Theories of Personality

There are dozens of personality theories. It is possible to introduce only a few

of the most influential. For clarity, we will confine ourselves to three broad
perspectives: (1) sychodynamic Theories, which focus on the inner wor!in"s
of personality, especially internal conflicts and stru""les, (#) $ehavioristic
Theories, which place "reater importance on the e%ternal environment and on
the effects of conditionin" and learnin", and (&) 'umanistic Theories, which
stress sub(ective e%perience and personal "rowth.
1. PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES:
Sigmund Freud's Psyc!"n"#y$ic $e!ry . ) *iennese physician realized that
many of his patient+s problems seemed to lac! physical causes. ,-y life has
been aimed at one "oal only. to infer or to "uess how the mental apparatus is
constructed and what forces interplay and counteract in it., 'e evolved the
followin" theory of personality from 1/01 till he died in 10&0:
S$ruc$ure !r Pers!n"#i$y 2%syce3 Freud viewed personality as a dynamic
system directed by three structures, and each of these is a comple% system in its
own ri"ht 44separate and conflictin" mental processes 44 but most behavior
involves the activity of all three. Internal stru""les and rechanneled ener"ies
typify most personality functionin". 5"o sometimes "ivin" in to the seduction
of the Id, and sometimes forced by supere"o to displace or sublimate behavior
to other activities. The e"o is always in the middle dealin" not only with id and
supere"o, but also with e%ternal reality. )n%iety may occur when the e"o feels
overwhelmed 44neur!$ic "n&ie$ywhen impulses from the id are barely !ept
under control 44m!r"# "n&ie$y when there are threats of punishment from the
supere"o. 5ach person develops habitual ways of calmin" these an%ieties, and
many resort to usin" eg!'de(ense mec"nisms to lessen internal conflicts.
Id. Innate biolo"ical instincts and ur"es present at birth. 6elf4servin",
irrational, impulsive, and totally unconscious, it operates on the pleasure
principle: pleasure4see!in" ur"es of all !inds are freely e%pressed. )
well of ener"y 2libido and thanatos3 for the entire psyche 2personality3:
Er!s: 7Ife instincts. It is li!e the well that contains:
)i*id!, ener"y, which promotes survival, underlies se%ual desires, and is
e%pressed whenever we see! pleasure.
T"n"$!s, responsible for a""ressive and destructive ur"es 2the lon"
history of wars and violence as evidence of such ur"es3
NOTE: Most Id energies, then, are aimed at a discharge of tensions
related to sex and aggression.
Eg!. The ,e%ecutive., It is "uided by the re"#i$y %rinci%#e 44it delays action
until it is practical or appropriate. It is the system of thin!in", plannin",
problem solvin", and decidin". It is in conscious control of the personality. It
directs ener"ies supplied by the id. The Id is li!e a blind !in" or 8ueen whose
power is awesome but who must rely on others to carry out orders. The Id can
only form mental ima"es of thin"s it desires (,rimary process thin!in".,) The
e"o wins power to direct behavior by relatin" the desires of the id to e%ternal
reality.
Su%ereg!. )cts as a (ud"e or censor for the thou"hts and actions of the e"o 44an
,internalized parent, to brin" behavior under control. ) person with a wea!
supere"o will be a delin8uent, criminal, or antisocial personality. In contrast, an
overly strict or harsh supere"o may cause inhibition, ri"idity, or unbearable
"uilt.
C!nscience, a part of the supere"o, reflects all actions for which a person has
been punished. 9hen the standards of the conscience are not met, you are
punished internally by "uilt feelin"s.
Eg! ide"#, reflects all behavior one+s parents approved of or rewarded. The e"o
ideal is a source of "oals and aspirations. 9hen its standards are met, pride is
felt.
)e+e#s !( c!nsci!usness
,nc!nsci!us. $eyond awareness. :ontains repressed memories and
emotions, plus the instinctual drives of the Id. -odern scientists are
be"innin" to find brain areas that seem to have the !inds of unconscious
effects that Freud described. 5specially important are areas lin!ed with
emotion and memory 44such as the hippocampus in the limbic system
(;eiser, 10/<. 9ilson, 10/<). =nconscious thou"hts, feelin"s, or ur"es
may slip into behavior in dis"uised or symbolic form.
