WELCOME TO SKO16

CHEMISTRY
CHEMISTRY
CHEMISTRY
08/16/11 08/16/11 matter matter 22
CHEMISTRY SK016
1.0 Matter 7
2.0 Atomic Structure 7
3.0 Periodic Table 4
4.0 Chemical Bonding 2
5.0 State of Matter 7
6.0 Chemical Equilibrium 5
7.0 Ionic Equilibria 12
Total 54
Chapte
r
Topics Hours
08/16/11 08/16/11 matter matter 33
CHEMISTRY SK026
8.0 Thermochemistry 4
9.0 Electrochemistry 6
10.0 Reaction Kinetics 7
11.0 Intro To Organic Chemistry 4
12.0 Hydrocarbons 8
13.0 Aromatic Compounds 3
14.0 Haloalkanes (Alkyl halides) 4
15.0 Hydroxy compounds 3
Chapt
er
Topic Hour
s
08/16/11 08/16/11 matter matter 44
CHEMISTRY SK026
16.0 Carbonyl 4
17.0 Carboxylic acids & Derivatives
4
18.0 Amines 5
19.0 Amino acids and Proteins
2
20.0 Polymers 1
Chapte
r
Topic Hou
r
08/16/11 08/16/11 matter matter 55
ASSESSMENT
1. COURSEWORK (20%)
Continuous evaluation (tutorial/test/quiz)
- 10%
Practical work - 10%
2. MID-SEMESTER EXAMINATION -
10%
3. FINAL EXAMINATION (70%)
Paper 1 (30 multiple choice questions) -
30%
Paper 2 (Part A-structured)
(Part B-long structured)
-100%
08/16/11 08/16/11 matter matter 66
REFERENCE BOOKS
CHEMISTRY ,9
th
Ed. Raymond Chang , McGraw-
Hill
CHEMISTRY The Molecular Nature of Matter and
Change, 3
rd
Ed. Martin Silberberg , McGraw Hill
CHEMISTRY The Central Science, 9
th
Ed.
Theodore L .Brown , H.Eugene LeMay,Jr, Bruce
E Bursten, Pearson Education
GENERAL CHEMISTRY Principle & Structure, 6
th

Ed. James E Brady , John Wiley and Sons .
08/16/11 08/16/11 matter matter 77
GENERAL CHEMISTRY Principle and
Modern Applications, 8
th
Ed. Ralph H.
Petrucci , William S. Harwood, Prentice-
Hall

