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MAKING VARIOUS WELDED JOINTS

Types of Weld Joints


There are two major classes of weld - fillet and butt.
1. illet !elds. These welds are roughly triangular in
cross section and between two surfaces not in the same
plane and the weld metal is substantially placed alongside
the components being joined.
". #$tt !elds. A butt weld is made between two pieces of
metal usually in the same plane, the weld metal maintaining
continuity between the sections.
In addition there are lap welds, corner welds and edge
welds, which are to some extent special variations of the
fillet and butt welds. The various weld joints and some
associated terms are illustrated on page 7.
M%&in' % Welded Joint in t(e l%t )osition
Tae two pieces of !"# x 7" x $#mm plate and tac %a
small or temporary holding weld& them together at each end
to form a right angle section and set it in the ' position
between two brics, as shown in (ig $". )sing your *.!mm
o electrode at $*# amps, run your first pass into the joint,
bisecting the angle with your electrode and maing sure
that you obtain complete penetration to the corner with no
lateral movement of the electrode. +emove the slag and
your weld should be flat with a good flow into each side and
probably have a ,mm wide surface. -eposit you next layer
using a weaving motion, remembering to pause slightly at
each edge.
This fillet weld could probably have a face width of $!mm
%and a leg length of $#mm& and of maximum desirable si.e
for this thicness material. /owever, in using the specimen
for practice it could be assumed that the material was
thicer and a larger weld re0uired.
A larger electrode could be employed %1mm or "mm&
and2or it may be found necessary to restrict the width of
weaving to where there are two or three passes %weld
beads& in each layer of weld material as indicated in (ig.
$7.

The same techni0ue and procedure would apply for
single 'ee butt welds, although of course the included
angle is usually restricted to 7#3 max. 4here a single
vee butt weld is employed, the first run should achieve
full penetration, with a cover weld placed on the reverse
side. Alternatively, the gap between the two plates is
widened and a bacing bar that become part of the
structure is employed.
It should of course be remembered that it is not essential
to use other than a s0uare butt joint for material less
than 5mm thic. 6ight sheet %!.7mm and under& should
be tightly butted together while heavier sheet should be
gapped up to half the material thicness to assist in full
penetration by a weld from each side.
*o+i,ont%l illet %nd #$tt Welds
It is not always possible to tip your weld into the flat
position. The use of weaving is therefore restricted and
single beads placed in suitable se0uence are re0uired.
The electrode angles and se0uence of welds are shown
in (ig. $,. Try Austarc $*8 as well for this application.
9ay attention to your electrode angles in producing
multi-pass welds.
i' 1-. T(e *o+i,ont%l illet Weld.
The first run is made as for a single fillet weld. The
electrode angle is straightened up to approx. 5#3 -7#3
and the run laps the first pass as in a pad, thus providing
a two pass ledge to carry the third pass.
1
To assist in practicing control for producing butt
welds in this position, a hori.ontal pad on the
vertical plate can be tried. The electrode should be
pointed some "3 upwards and bac on to the crater
at some !#3. :ae a hori.ontal bead at moderate
amperage. A slight bac and forward weaving
motion can assist with some electrodes. :ae your
next pass along the top edge of the first run and so
on, producing a pad as shown in (ig. $;.

Ve+ti.%l Weldin'
Two basic techni0ues are available for welding
vertically< - up and down. The up techni0ue is
favoured in heavy sections and large fillets or
where root penetration is of prime importance. The
down techni0ue is usually restricted to lighter
sections and joints where penetration is not a
problem %light sheet& or where excellent finish and
minimum distortion is essential. =ertain types of
electrodes such as Austarc $!9-are suitable for
many applications using this techni0ue.
In welding vertically down, the current is raised
somewhat higher than may be used on the flat %set
at maximum for the gauge& and the electrode is
contact welded or with a very short arc down the
joint, tip pointing upwards approx. *#3.
The operator must proceed at a speed which eeps
him ahead of the slag free.ing above the arc. 7nly
stringer %no weaving& beads are usually satisfactory
with >9 electrodes but a slight arc length and
weave is sometimes used on multi run welds with
cellulose electrodes %such as Austarc $$&.
