Lecturesonthebeginningsof

calculusinKeralaandinEurope
Math191,April5,7,12,14,19
TheSchoolofMdhavainKerala,
c.13501600CE
ExodusofBrahminsfromNorthfollowing
Musliminvasions(DelhiSultanate,Mughal
EmpireofBabur,Akbar,etc.)
Tightlyknitguruparampara (chainofteachers):
Mdhava(thefounder)Paramevara Dmodara
Nl k h J h d N ( B h i ! Nlakantha,Jyethadeva Narayana (+nonBrahmins!
ankara Variyar,Acyuta Pisrati)
All in a small area, at small village temples, under Allinasmallarea,atsmallvillagetemples,under
protectionoftheMahrjah ofCalicut.
Jyethadeva wroteauniquebook,informallecture
t i M l l th Y kti Bh ( l notes,inMalayalam,theYuktiBha (vernacular
<exposition>ofrationales).AtranslationbyK.V.Sarma
wasrecentlypublishedasGanitaYuktiBha.
ThebasicideaswereattributedtoMdhava,andideas
suchasavirtuallyheliocentricmodelofthesolarsystem
to Nlakantha (1444c 1540) toNlakantha (1444c.1540)
Theirworkneverspreadandwasforgottenuntilc.1820
whenC.M.Whish learnedMalayalam,collectedpalmleaf
manuscriptsfromKeralaandfound,tohisastonishment,
acompletesystemoffluxions
Firstbigdiscovery:
1
1
R
n
n
n
R
x dx
+
+
=
}
In6.4oftheYukti:SummationofSeries
Goal is to approximate the Riemann sum
0
GoalistoapproximatetheRiemannsum
b ll ( ) hil
( )
1
. , , "radius", "segment"
n
p
k
s k s ns R s
=
= =

ass becomesassmallasanatom(au) whilen

becomesaslargeasparrdha(1trillion!)
Now
( )
1
n n
p
p p
k k
+
| |

Now
so the sums of integers are the key and he says:
( )
1
1 1
.
p
p p
k k
s k s s k
+
= =
| |
=
|
\ .

sothesumsofintegersarethekeyandhesays:
Nowsupposetheradiustobethesamenumberofunitsas
thenumberofsegmentstowhichithasbeendivided,inorder f g ,
tofacilitaterememberingtheirnumber,i.e.makes=1.
h h d d h f b f
Togivetheflavor,heresthecasep=3.
Now,tothemethodorderivingthesummationofcubes:Summationof
cubes,itisclear,isthesummationwherethesquareofeachnumber
(bhuja)inthesummationofsquaresismultipliedbythenumber.Now,by
howmuchwillthesumofcubesincreaseifallthenumberssquaredwereto
bemultipliedbytheradius.Bytheprincipleenunciatedearlier,thesquare
numbernexttolastwillincreasebyitselfbeingmultipliedby1.Thesquare
numbersbelowwillincreasebymultiplesof2,3,etc.inorder.Thatsumwill
beequaltothesummationofsummationofsquares.Ithasalreadybeen
shownthatthesummationofsquaresisequaltothecubeoftheradius.
Hencethecubeofeachnumberwillbeequaltothesummationofall
squarenumbersendingwiththatnumber.Henceitfollowsthatthe
summationofsummationofsquarenumbersisequaltothesumofcube f f q q f
numbers.Thereforethesummationofsquaresmultipliedbytheradiuswill
beequaltothesummatiuon ofcubesplusofitself.Hence,whenofitis
subtracted,whatremainswillbethesummationofcubes.Hence,italso , f ,
followsthatthesummationofcubesisequaltothesquareofthesquare
oftheradius.
3 2 2
( ( ))
R R R
k k k k R R k = =

1 1 1
2 2
. .( ( ))
R R
k k k k R R k
R k k
= =

2 2
1 1 1
3 3

k
R
R k k
R
= =
=

1
.
3 3
R
R
R
=
~

4 4
3 3
4
,
3 3 4
R R
k k = =

( )
1 1
1
Same argument shows:
p p
n
p
n R
+ +

( )
1
1
. . . , equality
1 1
p
p
k
n R
s k s s
p p
+
=
~ =
+ +

in the limit
Using double integrals and induction, this becomes:
R R R R R
| |
1 1 1
0 0 0 0
( ( )) .
R R R R R
p p p p
x
x dx x R R x dx R x dx x dy dx

| |
= =
|
\ .
} } } } }
1
0 1
.
p
p
x y
R
R x dxdy
p

s s s
=
}}
0 1

x y
p
s s s
1
= .
y R
p
p
R
R x dx dy

| |

|
|
\ .
} }
0 0
=
R
p p
p
R y
R dy
|
\ .