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY, 7
th
Ed T.W.
Graham Solomon,Craig B.Fryhle , John
Wiley and Sons
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY, 4
th
Ed L.G. Wade,
Jr, Prentice Hall
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY, 6
th
Ed John
McMurry , Thompson Brooks/Cole
08/16/11 08/16/11 matter matter 88
Chapter 1 : MATTER
1.1 Atoms and Molecules
1.2 Mole Concept
1.3 Stoichiometry
08/16/11 08/16/11 matter matter 99
1.1 Atoms and
Molecules
08/16/11 08/16/11 matter matter 10 10
Learning Outcome
At the end of this topic, students should
be able to:
(a) Describe proton, electron and
neutron in terms of the relative mass
and relative charge.
(b) Define proton number, Z, nucleon
number, A and isotope.
(c) Write isotope notation.
08/16/11 08/16/11 matter matter 11 11
Introduction
Matter
Anything that occupies space and
has mass.
e.g: air, water, animals, trees,
atoms, etc
Matter may consists of atoms,
molecules or ions.
Classifying Matter
08/16/11 08/16/11 matter matter 12 12
A substance is a form of matter
that has a definite or constant
composition and distinct properties.
Example: H
2
O, NH
3
, O
2
A mixture is a combination of two
or more substances in which the
substances retain their identity.
Example : air, milk, cement
08/16/11 08/16/11 matter matter 13 13
An element is a substance that
cannot be separated into simpler
substances by chemical means.
Example : Na, K, Al,Fe
A compound is a substance
composed of atoms of two or more
elements chemically united in fixed
proportion.
Example : CO
2
, H
2
O, CuO
08/16/11 08/16/11 matter matter 15 15
Three States of Matter
SOLID LIQUID GAS
08/16/11 08/16/11 matter matter 16 16
a) Atoms
An atom is the smallest unit of a
chemical element/compound.
In an atom, there are 3 subatomic
particles:
- Proton (p)
- Neutron (n)
- Electron (e)
1.1 Atoms and Molecules
08/16/11 08/16/11 matter matter 17 17
Modern Model of the Atom
Electrons move around the region of the atom.
All neutral atoms can be identified by
the number of protons and neutrons
they contain.
Proton number (Z) is the number
of protons in the nucleus of the atom of
an element (which is equal to the
number of electrons). Protons number
is also known as atomic number .
Nucleon number (A) is the total
number of protons and neutrons
present in the nucleus of the atom of
an element. Also known as mass
number .
08/16/11 08/16/11 matter matter 19 19
Subatomic Particles
Particle Mass
(gram)
Charge
(Coulomb)
Charge
(units)
Electron (e) 9.1 x 10
-28
-1.6 x 10
-
19
-1
Proton (p) 1.67 x 10
-
24
+1.6 x 10
-
19
+1
Neutron (n) 1.67 x 10
-
24
0 0
08/16/11 08/16/11 matter matter 20 20
Isotope
Isotopes are two or more atoms of the
same element that have the same
proton number in their nucleus but
different nucleon number .
Examples:
H
1
1
(D) H
2
1
(T) H
3
1
U
235
92
U
238
92
08/16/11 08/16/11 matter matter 22 22
Isotope Notation
X = Element symbol
Z = Proton number of X
(p)
A = Nucleon number of X
= p + n
An atom can be represented by an isotope
notation ( atomic symbol )
08/16/11 08/16/11 matter matter 23 23
Total charge on
the ion
Proton
number of
mercury,
Z = 80
Nucleon number
of mercury, A =
202
The number of
neutrons
= A Z
= 202 80
= 122
In a neutral atom:
number of protons equals number of
electrons
In a positive ion :
number of protons is more than
number of
electrons
In a negative ion :
number of protons is less than
number of
electrons
08/16/11 08/16/11 matter matter 25 25
Exercise 1
Symbol Number of : Charge
Proton Neutro
n
Electro
n
Give the number of protons, neutrons,
electrons and charge in each of the following
species:
Hg
200
80
Cu
63
29
2 17
8
O
+ 3 59
27
Co
08/16/11 08/16/11 matter matter 26 26
Exercise 2
Specie
s
Number of : Notation
for
nuclide
Proton Neutron Electro
n
A 2 2 2
B 1 2 0
C 1 1 1
D 7 7 10
Write the appropriate notation for each of
the following nuclide :
08/16/11 08/16/11 matter matter 27 27
A molecule consists of a small number of
atoms joined together by bonds.
b)
Molecules
08/16/11 08/16/11 matter matter 28 28
A diatomic molecule
Contains only two atoms
Ex : H
2
, N
2
, O
2
, Br
2
, HCl, CO
A polyatomic molecule
Contains more than two atoms
Ex : O
3
, H
2
O, NH
3
, CH
4
08/16/11 08/16/11 matter matter 29 29
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this topic, student should
be able
to :
(a) Define relative atomic mass, A
r
and
relative molecular mass, M
r
based on
the C-12 scale.
(b) Calculate the average atomic mass of
an
element given the relative abundance
of
isotopes or a mass spectrum.
08/16/11 08/16/11 matter matter 30 30
Relative Mass
i. Relative Atomic Mass, A
r
A mass of one atom of an element
compared to 1/12 mass of one atom
of
12
C with the mass 12.000 amu
C of atom one of Mass X
12
1
element of atom one of Mass
A mass, atomic lative Re
12
r
=
08/16/11 08/16/11 31 31
Mass of an atom is often expressed in
atomic mass unit, amu (or u).
Atomic mass unit , amu is defined to be
one twelfth of the mass of
12
C atom
Mass of a
12
C atom is given a value of
exactly 12 amu
1 u = 1.6605387 10
-24
g
The relative isotopic mass is the mass
of an atom, scaled with
12
C.
08/16/11 08/16/11 matter matter 32 32
Example 1
Determine the relative atomic mass of
an element Y if the ratio of the atomic
mass of Y to carbon-12 atom is 0.45
ANSWER:
08/16/11 08/16/11 matter matter 33 33
ii) Relative Molecular Mass, M
r
A mass of one molecule of a
compound compared to 1/12 mass of
one atom of
12
C with the mass
12.000amu
C of atom one of Mass x
12
1
molecule one of Mass

Mr mass, molecular Relative
12
=
The relative molecular mass of a
compound is the summation of
the relative atomic masses of all
atoms in a molecular formula.
08/16/11 08/16/11 matter matter 35 35
Example 2
Calculate the relative molecular mass of
C
5
H
5
N,
A
r
C = 12.01
A
r
H = 1.01
A
r
N = 14.01
08/16/11 08/16/11 36 36
MASS SPECTROMETER
An atom is very light and its mass
cannot be measured directly
A mass spectrometer is an instrument
used to measure the precise masses
and relative quantity of atoms and
molecules
08/16/11 08/16/11 matter matter 37 37
08/16/11 08/16/11 38 38
Mass Spectrum of Monoatomic
Elements
Modern mass
spectrum
converts the
abundance into
percent
abundance
08/16/11 08/16/11 matter matter 39 39
Mass Spectrum of
Magnesium
The mass spectrum of Mg
shows that Mg consists of
3 isotopes :
24
Mg,
25
Mg
and
26
Mg.
The height of each line
is proportional to the
abundance of each
isotope.

24
Mg is the most
abundant of the 3 isotopes
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

a
b
u
n
d
a
n
c
e
63
8.1
9.1
24 25 26 m/e
(amu)
08/16/11 08/16/11 matter matter 40 40
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this topic, student should be At the end of this topic, student should be
able able
to :
(a) Calculate the average atomic mass of
an
element given the relative abundances
of
isotopes or a mass spectrum.

08/16/11 08/16/11 matter matter 41 41
How to calculate the relative
atomic mass, A
r
from mass
spectrum?

