s Legion, wrote his parents
describing his experiences at lirst Mannasas:
...our men were subjected to a raking ire.
Source: Proriaevce revivg Pre.. |Rhode Island|, October 4, 1862
Detail o photograph - Gen. Quincy Gillmore`s sta on lolly Island, S. C., 1863.
,Source: U. S. Army leritage and Lducation Center,.
11
I was the irst who ell. I had put on my spectacles, taken good
aim & ired my irst shot. As I was in the act o reloading, a
rile-ball struck me in the head, a little aboe the orehead, and
the iolence o the concussion elled me to the earth
immediately. I drew o my spectacles & lung them aside.`
24
Naal troops also used spectacles. A well-known series
o photographs o the oicers taken onboard the |....
Movitor shows two o the oicers wearing spectacles. In ighting
near Galeston on January 1, 1863, the United States Reenue
Cutter arriet ave ell to Conederate troops. U.S. Commander
Captain Jonathan \ainwright, according to newspaper accounts,
was shot through the head with a pistol ball. One account reads,
le was wearing spectacles at the time, and the oicer who
was paroled took them to Commander Renshaw. One o the
glasses was shot out, while the other was coered with blood
and lesh.`
25
In North Carolina, Colonel J.l. loke commanded a
regiment o Senior Reseres toward the end o the \ar. \riting
the Commissary Department, perhaps tongue-in-cheek, he
requested six hundred pairs o spectacles and spectacle cases,
our hundred walking canes, and three hundred and ity bottles
o Radway`s Ready Relie ` or the cure o rheumatism.`
26
lity-
eight year old Conederate Captain John linson was an old
deer hunter, and although wearing spectacles, greatly
distinguished himsel as a sharpshooter.`
2
A drummer in the lortieth Regiment New \ork
Volunteers ,the Mozart Regiment`,
constantly wore spectacles, and the men
called him lour Lyes` and Glass Put In.`
1he writer noted \ithout his spectacles
he couldn`t see a barn door ten eet
distance.`
28
At Petersburg early in March,
1865, a member o the 1hirteenth
Regiment o New lampshire Volunteer
Inantry recorded this amusing incident:
Recently while on picket, one dark night
about midnight we were suddenly startled
by a loud cry or help rom the darkness in
our ront. Rushing to the spot with one o
our pickets we discoered a rebel deserter stuck ast in a
swampy place. Reaching out his musket to us, by means o
it we soon pulled him out o the mud hole and took him
to our line. le was a man about sixty years old, and until
orced into the rebel army had been a physician practicing
his proession somewhere in North Carolina. le was
enormously at, he wore a wig and spectacles and alse
teeth, all o which he had lost in the mud hole, was coered
with mud and dirt, and you can easily imagine what a
ludicrous and pitiul spectacle he presented. Ater he had
wiped the mud rom his ace and eyes and had blown it rom
his mouth, he drank a dish o coee, drew a long breath, looked
around upon the circle o our pickets and then proceeded in
the most deliberate and solemn manner to delier his opinion
o the Conederacy.` lis assessment was not positie.
29
listorian

James Kendall losmer recounted a personal
experience that occurred in 1863, during a siege o an unnamed
Conederate ort. In drawing a comparison between a Union
soldier and a Conederate soldier that met during a short truce,
the college graduate Northern man was described as untrained
by out-o-door sports, he neer so much as slept in the open
air, he wore spectacles.`
30
Many older oicers used spectacles, General Lee used
steel-rimmed spectacles at Appomattox
31
, and General John
Pope wore glasses: Pope is a thick-set man, o unpleasant
expression, o about ity years o age, aerage height, thick,
bushy black whiskers, and wears spectacles.`
32
Colonel ,later
General, lranz Sigel was another oicer oten described as
wearing spectacles. le wore spectacles, and kept looking
around like a weasel.`
33
At \ilson`s Creek ,August 10, 1861,
he escaped rom the ield, being described as a small reddish
looking man with gold spectacles, a slouch grey elt hat, and a
blue blanket worn poncho ashion.`
34
At Pea Ridge, his
spectacles were shot away, leaing him unharmed.
35
General Meade constantly wore spectacles, as
derisiely noted in numerous accounts. One newspaper reporter
wrote le wears spectacles and is not considered a handsome
man.`
36
\hen an annoyed riend approached Meade with a
problem, Meade replied, \hy, my dear General, you should
not let that annoy you,` and recalled an incident where his men
Oal spectacles o siler with band slide temples and crank
bridge, made by \illiam l. Calhoun, Nashille,
1ennessee,c1855-1865. ,Author`s collection,.
