Aloe vera

Aloe vera, also known as the medicinal aloe, is a species of succulent plant that probably
originated in Northern Africa. Aloe vera grows in arid climates and is widely distributed
in Africa and other arid areas. [1] The species is frequently cited as being used in herbal
medicine. There have been many scientific studies of the use aloe vera, some of it
conflicting.[2][3][4][5] Despite these limitations, there is some preliminary evidence that Aloe
vera extracts may be useful in the treatment of diabetes and elevated blood lipids in
humans.[4] These positive effects are thought to be due to the presence of compounds such
as polysaccharides, mannans, anthraquinones and lectins.[4][6][7] also cures falling hair and
wounds.

Description

Aloe vera is a stemless or very short-stemmed succulent plant growing to 60–100 cm

(24–39 in) tall, spreading by offsets. The stems are thick and fleshy, green to grey-green,
with some varieties showing white flecks on the upper and lower stem surfaces.[8] The
margin of the stem is serrated and has small white teeth. The flowers are produced in
summer on a spike up to 90 cm (35 in) tall, each flower pendulous, with a yellow tubular
corolla 2–3 cm (0.8–1.2 in) long.[8][9] Like other Aloe species, Aloe vera forms arbuscular
mycorrhiza, a symbiosis that allows the plant better access to mineral nutrients in soil.[10]

Taxonomy and etymology

The species has a number of synonyms: A. barbadensis Mill., Aloe indica Royle, Aloe
perfoliata L. var. vera and A. vulgaris Lam.,[11][12] and common names including Chinese
Aloe, Indian Aloe, true Aloe, Barbados Aloe, burn Aloe, first aid plant.[9][13][14][15][16] The
species name vera means "true" or "genuine."[13] Some literature identifies the white
spotted form of Aloe vera as Aloe vera var. chinensis,[17][18] however, the species varies
widely with regard to leaf spots[19] and it has been suggested that the spotted form of Aloe
vera may be conspecific with A. massawana.[20] The species was first described by Carl
Linnaeus in 1753 as Aloe perfoliata var. vera,[21] and was described again in 1768 by
Nicolaas Laurens Burman as Aloe vera in Flora Indica on the 6th of April and by Philip
Miller as Aloe barbadensis some ten days after Burman in the Gardener's Dictionary.[22]

Techniques based on DNA comparison suggest that Aloe vera is relatively closely related
to Aloe perryi, a species that is endemic to Yemen.[23] Similar techniques, using
chloroplast DNA sequence comparison and ISSR profiling have also suggested that Aloe
vera is closely related to Aloe forbesii, Aloe inermis, Aloe scobinifolia, Aloe sinkatana
and Aloe striata.[24] With the exception of South African species, A. striata, these Aloe
species are native to Socotra (Yemen), Somalia and Sudan.[24] The lack of obvious natural
populations of the species have led some authors to suggest that Aloe vera may be of
hybrid origin.[25]
Aloin

Aloin was the common ingredient in OTC laxative products in the United States prior to
2003, when the FDA ruled that aloin was a class III ingredient, therefore banning its
use"FDA". http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12001972.. It should be noted that
processed aloe that contains aloin is used primarily as a laxative, whereas processed aloe
vera juice that does not contain significant amounts of aloin is used as a digestive healer.
Manufacturers commonly remove aloin in processing due to the FDA ruling.

Distribution

The natural range of Aloe vera is unclear, as the species has been widely cultivated
throughout the world. It has been suggested that naturalised stands of the species occur
through North Africa in Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia, along with the Canary and
Madeira Islands.[11] The species was introduced to China, India, Pakistan and various
parts of southern Europe in the 17th century.[26] The species is widely naturalised
elsewhere, occurring in temperate and tropical regions of Australia, Barbados, Belize,
Nigeria, Paraguay and the USA.[19][27] It has been suggested that, like many Aloes, the
species is originally from Southern Africa and that populations that occur elsewhere are
the result of human cultivation.[19]