=
abundance
) abundance mass (isotopic
mass atomic Average

A
r
is calculated using data from the
mass spectrum.
The average of atomic masses of the
entire elements isotope as found in a
particular environment is the relative
atomic mass, A
r
of the atom.
08/16/11 08/16/11 42 42
Example 1:
Calculate the relative atomic mass of
neon from the mass spectrum.
Solution:
Average atomic =
mass of Ne
=
= 20.2 u
Relative atomic mass Ne = 20.2

e % abundanc
mass) isotopic abundance (%
) 2 . 9 3 . 0 5 . 90 (
) u 22 2 . 9 ( ) u 21 3 . 0 ( ) u 20 5 . 90 (
+ +
+ +
08/16/11 08/16/11 44 44
Example 2:
Copper occurs naturally as mixture of
69.09% of
63
Cu and 30.91% of
65
Cu.
The isotopic masses of
63
Cu and
65
Cu are 62.93 u and 64.93 u
respectively. Calculate the relative
atomic mass of copper.
Solution:
Average atomic =
mass of Cu
=
= 63.55 u
Relative atomic mass Cu = 63.55

e % abundanc
mass) isotopic abundance (%
) 91 . 30 09 . 69 (
) u 93 . 64 91 . 30 ( ) u 93 . 62 09 . 69 (
+
+
08/16/11 08/16/11 46 46
Example 3:
Naturally occurring iridium, Ir is
composed of two isotopes,
191
Ir and
193
Ir in the ratio of 5:8. The relative
isotopic mass of
191
Ir and
193
Ir are
191.021 u and 193.025 u respectively.
Calculate the relative atomic mass of
Iridium
08/16/11 08/16/11 47 47
Solution:
Average atomic =
mass of Ir
=
= 192.254 u
Relative atomic mass Ir =
192.254
( )

abundance
mass isotopic abundance
) 8 5 (
) u 025 . 193 8 ( ) u 021 . 191 5 (
+
+
Mass Spectrum of Molecular
Elements
A sample of chlorine which contains 2
isotopes with nucleon number 35 and
37 is analyzed in a mass spectrometer.
How many peaks would be expected in
the mass spectrum of chlorine?
MASS SPECTROMETER
+
_ _
Cl
2
+ e Cl
2
+
+ 2e
Cl
2
Cl
2
+ e 2Cl
+
+ 2e
35
Cl-
35
Cl
35
Cl-
37
Cl
37
Cl-
37
Cl
35
Cl-
35
Cl
+
35
Cl-
37
Cl
+
37
Cl-
37
Cl
+
35
Cl
+
37
Cl
+
Mass Spectrum of Diatomic
Elements
Exercise:
How many peaks would be expected in a
mass spectrum of X
2
which consists of
3 isotopes?
MATTER
1.2 Mole Concept
Learning Outcome
At the end of this topic, students should be
able to:
a) Define mole in terms of mass of
carbon-12 and Avogadros constant, N
A
Avogadros Number, N
A
Atoms and molecules are so small impossible
to count
A unit called mole (abbreviated mol) is devised
to count chemical substances by weighing
them
A mole is the amount of matter that contains
as many objects as the number of atoms in
exactly 12.00 g of carbon-12 isotope
The number of atoms in 12 g of
12
C is called
Avogadros number, N
A
= 6.02 x 10
23
Example:
1 mol of Cu contains Cu atoms
1 mol of O
2
contains O
2

molecules
O atoms
1 mol of NH
3
contains NH
3
molecules
N atoms
H atoms
6.02 6.02 10 10
23 23
3 3 6.02 6.02 10 10
23 23
2 2 6.02 6.02 10 10
23 23
6.02 6.02 10 10
23 23
6.02 6.02 10 10
23 23
6.02 6.02 10 10
23 23
1 mol of CuCl
2
contains Cu
2+
ions
Cl
-
ions
6.02 10
23
2 6.02 10
23
Mole and Mass
Example:
Relative atomic mass for carbon, C = 12.01
Mass of 1 C atom = 12.01 amu
Mass of 1 mol C atoms = 12.01 g
Mass of 1 mol C atoms consists of 6.02 x 10
23
C atoms
= 12.01 g
Mass of 1 C atom =

= 1.995 x 10
-23
g
23
10 x 6.02
g 01 . 12
12.01 amu = 1.995 x 10
-23
g
1 amu =
= 1.66 x 10
-23
g
amu 12.01
g 10 x .995 1
23
Example:
From the periodic table, A
r
of nitrogen, N is
The mass of 1 N atom =
The mass of 1 mol of N atoms =
The molar mass of N atom =
The molar mass of nitrogen gas =
The nucleon number of N =
14.01 14.01
14.01 amu 14.01 amu
14.01 g 14.01 g
14.01 g mol 14.01 g mol
1 1
28.02 g mol 28.02 g mol
1 1
14
14
M
r
of CH
4
is
The mass of 1 CH
4
molecule =
The mass of 1 mol of CH
4
molecules =
The molar mass of CH
4
molecule =
16.05 16.05
16.05 amu 16.05 amu
16.05 g 16.05 g
16.05 g 16.05 g
mol mol
1 1
08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 61 61
Learning Outcome
At the end of this topic, students should be
able to:
(a) Interconvert between moles, mass,
number of particles, molar volume of gas
at STP and room temperature.
(b) Define the terms empirical & molecular
formulae
(c) Determine empirical and molecular
formulae from mass composition or from mass composition or
combustion data. combustion data.
Example 1:
Calculate the number of moles of molecules for
3.011 x 10
23
molecules of oxygen gas.
Solution:
6.02 x 10
23
molecules of O
2

