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There are two major classes of weld - fillet and butt. Illet welds are roughly triangular in cross section. A butt weld is made between two pieces of metal usually in the same plane.
There are two major classes of weld - fillet and butt. Illet welds are roughly triangular in cross section. A butt weld is made between two pieces of metal usually in the same plane.
There are two major classes of weld - fillet and butt. Illet welds are roughly triangular in cross section. A butt weld is made between two pieces of metal usually in the same plane.
There are two major classes of weld - fillet and butt. 1. illet !elds. These welds are roughly triangular in cross section and between two surfaces not in the same plane and the weld metal is substantially placed alongside the components being joined. ". #$tt !elds. A butt weld is made between two pieces of metal usually in the same plane, the weld metal maintaining continuity between the sections. In addition there are lap welds, corner welds and edge welds, which are to some extent special variations of the fillet and butt welds. The various weld joints and some associated terms are illustrated on page 7. M%&in' % Welded Joint in t(e l%t )osition Tae two pieces of !"# x 7" x $#mm plate and tac %a small or temporary holding weld& them together at each end to form a right angle section and set it in the ' position between two brics, as shown in (ig $". )sing your *.!mm o electrode at $*# amps, run your first pass into the joint, bisecting the angle with your electrode and maing sure that you obtain complete penetration to the corner with no lateral movement of the electrode. +emove the slag and your weld should be flat with a good flow into each side and probably have a ,mm wide surface. -eposit you next layer using a weaving motion, remembering to pause slightly at each edge. This fillet weld could probably have a face width of $!mm %and a leg length of $#mm& and of maximum desirable si.e for this thicness material. /owever, in using the specimen for practice it could be assumed that the material was thicer and a larger weld re0uired. A larger electrode could be employed %1mm or "mm& and2or it may be found necessary to restrict the width of weaving to where there are two or three passes %weld beads& in each layer of weld material as indicated in (ig. $7.
The same techni0ue and procedure would apply for single 'ee butt welds, although of course the included angle is usually restricted to 7#3 max. 4here a single vee butt weld is employed, the first run should achieve full penetration, with a cover weld placed on the reverse side. Alternatively, the gap between the two plates is widened and a bacing bar that become part of the structure is employed. It should of course be remembered that it is not essential to use other than a s0uare butt joint for material less than 5mm thic. 6ight sheet %!.7mm and under& should be tightly butted together while heavier sheet should be gapped up to half the material thicness to assist in full penetration by a weld from each side. *o+i,ont%l illet %nd #$tt Welds It is not always possible to tip your weld into the flat position. The use of weaving is therefore restricted and single beads placed in suitable se0uence are re0uired. The electrode angles and se0uence of welds are shown in (ig. $,. Try Austarc $*8 as well for this application. 9ay attention to your electrode angles in producing multi-pass welds. i' 1-. T(e *o+i,ont%l illet Weld. The first run is made as for a single fillet weld. The electrode angle is straightened up to approx. 5#3 -7#3 and the run laps the first pass as in a pad, thus providing a two pass ledge to carry the third pass. 1 To assist in practicing control for producing butt welds in this position, a hori.ontal pad on the vertical plate can be tried. The electrode should be pointed some "3 upwards and bac on to the crater at some !#3. :ae a hori.ontal bead at moderate amperage. A slight bac and forward weaving motion can assist with some electrodes. :ae your next pass along the top edge of the first run and so on, producing a pad as shown in (ig. $;.
