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40 (2007) 909–929
Anatomy
The anatomy of the voice is not limited to the region between the supra-
sternal notch (top of the breast bone) and the hyoid bone. Practically all
body systems affect the voice. The larynx receives the greatest attention be-
cause it is the most sensitive and expressive component of the vocal mech-
anism, but anatomic interactions throughout the patient’s body must be
considered in treating the professional voice user. It is helpful to think of
the larynx as composed of four anatomic units: skeleton, mucosa, intrinsic
muscles, and extrinsic muscles. The glottis is the space between the vocal
folds [1]. The portions of the larynx above the vocal folds are referred to
as the supraglottis. The area below the vocal folds is referred to as the sub-
glottis. The vocal tract includes those portions of the aerodigestive tract in-
volved in vocal production.
Larynx: skeleton
The most important parts of the laryngeal skeleton are the thyroid carti-
lage, cricoid cartilage, and the two arytenoid cartilages (Fig. 1). Intrinsic
muscles of the larynx are connected to these cartilages. One of the intrinsic
muscles, the thyroarytenoid, extends on each side from the arytenoid carti-
lage to the inside of the thyroid cartilage just below and behind the thyroid
prominence. The medial belly of the thyroarytenoid is also known as the
This article is modified from: Sataloff RT. Professional voice: the science and art of clinical
care. 3rd edition. San Diego (CA): Plural Publishing, Inc.; 2006. p. 143–77; with permission.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: rtsataloff@phillyent.com (R.T. Sataloff).
0030-6665/07/$ - see front matter Ó 2007 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.otc.2007.05.002 oto.theclinics.com
910 SATALOFF et al
Fig. 1. Cartilages of the larynx. (From Sataloff RT. Professional voice: the science and art of clin-
ical care. 3rd edition. San Diego (CA): Plural Publishing, Inc.; 2006. p. 143–77; with permission.)
vocalis muscle, and it forms the body of the vocal fold. The laryngeal carti-
lages are connected by soft attachments that allow changes in their relative
angles and distances, thereby permitting alterations in the shape and tension
of the tissues extended between them. The arytenoids are capable of com-
plex motion. It used to be said that the arytenoids rock, glide, and rotate.
More accurately, with adduction of the vocal folds the cartilages are
brought together in the midline and revolve over the cricoid, moving inferi-
orly and anteriorly. It seems that people use different strategies for
CLINICAL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOICE 911
approximating the arytenoids and that such strategies may influence a per-
son’s susceptibility to laryngeal trauma that can cause vocal process ulcers
and laryngeal granulomas.
Larynx: mucosa
The vibratory margin of the vocal fold is much more complicated than sim-
ply mucosa applied to muscle or ligament. It consists of five layers (Fig. 2) [2].
The thin, lubricated epithelium covering the vocal folds forms the area of con-
tact between the vibrating vocal folds and acts somewhat like a capsule, help-
ing to maintain vocal fold shape. The epithelium lining most of the vocal tract
is pseudo-stratified, ciliated, columnar epithelium, typical respiratory epithe-
lium involved in handling mucous secretions. The vibratory margin of the vo-
cal fold is covered with stratified squamous epithelium, better suited to
withstand the trauma of vocal fold contact. The superficial layer of the lamina
propria, also known as Reinke’s space, is composed of loose fibrous compo-
nents and matrix. It contains few fibroblasts. The intermediate layer of lam-
ina propria consists primarily of elastic fibers and does contain fibroblasts.
The deep layer of the lamina propria is composed primarily of collagenous
fibers and is rich in fibroblasts. The thyroarytenoid or vocalis muscle makes
up the body of the vocal fold and is one of the intrinsic laryngeal muscles. The
intermediate and deep layers of the lamina propria constitute the vocal liga-
ment and lie immediately below the Reinke’s space.
Although variations along the length of the membranous vocal fold are
important in only a few situations, the surgeon, in particular, should be
aware that they exist. Particularly striking variations occur at the anterior
and posterior portion of the membranous vocal fold. Anteriorly, the inter-
mediate layer of the lamina propria becomes thick, forming an oval mass
called the anterior macula flava. This structure is composed of stroma, fibro-
blasts, and elastic fibers. Anteriorly, it inserts into the anterior commissure
tendon, a mass of collagenous fibers that is connected to the thyroid carti-
lage anteriorly, the anterior macula flava posteriorly, and the deep layer
of the lamina propria laterally. As Hirano has pointed out, this arrangement
allows the stiffness to change gradually from the pliable membranous vocal
fold to the stiffness of the thyroid cartilage [3].
