Page 1 of 23

FCE 572: ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT

1. New trends in management:
a. Sustainable construction (SC)
Construction plays a crucial role in the overall economic development of nations by
providing the fabric of constructed facilities that in turn facilitate other investments.
The consequences of construction to human populations alter the ways in which people
live, work, play, and relate to one another. In the 21
st
century adding value to an
economy entails delivering basic environmental, social and economic services to
communities without threatening the viability of the natural, built and social system
upon which they are dependant

Sustainable construction can be defined as a process by which a profitable and
competitive industry delivers built assets, building structures, supporting infrastructure
and immediate surroundings which
Enhance the quality of life of people and offer customer satisfaction
Provides flexibility and supports desirable natural and social environments
Maximise the efficient use of resources while minimising wastage.
In developing countries this involves recognising the essential needs of the poor and
their concerns about uneven development while paying attention to the environmental
conservation. Sustainable construction must thus be centred on promoting appropriate,
affordable, safe, efficient and environmentally sound products using processes that are
subject to continuous review so as to optimise scarce resources.
Traditionally engineers are responsible for designing and planning the construction,
operation and maintenance of infrastructure necessary to meet the increasing demand
for food, water, sanitation, shelter, health services, and economic security. Most
engineers in developing countries however just use sustainability as a buzzword to
accessing funds when bidding for projects paying lip service to SC principles. SC
demands that professional face the challenges of acting responsibly and find the best
balance between their technical performance and protecting the overall interest of
communities positively impact peoples well being. This will entail;
Page 2 of 23

Mandatory impact assessment holistic to include social, economic, health,
environmental etc
Sensitisation and training on the benefits
Specification that have a bias towards local building materials this is
advantageous to the economy, ensures preservation of cultural value and heritage,
promotes micro-enterprises, develops local human resource, and reduce poverty
Involvement of communities embrace community participation in project design
and construction in addition to project appraisal
Designing for flexibility to cater for future user-need changes strive to create
multi-purpose spaces and design flexibility that enables continual review of
projects to cater for future needs
Use of recyclable/re-usable building materials this will lead to waste reduction
Enforcement of existing laws and regulations there is lack of policing and
compliance checking systems
Client to demand SC practice on projects most client are only interested in
economic sustainability
Challenges of applying SC
Lack of facilitative regulatory framework in the industry
The decision making in construction largely remains traditional
Uninformed clients
Inability to identify appropriate systems for specific environments
Lack of best practice database
Lack of a database on local materials, tools and techniques
Erratic nature of construction business affects efforts to implement SC
practises
Lack of resources to expend on R & D
Poor public awareness.
Way-forward;
Improve training and sensitisation
Incorporate holistic guidelines of impact assessment in the planning permission
of all projects and unify enforcement procedures
Make social-economic, health and environmental assessments compulsory.


Page 3 of 23

b. Project management (PM)
What is a project?
Temporary endeavour
Undertaken to create a unique product or service
An activity with defined goals and with given time span and resources
A cause of irreversible change
Concerned with the future hence has risk and uncertainty
Activity requiring resources (human, material, financial) and decisions from
several persons
Projects vary in scale and complexity and are all investments meaning that the goods
and services they produce must be more valuable that the cost of the project. Salient
features of a project;
Simplicity of purpose easily understood goals or objectives
Clarity of purpose and scope clearly described in finite terms its objectives,
scope, limitations, resources, quality, management
Ease of measurement progress can be measures against clear targets and
performance standards
Flexibility of employment employs or co-opts specialists or experts of high
calibre for limited periods
We can infer that PM started with the construction of the Egyptian Pyramids and the
Great Wall of China as these projects necessitated it i.e.
Complex structures
Enormous workforce
High standards
Needed a structured approach
Integrated information
Use multi-skills and disciplines
Needed planning and scheduling.
In modern times too PM accomplishes great projects like the birds nest stadium in
China, opera house in Sydney. Other factors that gave rise to PM in modern times
include;
Page 4 of 23