Ve+ti.%l Weldin' Two basic techni0ues are available for welding vertically< - up and down. The up techni0ue is favoured in heavy sections and large fillets or where root penetration is of prime importance. The down techni0ue is usually restricted to lighter sections and joints where penetration is not a problem %light sheet& or where excellent finish and minimum distortion is essential. =ertain types of electrodes such as Austarc $!9-are suitable for many applications using this techni0ue. In welding vertically down, the current is raised somewhat higher than may be used on the flat %set at maximum for the gauge& and the electrode is contact welded or with a very short arc down the joint, tip pointing upwards approx. *#3. The operator must proceed at a speed which eeps him ahead of the slag free.ing above the arc. 7nly stringer %no weaving& beads are usually satisfactory with >9 electrodes but a slight arc length and weave is sometimes used on multi run welds with cellulose electrodes %such as Austarc $$&. In welding vertically up, somewhat less current than normal is employed, the electrode tip being directed upwards into the joint at an angle of "3 - $#3. The first pass of a large weld is usually made with little or no weave, subse0uent layers being multi-pass layers using the same techni0ue with stringer beads each side or more commonly with a full weave across the face. A triangular weave for reasonable si.ed single pass welds is sometimes employed. These are all illustrated in (igs. !$ and !!. ?lectrodes with a fluid slag such as Austarc $*T= are best suited to this class of welding but it may be carried out with any general purpose electrode. It is important in the full weave techni0ue to develop a proper controlled weave. The fact that the electrode travels twice across the centre of the weld for every visit to the toe necessitates a fast across the centre pause on the sides approach. 7ver a convex first pass this aspect is even more critical if the side grooves are to be filled and a flat weld face achieved. 4ith the triangular weave techni0ue the first and second passes are virtually combined with an upwards into the toe (pause) slightly down to the left (pause) across the centre to the right (pause) back up into the root cycle. ________________________________________________________________________ 2 O/e+(e%d Weldin' These welds should be made as for welds in the flat position - with due allowance for gravity@ 7bviously large pools of molten metal are not manageable in this position and wide weaves are rarely acceptable. (ast narrow beads are the easiest with 1.7mm being a maximum si.e usually employed. )se slightly lower than normal currents but travel faster. Again an overhead pad is the best way of practicing control. )se a *.!mm Austarc $!9 or $*8 at $!# amps, maintaining a short arc length. Two hands may assist steadiness. The electrode should be ept at right angles to the plate width, pointing bac some "3 - $#3 on to the molten pool In subse0uent pad runs the electrode can be slanted at an angle on to the toe of the preceding bead. To achieve a comfortable welding position it may be desirable to bend the electrode at the holder with some types of holders. 4hen proficient, try a fillet weld with the se0uence and angles indicated in (ig. !1. A slight weave can be attempted to help smooth out the bead shape and if this is used a drop in amperage may assist in controlling the molten pool. Gene+%l Notes on illet %nd #$tt Welds 6arger electrodes using higher amperages put down more metal faster. 4hile this is important in industry, the use of one or two electrodes of smaller gauge in a small shop may reduce outlay, mae for greater sill and better welds. =onsider 1mm as the maximum si.e out of position - a *.!mm gauge in the vertical may often prove easier to handle for the beginner and occasional welder. Always place a cover pass on the reverse side of a simple vee butt weld %if no bacing plate& and generally have both sides of a T fillet welded for full strength in all directions. 6ap joints should be secured wherever practicable with welds on both sides of the joint. =ertainly welds in tans should never be carried out with only one weld externally where corrosion can tae plate in the open inner seam. Always lap the plates to the extent of at least five times the thicness of the thinner plate. 6ap and corner welds should be watched to ensure full throat thicness being achieved without melting of the edges of the plates, which would result in reduced effective plate thicness. Two pass fillet welds can be considered as acceptable providing care is taen to ensure penetration to the root of the joint. The bottom leg is made longer than the vertical leg and the second pass brings the vertical leg to si.e. A fillet si.e is nominated by the leg length. Thus a six millimeters fillet has leg lengths of 5mm. )sually fillet si.e is e0ual to plate thicness of the smaller plate, e.g.. for welding $!mm plate to 5mm plate, a 5mm fillet is selected. 