Burt & \illard patent spectacles, an unusual olding design. Abraham Lincoln had this pair in
his pocket when murdered at lord`s 1heater. Note the scroll bridge, this type o bridge
became widely used ater the Ciil \ar. ,Library o Congress,.
12
called him a our-eyed son-o-a-bitch, and upon my soul, I
could not get mad at them.`
3
Meade lost his spectacles in 1864
when nearly surrounded` by Conederates, and only barely
escaped.`
38
1here is good eidence that soldiers in both armies
used colored spectacles. A surgeon in the th Regiment New
\ork Volunteers commented upon the general lack o
uniormity in a diision o Pennsylania militia, stating that
their lines contained grae gentlemen in spectacles ,and,
studious young men in green glasses.`
39
Colored lens spectacles with green, blue or smoked
,gray or neutral, glass were readily and cheaply aailable rom
any optician or ancy hardware store. A letter written by John
S. Mahony to Col. A. McMahan notes that at Chickamauga, a
unknown oicer with colored spectacles` gae a command
that resulted in the capture o his regiment.
40
Lphraim Anderson wrote o Capt. \ade o
St. Louis, the commander o a battery o
Missouri artillery, describing him as plain
and unassuming, he usually wore a pair o
green spectacles.`
41
Oculists, opticians and
physicians oten preerred one color oer
another when choosing among green, blue
and smoked glasses. Most opticians and
oculists had strong opinions about the best
tint o glass or spectacles, and many
preerred the gray or London smoke` glasses, since colors
remained unaected by the neutral tint. Norwich oculist Charles
Carleton, on the other hand, stated that blue is the proper
color to be employed. Smoke-glasses should neer be used, as
they diminish the whole olume o light, and thereby render
the image less distinct.`
42
Although green glass had been the
preerred color o spectacle glasses, by the 1830`s written
opinion turned toward to blue, and by the 1860`s to neutral
gray as the colored glass o choice. A careul reiew o all
known works written ater 1845 by American oculists and
opticians, and similar books written by American authors on
the subject o manners and etiquette, ound not one that
recommended the use o green glass - lrost`s Laws and By-
Laws o American Society`, an 1869 book on etiquette, declares
Lnlargement o a tintype group portrait o Company l, 1hird Arkansas State 1roops. Note the soldier wearing colored glass spectacles,
second row, second rom right. ;Source: National Park Serice \ICR43005,.
Oal spectacles with ladies` temples, made rom tortoiseshell. 1hese were going out o
style by the 1860`s. ,Source: Catatogve of Oticat, Matbevaticat ava Pbito.obicat v.trvvevt.,
1ot. 2, by Benjamin Pike, Jr., 1856,.
13
blue or smoke-colored glasses are the best, green glasses are
detestable.`
43
\e hae read and heard claims that wearing certain
colors o spectacle glasses treated particular diseases. It is true
that persons with damaged eyesight oten used colored glasses,
but the use o speciic colors to treat speciic diseases was not
done to any great extent. Going urther, we hae seen lists o
dierent colored glasses and their uses in speciic occupations.
\e hae ound nothing to support this claim, except in certain
circumstances ,i.e. ery dark glasses used by metal smelters,. It
is a nice story, but primary sources o the 18th and 19th
centuries do not back this claim. Colored glasses were used
mainly as they are used today - or protection against the sun,
although the term sun glasses` had not come into use. ,1o be
clear, occasionally the term sun glasses` reerred to lenses
used to start ires, i.e. burning glasses,.
A particular style o colored lens spectacles came into
use during ater 1850, and saw some use during the Ciil \ar.
1hese Coquille` or shell spectacles` had cured non-
magniying glasses shaped much like a watch crystal. 1he
concae surace o the glass aced the eye and the conex
surace bulged outward. Modern wrap-around sunglasses are
similar in using non-magniying glasses
with a deep curature. According to
Cincinnati optician \alter Alden ,1866,,
During the late rebellion, these coquille
glasses became ery popular with the
soldiery during their marches in the sun.`
44
Chicago oculist John Phillips ,optician to
Abraham Lincoln, conir med this
statement in his 1869 book about
spectacles.
45
Most o these inexpensie
imported spectacles were cheaply made o
steel wire and most had blue or grey lenses.