In welding vertically up, somewhat less current than
normal is employed, the electrode tip being directed
upwards into the joint at an angle of "3 - $#3. The
first pass of a large weld is usually made with little
or no weave, subse0uent layers being multi-pass
layers using the same techni0ue with stringer
beads each side or more commonly with a full
weave across the face. A triangular weave for
reasonable si.ed single pass welds is sometimes
employed. These are all illustrated in (igs. !$ and
!!. ?lectrodes with a fluid slag such as Austarc
$*T= are best suited to this class of welding but it
may be carried out with any general purpose
electrode.
It is important in the full weave techni0ue to develop
a proper controlled weave. The fact that the
electrode travels twice across the centre of the weld
for every visit to the toe necessitates a fast across
the centre pause on the sides approach. 7ver a
convex first pass this aspect is even more critical if
the side grooves are to be filled and a flat weld face
achieved.
4ith the triangular weave techni0ue the first and
second passes are virtually combined with an
upwards into the toe (pause) slightly down to
the left (pause) across the centre to the right
(pause) back up into the root cycle.
________________________________________________________________________
2
O/e+(e%d Weldin'
These welds should be made as for welds in the flat
position - with due allowance for gravity@ 7bviously
large pools of molten metal are not manageable in
this position and wide weaves are rarely
acceptable. (ast narrow beads are the easiest with
1.7mm being a maximum si.e usually employed.
)se slightly lower than normal currents but travel
faster. Again an overhead pad is the best way of
practicing control. )se a *.!mm Austarc $!9 or $*8
at $!# amps, maintaining a short arc length. Two
hands may assist steadiness. The electrode should
be ept at right angles to the plate width, pointing
bac some "3 - $#3 on to the molten pool In
subse0uent pad runs the electrode can be slanted
at an angle on to the toe of the preceding bead. To
achieve a comfortable welding position it may be
desirable to bend the electrode at the holder with
some types of holders. 4hen proficient, try a fillet
weld with the se0uence and angles indicated in (ig.
!1.
A slight weave can be attempted to help smooth out
the bead shape and if this is used a drop in
amperage may assist in controlling the molten pool.
Gene+%l Notes on illet %nd #$tt Welds
6arger electrodes using higher amperages put
down more metal faster. 4hile this is important in
industry, the use of one or two electrodes of smaller
gauge in a small shop may reduce outlay, mae for
greater sill and better welds. =onsider 1mm as the
maximum si.e out of position - a *.!mm gauge in
the vertical may often prove easier to handle for the
beginner and occasional welder.
Always place a cover pass on the reverse side of a
simple vee butt weld %if no bacing plate& and
generally have both sides of a T fillet welded for full
strength in all directions.
6ap joints should be secured wherever practicable
with welds on both sides of the joint. =ertainly
welds in tans should never be carried out with only
one weld externally where corrosion can tae plate
in the open inner seam. Always lap the plates to the
extent of at least five times the thicness of the thinner
plate.
6ap and corner welds should be watched to ensure full
throat thicness being achieved without melting of the
edges of the plates, which would result in reduced
effective plate thicness.
Two pass fillet welds can be considered as acceptable
providing care is taen to ensure penetration to the root
of the joint.
The bottom leg is made longer than the vertical leg and
the second pass brings the vertical leg to si.e.
A fillet si.e is nominated by the leg length. Thus a six
millimeters fillet has leg lengths of 5mm. )sually fillet si.e
is e0ual to plate thicness of the smaller plate, e.g.. for
welding $!mm plate to 5mm plate, a 5mm fillet is
selected.
8ome reinforcement of fillet and butt welds is acceptable,
but excessive reinforcement is undesirable from both a
strength and economy point of view.
=oncave welds are more prone to cracing problems
than convex welds. A flat weld is the ideal from most
points of view.
)ndercut-sections of the parent metal where the material
has been scarfed away by arc action and not replaced
with weld metal is particularly undesirable in items
subjected to reversal stress or flexing, such as shafts,
beams, etc.