8ome reinforcement of fillet and butt welds is acceptable, but excessive reinforcement is undesirable from both a strength and economy point of view. =oncave welds are more prone to cracing problems than convex welds. A flat weld is the ideal from most points of view. )ndercut-sections of the parent metal where the material has been scarfed away by arc action and not replaced with weld metal is particularly undesirable in items subjected to reversal stress or flexing, such as shafts, beams, etc. ?xcessive currents tend to overheat electrodes and add little to their penetration. =are in joint preparation is more than amply repaid in reduced welding time, 0uality of wormanship and joint soundness. :oisture in electrodes increases spatter, fiery running, impairs general appearance, properties, and slag removal. Tae care to ensure your electrodes are stored correctly and dry. S$00%+isin' In the preceding sections we have suggested practical welding in almost only one si.e and type of electrode for purposes of easy tuition. The welder has been gradually led into trying other types, si.es and currents and we should perhaps summarise these important aspects at this point. Ele.t+ode Si,e ?lectrode si.e is nominated by diameter of core wire. ?lectrodes are available from !.7mm to 5mm diameter, and this permits economic industrial welding of a wide range thicness of material. The small user rarely has the need or the e0uipment to warrant stocing of this full range. 4ithin limits, larger electrodes permit more economical welding on heavy jobs, but with correct techni0ues the maintenance welder need rarely exceed 1mm a to achieve sound welds. 8imilarly, a suitable !."mm electrode with appropriate techni0ue can weld down to $."mm material, although on the flat a !.7mm si.e may be desirable. 8i.e of course determines the amperage used and so 3 the heat input into the job. >enerally, the bigger the joint the bigger the electrode desirable. It will be found how, by use of special techni0ues the effective heat input and penetration can be reduced in light material by coming down and increased in heavy material by going up, with the flat giving average rates of heat input and penetration. Thus a *.!mm electrode can be used to weld $."mm sheet vertically down and $"mm thic section vertically up but would be considered as inappropriate for either on the flat. Weldin' 1$++ent ?ach pacet of electrodes indicates a suitable range of usable welding currents. >enerally normal currents are above the average of the upper and lower limits and welders will experience less trouble when eeping to this more efficient upper range. The upper limit is usually determined by the ability of the electrode to run out its full length without deterioration of its running characteristics or weld metal properties. 7n lighter material, currents may be reduced to reduce penetration or overheating of the base material. Ele.t+ode Sele.tion A wide and to some extent confusing range is available to the user. (rom the point of view of economical stocing, perfection of techni0ue with one >9 type maes sense. Aecause the many little peculiarities which may warrant a different special electrode in a particular type of high production application are not present in the all round jobbing shop, the user will do well to restrict his range to several lines with wide applications. The Table on page $5 shows the major lines recommended for this class of rural jobbing application. 8ome more specialised Austarc electrodes are available and may be used where the volume of wor or its nature is such that their use is warranted. 4 AVOIDING DEE1TIVE WELDS 8ome 0uite harmful weld defects are due purely to incorrect techni0ue and early recognition of their cause and effect can assist in establishing good practices. Unde+.$t =racs aside, undercut is usually considered as the worst defect. )ndercut is the term given to a sharp narrow groove along the toe of the weld due to the scouring action of the arc removing the metal and not replacing it with weld metal. It reduces cross sectional area %and strength& but more importantly it provides a notch into the heat affected area of the joint which will act as a stress raiser and possible point of crac initiation. This defect is particularly detrimental in shafts and beams in rotating or flexing service, giving rise to fatigue failure. The causes are usually associated with incorrect electrode angles, incorrect weaving techni0ue, excessive current and too fast travel speed. L%.& of $sion In this defect, weld metal lies adjacent to unfused base material or previous runs without admixture i.e. the two sections are not welded together. This is usually associated with the opposite situation which causes undercut in that too much molten metal is flowing within the joint area without sufficient direct arc action on the base metal beneath. )sual causes are too slow a rate of travel, incorrect electrode manipulation or current too low. Sl%' In.l$sions 8lag may be associated with undercut, incomplete penetration and lac of fusion in addition to its presence within a bead. Insufficient cleaning out of slag along an undercut toe of a multipass weld and incorrect electrode manipulation can leave pocets of slag and unfused sections along the weld joint. ?xcessive weaving and the use of too large an electrode in a narrow groove or too low amperage can also cause slag pocets. 