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Introduction

Time domain and frequency domain are two extremes of a large set of signal analysis
techniques. Time domain gives the best time resolution, but no direct frequency
information. The best frequency resolution is obtained in the frequency domain
where, however, time variations of the signal are not visible. However, a proper time
frequency technique can tackle this problem and reveal the non-stationary and
multicomponent nature of the ECG signals.

The basic objective of timefrequency analysis is to devise a function that will
describe the energy density of a signal simultaneously in time and frequency and that
can be used and manipulated in the same manner as any density. However, when the
timefrequency techniques are used for analyzing multicomponent signals, these
approaches are susceptible to cross-terms arising in the middle between the
timefrequency (energy) components. Therefore, a time frequency technique that
provides a good reduction of the cross-terms is needed [1019]. The cross-terms
phenomenon shows frequency components that do not exist in reality and affects
considerably the interpretation of the timefrequency plane.

Several techniques have been identified to increase both frequency and time
resolution concurrently. These techniques, or distributions, utilize different kernel
functions to achieve better resolution. Cohens class gathers some of the time
frequency representations which are most often used in practice. The four time
frequency techniques defined above belong to this class of methods. In this section,
we proposed the main characteristics of these timefrequency techniques previously
cited.

The most studied element of Cohens class is certainly the WignerVille distribution
[33]. It may be seen as the only distribution with real values that satisfy the properties
necessary for the classical applications of signal processing [33,34]. It is also the only
distribution to provide perfect localization for impulse signals and signals with a
linearly modulated frequency. However, the practical use of this distribution is made
difficult, on the one hand, by the integral involved in
its definition which runs over all signal values and, on the other, by its cross-terms
which are large and numerous.

The ChoiWilliams distribution is one of the earliest reduced interference
distributions proposed [29]. It is also known as the exponential distribution because of
the exponential term in its formula. The ChoiWilliams distribution depends on the
parameter which can control the compromise between resolution and level of cross-
terms. When tends to +, we obtained the WignerVille distribution.
Inversely, small values of give better reduction of the cross-terms. This distribution
verifies many properties of the WignerVille distribution, except for compatibility
with filtering and modulation, finite support and unitarily. The advantages of this
distribution are that it tends to have the least cross-terms and the marginal properties
are preserved [35]. This timefrequency technique indeed suppresses the cross-terms
which are away from the origin, but for the cross terms located on the time and
frequency axes, this method cannot do anything.

The BornJordan distribution is a timefrequency technique whose geometric
properties are very close to those of the ChoiWilliams distribution [33]. This method
preserves the marginal properties and verifies the energy conservation. This
representation reduces cross-terms, yet retains higher timefrequency resolution. It, as
well as the Choi Williams distribution, can be considered as a good tool in non-
stationary signal-processing applications.

The Bessel distribution is a real-valued distribution that preserves the time and
frequency-shifting properties. This technique preserves also the time and frequency
support properties under the condition that the scaling factor is 0.5. The Reduced
Interference Distribution based on Bessel function reduces considerably the level of
the cross terms relative to the auto-terms in a quadratic timefrequency
representation, especially compared to the WignerVille distribution.

Changes in the normal rhythmicity of a human heart may result in different cardiac
arrhythmias, which may be immediately fatal or cause irreparable damage to the heart
when sustained over a long period of time. The ability to automatically identify
arrhythmias from ECG recordings is important for clinical diagnosis and treatment, as
well as for understanding the electrophysiological mechanisms of the arrhythmias
[38,39].
An arrhythmia is an abnormality in the hearts rhythm, or heart beat pattern. The heart
beat can be too slow, too fast, have extra beats, or otherwise beat irregularly [39,40].
The types of abnormal ECG signals investigated in this study were: supraventricular
arrhythmia and malignant ventricular arrhythmia. Supraventricular arrhythmia occurs
in the upper areas of the heart and is less serious than ventricular arrhythmia.
It has irregular shapes of QRS complexes [39,40]. Figure 1 presents a normal ECG
with its principal compo

Study of Frequency and Time Domain Parameters Extracted by Means
of Wavelet Transform Applied to ECG to Distinguish between VF and
other Arrhythmias( 1998)