A similar gradual change in stiffness occurs posteriorly where the inter-
mediate layer of the lamina propria also thickens to form the posterior mac-
ula flava, another oval mass. It is structurally similar to the anterior macula
flava. The posterior macula flava attaches to the vocal process of the aryte-
noid cartilage through a transitional structure that consists of chondrocytes,
fibroblasts, and intermediate cells [4]. The stiffness thus progresses from the
membranous vocal fold to the slightly stiffer macula flava, to the stiffer tran-
sitional structure, to the elastic cartilage of the vocal process, to the hyaline
cartilage of the arytenoid body. It is believed that this gradual change in
stiffness serves as a cushion that may protect the ends of the vocal folds
912 SATALOFF et al
Fig. 2. An overview of the larynx and vocal tract showing the vocal folds and the region from
which the vocal fold was sampled to obtain the cross section showing the layered structure. (Re-
printed from: Sataloff RT. The human voice. Sci Am 1992;267:108–15; with permission.)
CLINICAL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOICE 913
from mechanical damage caused by contact or vibrations [4]. It may also act
as a controlled damper that smoothes mechanical changes in vocal fold ad-
justment. This arrangement seems particularly well suited to vibration, as
are other aspects of the vocal fold architecture. For example, blood vessels
in the vibratory margin come from posterior and anterior origins and run
parallel to the vibratory margin, with few vessels entering the mucosa per-
pendicularly or from underlying muscle. The vibratory margin contains
no glands, whose presence would likely interfere with the smoothness of vi-
bratory waves. Even the elastic and collagenous fibers of the lamina propria
run approximately parallel to the vibratory margin. The more one studies
the vocal fold, the more one appreciates the beauty of its engineering.
Functionally, the five layers have different mechanical properties and
may be thought of as somewhat like ball bearings of different sizes that al-
low the smooth shearing action necessary for proper vocal fold vibration.
The posterior two fifths (approximately) of the vocal folds are cartilaginous,
and the anterior three fifths are membranous (from the vocal process for-
ward) in adults. Under normal circumstances, most of the vibratory func-
tion critical to sound quality occurs in the membranous portion.
Mechanically, the vocal fold structures act more like three layers consist-
ing of the cover (epithelium and Reinke’s space), transition (intermediate
and deep layers of the lamina propria), and the body (the vocalis muscles).
Understanding this anatomy is important because different pathologic enti-
ties occur in different layers and require different approaches to treatment.
For example, fibroblasts are responsible for scar formation. Lesions that oc-
cur superficially in the vocal folds (such as nodules, cysts, and most polyps)
should therefore permit treatment without disturbance of the intermediate
and deep layers, fibroblast proliferation, or scar formation.
In addition to the five layers discussed above, recent research has shown
that there is a complex basement membrane connecting the epithelium to
the superficial layer of the lamina propria [5]. The basement membrane is
a multilayered, chemically complex structure. It gives rise to Type VII col-
lagen loops that surround Type III collagen fibers in the superficial layer
of the lamina propria. Knowledge of the basement membrane has already
been important in changing surgical technique. Additional research is likely
to show its great importance in other matters, such as the ability to heal fol-
lowing trauma, possibly the development of certain kinds of vocal fold pa-
thology, and probably in histopathologic differential diagnosis.
The vocal folds may be thought of as the oscillators of the vocal mechanism
[6]. Above the true vocal folds are tissues known as false vocal folds. Unlike
the true vocal folds, they do not make contact during normal speaking or sing-
ing. They may produce voice during certain abnormal circumstances, how-
ever. This phenomenon is called ‘‘dysphonia plica ventricularis.’’ Until
recently, the importance of the false vocal folds during normal phonation
was not appreciated. In general, they are considered to be used primarily
for forceful laryngeal closure and they may be used excessively during
914 SATALOFF et al
Fig. 3. The intrinsic muscles of the larynx. (From Sataloff RT. Professional voice: the science
and art of clinical care. 3rd edition. San Diego (CA): Plural Publishing, Inc.; 2006. p. 143–77;
with permission.)