C!nsci!us. The conscious level includes everythin" we are aware of at a
"iven moment, includin" thou"hts, perceptions, feelin"s, and memories.
Pre'c!nsci!us. :ontains material that can be easily brou"ht to
awareness. If you stop to thin! about a time when you felt an"ry or
re(ected, you will be movin" this memory from the preconscious to the
conscious level of awareness.
)"ngu"ge- Cus$!ms- Ru#es- R!#es- "nd M!r"#s
5very society must socialize its children by teachin" them lan"ua"e, customs,
rules, roles, and morals. The (ob of preparin" children to ta!e part in society is
typically placed in the hands of parents. This pattern is convenient and fateful.
9hile carryin" out socialization, parents leave traces of their won personality
in their children.
Psyc!se&u"# S$"ges. ) Freudian Fable> Freud theorized that the core
of personality is formed before a"e ? in a series of psychose%ual sta"es.
'is account holds that childhood ur"es for erotic pleasure have lastin"
effects on development. 'is emphasis on infantile se%uality is one of the
most controversial aspects of his thin!in". 'owever, Freud used the term
se% very broadly to refer to several different physical sources of
pleasure. 'e identified @ psychose%ual sta"es. )t each sta"e a different
part of the body becomes a child+s primary er!gen!us .!ne (area
capable of producin" pleasure). 5ach area then serves as the main source
of pleasure, frustration, and self4e%pression. Freud believed that many
adult personality traits can be traced to(i&"$i!ns (unresolved conflict or
emotional han"4up caused by overindul"ence or by frustration) in one or
more of the sta"es.
Or"#. Aurin" first year of life most of infant+s pleasure comes from
stimulation of the mouth. If overfed or frustrated, oral traits may be
created. )dult e%pressions of oral needs include "um chewin", nail
bitin", smo!in", !issin", overeatin", and alcoholism. Fi%ation early in
the oral sta"e produces an !r"#'de%enden$ personality 448ullible,
passive, and need lots of attention (want to be mothered). Frustrations
later in the oral sta"e may cause a""ression, often in the form of bitin".
Fi%ation here creates an !r"#'"ggressi+e adult who li!e to ar"ue, is
cynical, and e%ploits others.
An"#. $etween a"es of 1 and &. :hild+s attention shifts to the process of
elimination. 9hen parents attempt toilet trainin", the child can "ain
approval or e%press rebellion or a""ression by ,holdin" on, or ,lettin"
"o., Therefore, harsh or lenient toilet trainin" may loc! such responses
into personality. Freud described the "n"#'re$en$i+e (holdin"4on)
personality as obstinate, stin"y, orderly, and compulsively clean.
The "n"#'e&%u#si+e (lettin"4"o) personality is disorderly, destructive,
cruel, or messy.
P"##ic. )dult traits of the phallic personality are vanity, e%hibitionism,
sensitive pride, and narcissism (self4love). Freud theorized that such
traits develop between the a"es & and ?. )t this time, increased se%ual
interest causes the child to be physically attracted to the parent of the
opposite se%. In males this attraction leads to:
Oedi%us c!n(#ic$. The boy feels rivalry with his father for the affection
of the mother 44and feels threatened by the father (specifically, fears
castration). To ease his an%ieties, the boy must identify with the father.
Their rivalry ends when the boy see!s to become more li!e his father. )s
he does, he be"ins to accept the father+s values and to form a conscience.
E#ec$r" c!n(#ic$: The "irl loves her father and competes with her mother.
'owever, accordin" to Freud, the "irl identifies with the mother more
"radually. This, he said, is less effective in creatin" a conscience. Freud
believed that females already feel castrated. $ecause of this, they are less
driven to identify with their mothers than boys are with their fathers.
This particular part of Freudian thou"ht has been re(ected 44a reflection
of male4dominated times in which Freud lived.