8lag inclusions not only reduce cross sectional area strength of the joint but may serve as an initiation point for serious cracing, particularly in the harder steels. In.o++e.t )+ofile This defect is one not only relating to appearance but also to overall strength of the joint. ?xcessive concavity results in insufficient throat thicness in relation to the nominated weld si.e. ?xcessive convexity results in poor weld contour which in multilayer welds can give rise to slag inclusions while in the finished weld it provides a poor stress pattern and a local notch effect at the toe of the weld. 8election of correct si.e and type of electrode with correct current and electrode manipulation will not give these defects. In.o0plete )enet+%tion The general purpose manual arc welding electrodes in common use are not noted for their penetration. Boints must therefore be prepared to permit full and proper access to the electrode and weld metal so as to achieve the full throat *EAT AND DISTORTION 4hen metal is heated it expands in all directions and as it cools down it contracts. As it becomes hotter most common steels become softer and more easily wored, a factor we use when hot forging components to a re0uired shape, bending etc. These two factors, woring together can result in warping or distortion away from the original or expected shape where the areas being heated are restrained from movement in one or more directions either by their own shape with uneven localised heating or by some externally applied force. A simple worshop example is to tae a section of metal, say, 7"mm of !"mm x *mm and clamp it lightly in the vice. Cow apply the torch to the centre of the bar and heat until the centre section is a bright red to orange colour and allow to cool. The steel tries to expand but, restrained lengthwise by the jaws of the vice, it gives in the soft hot area and, on cooling, the natural contraction will result in the final length being shorter and the bar will fall from the jaws. +epeat the same experiment with several successive runs of arc welding across the centre of the bar. Imagine the case where the ends of the steel bar were welded to each jaw of the vice first. The bar would then not be free to contract and on cooling it would be carrying an internal tensile pull, acting in the form of a stretched spring between the two jaws. 8uch loced up or residual stresses may in some structures gain such magnitude that they can seriously impair the load carrying capacity of a member. 7n the other hand, we use the same effect to advantage when we camber the longitudinal members of a tray body against the bending effect of the load and thus increase its load capacity. It is important in welding and cutting operations to be aware of these factors and plan the placement of welds, preheats, the use of holding jigs etc., so that both distortion and loced up stresses are ept to a minimum. It will be realised that each successive bead of weld metal not only has a heating effect on the metal beneath but that in cooling from the molten state high contraction forces are present within the bead. The following are useful hints to minimise unwanted distortion or stressesD $. 4herever possible, particularly in low ductility materials lie cast iron, have the components free to move and set up out of position so that the 5 thicness of the weld. A butt weld or fillet weld where the weld metal does not penetrate to the root resulting in insufficient throat thicness suffers from incomplete penetration and reduced joint strength. Insufficient root gap, too great a land, too large an electrode, current too low or incorrect angle of electrode can all contribute to this complaint. 1+%.&s =racs can occur in both the base metal and the weld metal as a result of welding. Aspects of base metal and weld metal composition are very important as is also the need for low hydrogen electrodes to be dry. /owever incorrect techni0ue can also be a cause either directly or indirectly. (or instance too high a current producing excessive concavity will reduce throat thicness as will slag entrapment on the root of the weld due to too large an electrode, too slow a rate of travel or current too low. Insufficient throat thicness can lead to weld cracing in a shrining weld and a restrained joint. =raced tac welds - too small for the job -can lead to craced final welds if not removed. )o+osity 9orous welds may arise as a result of coating breadown due to excessive current, excessive moisture picup by the electrode %particularly low hydrogen types&, and impurities absorbed from the base metal. )sing wet electrodes is bad practice. A bae in the itchen oven for an hour at $$#3= %!*#3(& for general purpose types and !"#3= %1,#3(& for low hydrogen types will improve the situation. contraction pulls them into position. %see also page $#&. !. 9eening or hammering of the weld metal is a compressive action that will help balance out the tensile pull of a contracting weld. Again this is useful in cast iron or heavy butt welds that must be welded from one side only. *. -o not use any greater heat %amperage or electrode si.e& or volume of welding than is necessary. 7ver welding is expensive and adds to distortional problems. 7ften intermittent welds rather than a continuously welded seam are all that is re0uired. 1. Aalance welding on both sides of the joint in a se0uence that will have weld bead being deposited offsetting the distortional effect of the previous bead. ". In many instances it is desirable to clamp materials to substantial strong bacs so as the overall dimensions are held during welding and cooling. 5. Avoid excessive local heat buildup. 8hort runs and the use of bac step techni0ues are two methods of reducing cumulative effects. 7. )se the right joint preparation and avoid excessive gaps involving large widths of molten pools under cooling contraction. ,. (or lighter sheet tac more fre0uently to hold the plates in alignment.