Rapidly changing technology
Time constraints
Unstable economies political change
Novelty of projects
Increased scope of projects
Increased risks delay in completion, reduction in return
Fiercely competitive markets demanding leaner/meaner flexible organisation
structures and efficient systems approach
Powerful environmental lobbies and considerations
Need to monitor and control large amounts data
Need to quickly and accurately facilitate problem solving and decision making
Increase in number of firms involved in project accomplishment
Increase of number and influence of stakeholders
Need to think ahead
Clients need for value management and innovative solutions
Need for value for money in view of competing alternatives
Emphasis in product life-cycle hence need to look at the bigger picture and
consider trade-off between construction cost and maintenance, consider
upgrades, expansion and decommissioning
Generally PM grew out of necessity rather that desire. It may be defined as the
application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project activities in order to
meet stakeholder needs and objectives OR an endeavour in which humans, machines,
materials and financial resources are organised in a novel way to undertake a unique
scope of work of given specifications, with the constraints of cost and time so as to
deliver beneficial change defined by quantitative and qualitative objectives. Generally
therefore it is the management of planned change. PM involves;
50% thinking ahead or planning
o Motivation to think ahead and reveal problems and find solutions
o Defining work requirements, quantity, quality and resources
o Consider how, when, where, who and with what
25% communications
o Proposed timing, method, strategy are available and understood
25% monitoring and evaluation (yardstick)
o Monitor the project
o Evaluate progress
Page 5 of 23

o Compare with planned
o Analyse impact
o Make adjustments
The intention of all this is to provide the client with a project that satisfies fully his
requirements regarding time, cost, quality, performance and cost in use.

c. Value management (VM)
VM addresses the value process during the concept, definition, implementation and
operation phases of a project i.e. the systematic and logical procedures and techniques
that enhance project value through the life of the facility. VM is the management of a
process to obtain maximum value on a scale determined by the client; therefore it
centres on the identification of the requirements. Here the maximum value is obtained
from a required level of quality at least cost; OR the highest level of quality for a given
cost; OR from an optimum compromise between the two. Note that VM is about
enhancing value and cutting the cost is just a by-product but not the main aim. VM thus
aims to maximise project value (stakeholder value for money by achieving balance
between cost and function) within time and cost constraints without detriment to
function, performance, reliability and quality. It is structured, auditable, accountable,
multi-disciplinary, and seeks to maximise the creative potential of all project
participants. This may however initially require extra expenditure.
It is a term that encompasses the full range of value techniques including;
Value planning value techniques applied during the concept or planning phase of a
project to ensure that value is planned into the whole project from its inception.
It is done by addressing and ranking stakeholders requirements in order of
importance i.e. define project concept, objective, feasibility and approach
Value engineering value techniques applied during the design or engineering
phase it investigates, analyses, compares and selects amongst the various
options those that will meet the value requirements of stakeholders i.e. develop
design and details, construction
Value analysis or reviewing value techniques applied retrospectively to
completed projects to analyse or to audit the projects performance and compare
a completed or nearly completed design or project against predetermined
Page 6 of 23

expectations conducted in the post-construction period as part of a post-
occupancy evaluation exercise i.e. operation and decommissioning.
Impact at various stages;
Concept stage help identify the need for a project, its key objectives and
constraints
Feasibility stage evaluate broad project approach and evaluate developing
design proposals
Detailed design to review and evaluate key design decisions as design
progresses
Construction stage to reduce costs, improve buildability and functionality
Operation stage to improve possible malfunctions or deficiencies
Decommissioning to learn lessons for future projects.
VM involves the following;
Functional analysis a technique designed to help the appraisal of value by a
careful analysis of function i.e. the fundamental reason why the project element
or component exists or is being designed ask the questions
What is it
What does it do
What does it cost
How valuable is it
What else can do the job
What will that cost
The process is designed to identify alternatives more valuable and/or cost
effective ways to achieve the key functional requirements. Functional analysis is
thus more suited to analysis of the detailed design of specific components or
elements of a project. Usually it entails use of a job plan which is a logical and
sequential approach to problem solving where multi-disciplinary groups use
creative techniques to establish comparative cost in relation to function via the
following seven steps;
i. Orientation identification or definition of what has to be achieved and
what are the key project requirements, priorities, and desirable
characteristics
Page 7 of 23

ii. Information gathering relevant data about needs, wants, values, costs,
risks, time scale and other project constraints
iii. Speculation or brainstorming generation of alternative options for the
achievement of client needs within the stated requirements i.e. identify
options for resolving the requirements. This is a crucial step as the quality
of ideas generated determines the worth of the approach
iv. Evaluation of the alternative options identified in the speculation stage
v. Development of the most promising options and their more detailed
appraisal
vi. Recommendation for action select the option with the greatest potential
vii. Implementation and feedback examination of how the recommendations
were implemented to provide lessons for future projects.