?xcessive currents tend to overheat electrodes and add
little to their penetration.
=are in joint preparation is more than amply repaid in
reduced welding time, 0uality of wormanship and joint
soundness.
:oisture in electrodes increases spatter, fiery running,
impairs general appearance, properties, and slag
removal. Tae care to ensure your electrodes are stored
correctly and dry.
S$00%+isin'
In the preceding sections we have suggested practical
welding in almost only one si.e and type of electrode for
purposes of easy tuition. The welder has been gradually
led into trying other types, si.es and currents and we
should perhaps summarise these important aspects at
this point.
Ele.t+ode Si,e
?lectrode si.e is nominated by diameter of core wire.
?lectrodes are available from !.7mm to 5mm diameter,
and this permits economic industrial welding of a wide
range thicness of material. The small user rarely has the
need or the e0uipment to warrant stocing of this full
range.
4ithin limits, larger electrodes permit more economical
welding on heavy jobs, but with correct techni0ues the
maintenance welder need rarely exceed 1mm a to
achieve sound welds. 8imilarly, a suitable !."mm
electrode with appropriate techni0ue can weld down to
$."mm material, although on the flat a !.7mm si.e may
be desirable. 8i.e of course determines the amperage
used and so
3
the heat input into the job. >enerally, the bigger the
joint the bigger the electrode desirable. It will be
found how, by use of special techni0ues the
effective heat input and penetration can be reduced
in light material by coming down and increased in
heavy material by going up, with the flat giving
average rates of heat input and penetration. Thus a
*.!mm electrode can be used to weld $."mm
sheet vertically down and $"mm thic section
vertically up but would be considered as
inappropriate for either on the flat.
Weldin' 1$++ent
?ach pacet of electrodes indicates a suitable
range of usable welding currents. >enerally normal
currents are above the average of the upper and
lower limits and welders will experience less trouble
when eeping to this more efficient upper range.
The upper limit is usually determined by the ability
of the electrode to run out its full length without
deterioration of its running characteristics or weld
metal properties. 7n lighter material, currents may
be reduced to reduce penetration or overheating of
the base material.
Ele.t+ode Sele.tion
A wide and to some extent confusing range is
available to the user. (rom the point of view of
economical stocing, perfection of techni0ue with
one >9 type maes sense. Aecause the many little
peculiarities which may warrant a different special
electrode in a particular type of high production
application are not present in the all round jobbing
shop, the user will do well to restrict his range to
several lines with wide applications.
The Table on page $5 shows the major lines
recommended for this class of rural jobbing
application. 8ome more specialised Austarc
electrodes are available and may be used where
the volume of wor or its nature is such that their
use is warranted.
4
AVOIDING DEE1TIVE WELDS
8ome 0uite harmful weld defects are due purely to
incorrect techni0ue and early recognition of their
cause and effect can assist in establishing good
practices.
Unde+.$t
=racs aside, undercut is usually considered as
the worst defect. )ndercut is the term given to a
sharp narrow groove along the toe of the weld due
to the scouring action of the arc removing the
metal and not replacing it with weld metal. It
reduces cross sectional area %and strength& but
more importantly it provides a notch into the heat
affected area of the joint which will act as a stress
raiser and possible point of crac initiation. This
defect is particularly detrimental in shafts and
beams in rotating or flexing service, giving rise to
fatigue failure. The causes are usually associated
with incorrect electrode angles, incorrect weaving
techni0ue, excessive current and too fast travel
speed.
L%.& of $sion
In this defect, weld metal lies adjacent to unfused
base material or previous runs without admixture
i.e. the two sections are not welded together. This
is usually associated with the opposite situation
which causes undercut in that too much molten
metal is flowing within the joint area without
sufficient direct arc action on the base metal
beneath. )sual causes are too slow a rate of
travel, incorrect electrode manipulation or current
too low.
Sl%' In.l$sions
8lag may be associated with undercut, incomplete
penetration and lac of fusion in addition to its
presence within a bead. Insufficient cleaning out
of slag along an undercut toe of a multipass weld
and incorrect electrode manipulation can leave
pocets of slag and unfused sections along the
weld joint. ?xcessive weaving and the use of too
large an electrode in a narrow groove or too low
amperage can also cause slag pocets. 8lag
inclusions not only reduce cross sectional area
strength of the joint but may serve as an initiation
point for serious cracing, particularly in the
harder steels.