6 WELDA#ILIT2 O METALS AND ALLO2S Steels 8teel is the general name given to a wide range of alloys of iron and carbon with or without the purposeful addition of other alloying metals. The carbon imparts higher strength to the iron and the ability, over a certain percentage to permit hardening and a wide range of structural properties by heat treatment. Increasing carbon content of steel gives increased ease of hardening with higher strength but lower ductility. Tougher steels with superior properties can be achieved by replacing some of the added carbon with other alloying elements such as chromium, nicel, molybdenum etc. modifying the structure of the metal in different forms. 4elding is of course a form of heat treatment on a joint and as a general rule the more easily hardened and higher tensile the steel, the more difficult they are to weld. (or our purposes they can be considered in the following general groupsD 1. Mild Steel 3Lo! .%+4on steel5 The term 0ild refers to its relative inability to be hardened to any practical extent by normal heat treatments. It is a low carbon steel with a general range of #.#"E up to #.*E carbon and forms the vast bul of the steels employed for general structural fabrication, sheet metal etc. Tensile strength is of the order of 1##-1"#:9a and it is ductile and easily wored. It is readily able to be welded by all common processes and offers no special problems to the general arc welder other than those normally pertaining to distortion control etc. ". Medi$0 1%+4on Steels 8teels with a range of #.*"E - #.5E carbon are heat treatable to higher strengths than mild steel but re0uire special precautions in welding for this reason. These steels, usually also having a slightly higher manganese content %#.5-$ E& are used for higher strength bar stoc in machine frames, shafts, sprocets and cast steel tractor components, rail lines etc. )se low hydrogen electrodes with a preheat up to !"#3= in the heavier sections. 6. Lo! Alloy *i'( Tensile Steels This group generally fall into the same welding characteristics as the medium carbon steels, although many can achieve higher strengths and ductility but with better weldability than the e0uivalent plain carbon alternative. 4hen carbon is partially replaced by alternative alloying elements such as chromium, nicel, molybdenum, vanadium etc., the toughness, impact resistance and general mechanical properties are improved. 8pecial low alloy electrodes are available for special critical applications using these steels where the weld properties must fully match the parent metal but satisfactory general welding can often be conducted with the standard low hydrogen electrodes. 7. *i'( 1%+4on Steels 8teel containing #.5" -$."E carbon are referred to as high carbons steels and again, various alloy Aecause of the detrimental effect of excess heat on the toughness of the material, it should be welded cold, the area being no more than hand hot before the next run is deposited. This may be accomplished by sip welding, welding on several components in turn or even welding in a water bath with only the area to be welded exposed. It is extensively employed in 0uarry and dredging e0uipment where its wor hardening properties and tough structural properties are used to advantage. Austenitic 8tainless 8teel is also non-magnetic and contains sufficient chromium and nicel to ensure a tough corrosion resistant alloy. Aeing non-heat-treatable it has good welding characteristics with electrodes of similar composition and is used extensively because of its many excellent properties in the dairying e0uipment, beverage and food processing fields as well as for architectural and domestic hardware. Its cost usually prohibits its use in general fabrication applications where cheaper steels of similar strengths are available unless of course highly corrosive conditions are encountered such as in chemical plant. 4hen welding stainless to mild steel use a high alloyed stainless steel to offset dilution of the weld metal. 