3.011 x 10
23
molecules of O
2

= 0.5000 mol of O
2
molecules
1 mol of O 1 mol of O
2 2
molecules molecules
molecules 10 6.02
mol 1 molecules
23

23
10 011 . 3
Example 2:
Calculate the number of moles of atoms for
1.204 x 10
23
molecules of nitrogen gas.
Solution:
6.02 x 10
23
molecules of N
2

2 mol of N atoms
1.204 x 10
23
molecules of N
2

= 0.4000 mol of N atoms
1 mol of N 1 mol of N
2 2
molecules molecules
molecules
mol 2 molecules
23
23
10 02 . 6
10 204 . 1

Example 3:
Calculate the mass of 0.25 mol of chlorine gas.
Solution:
1 mol Cl
2

0.25 mol Cl
2

18 g
or
mass = mol x molar mass
= 0.25 mol x (2 x 35.45 g mol
-1
)
= 18 g
2 2 35.45 g 35.45 g
mol 1
mol 0.25 g 35.45 2
Example 4:
Calculate the mass of 7.528 x 10
23
molecules of
methane, CH
4
Solution:
6.02 x 10
23
CH
4
molecules (12.01 + 4(1.01)) g
7.528 x 10
23
CH
4
molecules
= 20.06 g
23
23
10 02 . 6
10 7.528 g 05 . 16

Molar Volume of Gases
Avogadro (1811) stated that equal volumes of gases
at the same temperature and pressure contain
equal number of molecules
Molar volume is a volume occupied by 1 mol of gas
At standard temperature and pressure (STP), the
molar volume of an ideal gas is 22.4 L mol
1
Standard Temperature and Pressure
273.15 K 1 atm 760 mmHg
0 C 101325 N m
-2
101325 Pa
08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 67 67
Standard Molar Volume
At room conditions (1 atm, 25 C), the molar
volume of a gas = 24 L mol
-1
08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 69 69
Example 1:
Calculate the volume occupied by 1.60 mol of Calculate the volume occupied by 1.60 mol of
Cl Cl
2 2
gas at STP. gas at STP.
Solution:
At STP, At STP,
1 mol Cl 1 mol Cl
2 2
occupies occupies
1.60 mol Cl 1.60 mol Cl
2 2
occupies occupies
= 35.8 L = 35.8 L
22.4 L
mol 1
L 4 . 22 mol 60 . 1
08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 70 70
Example 2:
Calculate the volume occupied by 19.61 g of Calculate the volume occupied by 19.61 g of
N N
2 2
at STP at STP
Solution:
1 mol of N 1 mol of N
2 2
occupies occupies 22.4 L 22.4 L
of N of N
2 2
occupies occupies
= 15.7 L = 15.7 L
mol 1
L 22.4 mol
) 01 . 14 ( 2
61 . 19
|
.
|

\
|
1
mol g 2(14.01)
g 61 . 19

08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 71 71

Example 3:
0.50 mol methane, CH 0.50 mol methane, CH
4 4
gas is kept in a cylinder at gas is kept in a cylinder at
STP. Calculate: STP. Calculate:
(a) (a) The mass of the gas The mass of the gas
(b) (b) The volume of the cylinder The volume of the cylinder
(c) (c) The number of hydrogen atoms in the cylinder The number of hydrogen atoms in the cylinder
Solution:
(a) (a) Mass of 1 mol CH Mass of 1 mol CH
4 4
= =
Mass of 0.50 mol CH Mass of 0.50 mol CH
4 4
= =
= 8.0 g = 8.0 g
16.05 g
mol 1
mol 0.50 g 05 . 16
08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 72 72
(b) (b) At STP; At STP; 1 mol CH 1 mol CH
4 4
gas gas occupies occupies
0.50 mol CH 0.50 mol CH
4 4
gas gas occupies occupies
= 11 L = 11 L
(c) (c) 1 mol of CH 1 mol of CH
4 4
molecules molecules 4 mol of H atoms 4 mol of H atoms
0.50 mol of CH 0.50 mol of CH
4 4
molecules molecules 2 mol of H atoms 2 mol of H atoms
1 mol of H atoms 1 mol of H atoms
2 mol of H atoms 2 mol of H atoms
1.2 x 10 1.2 x 10
24 24
atoms atoms
22.4 L
6.02 x 10
23
atoms
2 x 6.02 x 10
23
atoms
mol 1
mol 0.50 L 4 . 22
08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 73 73
Exercise
A sample of CO
2
has a volume of 56 cm
3
at STP.
Calculate:
a) The number of moles of gas molecules
(0.0025 mol)
b) The number of CO
2
molecules
(1.506 x 10
21
molecules)
c) The number of oxygen atoms in the sample
(3.011x10
21
atoms)

Notes: 1 dm
3
= 1000 cm
3
1 dm
3
= 1 L
08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 74 74
Empirical And Molecular Formulae
- Empirical formula => => chemical formula
that shows the simplest ratio of all
elements in a molecule.
- Molecular formula => => formula that show
the actual number of atoms of each
element in a molecule.
08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 75 75
- The relationship between empirical formula
and molecular formula is :
Molecular formula = n ( empirical formula )


08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 76 76
Example:

A sample of hydrocarbon contains 85.7%
carbon and 14.3% hydrogen by mass. Its
molar mass is 56. Determine the empirical
formula and molecular formula of the
compound.
= = = = = = = =
Mass
Number
of moles
Simplest ratio
85.7
~ 2
1.984
14.1584
1
7.1357
14.3
01 . 12
7 . 85
01 . 1
3 . 14
C H
Solution:
Empirical formula = Empirical formula = CH
2
14.03
56
n =
4
3.99
~
=
8 4
2
H C formula Molecular
) n(CH formula Molecular
=
=
08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 79 79
Exercise:

A combustion of 0.202 g of an organic sample
that contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
produce 0.361g carbon dioxide and 0.147 g water.
If the relative molecular mass of the sample is
148, what is the molecular formula of the sample?
Answer : C
6
H
12
O
4


08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 80 80
At the end of this topic, students should be At the end of this topic, students should be
able to:
(a) (a) Define and perform calculation for each of for each of
the the following concentration measurements : following concentration measurements :
i) molarity (M)
ii) molality(m)
iii) mole fraction, X
iv) percentage by mass, % w/w
v) percentage by volume, %v/v
Learning Outcome
08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 81 81
Concentration of Solutions
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of
two or more substances:
solvent + solute(s)
e.g: sugar + water
solution
sugar solute
water solvent
08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 82 82
08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 83 83
Concentration of a solution can be expressed
in various ways :
a) molarity
b) molality
c) mole fraction
d) percentage by mass
e) percentage by volume
08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 84 84
a) Molarity
Molarity is the number of moles of
solute in 1 litre of solution
Units of molarity: mol L
-1
mol dm
-3
M
(L) solution of volume
(mol) solute of moles
M molarity, =
Example 1:
Determine the molarity of a solution
containing 29.22 g of sodium chloride, NaCl
in a 2.00 L solution.
Solution:
solution
NaCl
NaCl
V
n
M =
L 00 . 2
mol
) 45 . 35 99 . 22 (
22 . 29

|
.
|

\
|
+
=
= 0.250 mol L
-1

Example 2:
How many grams of calcium chloride, CaCl
2

should be used to prepare 250.00 mL
solution with a concentration of 0.500 M
Solution:
solution CaCl CaCl
x V M n
2 2
=
= 0.500 mol L
1
250.00 10
3
L
mass molar x n CaCl of mass
2
CaCl 2
=
= (0.500 250.00 10
3
) mol
(40.08 + 2(35.45)) g mol
1
= 13.9 g
08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 89 89
b) Molality
Molality is the number of moles of
solute dissolved in 1 kg of solvent
Units of molality:mol kg
-1
molal
m
(kg) solvent of mass
(mol) solute of moles
m molality, =
Example:
What is the molality of a solution
prepared by dissolving 32.0 g of CaCl
2
in
271 g of water?
Solution:
1 -
CaCl
mol g 2(35.45) 08 . 40
g 0 . 32
n
2
+
=
kg 10 271
mol
98 . 110
0 . 32
CaCl of Molality
3
2

|
.
|

\
|
=
1
kg mol 1.06

=
Exercise:
Calculate the molality of a solution
prepared by dissolving 24.52 g of sulphuric
acid in 200.00 mL of distilled water.
(Density of water = 1 g mL
-1
)

Ans = 1.250 mol kg
-1

08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 93 93
c) Mole Fraction (X)
Mole fraction is the ratio of number of
moles of one component to the total
number of moles of all component present.
For a solution containing A, B and C:
T
A
C B A
A
A
n
n

n n n
n
X of A, fraction Mol
=
+ +
=
08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 94 94
Mol fraction is always smaller than 1
The total mol fraction in a mixture
(solution) is equal to one.
X
A
+ X
B
+ X
C
+ X.. = 1
Mole fraction has Mole fraction has no unit (dimensionless)
since it is a ratio of two similar quantities.
Example:
A sample of ethanol, C
2
H
5
OH contains
200.0 g of ethanol and 150.0 g of water.
Calculate the mole fraction of
(a) ethanol
(b) water
in the solution.
Solution:
n
ethanol =
1
mol g 16.00) 5(1.01) (2(12.01)
g 0 . 200

+ +
n
water =
1
mol g 16.00) (2(1.01)
g 0 . 150

+
X
ethanol =
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
mol
02 . 18
0 . 150
mol
07 . 45
0 . 200
mol
07 . 45
0 . 200
= 0.3477
X
water
= 1 0.3477
= 0.6523
08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 98 98
d) Percentage by Mass (%w/w)
Percentage by mass is defined as the
percentage of the mass of solute per mass
of solution.
Note:
Mass of solution = mass of solute + mass of solvent
100 x
solution of mass
solute of mass
w
w
% =
Example:
A sample of 0.892 g of potassium
chloride, KCl is dissolved in 54.362 g of
water. What is the percent by mass of
KCl in the solution?
Solution:
% 100
g 54.362 g 0.892
g 892 . 0
mass %
+
=
= 1.61%
Exercise:
A solution is made by dissolving 4.2 g of
sodium chloride, NaCl in 100.00 mL of
water. Calculate the mass percent of
sodium chloride in the solution.
Answer = 4.0%
08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 101 101
e) Percentage by Volume (%V / V)
Percentage by volume is defined as the
percentage of volume of solute in milliliter per
volume of solution in milliliter.
Note:
solution of volume
solution of mass
solution of Density =
100 x
solution of volume
solute of volume

v
v
% = 100 x
solution of volume
solute of volume

v
v
% =
Example 1:
25 mL of benzene is mixed with 125 mL
of acetone. Calculate the volume percent
of benzene solution.
Solution:
100%
mL 125 mL 25
mL 25
volume %
+
=
= 17%
Example 2:
A sample of 250.00 mL ethanol is labeled
as 35.5% (v/v) ethanol. How many
milliliters of ethanol does the solution
contain?
Solution:
100%
mL 00 . 250 % 5 . 35
V
ethanol