In.o++e.t )+ofile
This defect is one not only relating to appearance
but also to overall strength of the joint. ?xcessive
concavity results in insufficient throat thicness in
relation to the nominated weld si.e. ?xcessive
convexity results in poor weld contour which in
multilayer welds can give rise to slag inclusions
while in the finished weld it provides a poor stress
pattern and a local notch effect at the toe of the
weld. 8election of correct si.e and type of
electrode with correct current and electrode
manipulation will not give these defects.
In.o0plete )enet+%tion
The general purpose manual arc welding
electrodes in common use are not noted for their
penetration. Boints must therefore be prepared to
permit full and proper access to the electrode and
weld metal so as to achieve the full throat
*EAT AND DISTORTION
4hen metal is heated it expands in all directions
and as it cools down it contracts. As it becomes
hotter most common steels become softer and
more easily wored, a factor we use when hot
forging components to a re0uired shape, bending
etc.
These two factors, woring together can result in
warping or distortion away from the original or
expected shape where the areas being heated are
restrained from movement in one or more
directions either by their own shape with uneven
localised heating or by some externally applied
force.
A simple worshop example is to tae a section of
metal, say, 7"mm of !"mm x *mm and clamp it
lightly in the vice. Cow apply the torch to the
centre of the bar and heat until the centre section
is a bright red to orange colour and allow to cool.
The steel tries to expand but, restrained
lengthwise by the jaws of the vice, it gives in the
soft hot area and, on cooling, the natural
contraction will result in the final length being
shorter and the bar will fall from the jaws. +epeat
the same experiment with several successive runs
of arc welding across the centre of the bar.
Imagine the case where the ends of the steel bar
were welded to each jaw of the vice first. The bar
would then not be free to contract and on cooling it
would be carrying an internal tensile pull, acting in
the form of a stretched spring between the two
jaws. 8uch loced up or residual stresses may in
some structures gain such magnitude that they
can seriously impair the load carrying capacity of a
member. 7n the other hand, we use the same
effect to advantage when we camber the
longitudinal members of a tray body against the
bending effect of the load and thus increase its
load capacity.
It is important in welding and cutting operations to
be aware of these factors and plan the placement
of welds, preheats, the use of holding jigs etc., so
that both distortion and loced up stresses are
ept to a minimum. It will be realised that each
successive bead of weld metal not only has a
heating effect on the metal beneath but that in
cooling from the molten state high contraction
forces are present within the bead. The following
are useful hints to minimise unwanted distortion or
stressesD
$. 4herever possible, particularly in low ductility
materials lie cast iron, have the components free
to move and set up out of position so that the
5
thicness of the weld. A butt weld or fillet weld
where the weld metal does not penetrate to the
root resulting in insufficient throat thicness
suffers from incomplete penetration and reduced
joint strength. Insufficient root gap, too great a
land, too large an electrode, current too low or
incorrect angle of electrode can all contribute to
this complaint.
1+%.&s
=racs can occur in both the base metal and the
weld metal as a result of welding. Aspects of base
metal and weld metal composition are very
important as is also the need for low hydrogen
electrodes to be dry. /owever incorrect techni0ue
can also be a cause either directly or indirectly.
(or instance too high a current producing
excessive concavity will reduce throat thicness
as will slag entrapment on the root of the weld due
to too large an electrode, too slow a rate of travel
or current too low. Insufficient throat thicness can
lead to weld cracing in a shrining weld and a
restrained joint. =raced tac welds - too small for
the job -can lead to craced final welds if not
removed.
)o+osity
9orous welds may arise as a result of coating
breadown due to excessive current, excessive
moisture picup by the electrode %particularly low
hydrogen types&, and impurities absorbed from the
base metal. )sing wet electrodes is bad practice.