Implementation of algorithms to detect VF and other malignant arrhythmias has been
the subject of many publications, using methods based on frequency and time domain
methods. In order to take profit of information obtained from both domains we have
implemented a method for single ECG-lead signal processing and arrhythmia
discrimination, based on Wavelet Transform (WT) and advanced statistical decision
methods. The model has been tested for discrimination among malignant
ventricular arrhythmias (VF and VT, amenable to be cardio verted-de~brillated) and
other arrhythmias, according to the AHA expert committee recommendations.
Single-lead 4096 ms-long episodes of different rhythms and from different patients
were selected from international (AHA, VF-DB & CU-DB from MIT-BIH)
and custom (CCU monitor and EP Laboratory) databases. All the signcils were 250
Hz digitized and transformed into the time-freyuency donzain by WT. First 5 scales
were computed; teniporul parameters were calculated from the second and third
scales; frequencjl parameters were estimated from all the scales, obtaining more than
parameters. After statistical parameter reduction, discriminating functions were
obtained through logistic regression and validated using intensive scanning
techniques Morphological analysis of single ECG-lead by means of WT and
statisticallj constructed discriminant functions cnn accurutelj diagnose malignant
ventricular arrlzythniius in a fast and low computational cost algorithm, uccording to
the AHA recommendations.
The use of WT and statistically constructed discriminative functions can identify
efficiently malignant ventricular arrhythmias from a single ECG-lead, according
to AHA requirements. Moreover, the algorithm is fast and simple enough to allow a
low computational complexity. For every case, the found solution consists of a simple
linear function including parameters related mainly to:
Baseline and other thresholds. Frequency and cardiac rate. The results have been
superior than those obtained using classical techniques. The implementation of these
algorithms are really simple, being their computational cost, at least, half that of the
FFT. These results could be improved if the functions were created from signals
obtained from a single patient. The use of these functions with new signals from the
same patient would show better results than using functions calculated from different
patients.


The analysis of ECG signal using Time frequency techniques(1997)
To overcome the limitations which occur in the Wigner-Ville Distribution (WVD), a
filtering technique based on processing of the image of the Ambiguity function (AF)
is proposed. This work includes a comparative study of time-frequency kernel based
techniques for the analysis of ECG signals. The ECG is first converted to the analytic
form to eliminate aliasing and the cross terms generated by the negative spectra. It
has been shown that time-frequency analysis of the ECG
is essential to capture temporal variations. key words: Time-frequency representation,
cross terms filtering, Kernel methods It is not only for simplicity of design that the
kernel method, in filtering out the cross terms, is so important. It is also because of the
fact that any property of the distributions desired for a particular application can
readily be obtained by the choice of kernel. Therefore, as mentioned before, each
kernel can be is better for a certain application. Among the kernels for time-frequency
ECG analysis the Cone and Choi-William Kernels are found quite satisfactory. The
Choi- William Distribution or ED has already been demonstrated in some areas
including the analysis of dolphin sounds [6].
Nevertheless these two kernels also have some shortcomings. Despite the Cone kernel
giving good results for both amplitude and frequency modulated signals it does not
satisfy the time and frequency marginal which is an important Therefore, in this work,
an attempt has been made toward the filtering problem by an image processing
approach. The technique investigates the most suitable kernel generated by
processing the image of the Ambiguity function of the signal of interest. Despite the
fact that fie AF has no mathematical meaning, physically the symmetrical AF
contains all the information about the structure of the signal. While the auto terms are
always concentrated on the center the cross terms are away from the center of the AF
[ 1,6,7]. Considering this property of the AF a fast computer program has been
developed to track only the auto terms operating from the center towards the edges of
the AF. By this it is aimed to define the kernel over the ambiguity function so as to
retain only the auto terms energy. The program uses a local window
defined as:
property of TFRs.
Choi-Williams does satisfy the marginal but it can not resolve frequency modulated
signals particularly when the instantaneous frequency of the signal lies near the
diagonal of the distribution[ 6,7].
Therefore, in this The filtered WVD is obtained by 2-D Fourier transformation of the AF
multiplied by the obtained mask. The image processing based distribution is real
valued. It preserves time and frequency shifts, its marginal correspond to the
instantaneous signal energy and energy density spectrum.
A new approach has been introduced for filtering the cross terms which occur in the
WVD. This approach was based on image processing of the AF. The technique is
capable of suppressing the cross terms without significant changes in the properties of
the WVD. The Kernel performance was examined for artificial multi-component test
signals The results are found significant compared to those obtained by Cone and
Exponential Distribution methods. The advantage of this approach is that it gives as
good performance as the ED but it does not require any corresponding optimization. It
is also capable of filtering fast frequency varying signals where the energy
concentration in the AF falls on a 45 degree diagonal line.