Life-cycle costing a structured approach used to address all elements of cost of
ownership based on the anticipated life span of a project. In construction the
following categories are considered;
i. Investment or capital cost: site costs, design fees, legal fees, construction
costs, tax allowances, and development fees
ii. Operation and maintenance costs: letting fees, maintenance costs (cleaning
and servicing), repair costs, security, insurance, caretaker
iii. Replacement of components planned replacement
iv. Residual or terminal credits NB: constructed facilities depreciate until
they become economically or structurally redundant whereas land
appreciates in value.
Why VM?
Projects suffer from poor definition because of inadequate time and thought
given in earlier stages; and poor analysis of needs (ambiguous brief) these
results in cost and time overruns, claims, user dissatisfaction and excessive
operating costs.
There are elements in a project that contribute to poor value including;
o Inadequate time
o Habitual thinking/tradition
o Conservatism and inertia
o Attitudes and influences of stakeholders
o Lack of or poor communication
Page 8 of 23

o Lack of coordination between the designer and operator
o Lack of relationship between design and construction methods
o Outdated standards or specifications
o Absence of state of the art technology
o Honest false beliefs/honest misconceptions
o Prejudicial thinking
o Lack of needed experts
o Lack of ideas
o Unnecessarily restrictive design criteria
o Restricted design fee
o Temporary decisions that become permanent
o Scope of changes for missing items
o Lack of needed information
VM ensures that;
The needs of a project is always verified and supported by data
Project objectives are openly discussed and clearly identified
Key decisions are rational, explicit and accountable
The design evolves within an agreed framework of project objectives
Alternative options are always considered
Outline design proposals are carefully evaluated and selected on basis of defined
performance criteria
It improves communication and teamwork by involving all the stakeholders
including investors, end-users, consultants, constructors, clients and specialist
suppliers
Enhanced shared understanding among key participants
Better quality project definition
Increased innovations
Elimination of unnecessary cost
Benefits to the project;
Provides a forum for all parties in a project development
Provides review of entire project
Identifies project constraints and challenges
Identifies and prioritise project objectives
Improves quality definition
Page 9 of 23

Evaluates means of achieving project objectives
Remedies project deficiencies, omissions and superfluous items
Ensure design is most effective for the purpose
Identifies and eliminates unnecessary costs
Provides management/client with the information to make informed decisions
Enhances return on investment
Promotes innovation.

d. Quality management
Quality is defined as the ability to manage a project and provide the product or service
in conformance with the user requirements on time, to budget and maximise profit
without affecting quality.
QM ensures that a project meets specifications and customer requirements and involves
the following major elements;
Confidence
Control
Consistency
Cost-effectiveness
Commitment
Communication.
History;
Quality control in the 1920 during the 2
nd
World War where as production
increased and available labour decreased and had poor skills the need for
inspection of inferior product arose. Usually uses statistical control and works in
retrospective detection mode to find problems that have occurred
Quality assurance more sophisticated products increased the possibilities for
mistakes and reliability engineering became important. Additionally it was realised
that to produce high-quality products at competitive prices a quality system
operating throughout all stages of production was required. Product safety also
became an issue as highly complex and expensive plants with greater potential
risk were built demanding not only satisfactory quality but also evidence of safe
and controlled operations e.g. nuclear power stations. QA ensures that all planned
actions deemed necessary to provide confidence to all stakeholders to a project
Page 10 of 23

satisfy given requirements hence including suppliers, distributors, etc were held
responsible for any damages caused by the product to persons and property.
Operational efficiency to prevent mistakes and increase innovation was instituted.
QA aim at reducing and ultimately avoiding problems (preventing) occurring hence
improvement.
Total Quality management (TQM) involves the following;
o Customer focus
o Examines work processes not individual performance
o Applied to all work processes and all staff
o Monitoring, measurement and reporting
o Continual improvement
It ingredients are;
It provides quality that meets the projects requirements
Quality is a means of achieving productivity
Every activity of the projects contributes to total quality
A means of achieving project success
Managing quality involves systems, techniques, and individuals
A way of managing a project
Advantages:
Quality in meeting the project specification saves money
Alleviates poor quality hence reducing costs
Reduces costs as productivity increases
Improves capacity as quality increases
Improves profitability
Competitive advantage (market position)
Improves safety
Balances risk, benefit and cost
Enhances client satisfaction.
Quality Plan (QP) detailed plan to audit and maintain quality which defines;
The quality objects to be attained
The specific allocation of responsibility and authority during the different
project phases
The specific procedures, methods and work instructions to be applied
Page 11 of 23