A bae in the itchen oven for an hour at $$#3=
%!*#3(& for general purpose types and !"#3=
%1,#3(& for low hydrogen types will improve the
situation.
contraction pulls them into position. %see also page
$#&.
!. 9eening or hammering of the weld metal is a
compressive action that will help balance out the
tensile pull of a contracting weld. Again this is
useful in cast iron or heavy butt welds that must be
welded from one side only.
*. -o not use any greater heat %amperage or
electrode si.e& or volume of welding than is
necessary. 7ver welding is expensive and adds to
distortional problems. 7ften intermittent welds
rather than a continuously welded seam are all
that is re0uired.
1. Aalance welding on both sides of the joint in a
se0uence that will have weld bead being
deposited offsetting the distortional effect of the
previous bead.
". In many instances it is desirable to clamp
materials to substantial strong bacs so as the
overall dimensions are held during welding and
cooling.
5. Avoid excessive local heat buildup. 8hort runs
and the use of bac step techni0ues are two
methods of reducing cumulative effects.
7. )se the right joint preparation and avoid
excessive gaps involving large widths of molten
pools under cooling contraction.
,. (or lighter sheet tac more fre0uently to hold
the plates in alignment.

6
WELDA#ILIT2 O METALS AND ALLO2S
Steels
8teel is the general name given to a wide range of
alloys of iron and carbon with or without the
purposeful addition of other alloying metals. The
carbon imparts higher strength to the iron and the
ability, over a certain percentage to permit
hardening and a wide range of structural properties
by heat treatment. Increasing carbon content of
steel gives increased ease of hardening with higher
strength but lower ductility. Tougher steels with
superior properties can be achieved by replacing
some of the added carbon with other alloying
elements such as chromium, nicel, molybdenum
etc. modifying the structure of the metal in different
forms.
4elding is of course a form of heat treatment on a
joint and as a general rule the more easily
hardened and higher tensile the steel, the more
difficult they are to weld.
(or our purposes they can be considered in the
following general groupsD
1. Mild Steel 3Lo! .%+4on steel5
The term 0ild refers to its relative inability to be
hardened to any practical extent by normal heat
treatments. It is a low carbon steel with a general
range of #.#"E up to #.*E carbon and forms the
vast bul of the steels employed for general
structural fabrication, sheet metal etc. Tensile
strength is of the order of 1##-1"#:9a and it is
ductile and easily wored. It is readily able to be
welded by all common processes and offers no
special problems to the general arc welder other
than those normally pertaining to distortion control
etc.
". Medi$0 1%+4on Steels
8teels with a range of #.*"E - #.5E carbon are
heat treatable to higher strengths than mild steel
but re0uire special precautions in welding for this
reason. These steels, usually also having a slightly
higher manganese content %#.5-$ E& are used for
higher strength bar stoc in machine frames, shafts,
sprocets and cast steel tractor components, rail
lines etc. )se low hydrogen electrodes with a
preheat up to !"#3= in the heavier sections.
6. Lo! Alloy *i'( Tensile Steels
This group generally fall into the same welding
characteristics as the medium carbon steels,
although many can achieve higher strengths and
ductility but with better weldability than the
e0uivalent plain carbon alternative. 4hen carbon is
partially replaced by alternative alloying elements
such as chromium, nicel, molybdenum, vanadium
etc., the toughness, impact resistance and general
mechanical properties are improved. 8pecial low
alloy electrodes are available for special critical
applications using these steels where the weld
properties must fully match the parent metal but
satisfactory general welding can often be conducted
with the standard low hydrogen electrodes.
7. *i'( 1%+4on Steels
8teel containing #.5" -$."E carbon are referred to
as high carbons steels and again, various alloy
Aecause of the detrimental effect of excess heat
on the toughness of the material, it should be
welded cold, the area being no more than hand
hot before the next run is deposited. This may be
accomplished by sip welding, welding on several
components in turn or even welding in a water bath
with only the area to be welded exposed. It is
extensively employed in 0uarry and dredging
e0uipment where its wor hardening properties and
tough structural properties are used to advantage.