} }
}
( )
0
1 1
1
= .
1 h
R R
p p
p p
R dy
p p
R R
d d
+ +

}
} }
( )
1
0 0
so 1 , hence
1
p p
p
R R
x dx x dx
p p
+ = =
+
} }
Heappliesthis
summation to summationto
computefirst
1 1 1
1
p
= - + - +
in6.3andlaterto
get the power series
4 3 5 7
+ +
getthepowerseries
forarctan(x),anyx.
Hereishisbasic
diagram,aquadrant
ofacircleofradius
R P the East R,P the East
point,thelinePP
n
dividedinavery
largenumbernof
segments
Now is described the procedure for arriving at the Nowisdescribedtheprocedureforarrivingatthe
circumferenceofacircleofdesireddiameterwithout
involvingcalculationofsquareroots.Constructasquare
withfoursidesequaltothediameteroftheproposedcircle.
Inscribethecircleinsidethesquareinsuchamannerthat
thecircumferenceofthatcircletouchesthecentersofthe f f f
foursidesofthesquare.Themthroughthecenterofthe
circle,drawtheeastwestlineandthenorthsouthlinewith
their tips being located at the points of contact of the theirtipsbeinglocatedatthepointsofcontactofthe
circumferenceandthesides.Thentheintersticebetween
theeastpointandthesoutheastcornerofthesquarewill
beequaltotheradiusofthecircle.Dividethislineintoa
numberofequalpartsbymarkingalargenumberofpoints
closelyatequaldistances.Themorethedivisions,themore y q ,
accuratewouldbethecalculatedcircumference.
Outlineofproof:
Let 1 R s n s P P i n k OP s s
p
1
1
Let . , , 1 , ,
angle , so that 8
i i i i
n
i i i i
R s n s P P i n k OP
P OP u t u

= = s s =
= =

1
Sections 6.3.1, 6.3.2 are devoted to showing:
i
R R
=

2
1
sin( )
.
i i ( )
i i
i i i
s R s R
k k k
P P R
u u
u


~ = ~
d l P P
0
or, since is arctan( ),
i i
P P x R x u
0
2 2 2
coord along ,
he shows
n
P P
d R R
d k R
u
=
= =
2 2 2
dx k R x +
6.3.1:Dividingthe
circum into arcbits
A
P
i
P
i+1
C Q
i
circum.intoarcbits,
approx.thearcbitsby
sines
C
C
(AOP
i+1
)congruentto
(ACP
i+1
)andto

i+1
(P
i
CP
i+1
)and
(P
i
CO)congruentto
(Q
i
CO)

i
(Q
i
C O).
Thus:
O
i i
C P C P R OA
' '
= = =
O
1 1 1

and sin( ) hence sin( )
i i i i
i i i
k s OP PP
C P C P C Q s R
u u
+ + +
= = =
' ' ''

= = = =
1
and sin( ), hence sin( )
i i
i i i i i
k k k OP OP
u u
+
= = = =

Laststep:
Start with the identity:
a a ac
=
( )
and iterate, giving the "sequence of subtractive corrections":
b c b b b c
=
+ +
2 2 3
2 2 2 3 4
( )
a a ac ac a ac ac ac
b c b b b b c b b b b
| |
| |
| | | |
= =
|
|
| |
|
+ +
\ . \ .
\ .
\ .

Applying this to a
\ .
\ .
=
2 2 2
3 2 5 4
. , , ( ) , ,
i
s R b R c is b c k
s R s s i s i t
= = + =
| |
| |
2 3 5
3 3 5 5
.
4
1 1 1
i
i i i
i
s R s s i s i
k R R R
t
u
| |
| |
= ~ =
|
|
\ .
\ .


3 3 5 5
3 5
1 1 1
1
3 3 5 7
sn s n s n
R R R
~ + = + +
Howrigorousisthis?
Boundscomparingareeasyand
strong
,
p p
k x