Suitable testing, inspection and examination at different stages
A method for changes and modifications in a quality plan as projects proceeds
Other measures necessary to meet project objectives
Quality Management system connects all the activities influencing projects quality
with the aim of achieving the desired quality without unnecessary cost. QMS ensures
that;
Quality products and services always meet the expressed or implied requirement
of the customer
Quality is achieved in a planned and systematic way
The customer is satisfied
QMS is based on;
Planning all activities and tasks that affect quality
Execution based on necessary expertise and resources i.e. educating, training
and informing relevant people on what is going to happen, who is doing what and
implementing necessary changes
Checking results of implementation to see that change is happening as required
and removal of defects
Action analyse and record information to prevent same defects from appearing
again
Continuous upgrading must take place and frequent auditing to meet changes in work
requirements and to remove redundant processes.
Quality costs more but lack of quality costs even more as failure is costly both to
society and the project additional expense and inconvenience. Quality costs include;
Costs of assurance procedures
Costs of control procedures
Costs of dealing with failures, rework, scrap and repairs.
More specifically in construction it involves the following;
Operating costs incurred by the project in order to attain and ensure specific
quality levels i.e.
o Prevention costs of efforts to prevent failures
Design reviews
Page 12 of 23

Quality and reliability training
Quality and reliability training
Quality planning
Audits
o Appraisal costs of testing, inspection and examination to assess whether
specific quality is being maintained
Testing and inspection
Maintenance and calibration
Installation testing and commissioning
Failure costs (or losses) internal failure costs resulting from the failures of a
project or service to meet performance specifications prior to delivery
o Design changes
o Vendor rejects
o Rework
o Scrap and material renovations
o Warranty
o Commissioning failure.

e. Lean construction
The following are some of the characteristics of the construction industry that have
necessitated lean construction:
Up to 30% of construction costs are attributed to inefficiencies, mistakes,
delays and poor communication
In developing countries where a significant percentage of materials and
equipment are imported mistakes have major cost impact particularly where time
delays render projects susceptible to currency risks and inflationary factors
Lean construction maximises value and reduces wastes i.e. construct facilities with little
waste and as cost-effectively as possible while ensuring that the design will operate in a
manner that promotes the sustainability of natural resources. Lean construction
demands a break-away from the tradition of separating project design and production
once construction starts it quickly becomes obvious that factors that have not been
considered in the design phases are of major significance in the field necessitating that
the concept of design for production should be implements. LC may require more time in
Page 13 of 23

the design and planning phases but this attention eliminates or minimises conflicts that
dramatically change budgets and schedules. LC maybe achieved via;
Supply chain management primarily focuses on logistical control of the
interface with suppliers facilitating the provision of supplies precisely on time
and in required quantities. NB a supply chain encompasses all the activities that
lead to having the end-user provided with a product or service. Project costs
increases up to 10% because of poor supply-chain design. Through supply chain
management all parties are kept aware of commitments, schedules and expedited
activities so that they source, produce and deliver products with minimal lead-
time and expense. In addition each member of the supply chain is made aware of
their influence on the overall project this may involve a cultural change e.g.
contractor will focus more on planning that can avoid waste and misuse of
resources in the overall project rather the focusing on finishing tasks.
Just-in-time techniques aimed at minimising wastes, continuous improvement of
processes and systems and maintaining respect for workers i.e. only commit the
resources needed to meet customer needs. This leads to reduced inventories,
higher productivity, shorter lead times, fewer errors and higher morale e.g.
Toyota reduced car production time form 15 days to 1 day. JIT requires
extensive planning at the beginning of the project i.e. the design process includes
facility design and design of the construction process, potential conflicts are
identified during design and solutions are considered to avoid wasting resources
in the future. JIT also reduces construction variation via use of schedule
buffers e.g. to allow for design adjustment.
Open sharing of information between all parties the parties are sensitized on
the consequences of their actions. Information systems should be upgraded to
provide instantaneous information to all parties seamless communication
regardless of differences in hardware and location.
LC requires that government provide a leadership role in adoption of sustainable
construction because the industry on its own is unlikely to maintain reforms that may
require relatively higher initial construction cost even though it has long-term benefits.
This may be done through awareness programs, incentives and enforcement. TQM may
be used in the design process to improve design accuracy e.g. design that favour
appropriate technologies. Moreover the parties should enhance their project
management skills.
Page 14 of 23