)"$ency. From a"e ? to puberty. ) time durin" which psychose%ual
development is interrupted 44,on hold., 'ard to accept. Bevertheless,
Freud saw latency as a relatively 8uiet time compared to the stormy first
? years.
/eni$"#. )t puberty, an upswin" in se%ual ener"ies activates all the
unresolved conflicts of earlier years. :ause for adolescent emotion and
turmoil. It is mar!ed, throu"hout adolescence, by a "rowin" capacity for
mature and responsible social4se%ual relationships. The "enital sta"e
ends with heterose%ual love and the realization of full adult se%uality.
2Beo4Freudians: Caren 'orney, )nna Freud, Dtto ;an!, and 5rich
Fromm stayed close to the core of Freud+s thin!in". )lfred )dler, 'arry
6ullivan, and :arl Eun" bro!e away more completely and created their
own opposin" theories.3
0. A#(red Ad#er (1/F1410&F). Aisa"reed with Freud+s emphasis on the
unconscious, on instinctual drives, and on the importance of se%uality. 'e felt
that we are social creatures "overned by social ur"es, not by biolo"ical
instincts. In )dler+s view, the main drivin" force in personality is a s$ri+ing (!r
su%eri!ri$y. ) stru""le to overcome imperfections, an upward drive for
competence, completion, and mastery of shortcomin"s.
'e felt that everyone e%periences feelin"s of inferiority. This occurs mainly
because we be"in life as small, wea!, and relatively powerless children
surrounded by lar"er and more powerful adults. Feelin"s of inferiority may also
come from our personal limitations. The stru""le for superiority arises from
such feelin"s. 9hile strivin" for superiority, each tries to c!m%ens"$e for
different limitations, and each chooses a different pathway to superiority. )dler
believed that this situation creates a uni8ue s$y#e !( #i(e (or personality pattern)
for each individual. )ccordin" to )dler the core of each person+s style of life is
formed by a"e <. ()nd valuable clues to a person+s style of life are revealed by
the earliest memory that can be recalled.) 'owever, later in his life, )dler
be"an to emphasize the e%istence of a cre"$i+e se#(. $y this he meant that
humans create their personalities throu"h choices and e%periences.
1. 2"ren H!rney (1//<410<#). Beo4Freudian. Faithful to most his ideas
44altered and re(ected some and some of her own. 6he resisted Freud+s more
mechanistic, biolo"ical, instinctive ideas. )s a woman, 'orney re(ected Freud+s
claim that ,anatomy is destiny, 44woven into Freudian psycholo"y holdin" that
males are dominant or superior to females. 'orney was first to challen"e
obvious male bias in Freud+s thin!in". 6he also disa"reed with Freud about the
cause of neurosis. Freud held that neurotic (an%iety4ridden) individuals are
stru""lin" with forbidden id drives that they fear they cannot control. 'orney+s
view was that a c!re !( *"sic "n&ie$yoccurs when people feel isolated and
helpless in a hostile world. These feelin"s, she believed, are rooted in
childhood. $asic an%iety then causes troubled individuals to e%a""erate a sin"le
mode of interactin" with others. 5ach of us can move $!3"rd !$ers (by
dependin" on them for love, support, or friendship),we can move "3"y (r!m
!$ers (by withdrawin", actin" li!e a ,loner,, or bein" ,stron", and
independent), or we can move "g"ins$ !$ers (by attac!in", competin" with, or
see!in" power over them). 5motional health reflects a balance. 5motional
problems tend to loc! people into overuse of only one of the three modes.
4. C"r# 5ung (1/F<410?1). Eun" parted from Freud when he be"an to develop
his own ideas. 'e, li!e Freud, called the conscious part of the personality the
e"o. 'owever, he further noted that between the e"o and the outside world we
often find a %ers!n", or ,mas!., It is the ,public self., The persona is presented
to others when people adopt particular roles (as is necessary in most
professions) or when they hide their deeper feelin"s. )ctions of the e"o may
reflect attitudes of in$r!+ersi!n (in which ener"y is mainly directed inward),
or e&$r!+ersi!n (in which ener"y is mainly directed outward).