The Time-Frequency Analysis of Abnormal ECG Signals (2010 )
we adopt time frequency analysis approaches which could reflect signal both in time
and frequency domains. Totally, we adopts two time-frequency approaches: Pseudo-
WignerVille Distribution (PWVD) and Wigner High-Order Spectra(WHOS),
we successfully extract characters from two kinds abnormal ECG signals, which
improves our methods are effective.
In this article we choose two typical kinds
abnormal ECG signals: congestive heart failure signal and the ventricular late
potential(VLP)signal. We use basic time-frequency approach PWVD to analyze the
congestive heart failure signal, after transformation we could see an obvious
distinction between this abnormal ECG signal and normal ECG signal. Ventricular
late potential( VLP)signal, which is a kind of microvolt-level subtle part of signal that
is high frequency and irregular, often appears in the terminal portion of the QRS
complex, signal to noise ratio(SNR) of it is rarely low. At present, the VLP is
measured by time or domain methods. However, the accuracy of time-domain method
is affected by the fixation of QRS end which is severely disturbed by noise, and as
persistence of VLP .The Time-Frequency Analysis of Abnormal ECG Signals is so
short. Frequency-domain methods frequency resolution is not high. The traditional
time or frequency methods usually exist a variety kinds of disadvantages. Recently,
wavelet transform has successfully applied to VLP[2], this approach usually combines
Artificial Neural Network (ANN) to extract the wavelet subbands properties, the
wavelet transform is just seen as preprocessing. But if we just want to get high
resolution of VLP, we can consider the classical time-frequency approaches like
WVD or PWVD. The main problem is both WVD and PWVD are sensitive to noises,
considering the WHOSs advantages in low SNR situation we are about to mention
below, we try to apply WHOS to this phenomenon. The simulation confirms two
methods are both effective. In the simulation we adopt Wigner Bispectrum to analyse
LP, High-Order Spectra of WignerVille Distribution also exists the cross-terms
problem like WignerVille Distribution. We choose Choi-Williams transform to
filter, we could directly call the programs from Matlab[8].Fig.5 is the result of
WHOS,Fig.6 is the result of WHOS. after Choi-williams transform(CWHOS).

The first kind abnormal ECG signal we studied: congestive heart failure signal is
directly threatens the life of patient, for its time-domains characters are not obvious
we usually give wrong test results, the appropriate time-frequency method enlarges
the differences between the abnormal and normal signals. The second kind signal we
studied is the VLP ECG signals, VLP is also an omen of some kinds of heart diseases.
In this article we use WHOS locates VLPs positions, then through CWHOS we get
better resolution, for further research we could extract WHOSs characteristics such
as mean values or standard deviation from VLP signals and combines different
classifying methods to improve the VLPs detecting ratio, theoretically, these
effective parameters also could significantly reduce the complexity of classifier.




Abnormal ECG Signals Analysis Using Non-Parametric
TimeFrequency Techniques (2013)
applied four timefrequency techniques for analyzing abnormal ECG signals. These
timefrequency techniques are the WignerVille distribution, the ChoiWilliams
distribution, the Bessel distribution and the BornJordan distribution. The abnormal
cardiac signals were taken from a patient with supraventricular arrhythmia and a
patient with malignant ventricular arrhythmia. The results obtained showed that the
ChoiWilliams timefrequency technique has a superior perfor-mance, in terms of
resolution and cross-term reduction, as compared to other timefrequency
distributions.
early detection and precise discrimination of ECG arrhythmia are essential for the
treatment of patients; a proper timefrequency distribution can tackle this problem
and reveal the multicomponent nature of such signals. Joint timefrequency analysis
allows moving continuously between the time and frequency domain; time
resolution can be traded off for frequency resolution or vice versa. This approach
reveals how the signal spectrum evolves over time.