Cultivation

Aloe vera has been widely grown as an ornamental plant. The species is popular with
modern gardeners as a putatively medicinal plant and due to its interesting flowers, form
and succulence. This succulence enables the species to survive in areas of low natural
rainfall, making it ideal for rockeries and other low-water use gardens.[8] The species is
hardy in zones 8–11, although it is intolerant of very heavy frost or snow.[9][28] The species
is relatively resistant to most insect pests, though mealy bugs, scale insects and aphid
species may cause a decline in plant health.[29][30] In pots, the species requires well-drained
sandy potting soil and bright sunny conditions. The use of a good quality commercial
propagation mix or pre-packaged "cacti and succulent mix" is recommended as they
allow good drainage.[31] Terracotta pots are preferable as they are porous.[31] Potted plants
should be allowed to completely dry prior to re-watering. During winter, Aloe vera may
become dormant, during which little moisture is required. In areas that receive frost or
snow the species is best kept indoors or in heated glasshouses.[9] Large scale agricultural
production of Aloe vera is undertaken in Australia,[32] Cuba,[33] the Dominican Republic,
China, Mexico,[34] India,[35] Jamaica,[36] Kenya and South Africa,[37] along with the USA[38]
to supply the cosmetics industry with Aloe vera gel.

Anthropogenic uses

Scientific evidence for the cosmetic and therapeutic effectiveness of Aloe vera is limited
and when present is typically contradictory.[2][3] Despite this, the cosmetic and alternative
medicine industries regularly make claims regarding the soothing, moisturising and
healing properties of Aloe vera, especially via Internet advertising.[4][39][40][41][42] Aloe vera
gel is used as an ingredient in commercially available lotion,yogurt, beverages and some
desserts.[43][44][45] Aloe vera juice is used for consumption and relief of digestive issues
such as heartburn and irritable bowel syndrome. It is common practice for cosmetic
companies to add sap or other derivatives from Aloe vera to products such as makeup,
tissues, moisturizers, soaps, sunscreens, incense, razors and shampoos.[43] It has also been
suggested that biofuels could be obtained from Aloe vera seeds.[46] Other uses for extracts
of Aloe vera include the dilution of semen for the artificial fertilization of sheep,[47] use as
fresh food preservative,[48] and use in water conservation in small farms.[49]

Medicine

Aloe vera has a long association with herbal medicine, although it is not known when its
medical applications were first discovered. Early records of Aloe vera use appear in the
Ebers Papyrus from 16th century BCE,[16] in both Dioscorides' De Materia Medica and
Pliny the Elder's Natural History written in the mid-first century CE[16] along with the
Juliana Anicia Codex produced in 512 CE.[43] Aloe vera is non-toxic, with no known side
effects, provided the aloin has been removed by processing. Taking Aloe vera that
contains aloin in excess amounts has been associated with various side effects.[4][5][50]
However, the species is used widely in the traditional herbal medicine of China, Japan,
Russia, South Africa, the United States,Jamaica and India.[4]

Aloe vera is alleged to be effective in treatment of wounds.[5] Evidence on the effects of

Aloe vera sap on wound healing, however, is limited and contradictory.[5] Some studies,
for example, show that Aloe vera promotes the rates of healing,[51][52] while in contrast,
other studies show that wounds to which Aloe vera gel was applied were significantly
slower to heal.[53][54] A more recent review (2007) concludes that the cumulative evidence
supports the use of Aloe vera for the healing of first to second degree burns.[55] In addition
to topical use in wound or burn healing, internal intake of Aloe vera has been linked with
improved blood glucose levels in diabetics,[56][57] and with lower blood lipids in
hyperlipidaemic patients.[58] In other diseases, preliminary studies have suggested oral
Aloe vera gel may reduce symptoms and inflammation in patients with ulcerative colitis.
[59]
Compounds extracted from Aloe vera have been used as an immunostimulant that aids
in fighting cancers in cats and dogs;[6] however, this treatment has not been scientifically
tested in humans. The injection of Aloe vera extracts to treat cancer has resulted in the
deaths of several patients.[60]

Topical application of Aloe vera may be effective for genital herpes and psoriasis.[61]
However, it is not effective for the prevention of radiation-induced injuries, nor does it
offer protection from sunburn or suntan.[62] In a double-blind clinical trial the group using
an Aloe vera containing dentifrice and the group using a fluoridated dentifrice both
demonstrated a statistically significant reduction of gingivitis and plaque.[63]

Aloe vera extracts have antibacterial and antifungal activities. Aloe vera extracts have
been shown to inhibit the growth of fungi that cause tinea,[64] however, evidence for
control beneath human skin remains to be established. For bacteria, inner-leaf gel from
Aloe vera was shown to inhibit growth of Streptococcus and Shigella species in vitro.[65]
In contrast, Aloe vera extracts failed to show antibiotic properties against Xanthomonas
species.