Pers!n"# unc!nsci!us was Eun"+s term for what Freud simply called the
unconscious. ) storehouse for personal e%periences, feelin"s, and memories
that are not directly !nowable.
C!##ec$i+e unc!nsci!us, a deeper conscious shared by all humans 44Eun"
believed that from the be"innin" of time, all humans have had e%periences with
birth, death, power, "od fi"ures, mother and father fi"ures, animals, the earth,
ener"y, evil, rebirth, and so on. )ccordin" to Eun", such universals
create "rce$y%es: ori"inal ideas or patterns. Found in the collective
unconscious, archetypes are unconscious ima"es that cause us to respond
emotionally to symbols of birth, death, ener"y, animals, evil, and the li!e. Eun"
believed that he detected symbols of such archetypes in the art, reli"ion, myths,
and dreams of every culture and a"e.
Two particularly important archetypes are "nim" (representin" the female
principle) and the "nimus (representin" the male principle). 5ach person has
both. For full development, Eun" thou"ht it is essential for both the ,masculine,
and ,feminine, side of personality to be e%pressed. The presence of the anima
in males and the animus in females also enable us to related to members of the
opposite se%.
Eun" re"arded the se#( "rce$y%e as the most important of all. The self
archetype represents unity. Its e%istence causes a "radual movement toward
balance, wholeness, and harmony within the personality. Eun" felt that we
become richer and more completely human when a balance is achieved
between the conscious and unconscious, the anima and animus, thin!in" and
feelin", sensin" and intuitin", the persona and the e"o, introversion and
e%troversion. Eun" was the first to use the term self4actualization to describe a
strivin" for completion and unity. 'e believed that the self archetype is
symbolized in every culture by mandalas (ma"ic circles) of one !ind of
another. 2+-emories, Areams, ;eflections,+ Eun"+s autobio"raphy.3
II. )EARNIN/ THEORIES OF PERSONA)ITY
1. 6e"+i!r"# %ers!n"#i$y $e!ry. )ny model of personality that emphasizes
observable behavior, the relationship between stimuli and responses, and the
impact of learnin". The behaviorist position is that personality is no more (or
less) than a collection of learned behavior patterns. Pers!n"#i$y, li!e other
learned behavior, is ac8uired throu"h classical and operant conditionin",
observational learnin", reinforcement, e%tinction, "eneralization, and
discrimination. :hildren can learn thin"s li!e !indness, hostility, "enerosity, or
destructiveness.
#. )e"rning $e!ris$s. ) psycholo"ist interested in the ways that learnin"
principles shape and e%plain personality. They re(ect the idea that personality is
made up of consistent traits. Si$u"$i!n"# de$ermin"n$s (Immediate conditions
(for e%ample, rewards and punishments) in a "iven situation that determine
what behavior is li!ely to occur, independent of the actor+s personality traits) of
behavior (,)m I honest> In what situation>). 9alter -ischel (10F&) a"rees that
some situations stron"ly affect behavior. Dther situations are trivial and have
little impact. Thus, e%ternal events interact with each person+s uni8ue learnin"
history to produce behavior in any "iven situation. Trait theorists also believe
that situations affect behavior. $ut, in their view situations interact with traits.
6o, in essence, #e"rning $e!ris$s ("+!r re%#"cing $e c!nce%$ !( 7$r"i$s7
3i$ 7%"s$ #e"rning7 $! e&%#"in *e"+i!r.
&. 5!n D!##"rd "nd Ne"# Mi##er. In their view, habits ma!e up the structure
of personality. )s for the dynamics of personality, Aollard and -iller believe
that "*i$s (a deeply in"rained, learned pattern of response) are "overned by
four elements of learnin":
(1) Dri+e. )ny stimulus (esp. an internal stimulus such as hun"er) stron"
enou"h to "oad a person to action (such as hun"er, pain, lust, frustration,
fear).
(#) Cue (e%ternal stimuli or si"ns that "uide responses, especially those
that si"nal the li!ely presence or absence of reinforcement). 6i"nals from
the environment that "uide
(&) Res%!nses (any behavior, either observable or internal) so they are
most li!ely to brin" about
(@) Re3"rd or reinforcement.