Lean production started in the 1950s in Japan Toyota Company where wastes in mass
production were identified as follows;
Overproduction
Waiting time
Transporting
Processing
Unnecessary stock at hand
Using unnecessary motions
Producing defective goods
Failure to meet customer needs
Principals of a lean construction process;
Value there is need to clarify the customers needs
Value stream by mapping the value stream, identifying and eliminating waste,
the construction process can be improved
Flow of project information and activities
Supply flow materials
Pull the efforts of all the participants
Perfection work instructions and procedures are developed and quality controls
are established
Obstacles/inhibitors to adoption of lean construction:
Construction industrys tendency to measure performance via completion on time,
within budget with little attention to owner satisfaction as a measure of
performance
Hard bidding by contractors on sub-contractors tends to compromise quality
Poor communications contractor is unable to understand drawing and
specifications
Page 15 of 23

Innovation is adopted slowly lack of expertise, financial resources, fear and
uncertainty especially in developing countries inhibit adoption of technological
advancements they prefer to use time-honoured methods that are inefficient
Human resource development is not seen as a priority particularly in developing
countries labour force has little formal education, learn mainly by experience
thus it is difficult to embrace the principals of TQM and employee empowerment
Lean construction does not happen by accident but requires educated workers
that are able to contribute a wealth of ideas on how to reduce waste and improve
processes. Additionally workforce training on lean construction is essential
Owners do not specifically demand productivity and quality due to lack of
awareness they accept industry pricing
Few large firms and no SME have implemented the concept of quality and
productivity manager but rather they depend on experienced staff to run
projects although such staff rarely have training in optimisation techniques
Little if any benchmarking construction professionals guard their trade secrets
very closely due to distrust, fear of losing competitive advantage or simply by
being anachronistic (outdated)
Wastes and problems in the supply chain are often invisible as separate parties
focus on their immediate responsibility and act in their own interest i.e. the are
not alerted to the consequences of the actions to the whole construction process
Lack of coordination between contractors and suppliers potential for cost saving
of 10 17%. Savings could also be due to reduces tendency for both to include a
buffer which usually results in large cumulative affects
Excessive variation due to ordering of construction components with incomplete
or missing information




Page 16 of 23

Systems theory and the project
Systems theory is a management approach that attempts to integrate and unify
scientific information across many fields of knowledge in order to solve problems by
looking at the total picture rather than through an analysis of individual components. A
system is thus a group of elements (human and non-human) that are organised and
arranged in such a way that the elements can act as a whole towards achieving a common
goal, objective or end. It consists of a collection of interacting subsystems that span or
interconnect all. If the system is closed the management has complete control of it but
if open it reacts to the environment. It may also be an extended system that is
significantly dependent on other systems for its survival hence it is ever changing as the
significant other control resources required by the system or consume its output e.g. in
construction the significant others are trade unions, suppliers, financiers, government,
consumer pressure groups, educational institutions and customers.
Project organisation is a man-made system which has a dynamic interplay with its
environment customers, competitors, labour organisations, suppliers, government, and
many agencies. It is thus a system of interrelated parts working in conjunction with
each other in order to accomplish a number of goals both those of the organisations and
the individual participants. Consequently, the system requires a management technique
that is able to cut across many organisational disciplines finance, manufacturing,
engineering, marketing, etc hence project management.
Hierarchy of systems:
Universe
Social Legal

P
o
l
i
t
i
c
a
l

Organization
E
c
o
n
o
m
i
c



Project



Firm

Technological
Earth

Page 17 of 23

Purpose of a project system:
Develop relationships between organisational resources
Obtain information
Assist in decision making
Systems and sub-systems;
Organisational system
Information system
o Informal
o Formals
Financial system
Marketing system
Inventory control system
Personnel system
Production system
The project system may be modelled to exhibit actual behaviour of components and
demonstrate ways in which they interrelate total picture. Types of models:
Communications
o Oral or written
o Certain results will be achieved from specific managerial action
Schematic
o Static set of relationships fixed in time including bar and arrow charts or
start and end activity
o Flow rate flow of relationships e.g. cpm, decision trees
Page 18 of 23