Fig. 4. Action of the intrinsic muscles. In the bottom four figures the directional arrows suggest
muscle actions but may give a misleading impression of arytenoid motion. These drawings
should not be misinterpreted as indicating that the arytenoid cartilage rotates around a vertical
axis. The angle of the long axis of the cricoid facets does not permit some of the motion implied
in this figure. The drawing still provides a useful conceptualization of the effect of individual
intrinsic muscles, however, so long as the limitations are recognized. (From Sataloff RT. Profes-
sional voice: the science and art of clinical care. 3rd edition. San Diego (CA): Plural Publishing,
Inc.; 2006. p. 143–77; with permission.)
916 SATALOFF et al
Fig. 5. The superior and recurrent laryngeal nerves branch from the vagus nerve and enter the
larynx.
CLINICAL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOICE 917
portions of the arch of the cricoid cartilage. It has two bellies. The oblique
belly inserts into the posterior half of the thyroid lamina and the anterior
portion of the inferior cornu of the thyroid cartilage. The vertical (erect)
belly inserts into the inferior border of the anterior aspect of the thyroid
cartilage.
Intrinsic laryngeal muscles are skeletal muscles. All skeletal muscles are
composed primarily of three types of fibers. Type I fibers are highly resistant
to fatigue, contract slowly, and use aerobic (oxidative) metabolism. They have
low glycogen levels, high levels of oxidative enzymes, and they are relatively
smaller in diameter. Type IIA fibers use principally oxidative metabolism
but contain high levels of oxidative enzymes and glycogen. They contract rap-
idly but are also fatigue resistant. Type IIB fibers are the largest in diameter.
They use aerobic glycolysis primarily, containing much glycogen but rela-
tively few oxidative enzymes. They contract quickly, but fatigue easily.
The fiber composition of laryngeal muscles differs from that of most
larger skeletal muscles. Elsewhere, muscle fiber diameters are fairly con-
stant, ranging between 60 to 80 mm. In laryngeal muscles there is consider-
ably more variability [7,8], and fiber diameters vary between 10 and 100 mm,
with an average of 40 to 50 mm. Laryngeal muscles have a higher proportion
of Type IIA fibers than most other muscles. The thyroarytenoid and lateral
cricothyroid muscles are particularly specialized for rapid contraction. The
laryngeal muscles in general seem to have fiber distributions and variations
that make them particularly well suited to rapid contraction with fatigue re-
sistance [9]. In addition, many laryngeal motor units have multiple neural
innervation. There seem to be approximately 20 to 30 muscle fibers per mo-
tor unit in a human cricothyroid muscle [10], suggesting that the motor unit
size of this laryngeal muscle is similar to that of extraocular and facial mus-
cles [11]. In the human thyroarytenoid muscle, 70% to 80% of muscle fibers
have two or more nerve endplates [12]. Some fibers have as many as five
nerve endplates. Only 50% of cricothyroid and lateral cricoarytenoid muscle
fibers have multiple endplates, and multiple innervation is even less common
in the posterior cricoarytenoid (5%). It is still not known whether one mus-
cle fiber can be part of more than one motor unit (receive endplates from
different motor neurons) [9].