=
% 100
V
V
ethanol of volume %
solution
ethanol
=
= 88.8 mL
Example 3:
A 6.25 m of sodium hydroxide, NaOH
solution has has a density of 1.33 g mL
-1

at 20 C. Calculate the concentration
NaOH in:
(a) molarity
(b) mole fraction
(c) percent by mass
Solution:
(a) M =
solution
NaOH
V
n


6.25 m of NaOH
there is 6.25 mol of NaOH in 1 kg of water
for a solution consists of 6.25 mol of NaOH and 1
kg of water;

V
solution
=
solution
solution
mass

mass
solution
= mass
NaOH
+ mass
water


mass
NaOH
= n
NaOH
molar mass of NaOH

= 6.25 mol (22.99 + 16.00 + 1.01) g mol
1

= 250 g
mass
solution
= 250 g + 1000 g

= 1250 g

V
solution
=
1
mL g 1.33
g 1250

M
NaOH
=
|
.
|

\
|


L 10
33 . 1
1250
mol 25 . 6
3


= 6.65 mol L
1

(b) X
NaOH
=
water NaOH
NaOH
n n
n
+


1 kg of water contains 6.25 mol of NaOH
n
water
=
water of mass molar
mass
water


=
1
mol g 16.00) (2(1.01)
g 1000

+

X
NaOH
=
|
.
|

\
|
+ mol
02 . 18
1000
mol 25 . 6
mol 25 . 6


= 0.101
(c) %(w/w) of NaOH =
water NaOH
NaOH
mass mass
mass
+
100%

=
g 1000 g 250
g 250
+
100%

= 20.0%
Exercise:
An 8.00%(w/w) aqueous solution of
ammonia has a density of 0.9651 g mL
-1
.
Calculate the
(a) molality
(b) molarity
(c) mole fraction
of the NH
3
solution
Answer: a) 5.10 mol kg
-1
b) 4.53 mol L
-1

c) 0.0842
MATTER
1.3 Stoichiometry
Learning Outcome
At the end of the lesson, students should be able
to:
a) Determine the oxidation number of an
element in a chemical formula.
b) Write and balance :
i) Chemical equation by inspection method
ii) redox equation by ion-electron method
08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 114 114
Balancing Chemical Equation
A chemical equation shows a chemical
reaction using symbols for the reactants and
products.
The formulae of the reactants are written on
the left side of the equation while the
products are on the right.
08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 115 115
Example:
x A + y B z C + w D
Reactants Products
08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 116 116
A chemical equation must have an equal number
of atoms of each element on each side of the
arrow
The number x, y, z and w, showing the relative
number of molecules reacting, are called the
stoichiometric coefficients.
A balanced equation should contain the smallest
possible whole-number coefficients
The methods to balance an equation:
a) Inspection method
b) Ion-electron method
08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 117 117
Inspection Method
1. Write down the unbalanced equation. Write the
correct formulae for the reactants and products.
2. Balance the metallic atom, followed by non-
metallic atoms.
3. Balance the hydrogen and oxygen atoms.
4. Check to ensure that the total number of atoms of
each element is the same on both sides of equation.
08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 118 118
Example:
Balance the chemical equation by applying the
inspection method.
NH
3
+ CuO Cu + N
2
+ H
2
O
08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 119 119

Exercise
Balance the chemical equation below by applying
inspection method.
1. Fe(OH)
3
+ H
2
SO
4
Fe
2
(SO
4
)
3
+ H
2
O
2. C
6
H
6
+ O
2
CO
2
+ H
2
O
3. N
2
H
4
+ H
2
O
2
HNO
3
+ H
2
O
4. ClO
2
+ H
2
O HClO
3
+ HCl
08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 120 120
Redox Reaction
Mainly for redox (reduction-oxidation)
reaction
08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 121 121
Oxidation is defined as a process of electron loss.
The substance undergoes oxidation
loses one or more electrons.
increase in oxidation number
act as an reducing agent (electron donor)
Half equation representing oxidation:
Mg Mg
2+
2e
Fe
2+
Fe
3+
+ e
2Cl
-
Cl
2
+ 2e
Reduction is defined as a process of electron gain.
The substance undergoes reduction
gains one or more electrons.
decrease in oxidation number
act as an oxidizing agent (electron acceptor)
Half equation representing reduction:
Br
2
+ 2e Br
-
Sn
4+

