Intelligent Identification of Flicker Source in Distribution Systems

Published in IET Generation, Transmission & Distribution
Received on 16th August 2009

Revised on 11th February 2010
doi: 10.1049/iet-gtd.2009.0447
ISSN 1751-8687
Intelligent identication of icker
source in distribution systems
N. Eghtedarpour E. Farjah A. Khayatian
School of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran
E-mail: farjah@shirazu.ac.ir
Abstract: The authors propose a new intelligent method to identify the source of icker in distribution systems.
By measuring and sampling the bus voltages, a icker index is extracted using multi-resolution S-transform. Time
frequency resolution characteristic of S-transform is shown to be a suitable candidate for assessment and
identication of icker source. The new icker index is selected from complex S-transform matrix, which takes
into account both amplitude and frequency of icker. An multi level percepteron (MLP) neural network as a
powerful classier is trained with the bus icker indices to detect existence of icker source in contaminating
bus. The source of icker is modelled with an amplitude modulation scheme, and both ickers without
harmonics and with harmonics are considered. A 14-bus distribution system was simulated in ATP/EMTP to
test the method. Results show that by measuring voltages in proper buses, contaminating bus or zone can be
detected using a few measuring points.
1 Introduction
The quality of power has become an increasing concern for
electric utilities and their customers over the last decade.
This is the consequence of increasing use of solid-state
switching devices, non-linear loads and similar devices.
One of the most harsh power quality events in power
systems is voltage icker. According to IEC, voltage
icker is a periodic or stochastic uctuation of voltage, the
magnitude of which is within +10% of rated voltage and
with frequencies between 0.5 and 25 Hz.
A load causing icker is often connected to the power
network at medium-voltage level resulting in icker
propagation throughout a wide area of the network and
affecting a large number of customers. Typical examples of
such loads are arc furnaces, welding machines and also
wind turbines.
Besides causing malfunction of phase-locked loops
(PLLs), electronic controllers and protection devices,
voltage icker can result in ickering of electronic,
incandescent, uorescent lamps and cathode ray tubes,
which can be sensed by customers and cause irritating
effects. Therefore removing or decreasing these harsh
effects is of great importance. The rst step in this
approach is to locate the source which causes voltage icker
in the system so that the source of icker can be detected,
and by installing proper devices or upgrading the system,
these disturbances can be removed or reduced.
In [1], Hughes described a technique that by measuring
current as well as voltage, and deriving the utility source
impedance, the voltage sag and icker measured at a
customers point of supply can be separated into two-
component events caused by the customer being monitored
and events already on the utility system. Identication of
icker sources by separation of icker effect from the
individual consumers connected to the same bus was
proposed in [2]. Knowing the short-circuit impedance of
the network and simultaneously measuring branch currents,
the disturbing branch can be investigated by this method.
In [35], a method was proposed for determining the
direction to a icker source by purely exploiting the sign of
the icker power: A positive sign indicates an upstream
icker source, whereas a negative icker power indicates a
downstream icker source with respect to a monitoring
point. In a similar work, a method for detecting the
dominant icker source from a multi-icker source network
was proposed in [6]. Despite simplicity of such methods,
1016 IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2010, Vol. 4, Iss. 9, pp. 10161027
& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2010 doi: 10.1049/iet-gtd.2009.0447
www.ietdl.org
source identication in wide networks needs a large number
of measuring points and also these methods do not include
any mechanism to trace a particular icker source. On the
other hand, since icker is usually a medium duration
event, it also needs a long duration of time to identify the
main location of icker source.
In this paper, a new approach is presented for
identication of the bus or a zone, which contains the
source of icker in the distribution system. This process is
implemented by sampling the voltage waveform in a few
number of buses and using neural networks. In order to
detect the contaminating bus, an index is extracted by
S-transform, which is essentially a variable window short-
time Fourier transform (STFT). S-transform window
width varies inversely with frequency and produces a time
frequency representation of a time-varying signal by
uniquely combining the frequency-dependent resolution
with simultaneously localising real and imaginary spectra. A
comparison between Fourier-based methods and wavelet
transform to characterise icker in the frequency domain
was proposed in [7]. The wavelet transform has shown
superior performance comparing to other methods.
S-transform is similar to wavelet transform but with a
phase correction and both the amplitude and phase
spectrum of the signal are obtained. S-transform of a power
disturbance signal provides contours, which closely
resembles the disturbance pattern. Although, features such
as standard deviation of frequency-time contours and
amplitude factor in [810] have been used for detection
and classication of different power quality events, but
icker assessment using S-transform has not been
considered yet. Regarding the importance of icker
especially in distribution systems, in this paper a new index
is extracted from S-transform magnitudetime contour
and is used to identify the location of contaminating load
in the network.
The paper is organised as follows. A brief introduction to
S-transform is discussed in Section 2. Voltage icker model
is introduced in Section 3. In Section 4, the proposed icker
model is analysed by S-transform and the corresponding
feature is introduced. Neural network and training process
is described in Section 5. Selection of metering locations is
represented in Section 6. Simulation and test results for a
sample 14-bus distribution system are given in Section 7
and nally in Section 8 conclusions are drawn.
2 Multi-resolution S-transform
The Fourier transform of a time-varying signal h(t) is
given by
H( f ) =
_
1
1
h(t)e
i2pft
dt (1)
The spectrum H( f ) is referred to as the time-averaged
spectrum. If the signal h(t) is multiplied point by point
with a window function g(t), then the resulting spectrum is
calculated by
H( f ) =
_
1
1
h(t)g(t)e
i2pft
dt (2)
The S-transform is obtained from (2) by dening a particular
window function in the form of a normalised Gaussian as
g(t) =
1
s
....