Austenitic 8tainless 8teel is also non-magnetic and
contains sufficient chromium and nicel to ensure a
tough corrosion resistant alloy. Aeing
non-heat-treatable it has good welding
characteristics with electrodes of similar
composition and is used extensively because of its
many excellent properties in the dairying
e0uipment, beverage and food processing fields as
well as for architectural and domestic hardware. Its
cost usually prohibits its use in general fabrication
applications where cheaper steels of similar
strengths are available unless of course highly
corrosive conditions are encountered such as in
chemical plant. 4hen welding stainless to mild
steel use a high alloyed stainless steel to offset
dilution of the weld metal.
1%st I+ons
A range of iron2carbon alloys containing !." - *."E
carbon are produced for casting purposes and the
general manner in which the high carbon content is
present determines their major properties and
characteristics. >rey =ast Iron, in which a large
proportion of the carbon is present as graphite
flaes is the most widely used for a whole range of
sand cast goods re0uiring a good compressive
strength but with little need for ductility. :achine
bases, automotive engine blocs, pipes, sprocet
gears etc. It derives its name from the
characteristic grey colour of the fractured iron. The
presence of the carbon as graphite reduces the
strength of the iron in tension although machining is
excellent for this reason.
4hite =ast Iron, is cast in steel moulds and the
faster cooling and modified composition ensures
the presence of the carbon mainly as white iron
carbide. The white iron shows good wear
resistance but is very brittle. In heavy sections the
components are often designated as chilled cast
irons due to the wear resistant white iron layer
close to the surface with a modified grey iron of
tougher characteristics in the core of the
component.
:alleable, -uctile and 8> Irons and :eehanite are
all special irons in which additional elements are
added to improve certain properties, notably
strength and toughness. The most common of the
higher strength types rely on obtaining the graphite
in round balls rather than flaes and strengthening
of the matrix to a level where its tensile strength is
comparable with mild steel and bend strength is
0uite good. These irons are being increasingly
employed in the agricultural component field in
small gears etc.
4elding of cast irons is made difficult by the fact
that no matter what form it is in, the carbon present
is re-dissolved in the fusion .one and due to the
0uenching effect, a brittle white iron is formed.
8imilarly its absorption by normal steel weld metals
produces a very hard brittle high carbon weld
7
modifications of the plain carbon steel are available
giving enhanced specific properties of one type or
another. Their high hardness maes them difficult to
weld and for some applications satisfactory results
can not be guaranteed. In other instances, special
high alloy electrodes and high preheats, followed
often by heat treatment, achieve a satisfactory
result.
These classes of steels are used where a sharp
edge must be maintained or where high hardness is
essential to their service conditions. 7ften referred
to as tool steels, their applications vary from
chisels, axes, files, etc., to hot or cold forging dies,
guillotines blades etc.
8. A$steniti. Steels
The exception to the rule of obtaining higher
hardness by 0uenching of steels from elevated
temperatures are two steels in specialised fields of
uses which come under the name of Austenitic
8teels. These steels are non-magnetic.
Austenitic :anganese 8teel is supplied in a
toughened 0uenched condition. It is only partially
stable and under heat or impact can harden to a
brittle wear resistance structure. It can be welded
with an alloy of similar composition or preferably for
strength welds with an Austenitic stainless steel
class of alloy but ordinary mild steel electrode
should never be employed due to hard brittle fusion
.one alloys being formed.
metal.
4eldability is best in 8> or malleable group irons
while white irons are rarely considered as weldable
for most practical applications. :ost people use a
nicel 2 iron or monel type of electrode as all these
alloys can absorb carbon without hardening thus
ensuring a relatively soft ductile weld. Aron.e
electrodes can also be employed. Ara.e welding
with the
oxyacetylene process is a good method for grey
cast iron but is unsuitable for 8> irons where the
high heat destroys the structure of the iron,
reducing its strength to a grey iron level.
=ast irons are generally arc welded with only a
small amount of heat, care being taen to use short
peened runs and to restrict any tendency to heat
buildup above hand hot, thus restricting the width of
the hardened .one and welding stresses on the low
ductility material.
>rind or chip craced section to open groove %not
narrow vee& leaving a small section for mating
parts
8

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