The abdomen
The abdominal musculature is the so-called ‘‘support’’ of the singing
voice, although singers generally refer to their support mechanism as their
diaphragm. The function of the diaphragm muscle in singing is complex
and somewhat variable from singer to singer (or actor to actor). The dia-
phragm primarily generates inspiratory force. Although the abdomen can
also perform this function in some situations [14], it is primarily an expira-
tory-force generator. The diaphragm is co-activated by some performers
during singing and seems to play an important part in the fine regulation
of singing [15]. Actually, the anatomy of support for phonation is compli-
cated and not completely understood. The lungs and rib cage generate
passive expiratory forces under many common circumstances. Passive inspi-
ratory forces also occur. Active respiratory muscles working in consort with
passive forces include the intercostal, abdominal wall, back, and diaphragm
muscles. The principle muscles of inspiration are the diaphragm, the exter-
nal intercostal muscles that connect the bony ribs, and the interchondral
portions of the internal intercostal muscles that connect the cartilaginous
ribs. Accessory muscles of inspiration include the pectoralis major; pector-
alis minor; serratus anterior; subclavius; sternocleidomastoid; anterior, me-
dial, and posterior scalenus; serratus posterior and superior; latissimus
dorsi; and levatores costarum. During quiet respiration, expiration is largely
passive. Many of the muscles used for active expiration (forcing air out of
the lungs) are also used in support for singing and acting. Muscles of active
expiration either raise the intra-abdominal pressure, forcing the diaphragm
upward, or lower the ribs or sternum to decrease the dimension of the tho-
rax, or both. They include the internal intercostals that connect the bony
ribs, stiffen the rib interspaces, and pull the ribs down; transversus thoracis,
subcostal muscles, and serratus posterior inferior, all of which pull the ribs
down; and the quadratus lumborum, which depresses the lowest rib. In
CLINICAL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOICE 921
addition, the latissimus dorsi, which may also act as a muscle of inspiration,
is capable of compressing the lower portion of the rib cage and can act as
a muscle of expiration and a muscle of inspiration. The above muscles all
participate in active expiration (and support). The primary muscles of active
expiration are the abdominal muscles, however. They include the external
oblique abdominus, internal oblique abdominus, rectus abdominus, and
transversus abdominus. The external oblique is a flat broad muscle located
on the side and front of the lower chest and abdomen. On contraction, it pulls
the lower ribs down and raises the abdominal pressure by displacing abdom-
inal contents inward. It is an important muscle for support of singing and
acting voice tasks. It should be noted that this muscle is strengthened by ab-
dominal exercises that involve the combination of rotation and contraction,
and other exercises, but is not developed effectively by traditional trunk curl
sit-ups. Appropriate strengthening exercises of the external oblique muscles
are often inappropriately neglected in voice training. The internal oblique is
a flat muscle in the side and front wall of the abdomen. It lies deep to the ex-
ternal oblique. When contracted, the internal oblique drives the abdominal
wall inward and lowers the lower ribs. The rectus abdominus runs parallel
to the midline of the abdomen originating from the xiphoid process of the
sternum and the fifth, sixth, and seventh costal cartilages. It inserts into
the pubic bone. It is encased in the fibrous abdominal aponeurosis. Contrac-
tion of the rectus abdominus lowers the sternum and ribs and stabilizes the
abdominal wall. The transversus abdominus is a broad muscle located under
the internal oblique on the side and front of the abdomen. Its fibers run hor-
izontally around the abdomen. Contraction of the transverse abdominus
compresses the abdominal contents, elevating abdominal pressure.
The abdominal musculature receives considerable attention in vocal
training. The purpose of abdominal support is to maintain an efficient, con-
stant power source and inspiratory–expiratory mechanism. There is dis-
agreement among voice teachers as to the best model for teaching support
technique. Some experts describe positioning the abdominal musculature
under the rib cage; others advocate distension of the abdomen. Either
method may result in vocal problems if used incorrectly, but distending
the abdomen (the inverse pressure approach) is especially dangerous, be-
cause it tends to focus the singer’s muscular effort in a downward and out-
ward direction, which is ineffective. The singer thus may exert considerable
effort, believing he or she is practicing good support technique, without ob-
taining the desired effect. Proper abdominal muscle training is essential to
good singing and speaking, and the physician must consider abdominal
function when evaluating vocal disabilities.
Physiology
The physiology of voice production is exceedingly complex and is sum-
marized only briefly in this article. Greater detail may be found elsewhere
[1,16–21].
many trained singers, the ability to use tactile feedback effectively is culti-
vated as a result of frequent interference with auditory feedback by ancillary
noise in the concert environment (eg, an orchestra or band).
The voice requires interactions among the power source (the lungs, ab-
dominal and back muscles, and the vocal folds), the oscillator, and the res-
onator. The power source compresses air and forces it toward the larynx.