34/.$-.5/ .-#/#
Most spectacle users kept their
spectacles in a case, although some
merchants claimed that spectacles itted
with highly scratch-resistant pebbles
,quartz crystal lenses, did not need a case.
1here were two ery common types o
cases widely used during this period -
leather cases with a closure lap at the open
end, and metal lip-top cases with a hinged
lid. 1he leather cases were usually made
o Morocco leather dyed red, brown or
black ,and occasionally other colors, glued
to a cardboard base. 1he laps were held
shut by a tab that it under a sewn-on
leather strap, or it into a slit in the side o
the case. Another style o case, called
Shell or Coquille Spectacles o steel wire with piot temples. ,Not to be conused with
tortoiseshell rames,. Many had ladies` temples, ery popular with the soldiery during
their marches in the sun.` ,Source: 1be vvav ,e, by \alter Alden, Cincinnati, 1866,.
1ypical Shell or Coquille spectacles with iron wire rames, K-bridge and ladies` temples.
1hese had blue, gray and green glasses.,Author`s collection,.
1ypical leather cases c1850-1860 ,Author`s collection,.
,continued on page
14
1ypical cases o the period 1850-1860. lrom the top: No. 1 and 2, red Morocco leather cases or ladies` spectacles. No. 2, same, or olding
temple spectacles. No. 4 and 5, slider cases, spectacles slide in rom one or both sides. No. 6, case or olding temple spectacles, red cut
elet with needlepoint decoration. No. , aux mahogany case, or ladies` spectacles.
15
1ypical metal cases o the 1850-180 period. lrom top: No. 1 through 4, German siler or tinned steel cases by the Charles Parker Company.
No. 5, patented case, marked J. L. larlem, Pat. Sept. 20, 1864`. No. 6 and , two-piece siler cases. No. 8, engraed siler case.
16
sliders`, consisted o a lattened leather slip-on case open at
one or both ends.
Sometimes the maker or retailer would hae their
name and,or address and city stamped in gold lettering on the
case, but most o these cases were unmarked. Most o the
marked cases seen on the antique market ,usually with an open
end and no lap, are o post-Ciil \ar manuacture.
Metal lip-top cases were durable and ery popular.
Many had a top that remained closed using only a tight it and
riction. In 1860 the Charles Parker Company o Meriden,
Connecticut obtained rights to a patent issued to George N.
Cummings. 1his patent consisted o a ery simple closure tab
that held the lid o the case tightly shut.
46
1hese cases became
extremely popular, and marked examples are ery common. It
is not known exactly when Parker began the manuacture o
these spectacle cases, although a history o American
manuacture published in 1864 states that Parker`s plated
spectacles, spectacle cases and tobacco boxes are made by
patented machinery so expeditiously and cheaply that the
demand or them is extensie.`
4
1he 1865 Illustrated
Catalogue o American lardware o the Russell and Lrwin
Manuacturing Company` oers both these cases and
spectacles.
48
A later lawsuit ailed to establish prior inention
by another party - the transcript stating that similar metal cases
were no longer salable due to the popularity o the Parker case.
As with spectacles, spectacle cases come in a ast
ariety o orms. 1here are two-piece pressed paper cases, there
are handmade wooden cases, there are beautiul solid siler
cases with the name o the owner or presentation inormation
engraed on top. And, as with spectacles, there was a
pronounced tendency to reuse older items. Old cases rom a
preious era were pressed into serice.
linally, there are some spectacle styles that are either
mistaken or unproen to be o the period. lirst, spectacles
with saddle or \` bridges are undoubtedly post-\ar. 1here
is some debate among researchers as to the inentor o the
saddle bridge, but all claims regarding the years place irst use
o this inention oer a decade ater the end o the Ciil \ar.
See the illustrations to understand the construction o this
bridge. Many spectacles using a saddle bridge hae curl temples.
Also, they are oten mounted with larger lenses compared to
Ciil \ar period spectacle rames. Second, there are large
numbers o an unusual type o spectacles sold as Ciil \ar
shooting spectacles` or sharpshooter glasses` on the antique
market - indeed, probably more than the total number o
sharpshooters in the \ar. Lxtensie searching in newspaper
adertisements, optician books and publications, the Oicial
Records o the \ar o the Rebellion, sharpshooter and
1he saddle bridge appeared ater the Ciil \ar, but antique dealers sometimes claim otherwise ,Source: Qveev c
Covav, Catatogve of Oticat v.trvvevt., 1886,.