Dynamic transformation of relationship rather than activity which are effective
in describing the total system e.g. black boxes where and input is manipulated to
obtain output and feedback
Iconic scaled up or down replicas of the actual system
Analog means of representing physical property by other physical property e.g.
fuel gauge represent fuel in the tank
Symbolic represent properties and relationships in a system by symbolic or
mathematical expression or equation
Conceptual non-mathematical models that attempt to describe a concept or
theory that could simply be a figment of imagination e.g. research hypothesis

Environmental management
Traditionally many construction projects e.g. water supply systems were deemed to have
such overwhelming benefits that only costs were basis of determining various
alternative. Today however, it is recognised that all projects will result in
unquantifiable costs and impacts hence other impacts including environmental impact
analysis and assessment are important though they are measured qualitatively.
Environment includes all the physical, chemical, biological and socio-economic factors
that influence individuals or communities including air, water, land, all living species of
plants, animals, birds, insects and microorganisms, man-made artefacts and structures,
and factors of importance to the social, cultural and economic aspects of human
existence. In this context therefore all projects have an effect or impact on the
environment and it could be argued that unless they did there would be not point of
implementing them. Some impacts are positive benefits while others have
detrimental effect costs. The purpose of an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
is to evaluate these positive and negative effects as objectively as possible and present
the information in a manner that it is accessible to decision makers so that it becomes
an additional appraisal tool.
Engineering projects have an impact on the whole environment spectrum and many
impacts are measured in terms of;
Page 19 of 23

changes to specific quality parameters e.g. dissolved oxygen concentration in
water
the aesthetic qualities of a landscape or a structure or the importance of
preserving a historic building
direct or primary impacts are those directly attributable to the project e.g.
noise, pollution, etc
indirect or secondary impacts are those that affect areas remote from the
project itself e.g. quarrying for raw materials, pollution by cement
manufacturers
long term impacts are those that will continue throughout the operating life of
the project and are thus permanent or long-term e.g. pollution by thermal power
station
short term or temporary impacts are those arising from the planning, design and
construction phase of the project e.g. temporary changes in the water table,
noise and dust during construction
NB: generally the impacts may be a combination e.g. temporary and direct and these
must be differentiated in the environment impact statement (EIS).
Environmental impact assessment (EIA)
EIA is a logical method of examining the actions of people and the effects of
projects and policies on the environment so as to help ensure the long-term viability
of the earth as a habitable planet. It aims to identify and classify project impacts
and predict their impact on the natural environment, human health and well-being
and communicate this information in the form of an EIS to decision makers who
appraise projects. Because the natural environment is not steady but tends to
change naturally over time, any of the impacts of a project must be seen in the
context of what would have happened if the project had not been implemented
occurs at a specific period within a defined area. In many countries EIS is
incorporated into the legal requirements for obtaining project and planning approval.
EIA is a process that involves the following steps:
screening done at the early stages of a project to determine whether or not a
detailed EIA is required or necessary. This is largely defined by the legislative
policy. The extent to which the EIA is needed is also defined since impact
depends on the environment in which the project is set the same project will
Page 20 of 23

have different impacts or different intensity of some impacts in different
settings i.e. for a project EIA may be required for one set and not the other.
The extent is usually defined in the regulations associated with the legislation.
scoping - a more specific form of screening that is essentially priority setting
activity aimed at establishing the main features and scope of the subsequent
environmental studies and analysis. It identifies the type of data to be
collected, the methods and techniques to be used and the way in which the
results will be presented. The decision on which impacts are significant is not
always easy and requires judgement, tact and understanding of ;
o technical issues
o environment surrounding the project including public opinion and perceived
impacts of those likely to be affected NB local knowledge is a valuable
source of data
o social criteria aesthetics, human health, safety, recreation and effect on
lifestyles
o economic criteria the value of resources, the effect on employment and
commerce
o ethical and moral criteria effect on other humans, forms of life and
future generations
o current state of knowledge relating to a particular aspect of the
environment as determined by developments in science and technology,
professional experience of the experts
o time and budget allowed
Seeking public opinion involves identifying the affected population/target groups
and getting their opinions this includes local political and environmental concern
groups (to avoid unnecessary confrontation later). Public consultations involves
schedule of meetings with the affected target populations and interest groups
where the objectives, possible impacts and associated activities of the project
are explained and participants encouraged to identify other impacts and suggest
mitigations. Such meetings must be allowed sufficient time and minutes taken
and made public. It requires patience and diplomacy and it is time and money
consuming. Alternatively questionnaire or telephone surveys may be used to
solicit public opinions and results analysed statistically.
Scoping helps obtain advance agreement on the important environmental issues
hence scarce resources are used more efficiently.
Page 21 of 23