+ 2e Sn
2+
Al
3+
+ 3e Al
08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 123 123
Oxidation numbers of any atoms can be
determined by applying the following rules:
1. For monoatomic ions,
oxidation number = the charge on the ion
e.g: ion oxidation number
Na
+
+1
Cl
-
-1
Al
3+
+3
S
2-
-2
08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 124 124
2. For free elements, e.g: Na, Fe, O
2
, Br
2
, P
4
, S
8

oxidation number on each atom = 0
1. For most cases, oxidation number for
O = -2
H = +1
Halogens = -1
08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 125 125
Exception:
1. H bonded to metal (e.g: NaH, MgH
2
) oxidation number
for H = -1
2. Halogen bonded to oxygen (e.g: Cl
2
O
7
) oxidation
number for halogen = +ve
3. In a neutral compound (e.g: H
2
O, KMnO
4
) the total of
oxidation number of every atoms that made up the
molecule = 0
4. In a polyatomic ion (e.g: MnO
4
-
, NO
3
-
) the
total oxidation number of every atoms that made up the
molecule = net charge on the ion
08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 126 126
Exercise
1. Assign the oxidation number of Mn in the following
chemical compounds.
i. MnO
2
ii. MnO
4
-
1. Assign the oxidation number of Cl in the following
chemical compounds.
i. KClO
3
ii. Cl
2
O
7
2-
1. Assign the oxidation number of following:
i. Cr in K
2
Cr
2
O
7
ii. U in UO
2
2+
iii. C in C
2
O
4
2-
08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 127 127
Balancing Redox Reaction
Redox reaction may occur in acidic and basic
solutions.
Follow the steps systematically so that
equations become easier to balance.
08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 128 128
Balancing Redox Reaction In Acidic
Solution
Fe
2+
+ MnO
4
-
Fe
3+
+ Mn
2+
1. Separate the equation into two half-
reactions: reduction reaction and oxidation
reaction
i. Fe
2+
Fe
3+

ii. MnO
4
-
Mn
2+
08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 129 129
1. Balance atoms other than O and H in each
half-reaction separately
i. Fe
2+
Fe
3+

ii. MnO
4
-
Mn
2+
08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER
130 130
3. Add H
2
O to balance the O atoms
Add H
+
to balance the H atoms
i. Fe
2+
Fe
3+

ii. MnO
4
-
+ Mn
2+
+
4. Add electrons to balance the charges
i. Fe
2+
Fe
3+
+
ii. MnO
4
-
+ 8H
+
+ Mn
2+
+ 4H
2
O
4H
2
O
8H
+
1 e
5 e
08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 131 131
3.Multiply each half-reaction by an integer, so that
number of electron lost in one half-reaction equals
the number gained in the other.
i. 5 x (Fe
2+
Fe
3+
+ 1e)
5Fe
2+
5Fe
3+
+ 5e
ii. MnO
4
-
+ 8H
+
+ 5e Mn
2+
+ 4H
2
O
1. Add the two half-reactions and simplify where
possible by canceling the species appearing on both
sides of the equation.
i. 5Fe
2+
5Fe
3+
+ 5e
ii. MnO
4
-
+ 8H
+
+ 5e Mn
2+
+ 4H
2
O
___________________________________
5Fe
2+
+ MnO
4
-
+ 8H
+
5Fe
3+
+ Mn
2+
+ 4H
2
O

___________________________________
5. Check the equation to make sure that there
are the same number of atoms of each kind
and the same total charge on both sides.
5Fe
2+
+ MnO
4
-
+ 8H
+
5Fe
3+
+ Mn
2+
+ 4H
2
O
Total charge reactant
= 5(+2) + ( - 1) + 8(+1)
= + 10 - 1 + 8
= +17
Total charge product
= 5(+3) + (+2) + 4(0)
= + 15 + (+2)
= +17
5Fe
2+
+ MnO
4
-
+ 8H
+
5Fe
3+
+ Mn
2+
+ 4H
2
O
Total charge reactant
= 5(+2) + ( - 1) + 8(+1)
= + 10 - 1 + 8
= +17
Total charge product
= 5(+3) + (+2) + 4(0)
= + 15 + (+2)
= +17
08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 134 134
Exercise: In Acidic Solution
C
2
O
4
2-
+ MnO
4
-
+ H
+
CO
2
+ Mn
2+
+ H
2
O
Solution :
08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 135 135
Balancing Redox Reaction In Basic Solution
1. Firstly balance the equation as in acidic
solution.
2. Then, add OH
-
to both sides of the equation so
that it can be combined with H
+
to form H
2
O.
3. The number of OH
-
added is equal to the
number of H
+
in the equation.
08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 136 136
Example: In Basic Solution
Cr(OH)
3
+ IO
3
-
+ OH
-
CrO
3
2-
+ I
-
+ H
2
O
08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 137 137
Exercise:
1. H
2
O
2
+ MnO
4
-
+ H
+
O
2
+ Mn
2+
+ H
2
O
(acidic medium)
2. Zn + SO
4
2-
+ H
2
O Zn
2+
+ SO
2
+ 4OH
-
(basic medium)
3. MnO
4
-
+ C
2
O
4
2-
+ H
+
Mn
2+
+ CO
2
+ H
2
O
(acidic medium)
4. Cl
2
ClO
3
-
+ Cl
-
(basic medium)
08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 138 138
Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry is the quantitative study of
reactants and products in a chemical
reaction.
A chemical equation can be interpreted in
terms of molecules, moles, mass or even
volume.
C
3
H
8
+ 5O
2
3CO
2
+ 4H
2
O
1 molecule of C
3
H
8
reacts with 5 molecules of O
2