Riding bow spectacles, called Inisibles. Oal glasses with curl or
hook temples and a K` bridge. ,Source: 1be vvav ,e, t. |.e ava
.bv.e, by \alter Alden, 1866,.
1
regimental histories, and many other books, documents and
other sources during the last iteen years hae ailed to establish
the use o this style o glasses by soldiers during or beore the
Ciil \ar. An inquiry made to the U.S. Army leritage and
Lducation Centre at the Army \ar College asked the curators
to search their records - no eidence o Ciil \ar use o
shooting spectacles could be ound. 1hese types o spectacles,
usually with orange glasses ,occasionally with clear, grey or blue
glasses, hae a transparent center surrounded by translucent
glass.
1he idea to use orange glass in spectacles dates to a letter
written in 182 by Dr. J. l. Stearns, a surgeon at the Asylum
or Disabled Soldiers in Milwaukee. Dr. Stearns wrote, ..why
some optician has not had the genius to see that orange is the
proper color or spectacles instead o green or blue or persons
with weak eyes, is beyond my comprehension.`
49
1his comment,
quickly reprinted, appears in numerous newspaper and
magazine articles. No known optician adertisements prior to
182 oered any type o orange tinted spectacles or spectacle
glasses or sale, although many oer blue and green glasses.
It is not known exactly when the earliest shooting
spectacles` with clear centers were manuactured. 1he irst
known illustration o these clear-center shooting spectacles
appears in an undated Charles Parker catalogue ,although this
catalogue can deinitely be dated as being published between
180 and 182,. 1he Spencer Optical Manuacturing Company
catalogue dated July, 184 also shows a drawing o these
spectacles. Neither source mentions the color o the glasses. A
comprehensie reiew o all known American optical catalogues
printed beore 180 ailed to ind any illustrations o clear-
center shooting spectacles, or any that oered orange glass
spectacles o any type.
Out o many thousands o adertisements, there are but a
ery ew and meager reerences to the terms shooting
spectacles` or shooting glasses` beore 182. Philadelphia
Optician Max lilb adertised what he called shooting
spectacles` in 1851, to be had o the inentor only.`
50
An
Lnglish shooting spectacles` patent o 1861 had rames
mounted with a hard rubber disk with a peek hole, so some
adertisements may reer to imported examples o this type.
Less than hal-dozen adertisements mentioning the term
shooting spectacles` appear during the period rom 1855 to
1869. Unortunately, none o these pre-180 adertisements,
or any other primary source, describes or illustrates the pre-
Ciil war spectacles in question.
\e beliee all clear-center shooting spectacles` or
sharpshooter glasses` sold by antique dealers are probably o
post-\ar manuacture. 1hey are so odd looking it seems
someone would hae mentioned their use. Some eyewear
known as shooting spectacles` were sold in extremely limited
numbers beore the \ar. loweer, we do not know what these
spectacles looked like, and many o the commonly-ound
shooting spectacles with orange glasses and clear centers are
clearly post-Ciil \ar manuacture. By 1893, these orange glass
shooting spectacles` ,the type widely oered on the antique
market, became widely known and sold as scenery spectacles`,
with thousands sold to tourists at the seashore or other scenic
areas.
In summary, there are no known mentions in any primary
source reerences o the use o shooting spectacles` or
sharpshooter glasses` by any members o either army. 1he
ew shooting spectacles` made prior to the Ciil \ar o are
unknown description, and none hae been positiely identiied
by modern researchers.
1here is oten debate about the requency o spectacle
usage in the Union and Conederate armies, and with good
reason - most soldiers did not wear them. loweer, soldiers in
both the Conederate and Union armies did use spectacles.
1hey did so or correction o presbyopia or myopia, or to
protect their eyes against the sun or urther damage by light.
1he spectacles had the speciic characteristics as to lens shape,
temple style, and construction materials as explained in this
article. Persons who claim that Ciil \ar soldiers did not use
spectacles are mistaken, as documented aboe and in many
other sources.
Larliest known illustration o clear center shooting glasses. Manuac-
tured by the Charles Parker Company. ,Source: Cbarte. Par/er`.
ttv.tratea Catatog of Dove.tic ararare, c180-182,.
lirst Lieutenant Adam J. Slemmer, deender o lort Pickens. ,U. S.
Army leritage and Lducation Center,.