@. S!ci"# #e"rning $e!ry. )n approach that combines behavioral principles,
co"nition (perception, thin!in", anticipation), social relationships, and
observational learnin". $ehaviorists have recently had to face the fact that they
have overloo!ed 44that people thin!. The new breed of behavioral
psycholo"ists, called s!ci"# #e"rning $e!ris$s, include perception, thin!in",
and other mental events in their views. They also stress social relationships and
modelin".
<. 5u#i"n R!$$er (10F<). The ,co"nitive behaviorism, of social learnin" theory
can be illustrated by three concepts proposed by ;otter. They are:
Psyc!#!gic"# si$u"$i!n. 'ow the person interprets or defines the
situation (not enou"h to !now the settin" in which a persona responds)
E&%ec$"ncy. )nticipation that ma!in" a response will lead to
reinforcement. To predict your response, we would also have to !now if
you e%pect your efforts to pay off in the present situation. 5%pected
reinforcement may be more important than actual past reinforcement.
Rein(!rcemen$ +"#ue. 'umans attach different values to various
activities or rewards. This, too, must be ta!en into account to understand
personality.
?. Se#('rein(!rcemen$. raisin" oneself or "ivin" oneself a special treat or
reward for havin" made a particular response (such as completin" a school
assi"nment). )t times, we all evaluate our actions and may reward ourselves
with special privile"es or treats when the evaluation is positive. Thus, habits of
self4praise and self4blame become an important part of personality. In fact, self4
reinforcement can be thou"ht of as the behaviorist+s counterpart to the
supere"o.
F. R"dic"# 6e"+i!rism. )n approach that avoids any reference to thou"hts or
other internal processes. radical behaviorists are interested strictly in
relationships between stimuli and responses. ) more e%treme view of
personality. ,Intelli"ent people no lon"er believe that men are possessed by
demons...but human behavior is still commonly attributed to indwellin"
a"ents,, said $. F. 6!inner (10F1). For 6!inner, the term personality is a fiction
we invent to pretend we have e%plained behavior that is actually controlled by
the environment. 'e believes that everythin" a person does is ultimately based
on past and present rewards and punishments.
/. 6e"+i!ris$ic +ie3 !( de+e#!%men$. -any of Freud+s ma(or points can be
restated in terms of modern learnin" theory. -iller and Aollard (10<1) a"ree
with Freud that the first ? years are crucial for personality development 4 but,
for different reasons. ;ather than thin!in" in terms of psychose%ual ur"es and
fi%ations, they as!, ,9hat ma!es early learnin" e%periences so lastin" in their
effects>, Their answer is that childhood is a time of ur"ent and tearin" drives,
powerful rewards and punishments, and crushin" frustrations. )lso important
is s!ci"# rein(!rcemen$ based on the effects of attention and approval from
others. These forces combine to shape the core of personality.
0. Cri$ic"# Si$u"$i!ns. -iller and Aollard consider four developmental
situations to be of critical importance:
(1) Feeding. :an affect later social relationships, because the child
learns to associate people with satisfaction and pleasure or with
frustration and discomfort.
(#). T!i#e$ !r c#e"n#iness $r"ining.
(&) Se& $r"ining and
(@) )e"rning $! e&%ress "nger !r "ggressi!n. The permissiveness for
se%ual and a""ressive behavior in childhood is lin!ed to adult needs for
power (-c:elland G ilon, 10/&). This lin! probably occurs because
permittin" such behaviors allows children to "et pleasure from assertin"
themselves. 6e% trainin" also involves learnin" ,male, and ,female,
behaviors 44which creates an even broader basis for shapin" personality.
6e%4appropriate behavior. Identification and imitation contribute "reatly
to personality development in "eneral and to se% trainin" in particular.