The mucosal cover of the vocal folds opens and closes when the vocal folds
are in the adducted state, permitting small bursts of air to escape between
them. Numerous factors affect the sound produced at the glottal level, in-
cluding the pressure that builds below the vocal folds (subglottal pressure),
the amount of resistance to opening the glottis (glottal impedance), volume
velocity of air flow at the glottis, and supraglottal pressure. The vocal folds
do not vibrate like the strings on a violin. Rather, they separate and collide
somewhat like buzzing lips. The number of times they do so in any given
second (ie, their frequency) determines the number of air puffs that escape
and, thus, the pitch of the voice. The frequency of glottal closing and open-
ing is one factor in determining vocal quality. Other factors affect loudness,
such as subglottal pressure, glottal resistance, and amplitude of vocal fold
displacement from the midline during each vibratory cycle. The sound cre-
ated at the vocal fold level is a buzz, similar to the sound produced when
blowing between two blades of grass. This sound contains a complete set
of harmonic partials and is responsible in part for the acoustic characteris-
tics of the voice. Complex and sophisticated interactions in the supraglottic
vocal tract may accentuate or attenuate harmonic partials, acting as a reso-
nator. This portion of the vocal tract is largely responsible for the beauty
and variety of the sound produced.
Interactions among the various components of the vocal tract ultimately
are responsible for all the vocal characteristics produced. Many aspects of
the voice still lack complete understanding and classification. Vocal range
is reasonably well understood, and broad categories of voice classifications
are generally accepted. Other characteristics, such as vocal register, are con-
troversial. Registers are expressed as quality changes within an individual
voice. From low to high, they may include vocal fry, chest voice, middle
voice, head voice, falsetto, and whistle, although not everyone agrees that
all categories exist. The term modal register, used most frequently in speech
terms, refers to the voice quality generally used by healthy speakers, as op-
posed to a low, gravelly vocal fry or high falsetto.
Vibrato is a rhythmic variation in frequency and intensity. Its exact
source remains uncertain, and its desirable characteristics depend on voice
range and the type of music sung. It seems most likely that the frequency
modulations are controlled primarily by intrinsic laryngeal muscles, espe-
cially the cricothyroid and adductor muscles. Extrinsic laryngeal muscles
and muscles of the supraglottic vocal tract may also play a role. Intensity
variations may be caused by variations in subglottal pressure, glottal adjust-
ments that affect subglottal pressure, secondary effects of the frequency
924 SATALOFF et al
Respiration
Basic functions of the nose, larynx, and elemental concepts of inspiration
and expiration are discussed elsewhere [1]. A brief review of selected aspects
of pulmonary function is included here to assist readers in understanding the
processes that underlie support and in understanding pulmonary disorders
and their assessment.
Starting from the mouth, the respiratory system consists of progressively
smaller airway structures. The trachea branches at the carina into mainstem
bronchi, which then branch into progressively smaller bronchial passages
and terminate in alveoli. Gas exchange between the lungs and the blood-
stream occurs at the alveolar level. Air moves in and out of the alveoli to
permit this exchange of gases. Air is forced out of the alveoli also to create
the air stream through which phonation is produced. Ultimately, alveolar
pressure is the primary power source for phonation and is responsible for
the creation of the subglottal pressure involved in phonation. Alveolar pres-
sure is actually greater than subglottal pressure during phonation and expi-
ration because some pressure is lost because of the airway resistance
between the alveoli and the larynx. As the air passes from the alveoli, it en-
ters first the bronchioles, which are small, collapsible airways surrounded by
smooth muscle but devoid of cartilage. From the bronchioles, air passes to
CLINICAL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOICE 925
pressures are lower and the alveolar volume is greater, alveolar pressure is
decreased compared with normal. Even if the active expiratory forces are
normal, the diminished alveolar pressure results in a lower pressure gradient
between alveolar and atmospheric pressure over the same airway distance,
shifting the location of the EPP distally toward or into collapsable airways.
Even when active expiratory efforts are increased under these circumstances
they do not help because they collapse the distal airways, trapping air in the
alveoli and diminishing subglottal pressure.
Summary
This overview highlights only some of the more important components of
lower respiratory physiology. Laryngologists should bear these principles in
mind in understanding the importance of diagnosis and treatment of respi-
ratory dysfunction in voice professionals. In patients who have ‘‘Olympic
voice demands,’’ even slight changes from optimal physiology may have
profound consequences on phonatory function that are responsible com-
monly for hyperfunctional compensatory efforts. If one treats voice hyper-
function as if it were the primary problem, failing to recognize that it may
be secondary to an underlying organic or pulmonary disorder, then treat-
ment will not be successful in the long term and preventable voice dysfunc-
tion and vocal fold injury may ensue.
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