18
,%%$)%$/#
1. .vericav Oticat Covav, Catatog. Southbridge, Massachusetts:
American Optical Company, 1912, p.13
2. Illustrations o bridge types rom: Powell, James \. 1be ,e:
t. Di.ea.e. ava 1beir Cvre. New \ork: James \. Powell, 1849, p. 151.
3. United States Patent No. 5,896, September 11, 1866, issued
to lenry lammond, lartord, Connecticut.
4. United States Patent No. 22,52, patented January 11, 1859,
issued to 1heodore Noel, Memphis, 1ennessee.
5. McAllister & Brother, ttv.tratea Catatogve of Matbevaticat,
Oticat ava Pbito.obicat v.trvvevt., 1858 edition, James Queen
& Company, ttv.tratea Catatogve of Matbevaticat, Oticat ava
Pbito.obicat v.trvvevt., 1860 edition, evi!ee/t, Mi..i..iiav,
June 21, 1859.
6. arver`. Cabivet, lebruary 26, 1863.
. \illiams, lenry \. . Practicat Cviae to tbe tva, of tbe Di.ea.e.
of tbe ,e: 1beir Meaicat ava vrgicat 1reatvevt. Boston: 1icknor
and lields, 1862, p. 255,.
8. Alden, \alter. 1be vvav ,e, t. |.e ava .bv.e. Cincinnati:
\alter Alden, 1866, p. 104.
9. Powell, James \., 1be ,e: t. verfectiov. ava 1beir Prerevtiov.
New \ork:: James \. Powell, 184, p. 110.
10. McBrayer, Alan. ^arror tiae 1evte. iv .verica - Part Ove.`
Obtbatvic .vtiqve., Number 106, January 2009, pp. 5 - 8.
11. McBrayer, Alan. ^arror tiae 1evte. iv .verica - Part 1ro.`
Obtbatvic .vtiqve., Number 109, October 2009, pp. 11 - 12.
12. U. S. patent 41,14 issued June 18, 1839 to Joseph J. Low,
and U.S. patent 42,359 issued March 6, 1860 to Ldward \.
Gordon and \illiam l. Peckham ,claimed as an improement
o the Low patent,.
13. Adertisement o \illiam S. \illis, revivg Caette |Boston|,
October 26, 1833.
14. Pike, Benjamin, Jr. ttv.tratea De.critire Catatogve of Oticat,
Matbevaticat ava Pbito.obicat v.trvvevt., 1ot. 1. New \ork:
Benjamin Pike, 1856, p. 150,.
15. medical-dictionary.thereedictionary.com,myopia
16. American Optometric Association, http:,,www.aoa.org,
presbyopia.xml ,accessed 4,20,2012,
1. Ceverat Oraer., !ar Deartvevt, .a;vtavt Ceverat`. Office,
^o. 10. \ashington, May 15, 1863.
18. 1be .gitator |\ellsboro, Pennsylania|, December 23, 1863.
19.liggison, 1homas \enthworth, Lditor. arrara Mevoriat
iograbie.. Cambridge: Seer & lrancis, 1866, pp. 39-388.
20. Little, lenry l. \. 1be erevtb Regivevt ^er av.bire
1otvvteer. iv tbe !ar of tbe Rebettiov. Concord, New lampshire:
Ira C. Lans, 1896, pp. 449-450.
21. Newberry, Dr. J.S. 1be |.. avitar, Covvi..iov iv tbe 1atte,
of Mi..i..ii avrivg tbe !ar of tbe Rebettiov 111. Cleeland:
lairbanks, Benedict & Co., 181, p.213.
22. lenshaw, Mrs. Sarah Ldwards. Ovr ravcb ava t. 1ribvtarie.;
eivg a i.tor, of tbe !or/ of tbe ^ortbre.terv avitar, Covvi..iov
ava it. .vitiarie., Dvrivg tbe !ar of tbe Rebettiov. Chicago: Alred
L. Sewell, 1868, p. 382.
23. Committee o the Regiment, ed. Mititar, i.tor, ava
Revivi.cevce. of tbe 1birteevtb Regivevt of ttivoi. 1otvvteer vfavtr,
iv tbe Cirit !ar of tbe |vitea tate. 111:. Chicago: \omen`s
1emperance Publishing Association, 1892, p. 29.
24. Ciil \ar Manuscripts at the Southern listorical Collection,
lutson papers, 4362, letter dated July 22, 1861. http:,,
www.unc.edu,lib,mssin,exhibits,ciilwar,hutsonpg.html ,
accessed January , 2002.