baseline study the collection of background information of the ecosystem and
the socio-economic setting of a proposed development project. It involves field
examination and collection of samples and it is the most expensive step because
it requires a large number of experts. If scoping is not efficient then alot time
and money is wasted collecting unnecessary and irrelevant data. Sources of data
include previous studies, monitoring and audit results, other sources which should
be vetted for accuracy and thoroughness.
impact prediction the baseline study and the project proposal are then used to
predict how environmental parameters will change during both the construction
and operation of the project. It requires environmental and social scientist and
utilises sophisticated equations, modelling and simulation techniques. For each
impact the most appropriate method should be used and the prediction should
encompass all project activities and differentiate primary, secondary, short- and
long-term effects. The predictions should be grouped into various categories
e.g. biological, physical, social, economic and cultural and should use quantitative
prediction where possible.
prepare an EIS the predictions and baseline study are then used to prepare the
EIS which is used to in the appraisal and approval process. It usually includes;
o the need for the project aims and objectives
o baseline report
o list and description of all reasonable and possible project alternatives
including the do-nothing option. For all alternative the following should be
detailed
clear description of the project during construction and operation
details of use of land, materials, energy, estimates of levels of
pollution and emissions
clear estimate of environmental consequences of each alternative
predictions of the effects of all the significant impacts drawing
attention to serious adverse impacts that cannot be avoided or
mitigated as well as irreversible environmental consequences and
irretrievable use of natural resources
the severity of each impact including method used to measure and
predict it
o comparison of the environmental consequence of each alternative
o statement conclusions indicating the preferred option and any mitigation
measures that may be required
Page 22 of 23

o non-technical summary
o index and appendices
To ensure that the EIS is comprehensive yet readily understood by decision-
makers the following methods have been adopted;
o checklists list of environmental features affected by project activities
e.g. simple, descriptive, scaling, scaling-weighting, questionnaire
o overlay mapping transparent maps showing environmental characteristics
of the proposed project area with shading intensity representing
different intensity of impacts
o network and system diagrams attempts to recognise a series of impacts
by listing project activities to establish cause-condition-effect
relationships. It shows the interdependence of parameters
o multi-attribute utility theory provides basis for comparing the impacts
of alternatives
o matrices simple interaction matrix which is two dimensional showing
project activities on one axis and environmental parameters on the other
and placing an X in the relevant intersecting cell. Quantified and graded
matrix may also be used
monitoring and audit because of the uncertainty associated with environmental
impact predictions, it is important that major parameters are monitored
throughout the implementation of the project to assess the validity and accuracy
of predictions and to act as an early warning sign of harmful impacts allowing
timely mitigations. This provides valuable information for future EIAs and
generally improves the accuracy of forecasting models and methods. Monitoring
detects whether the impact occurred or not, its severity or magnitude, and
whether it is a result of the project. It requires the identification of a control
site that should be as similar to the project site as possible except it is not
affected by the impacts. Monitoring begins at the baseline study and continues
through the construction and operation of the project. During scoping the
parameters to be monitored, the frequency, change that is statistically
significant and probability of natural changes should be outlined the monitoring
framework which saves time and money by avoiding irrelevant data collection
The process of comparing the impacts predicted in an EIA with those that
actually occur after implementation of the project is referred to as auditing. It
Page 23 of 23

is often ignored due to the perception that EIA is just a hurdle in the approval
process. Auditing not only vets the accuracy of predictions but also highlights
best practise in EIS. Auditing may be hampered by;
o inappropriate forms of predictions
o design changes after EIS
o inadequate or non-existent monitoring


Monitoring and audit
Prepare EIS
Impact preditions
(using models, simulation, predictive techniques)
Baseline studies
(define existing environment in terms of important parameters identified in scoopin
Scoping
(define issues, identify major impacts)
Screening
(Is the EIS required)