to produce 3 molecules of CO
2
and 4 molecules
of H
2
O
6.02 x 10
23
molecules of C
3
H
8
reacts with 5(6.02
x 10
23
) molecules of O
2
to produce 3(6.02 x
10
23
) molecules of CO
2
and 4(6.02 x 10
23
)
molecules of H
2
O
C
3
H
8
+ 5O
2
3CO
2
+ 4H
2
O
1 mol of C
3
H
8
reacts with 5 moles of O
2
to
produce 3 moles of CO
2
and 4 moles of H
2
O
44.09 g of C
3
H
8
reacts with 160.00 g of O
2
to
produce 132.03 g of CO
2
and 72.06 g of H
2
O
5 moles of C
3
H
8
reacts with 25 moles of O
2
to
produce 15 moles of CO
2
and 20 moles of H
2
O
At room condition, 25 C and 1 atm pressure;
22.4 dm
3
of C
3
H
8
reacts with 5(22.4 dm
3
) of
O
2
to produce 3(22.4 dm
3
) of CO
2
Example 1:
How many grams of water are produced in the
oxidation of 0.125 mol of glucose?
C
6
H
12
O
6(s)
+ O
2(g)
CO
2(g)
+ H
2
O
(l)
Solution:
From the balanced equation;
1 mol C
6
H
12
O
6
produce 6 mol H
2
O
0.125 mol C
6
H
12
O
6
produce H
2
O
mass of H
2
O = (0.125 x 6) mol
x (2.02 + 16.00) g mol
-1
= 13.5 g
mol 1
mol 6 mol 125 . 0
Example 2:
Ethene, C
2
H
4
burns in excess oxygen to form
carbon dioxide gas and water vapour.
(a) Write a balance equation of the
reaction
(b) If 20.0 dm
3
of carbon dioxide gas is
produced in the reaction at STP, how
many grams of ethene are used?
Solution:
(a) C
2
H
4
+ O
2
CO
2
+ H
2
O
(b) 22.4 dm
3
is the volume of 1 mol CO
2
20.0 dm
3
is the volume of CO
2
2 mol CO
2
produced by 1 mol C
2
H
4

mol CO
2
produced by
C
2
H
4
3
3
dm 4 . 22
mol 1 dm 0 . 20
4 . 22
0 . 20
mol 2
mol 1 mol
4 . 22
0 . 20

|
.
|

\
|
mass
ethane
1 -
mol g 4(1.01)] [2(12.01) x mol
2
4 . 22
0 . 20
+
|
.
|

\
|
=
= 12.5 g
Learning Outcome
At the end of this topic, students should be
able to:
a) Define the limiting reactant and
percentage yield
b) Perfome stoichiometric calculations
using mole concept including limiting
reactant and percentage yield.
08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 148 148
Limiting Reactant/Reagent
Limiting reactant is the reactant that is
completely consumed in a reaction and limits
the amount of product formed
Excess reactant is the reactant present in
quantity greater than necessary to react with
the quantity of limiting reactant
Example:
3H
2
+ N
2
2NH
3
If 6 moles of hydrogen is mixed with 6 moles of nitrogen,
how many moles of ammonia will be produced?
Solution:
3 mol H
2
reacts with 1 mol N
2
6 mol H
2
reacts with

mol 3
mol 1 mol 6
= 2 mol N
2
N
2
is the excess reactant
H
2
is the limiting reactant
limits the amount of products formed
3 mol H
2
produce 2 mol NH
3
6 mol H
2
produce
mol 3
mol 2 mol 6
= 4 mol NH
3
or
1 mol N
2
react with 3 mol H
2
6 mol N
2
react with mol NH
3


mol 1
mol 3 mol 6
= 18 mol H
2
H
2
is not enough
H
2
limits the amount of products formed
limiting reactant
3 mol H
2
produce 2 mol NH
3
6 mol N
2
produce mol NH
3
= 4 mol NH
3
mol 3
mol 2 mol 6
08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 154 154
Exercise:
Consider the reaction:
2 Al
(s)
+ 3Cl
2(g)
2 AlCl
3(s)
A mixture of 2.75 moles of Al and 5.00 moles of Cl
2
are
allowed to react.
(a) What is the limiting reactant?
(b) How many moles of AlCl
3
are formed?
(c) How many moles of the reactant remain at
the end of the reaction?
08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 155 155
PERCENTAGE YIELD
The amount of product predicted by a balanced
equation is the theoretical yield
The theoretical yield is never obtain because:
1. The reaction may undergo side reaction
2. Many reaction are reversible
3. There may be impurities in the reactants

08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 156 156
4. The product formed may react further to
form other product
5. It may be difficult to recover all of the
product from the reaction medium
The amount product actually obtained in a
reaction is the actual yield
08/16/11 08/16/11 MATTER MATTER 157 157
Percentage yield is the percent of the actual
yield of a product to its theoretical yield
100 x
yield
yield
yield %
l theoretica
actual
=
Example 1:
Benzene, C
6
H
6
and bromine undergo reaction as follows:
C
6
H
6
+ Br
2
C
6
H
5
Br + HBr
In an experiment, 15.0 g of benzene are mixed with excess
bromine
(a) Calculate the mass of bromobenzene, C
6
H
5
Br
that would be produced in the reaction.
(b) What is the percent yield if only 28.5 g of
bromobenzene obtain from the experiment?