A number of timefrequency methods are currently available for the high-resolution
decomposition in the time frequency plane; these techniques are useful for signal
analysis [1018]. Timefrequency techniques can be classified into two major
categories: parametric and non-parametric techniques. Non-parametric time
frequency techniques are an important issue in multicomponent non-stationary signal
processing [10,19]. The most significant class of time frequency techniques is
known as the Cohens class [20]. However, timefrequency techniques of
multicomponent signals suffer from the presence of cross-terms [2022], which can
obscure the real features of interest in the signal. The timefrequency resolution
(energy concentration) is an important issue for both mono and multicomponent
signals [23]. Considerable efforts have been made to define the time frequency
technique which reduce the effect of cross-terms while improving the timefrequency
resolution [20,22]. However, there is always a compromise between these two
requirements (time and frequency). Timefrequency techniques have different
performances in this respect and the choice of the proper timefrequency technique is
application dependent. This work presents a comparative study of the following time
frequency techniques: the WignerVille distribution (WVD), the Bessel distribution
(BD), The ChoiWilliams distribution (CWD) and the BornJordan distribution
(BJD), belonging to Cohens class and their behavior for analyzing abnormal
electrocardiogram signals. These abnormal signals were taken from a patient with
supraventricular arrhythmia and a patient with malignant ventricular arrhythmia.
A supraventricular rhythm is due to abnormal impulses arising from the atria [39].
The QRS complexes of the abnormal signal (Fig. 2) have irregular shapes. First,
the supraventricular arrhythmia ECG signal (Fig. 2)was converted by Hilbert
transform into its analytical form and processed using the different timefrequency
techniques The timefrequency representation which decreases the
cross-terms and presents a good resolution will be very suitable in the case of this
abnormal signal

The multiple timefrequency techniques describe the signature of the supraventricular
ECG signal in the time frequency plane by showing the different QRS complexes,
but only the ChoiWilliams distribution can display the true changes in these
complexes. We note that this distribution manages to track the change in the
frequency components of each QRS complex as marked by QRS1 and QRS11,
clearly and with good resolution.

Due to its high timefrequency resolution and cross term control, the ChoiWilliams
timefrequency technique is expected to be efficient in analyzing this ECG signal
than the other techniques, especially with the Bessel distribution treated in [12]. This
timefrequency technique will be particularly desirable for many possible
applications in the biomedical field.

The main goal of this paper was to present a comparative performance study of four
well-known timefrequency techniques applied to biological signals to identify
abnormal biomedical phenomena. These four timefrequency techniques
are: the ChoiWilliams distribution, the BornJordan distribution, the Bessel
distribution and the WignerVille distribution. In case of malignant ventricular
arrhythmia signal, all of the above timefrequency techniques are able to detect the
different QRS complexes in this signal, except Wigner Ville distribution. But in the
case of supraventricular arrhythmia signal, only the ChoiWilliams technique can
reveal the true structure of the QRS complexes in this abnormal signal where there are
two components with narrow separation in frequency. Due to its high timefrequency
resolution and cross-term control, the ChoiWilliams timefrequency technique is
expected to be efficient in analyzing abnormal ECG signals.

A Comparison of Continuous Wavelet Transform and
Modulus Maxima Analysis of Characteristic ECG Features 2005
The Continuous Wavelet Transform (CWT) offers a
valuable tool for the analysis of signals as it provides
precise location in time of high frequency components.
The selection of a mother wavelet with high correlation
with the signal under study provides a more accurate
time-frequency analysis. Continuous Wavelet Transform
Modulus Maxima (CWTMM) reduce the computational
requirement by representing only the pertinent
information contained within the scalogram obtained
from Continuous Wavelet analysis. This new domain has
an easy interpretation and offers a useful tool for the
automatic characterization of the different components
observed in the ECG in health and disease. The aim of
this work was to compare the two time-frequency
domains for ECG analysis: CWT and CWTMM,
providing example applications of both methods.

Traditionally, analytical tools extracting
time-frequency information have been based around the
Fourier Transform [1,2]. More recently, the Continuous
Wavelet Transform (CWT) has been used successfully in
the processing of ECG signals, and offers significant
advantages in particular the preservation of location
specific features [3-5]. In this paper we explore the use of
CWT and CWT Modulus Maxima (CWTMM) in the
analysis of beat morphologies.
ECG Biometrics: a robust short-time frequency
Analysis 2009
this paper, we present the results of an analysis of the electrocardiogram (ECG) as a
biometric using a novel short-time frequency method with robust feature selection.
Our proposed method incorporates heartbeats from multiple days and fuses
information. Single lead ECG signals from a comparatively large sample of 269
subjects that were sampled from the general population were collected on three
separate occasions over a seven-month period. We studied the impact of long-term
variability, health status, data fusion, the number of training and testing heartbeats,
and database size on ECG biometric performance. The proposed method achieves
5.58% equal error rate (EER) in verification, 76.9% accuracy in rank-1 recognition,
and 93.5% accuracy in rank-15 recognition when training and testing heartbeats are
from different days. If training and testing heartbeats are collected on the same day,
we achieve 0.37% EER
and 99% recognition accuracy for decisions based on a single heartbeat.