Biologically active compounds

Aloe vera leaves contain a range of biologically active compounds, the best studied being
acetylated mannans, polymannans, anthraquinone C-glycosides, anthrones and
anthraquinones and various lectins.[4][6][7]
 Bio Diversity Management
INTRODUCTION

Biodiversity encompasses the variety of all life on earth. India is one of the 12-
mega diverse countries of the world. With only 2.5% of the land area, India already
accounts for 7.8% of the global recorded species. India is also rich in traditional and
indigenous knowledge, both coded and informal.

India is a Party to the Convention on Biological Diversity (1992).Recognizing the

sovereign rights of States to use their own biological resources, the Convention
expects the parties to facilitate access to genetic resources by other Parties subject
to national legislation and on mutually agreed upon terms (Article 3 and 15 of CBD).
Article 8(j) of the Convention on Biological Diversity recognizes contributions of local
and indigenous communities to the conservation and sustainable utilization of
biological resources through traditional knowledge, practices and innovations and
provides for equitable sharing of benefits with such people arising from the utilization
of their knowledge, practices and innovations.

Biodiversity is a multi-disciplinary subject involving diverse activities and actions.

The stakeholders in biological diversity include the Central Government, State
Governments, institutions of local self-governmental organizations, industry, etc.
One of the major challenges before India lies in adopting an instrument ,which helps
realise the objectives of equitable sharing of benefits enshrined in the Convention on
Biological Diversity.

After an extensive and intensive consultation process involving the stakeholders,

the Central Government has brought Biological Diversity Act,2002 with the following
salient features:-i. to regulate access to biological resources of the country with the
purpose of securing equitable share in benefits arising out of the use of biological
resources; and associated knowledge relating to biological resources; ii. to conserve
and sustainably use biological diversity; iii. to respect and protect knowledge of local
communities related to biodiversity; iv. to secure sharing of benefits with local
people as conservers of biological resources and holders of knowledge and
information relating to the use of biological resources; v. conservation and
development of areas of importance from the standpoint of biological diversity by
declaring them as biological diversity heritage sites; vi. protection and rehabilitation
of threatened species; vii. involvement of institutions of state governments in the
broad scheme of the implementation of the Biological Diversity Act through
constitution of committees.
Status survey of some locally used medicinal plants Vindhyan Eco-region:
The project aims at status survey collection, identification; taxonomic characterization of
locally used important medicinal plants of Vindhyan eco-region and studies the
conservation measures taken so far and evaluation strategies for ex-situ and in situ
conservation. Project duration is one year and PI of the project is Dr. S.N. Mihra, HOD,
Botany Department, Govt. Science Model College, Rewa.

Biodiversity of Fish species in aquatic ecosystem of Rewa district

The objectives of the project are documentation of fish biodiversity of the wetlands of
Rewa district and also the documentation of water resources of the same area.
Identification of spawning area of fishes and enlist the strategies for their conservation.
Project duration is one year and PI of the project is Dr. S.N Shukla, Department of
Zoology, Govt. Model College, Rewa.

Information & Documentation

Mapping biodiversity and disseminating biodiversity related information on the state is

one of the key mandates of the Board. For this development of Peoples Biodiversity
Registers is the flagship programme. Facilitated by NGOs, academia and Government
agencies, the process of developing PBRs solicits functional participation of village
communities and ensures ownership at the same time the methodology harmonizes local
know-how with scientific knowledge. Eco-regional assessments and thematic research
anchored by leading academic institutions is another way of collating existing
information and generating new information. Some of the salient outputs envisaged under
this thematic area are:

• PBRs in 6 eco-regions
• PBRs driven by colleges/ Schools
• Eco-regional documents
• Thematic reports from eco-regions on different facets of Biodiversity
• State level reports on Sustainable limits/practices of focal taxa
• Book on best practices

Education Awareness & Training

Biodiversity awareness to trigger off actions by a range of stakeholders is high on Board's

agenda. Taken up collaboratively, these awareness programme use an array of methods
ranging from Yatra's, meetings, workshops, nature camps and nature walks, media
campaigns etc. Strengthening biodiversity education in school and college curricula (both
formal and non-formal) is an important strategy to inculcate conservation ethics in the
younger minds. The main outputs under this thematic area are:

• Media campaign (AV with eco-regional partners)

• Mowgli Bal Utsav
• Reviving/setting-up civil society institutions
 • Biodiversity Pustika developed and disseminated
• WALMI/SIRD running courses on Biodiversity
• Minimum one Interpretation centre in urban area (Ekant Park-Bhopal)
• Commencement of work on two Biodiversity Parks (Jabalpur and Gwalior)

Ecological effects of biodiversity

The diversity of species and genes in ecological communities affects the functioning of
these communities. These ecological effects of biodiversity in turn affect both climate
change through enhanced greenhouse gases, aerosols and loss of land cover, and
biological diversity, causing a rapid loss of ecosystems and extinctions of species and
local populations. The current rate of extinction is sometimes considered a mass
extinction, with current species extinction rates on the order of 100 to 1000 times as high
as in the past.[1]

The two main areas where the effect of biodiversity on ecosystem function have been
studied are the relationship between diversity and productivity, and the relationship
between diversity and community stability. More biologically diverse communities
appear to be more productive (in terms of biomass production) than are less diverse
communities, and they appear to be more stable in the face of perturbations

Definitions of diversity, productivity, and stability

In order to understand the effects that changes in biodiversity will have on ecosystem
functioning, it is important to define some terms. Biodiversity is not easily defined, but
may be thought of as the number and/or evenness of genes, species, and ecosystems in a
region. This definition includes genetic diversity, or the diversity of genes within a
species, species diversity, or the diversity of species within a habitat or region, and
ecosystem diversity, or the diversity of habitats within a region.

Two things commonly measured in relation to changes in diversity are productivity and
stability. Productivity is a measure of ecosystem function. It is generally measured by
taking the total aboveground biomass of all plants in an area. Many assume that it can be
used as a general indicator of ecosystem function and that total resource use and other
indicators of ecosystem function are correlated with productivity.

Stability is much more difficult to define, but can be generally thought of in two ways.
General stability of a population is a measure that assumes stability is higher if there is
less of a chance of extinction. This kind of stability is generally measured by measuring
the variability of aggregate community properties, like total biomass, over time [2] The
other definition of stability is a measure of resilience and resistance, where an ecosystem
that returns quickly to an equilibrium after a perturbation or resists invasion is thought of
as more stable than one that doesn't
Productivity and stability as indicators of ecosystem health

The importance of stability in community ecology is clear. An unstable ecosystem will be

more likely to lose species. Thus, if there is indeed a link between diversity and stability,
it is likely that losses of diversity could feedback on themselves, causing even more
losses of species. Productivity, on the other hand, has a less clear importance in
community ecology. In managed areas like cropland, and in areas where animals are
grown or caught, increasing productivity increases the economic success of the area and
implies that the area has become more efficient, leading to possible long term resource
sustainability.[4] It is more difficult to find the importance of productivity in natural
ecosystems. This will be discussed in more detail later.

Effects of diversity on community productivity

How species diversity may influence productivity

• Complementarity Plant species coexistence is thought to be the result of niche

partitioning, or differences in resource requirements among species. By
complementarity, a more diverse plant community should be able to use resources
more completely, and thus be more productive.[4][6] Also called niche
differentiation, this mechanism is a central principle in the functional group
approach, which breaks species diversity down into functional components. [7][8]
• Facilitation Facilitation is a mechanism whereby certain species help or allow
other species to grow by modifying the environment in a way that is favorable to
a co-occurring species.[9] Plants can interact through an intermediary like nitrogen,
water, temperature, space, or interactions with weeds or herbivores among others.
Some examples of facilitation include large desert perennials acting as nurse
plants, aiding the establishment of young neighbors of other species by alleviating
water and temperature stress,[10] and nutrient enrichment by nitrogen-fixers such
as legumes.
• The Sampling Effect The sampling effect of diversity can be thought of as
having a greater chance of including a species of greatest inherent productivity in
a plot that is more diverse. This provides for a composition effect on productivity,
rather than diversity being a direct cause. However, the sampling effect may in
fact be a compilation of different effects. The sampling effect can be separated
into the greater likelihood of selecting a species that is 1) adapted well to
particular site conditions, or 2) of a greater inherent productivity. Additionally,
one can add to the sampling effect a greater likelihood of including 3) a pair of
species that highly complement each other, or 4) a certain species with a large
facilitative effect on other members of the community.