Identification (which refers to a child+s emotional attachment to admired
adults, esp. those the child depends on for love and care) leads to
imitation. :onscious and unconscious. The actions we choose to imitate
depend on their outcome. Hirls are less li!ely than boys to imitate
a""ressive behavior because they rarely see female a""ression rewarded
or approved. Thus, many arbitrary ,male, and ,female, 8ualities are
passed on at the same time se%ual identity is learned. (:lassroom
situation in which a""ressive or disruptive behavior is reinforced with
attention for males and, 8uietly, rebu!ed in "irls who were, thus,
encoura"ed to be submissive, dependent, and passive.)
III. Hum"nis$ic Te!ry
'umanism is a reaction to the pessimism of psychoanalytic theory and the
mechanism of learnin" theory. )t its core is a new ima"e of what it means to be
human. They view um"n n"$ure as inherently "ood and they see! ways to
allow our positive potentials to emer"e. They re(ect the Freudian view of
personality as a battle"round for biolo"ical instincts and unconscious forces,
and they oppose the mechanical ,thin"4li!e, overtones of the behaviorist
viewpoint. 9e are not, they say, merely a bundle of moldable responses. rather,
we are creative bein"s capable of (ree c!ice. To a humanist, the person you
are today is lar"ely the product of all of your previous choices. The humanistic
viewpoint also places "reater emphasis on immediate su*8ec$i+e e&%erience,
rather than on prior learnin". 'umanists believe that there are as many ,real
worlds, as there are people. To understand behavior, we must learn how a
person sub(ectively views the world 44what is ,real, for her or him.
l. A*r""m M"s#!3 (101/410F1). Idea of se#('"c$u"#i."$i!n. 6tudies of
people livin" unusually effective lives. )n interest in people usin" almost all of
their talents and potentials. )lbert 5instein, 9illiam Eames, Eane )dams,
5leanor ;oosevelt, )braham 7incoln, Eohn -uir, and 9alt 9hitman. Then he
moved on to directly study artists, writers, poets, and other creative individuals.
'is thin!in" chan"ed radically alon" the way. It became clear that a housewife,
carpenter, cler!, or student could live creatively and ma!e full use of his or her
potentials. 'is primary contribution was to draw attention to the possibility of
continued personal "rowth. 'e considered self4actualization an on"oin"
process, not a simple end point to be attained only once.
C"r"c$eris$ics !( Se#('Ac$u"#i.ers:
l. 5fficient perceptions of reality. 9ere able to (ud"e situations correctly
and honestly and were very sensitive to the face and dishonest.
#. :omfortable acceptance of self, others, nature. 9ere able to accept
their own human nature with all its shortcomin"s. The shortcomin"s of
others and the contradictions of the human condition were also accepted
with humor and tolerance.
&. 6pontaneity. 5%tended their creativity into everyday activities. They
tended to be unusually alive, en"a"ed, and spontaneous.
@. Tas! centerin". 'ad a mission to fulfill in life or some tas! or problem
outside of themselves to pursue. 'umanitarians such as )lbert
6chweitzer or -other Therese represent this 8uality.
<. )utonomy. 9ere free from dependence on e%ternal authority or other
people. They tended to be resourceful and independent.
?. :ontinued freshness of appreciation. The self4actualizer seems to
constantly renew appreciation of life+s basic "oods. ) sunset or a flower
will be e%perienced as intensely the one4thousandth time as it was the
first. There is an ,innocence of vision,, li!e that of an artist or child.
F. Fellowship with humanity. Felt a deep identification with others and
the human situation in "eneral.
/. rofound interpersonal relationships. -ar!ed by deep, lovin" bonds.
0. =nhostile sense of humor. This refers to the wonderful capacity to
lau"h at oneself. It also refers to the !ind of humor a man li!e )braham
7incoln had. 7incoln probably never made a (o!e that hurt anybody. 'is
wry comments were a "entle proddin" at human shortcomin"s.
11. ea! e%periences. ;eported the fre8uent occurrence of pea!
e%periences. These were mar!ed by feelin"s of ecstasy, harmony, and
deep meanin". ;eported feelin" at one with the universe, stron"er and
calmer than ever before, filled with li"ht, beautiful and "ood, and so
forth. In short, self4actualizers feel safe and unan%ious, accepted, loved,
lovin", and alive.