}
strong
Boundsonarealsoeasy
A i k i h
sin( ) u u
1 1 1
1
Atrickypartisthat
convergesonlyconditionally,notabsolutely
1 1 1
3 5 7
1 + +
Ifx <1,thenwegetabsoluteconvergencefor
3 5
3 5
arctan( )
x x
x x = +
ThisiscalledAbelsummation:thatthelimit
of this as x1 can be taken term by term.
3 5
ofthisasx1canbetakentermbyterm.
Itisinterestingtocompare
this argument with Newtons thisargumentwithNewton s
derivationofKeplers Second
Law:thatplanetsmoveso
thattheareasweptoutthe
lineconnectingthemtothe
sunincreasesataconstant su c eases at a co sta t
speed.Bothusegeometryin
discreteapproximations,
then a loose passage to the thenaloosepassagetothe
limit.
IsaacNewton,Philosophi Naturalis PrincipiaMathematica, 1687
HowdidNewtonjustifyhismethods(myboldface)
Inanycase,Ihavepresentedtheselemmasbeforethepropositionsinorderto
avoidthetediumofworkingoutlengthyproofsbyreductio adabsurduminthe
manneroftheancientgeometers.Indeed,proofsarerenderedmoreconciseby g , p y
themethodofindivisibles.Butsincethehypothesisofindivisiblesis
problematicalandthismethodisaccountedlessgeometrical,Ihavepreferredto
maketheproofsofwhatfollowsdependontheultimate sumsandratiosof
vanishingquantitiesandonthefirstsumsandratiosofnascentquantities,that
is,onthelimits ofsuchsumsandratios,andthereforetopresentproofsof
thoselimitsbeforehandasbrieflyasIcould.Forthesameresultisobtainedby
h b h h d f d bl d h ll b f d theseasbythemethodofindivisibles,andweshallbeonsafergroundusing
principlesthathavebeenproved..
It may be objected that there is no such thing as an ultimate proportion of Itmaybeobjectedthatthereisnosuchthingasanultimateproportionof
vanishingquantities,inasmuchasbeforevanishingtheproportionisnot
ultimate,andaftervanishingitdoesnotexistatall.Buttheansweriseasy:
the ultimate ratio of vanishing quantities is to be understood not as the ratio of theultimateratioofvanishingquantitiesistobeunderstoodnotastheratioof
quantitiesbeforetheyvanishoraftertheyhavevanishedbuttheratiowith
whichtheyvanish.
NicoleOresme,13231382,TractatusdeConfigurationibusQulaitatum
Onethinghewasveryclearaboutisthatthekey
thingaboutagraphisthatitsshapeshoulddepict
t l th ti f th lit b i accuratelytheratiosofthequalitybeing
measuredagainstthetruedistancesinthesubject,
an interval of space or time anintervalofspaceortime.
Thisisthepointinproblem#1,HW9.
GottfriedWilhelmvonLeibniz,16461716
Polymath:Philosopher,Mathematician,Scientist,he
aspiredtounderstandeverything andreducetoa p y g
logicalsystem
Discoveredcalculusseeminglyindependentlyof
Newton,drawingonmanyideasintheairinthe
workofFermat,Descartes,Cavalieri,Huygens,
P l B Pascal,Barrow
Introducedandtheformalismfor
ki ith th b i t l ti t d b
, (also ) dx x ddx
}
workingwiththem.,beingstronglymotivatedby
finitedifferencesofdiscretesequences,aswerethe
Indian mathematicians Indianmathematicians.
IfA,B,C,D,E aresupposedtobequantitiesthatcontinually pp q y
increaseinmagnitude,andthedifferencesbetweensuccessive
termsaredenotedbyL,M,N,P,itwillfollowthat
L+M+N+P = E-A L+M+N+P=E A
thatis,sumsofthedifferences,nomatterhowgreattheirnumber,
willbeequaltothedifferencebetweentermsatthebeginningand
d f h i F l l k h 0 1 4 9 16 25 endoftheseries.Forexample,letustakethesquares01491625
withdifferences13579.Itisevidentthat
1+3+5+7+9=25-0=25
andthesamewillholdgoodwhateverthenumberoftermsorthe
differencesmaybe.Delightedbythiseasyeleganttheorem,our
young friend considered a large number of numerical series and youngfriendconsideredalargenumberofnumericalseries,and
alsoproceededtoto theseconddifferencesordifferencesofthe
differences,.
Leibnizwrotemanyunpublishednotesandmany
letters.
Inanunpublishedmanuscriptaddressedtothethe
JournaldesSavans(fromthe1670s),heannounces
1 1 1
1
4 3 5 7
p
= - + - +
byamethodwhichstartsverydifferentlyfrom
Madhavan butendsthesameway[nextslide]
He publishes New Method for Maxima Minima and HepublishesNewMethodforMaxima,Minimaand
Tangentsin1784usingdifferentialsdx andshowing
howtocalculatedy/dx forallfunctionsy=f(x) obtained y y f( )
byrationalexpressionsandpowers.
Hisnotesandlettersshowmuchmoredetailincluding
i t l th f d t l th d hi h integrals,thefundamentaltheoremandevenhigher
orderdifferentialsddx,dddx,[describe]