25. av ravci.co vttetiv, lebruary 16, 1863.
26. Down, Jerome. /etcbe. of Provivevt irivg ^ortb Carotiviav..
Raleigh: Ldwards & Broughton, 1888, p. 143.
2. .vgv.ta Cbrovicte, October 18th, 1863. ,Originally reported
in the vvt.ritte Covfeaerate, date unknown,.
28. lloyd, lred C. i.tor, of tbe ortietb ;Moart) Regivevt ^er
Yor/ 1otvvteer.. Boston: l. l. Gilson Company, 1909, p. 265.
29. 1hompson, S. Millett. 1birteevtb Regivevt of ^er av.bire
1otvvteer vfavtr, iv tbe !ar of tbe Rebettiov 111:. Boston
and New \ork: loughton, Milin and Company, 1888, p. 53.
30. losmer, James Kendall. 1be .vericav Cirit !ar. New \ork:
larper & Brothers, 1908, p. 11.
31. Brock, R. A., Ld. Parote. of tbe .rv, of ^ortberv 1irgivia.
ovtberv i.toricat ociet, Paer., 1ot. `1. Richmond: Southern
listorical Society, 188, p. xi. Lee took it ,Author`s note: a
letter rom Grant allowing oicers to keep their horses,
swords, side arms, and etc., and laid it on the table beside
him, while he drew rom his pocket a pair o steel-rimmed
spectacles and wiped the glasses careully with his
handkerchie.`
32. Gordon, George l. roo/ arv to Ceaar Movvtaiv iv tbe !ar
of tbe Creat Rebettiov 112. Boston: loughton, Milin and
Company, 1885, p. 24
33. \are, L.l. 1be ,ov Cavaigv iv Mi..ovri. 1opeka, Kansas:
Crane & Company, 190, p. 336.
34. \eb site, Military Order o the Loyal Legion o the United
States, http:,,sucw.org,mollus,warpapers,\i4p433.htm
,accessed June 2, 2012,.
35. leadley, Re. P. C. lighting Phil, 1be ife ava Career of Pbitti
evr, beriaav. Boston: Lee and Shepard, 1889, p. 63.
36. Maive Cvttirator ava attorett Caette, July 18, 1863.
3. \oodward, L.M. Ovr Cavaigv.; or, 1be Marcbe., irovac.,
attte., vciaevt. of Cav ife ava i.tor, of Ovr Regivevt Dvrivg
it. 1bree Year. 1erv Of errice. Philadelphia, John L. Potter,
1865, p. 286.
38. Co.boctov 1ribvve ,Ohio,, May 25, 1864.
39. Steens, George 1. 1bree Year. iv tbe itb Cor.. Albany:
S.R. Gray, 1866, pp. 155-156.
40. Center or Archial Collections, United States Army. Ohio
Inantry Regiment, 21st, MS 562.
41. Anderson, Lphraim McD. Mevoir.: i.toricat ava Per.ovat;
vctvaivg tbe Cavaigv. of tbe ir.t Mi..ovri Covfeaerate rigaae.
Saint Louis: 1imes Printing Company, 1868, p. 99.
42. Carleton, Charles M. 1be |.e. ava .bv.e. of ectacte.. New
laen: 1uttle, Morehouse & 1aylor, 1869, p. 6.
43. lrost, S. A, ro.t`. ar. ava ,ar. of .vericav ociet,. New
\ork: Dick & litzgerald, 1869, p. 166.
19
44. Alden \alter. 1be vvav ,e, t. |.e ava .bv.e. Cincinnati,
1866, p. 121.
45. Phillips, John. .arice ov tbe |.e. ava .bv.e. of ectacte. ava
!ea/ igbt.. Chicago: John Phillips, 1869, p. 48.
46. U. S. patent 426,891, issued January 24, 1860 to George N.
Cummings.
4. Bishop, John Leander, . i.tor, of .vericav Mavvfactvre
frov 10 to 10. 1ot. 2. Philadelphia: Ldward \oung &
Company, 1864, p. 54.
48. ttv.tratea Catatogve of .vericav ararare of tbe Rv..ett
ava rriv Mavvfactvrivg Covav,, 1865, irst acsimile edition,
1980, Association or Preseration 1echnology, p. 346.
49. 1be o.tov ]ovrvat of Cbevi.tr,, June 1, 182, p.143.
50. Pbitaaetbia vqvirer, August 1, 1851.
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