FREQUENCY, TIME-FREQUENCY AND WAVELET ANALYSIS
OF ECG SIGNAL 2006
The analysis and segmentation of an electrocardiogram (ECG) signal is a hard and
difficult task due to its artifacts, noise and form. In this paper; we analyze the ECG
signal in Frequency, applying Fourier transform, autoregressive moving average
(ARMA), Multiple SIgnal Classifications (MUSIC), as well as the short-term Fourier
transform STFT, Choi-Williams and Wigner-Ville for Time frequency analysis and
wavelet analysis. The analysis has been done in modified lead II (MLII ) of ECGs
data files of the MIT-BIH database, obtaining better results of segmentation of QRS
complex by wavelet analysis.
Is possible to find different techniques for the spectral analysis, just as Fourier
transform and
modern techniques in the literature, these last ones are possible to divide into of two
classes:
parametric analysis and eigen-analysis. Parametric methods make use of a linear
process,
commonly referred to as a model to estimate the power spectrum, a model is
autoregressive
moving average (ARMA). The feature of eigenvector approaches is to divide the
information
contained in the data waveform into two subspaces: a signal subspace and a noise, one
of
In order to know at what time is each frequency, the Fourier Transform is applied to a
segment of data that is shorter (STFT- short-term Fourier transform), often much
shorter, than
the overall waveform:

Where w(t-) is the window function and is the variable that slides the window
across
the waveform, x(t). For the analysis time frequency, also exists the Cohens class of
distributions, with their well know variants: Choi-Williams and Wigner-Ville [8,9].
The timescale
analysis, consists of dilates or compressed versions of a basic function, as well as
translations. The equation for the continuous wavelet transforms of time continuous
signal x(t)
is defined by:\

where b acts to translate the function across x(t), and the variable a acts to vary the
time scale
of the probing function (wavelet), the * indicates the operation of complex
conjugation, The
wavelet coefficients, W(a,b), describe the correlation between x(t) and the wavelet at
various
translations and scales, the similarity between the x(t) and the wavelet at a given
combination
of scale and position, a,b.[10, 11]
Traditional smoothing methods suppress the noise and broaden peaks or dont
suppress the noise and leave peaks narrow, however with the wavelet shrinkage
approach [12,
13], is possible to obtain the noise is suppressed without broadening the peaks by
three-stages:
1.-Transform to Wavelet Domain. 2.-Apply thresholding to set coeficients at the noise
level to
zero. 3.-Return to the original domain. After the filtered signal is normalized by the
next
equations.
The analysis was elaborated using the 45 Records of 35 min., in the MIT-BIH
Arrhythmia Database [14], after of smoothing and preprocessing, with the data
normalized.
For the analysis of Fourier and autoregressive moving average (ARMA), and the
Multiple
Signal Classifications (MUSIC) analyzing the signal like a whole no is possible to
observer
the difference for data segments, furthermore the ECG is not stationary signal, Figure
(2). For
the analysis with STFT is possible observer the segmentation of QRS complex, but
however
selecting the most appropriate window length for different each ECGs can be critical.
The
same results were obtained with Wigner-Ville, Figure (3), while for Choi-Williams
analysis is
not visible. The segmentation of QRS complex was obtained fixing a threshold. The
wavelet
transform analysis was performance with the Haar wavelet, and is observable to 60
levels of
details, like the complex QRS appear with mayor number of coefficients and each
distinct
wave of the ECGs corresponds to a pair of local maxima of the modulus of the CTW
at each
different scale Figure (4). The detection was performance like [15].

The Wigner Ville and STFT seem good approaches, however in another derivation,
no
could have a excellent results due to a fine frequency resolution requires a large
window
which will, on the other hand, violate the stationary conditions. Additionally choice of
the
analyzing window is problematic, and is the ECG is a very low frequency signal.
We have a good results with the wavelet transform analysis, Table(1); however is
feasible obtain better results for segmentation, changing the wavelet transform at
different
scales and can use an tool that let as classification the diverse types of arrhythmias.
For
detection and segmentation of ECG signal, a important point is the selection of
threshold.

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