1%st I+ons A range of iron2carbon alloys containing !." - *."E carbon are produced for casting purposes and the general manner in which the high carbon content is present determines their major properties and characteristics. >rey =ast Iron, in which a large proportion of the carbon is present as graphite flaes is the most widely used for a whole range of sand cast goods re0uiring a good compressive strength but with little need for ductility. :achine bases, automotive engine blocs, pipes, sprocet gears etc. It derives its name from the characteristic grey colour of the fractured iron. The presence of the carbon as graphite reduces the strength of the iron in tension although machining is excellent for this reason. 4hite =ast Iron, is cast in steel moulds and the faster cooling and modified composition ensures the presence of the carbon mainly as white iron carbide. The white iron shows good wear resistance but is very brittle. In heavy sections the components are often designated as chilled cast irons due to the wear resistant white iron layer close to the surface with a modified grey iron of tougher characteristics in the core of the component. :alleable, -uctile and 8> Irons and :eehanite are all special irons in which additional elements are added to improve certain properties, notably strength and toughness. The most common of the higher strength types rely on obtaining the graphite in round balls rather than flaes and strengthening of the matrix to a level where its tensile strength is comparable with mild steel and bend strength is 0uite good. These irons are being increasingly employed in the agricultural component field in small gears etc. 4elding of cast irons is made difficult by the fact that no matter what form it is in, the carbon present is re-dissolved in the fusion .one and due to the 0uenching effect, a brittle white iron is formed. 8imilarly its absorption by normal steel weld metals produces a very hard brittle high carbon weld 7 modifications of the plain carbon steel are available giving enhanced specific properties of one type or another. Their high hardness maes them difficult to weld and for some applications satisfactory results can not be guaranteed. In other instances, special high alloy electrodes and high preheats, followed often by heat treatment, achieve a satisfactory result. These classes of steels are used where a sharp edge must be maintained or where high hardness is essential to their service conditions. 7ften referred to as tool steels, their applications vary from chisels, axes, files, etc., to hot or cold forging dies, guillotines blades etc. 8. A$steniti. Steels The exception to the rule of obtaining higher hardness by 0uenching of steels from elevated temperatures are two steels in specialised fields of uses which come under the name of Austenitic 8teels. These steels are non-magnetic. Austenitic :anganese 8teel is supplied in a toughened 0uenched condition. It is only partially stable and under heat or impact can harden to a brittle wear resistance structure. It can be welded with an alloy of similar composition or preferably for strength welds with an Austenitic stainless steel class of alloy but ordinary mild steel electrode should never be employed due to hard brittle fusion .one alloys being formed. metal. 4eldability is best in 8> or malleable group irons while white irons are rarely considered as weldable for most practical applications. :ost people use a nicel 2 iron or monel type of electrode as all these alloys can absorb carbon without hardening thus ensuring a relatively soft ductile weld. Aron.e electrodes can also be employed. Ara.e welding with the oxyacetylene process is a good method for grey cast iron but is unsuitable for 8> irons where the high heat destroys the structure of the iron, reducing its strength to a grey iron level. =ast irons are generally arc welded with only a small amount of heat, care being taen to use short peened runs and to restrict any tendency to heat buildup above hand hot, thus restricting the width of the hardened .one and welding stresses on the low ductility material. >rind or chip craced section to open groove %not narrow vee& leaving a small section for mating parts 8