#. C"r# R!gers (101#410/F). The fully functionin" person, he said, is one who
has achieved an openness to feelin"s and e%periences and has learned to trust
inner ur"es and intuitions. 'e believed that this attitude is most li!ely to occur
when a person receives ample amounts of love and acceptance from others. 'e
based his theory on clinical e%perience. ;o"ers+ theory of personality centers on
the concept of the:
Se#(. ) fle%ible and chan"in" perception of personal identity that
emer"es from the :
Pen!men"# Fie#d. The person+s total sub(ective e%perience of reality.
The self is made up of those e%periences identified as ,I, or ,me, that
are separated from ,not4me, e%periences.
-uch human behavior can be understood as an
attempt to maintain consistency between one+s self4ima"e and one+s actions.
)ccordin" to ;o"ers, e%periences that match the self4ima"e
are sym*!#i.ed (admitted to consciousness) and contribute to "radual chan"es
in the self. Information or feelin"s inconsistent with the self4ima"e are said to
be inc!ngruen$. It is incon"ruent, for e%ample, to thin! of yourself as a
considerate person if others fre8uently mention your rudeness. 5%periences
seriously incon"ruent with the self4ima"e can be threatenin", and they are often
distorted or denied conscious reco"nition. $loc!in", denyin", or distortin"
e%periences prevents the self from chan"in" and creates a "ulf between the self4
ima"e and reality. )s the self4ima"e "rows more unrealistic, the incon"ruent
person becomes confused, vulnerable, dissatisfied, or seriously malad(usted.
9hen your self4ima"e is consistent with what you really thin!, feel, do, and
e%perience, you are best able to actualize your potentials. ;o"ers also
considered it essential to have con"ruence between the self4ima"e and the ide"#
se#( (similar to Freud+s ideal e"o 44an ima"e of the person you would li!e to be).
The "reater the "ap between the way you see yourself and the way you would
li!e to be 44the "reater the tension and an%iety e%perienced. The ;o"erian view
of personality can therefore be summarized as a processs of ma%imizin"
potentials by acceptin" information about oneself as realistically and honestly
as possible. In accord with ;o"ers+ thin!in", researchers have found that people
with a close match between their self4ima"e and ideal self tend to be socially
poised, confident, and resourceful. Those with a poor match tend to be an%ious,
insecure, and lac!in" in social s!ills.
Inc!ngruence 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 C!ngruence
P!ssi*#e se#+es. The ideal self or the person we would most li!e to become, as
well as other selves we could become or are afraid of becomin". ossible selves
translate our hopes, fears, fantasies, and "oals into specific ima"es of who we
could be. 7aw students may envision a successful attorney, husband in a
troubled marria"e mi"ht picture himself as a divorcee, a person on a diet mi"ht
ima"ine both slim and "rossly obese possible selves. 6uch self4ima"es tend to
direct future behavior. They also "ive meanin" to current behavior and help us
evaluate it. =psettin" ima"es mi"ht ,move, one to do somethin" about
somethin".... 5ven day4to4day decisions may be "uided by possible selves.
urchasin" clothes, a car, colo"ne, membership in a health club, and the li!e
may be influenced by ima"es of a valued future self. 5veryone over the a"e of
&1 has probably realized that some cherished possible selves will never be
realized.
Hum"nis$ic +ie3 !( de+e#!%men$. ;o"ers+ theory su""ests mirrors,
photo"raphs, tape recorders, and the reactions of others hold such fascination
and threat for people because they provide information about one+s self. The
development of self4ima"e depends "reatly on information from the
environment. It be"ins with a sortin" of perceptions and feelin"s: my body, my
toes, my nose, I want, I li!e, I am, and so on. 6oon it e%pands to include self4
evaluation: I am a "ood person, I did somethin" bad (ust now, and so forth.
C!ndi$i!ns !( 3!r$. ;o"ers believed that positive and ne"ative evaluations
by others cause children to develop internal standards of evaluation called
conditions of worth. 9e learn that some actions win our parents+ love and
approval 44some are re(ected. This learnin" to evaluate some e%periences or
feelin"s as ,"ood, and others as ,bad, is directly related to a later capacity for
self4esteem, positive self4evaluation, or Ipositive self4re"ard. To thin! of
yourself as a "ood, lovable, worthwhile person, your behavior and e%periences
must match your internal conditions of worth. The problem is that this can
cause incon"ruence by leadin" to the denial of many true feelin"s and
e%periences.
Org"nismic +"#uing. ;o"ers believed that con"ruence and self4actualization
are encoura"ed by replacin" conditions of worth with or"anismic valuin" 44a
direct, "ut4level response to life that avoids the filterin" and distortion of
incon"ruence. It is the ability to trust one+s own feelin"s and perceptions 44to
become one+s own ,locus of evaluation., -ost li!ely to develop, ;o"ers felt,
when children (or adults) receive ,unconditional positive re"ard, from others.
9hen they are ,prized, (ust for bein" themselves, without any conditions or
strin"s attached.
I9. O9ER9IE: AND COMPARISON OF PERSONA)ITY
THEORIES:
The meanin"ful or"anization of observations of human behavior in each theory
adds to our understandin" of personality. Bone of the ma(or theories can be
proved or disproved. If any could be proven as true, it would no lon"er be a
theory 44it would be a law. The implications and predictions of theories are also
neither true nor false. Eud"e in terms of usefulness for e%plainin" behavior, for
stimulatin" research, and for su""estin" ways of treatin" psycholo"ical
disorders. 5ach theory has fared differently in these areas.
Psyc!"n"#y$ic Te!ry. $y present standards, psychoanalytic theory seems to
over4emphasize se%uality and biolo"ical instincts. These distortions were
corrected somewhat by the neo4Freudians, but problems remain.
sychoanalytic theory is "ood at e%plainin" thin"s after they occur, but offers
little help in predictin" future behavior. For this reason, many psychoanalytic
concepts are difficult or impossible to test.
6e"+i!ris$ic Te!ry. 7earnin" theories have provided a "ood framewor! for
personality research. $ehaviorists have made the best effort to ri"orously test
and verify their ideas. They have been criticized for understatin" the impact
that temperament, emotion, and sub(ective e%perience have on personality. To a
de"ree, social learnin" theory is an attempt to answer such criticisms.
Hum"nis$ic Te!ry. Hreat stren"th of humanists is the li"ht they have shed on
positive dimensions of personality. )s -aslow (10?/) put it, ,'uman nature is
not nearly as bad as it has been thou"ht to be. It is as if Freud supplied us with
the sic! half of psycholo"y and we must now fill it out with the healthy half.,
'owever, humanists can be criticized for usin" imprecise concepts that are
difficult to measure or study ob(ectively. 5ven so, humanistic thou"ht has
encoura"ed many people to see! "reater self4awareness and personal "rowth.
Psyc!"n"#y$ic Te!ry JJ 6e"+i!ris$ic Te!ry JJ Hum"nis$ic
Te!ry
9ie3 !( um"n n"$ure:4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 Be"ative JJ Beutral JJ ositive
Is 6e"+i!r (ree !r de$ermined; 4 4 4 Aetermined JJ Aetermined JJ
Free
Princi%"# m!$i+es: 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 6e% G a""ression JJ Arives of all
!inds JJ 6elf4 actualization
Pers!n"#i$y s$ruc$ure:4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 Id, e"o, supere"o JJ 'abits JJ
6elf
R!#e !( unc!nsci!us:4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 -a%imized JJ ractically non4
e%istant JJ -inimized
C!nce%$i!n !( c!nscience: 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 6upere"o JJ 6elf4reinforcement
JJ Ideal self, valuin" process
De+e#!%men$"# em%"sis: 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 sychose%ual sta"es JJ :ritical
learnin" situations: identification and imitation JJ Aevelopment of self4
ima"e
6"rriers $! %ers!n"# gr!3$: 4 4 4 4 4 =nconscious conflicts. fi%ations
JJ -aladaptive habits. patholo"ical environment JJ :onditions of
incon"ruence