2p
e
(t
2
/2s
2
)
(3)
and then allowing the Gaussian window to be a function of
translation t and dilation (window width) s. The window
width s is made proportional to the inverse of frequency
and is chosen as
s( f ) =
1
a +b| f |
(4)
If a 0, s( f ) denotes the S-transform and for b 0, s( f )
denotes an STFT. Typical values of b vary between 0.333 and
5, which provide different frequency resolutions. For low
frequencies a higher value of b and for high frequencies a
lower value of b is chosen to provide suitable frequency
resolutions.
S-transform produces a multi-resolution analysis like a
bank of lters with a constant relative bandwidth (constant
Q analysis).
Substituting (3) and (4) in (2), we obtain the S-transform
of h(t) as
S(t, f ) =
_
1
1
h(t)g(t t, f )e
i2pft
dt (5)
Since S(t, f ) is a complex number, it can also be written as
S(t, f ) = A(t, f )e
if(t,f )
(6)
where A(t, f ) is the amplitude S-spectrum and w(t, f ) is the
phase of S-spectrum. It can be noted that the S-transform
improves the STFT in the sense that it has a better
resolution in phase space (i.e. a more narrow time window
for higher frequencies) giving a fundamentally more sound
timefrequency representation.
It is noticeable to consider the ltering effect of the
S-transform when it is applied to the signal. The transform
is obtained by multiplying the signal point by point with a
Gaussian window ( g(t) in (3)). The Fourier transform of
the Gaussian window is obtained as
G(v, f ) = e
2ps
2
v
2
= e
2p(a
2
/f
2
)v
2
(7)
More details can be followed in [11]. The exponential term
in (7) is the frequency-dependent localising window and is
called the Voice Gaussian. It plays the role of a low-pass
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2010, Vol. 4, Iss. 9, pp. 10161027 1017
doi: 10.1049/iet-gtd.2009.0447 & The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2010
www.ietdl.org
lter for each particular voice. By examining different values
of a (different window width) and choosing a 0.25 and
plotting the Fourier transform of the window for different
values of f in Fig. 1, the low-pass ltering effect of
S-transform can be concluded.
The discrete version of the S-transform is calculated by
taking advantage from the efciency of the fast Fourier
transform (FFT) and the convolution theorem. The
discrete Fourier transform of the sampled signal h(kT),
k 0, 1, . . . , N21 is dened as
H
n
NT
_ _
=
1
N
N1
k=0
h(kT)e
i(2pnk/N)
(8)
and discrete version of the S-transform of h(kT) is obtained as
(by letting f n/NT and t jT)
S jT,
n
NT
_ _
=
N1
m=0
H
m +n
NT
_ _
G(m, n)e
i(2pmj/N)
(9)
where
G(m, n) = e
(2p
2
m
2
a
2
/n
2
)
(10)
a 1/b, j, m, n 0, 1, . . . , N21 and N is the total number
of samples.
The computation of the multi-resolution S-transform is
very efcient using convolution theorem and FFT. The
computational steps are outlined as follows [8]:
1. Denote n/NT, m/NT, kT and jT as n, m, k and j,
respectively, during all computations.
2. Obtain discrete Fourier transform H[m] of the original
time-varying signal h(k), with N points and sampling
interval T, using FFT routine from (8).
3. Compute the localising Gaussian window G[n, m] for the
required frequency n using (10).
4. Shift the spectrum H[m] to H[m+n] for the frequency
by using convolution theorem.
5. Determine B(n, m) H(m+n)
.
G(m+n).
6. Compute inverse Fourier transform of B(n,m) from m to j
to give the row of S[n, j] corresponding to the frequency n.
7. Repeat Steps 3, 4 and 5 until all of the rows of S[n, j]
corresponding to all discrete frequencies have been obtained.
The total number of operations for computing S-transform
is N(N+NlogN).
The multi-resolution S-transform output is a complex
matrix, the rows of which are the frequencies and the
columns are the time values. Each column thus represents
the local spectrum for that point in time. Frequencytime
contours having the same amplitude spectrum are used to
detect and localise power disturbance events [710]. A
mesh three-dimensional (3D) of the S-transform output
yields frequencytime, magnitudetime and frequency
magnitude plots. The original software code developed by
Stockwell [11] in Matlab has been modied by the authors
for icker studies.
3 Voltage icker model
The accurate modelling of voltage icker is a crucial task for
testing any proposed algorithm. The voltage icker waveform
can be modelled as an amplitudemodulated (AM)
waveform in addition to some harmonic components. The
modulated signal is equivalent to the sum of sinusoidal
components with random frequencies and amplitudes. For
the sake of simplicity, in the rst stage of analysis, the
harmonics are neglected. Harmonic components will be
Figure 1 Fourier transform of the Gaussian window for different values of f
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considered in a later stage to investigate their effects on the
method for localising icker source. Mathematically, if the
harmonic components are neglected, the voltage icker can
be expressed by the following model [12]
h(t) = A
0
+
M
i=1
(A
i
(t) cos(v
i
t +f
i
))
_ _
cos(v
0
t +f
0
)
(11)
where A
0
is the nominal amplitude of the voltage, v
0
is the
supply frequency, f
0
is the supply phase angle and A
i
is the
amplitude of the voltage icker with frequency v
i
and
phase angle f
i
. An equivalent discrete model is given by
h(n) = A
0
+
M
i=1
(A
i
(n) cos(v
i
n +f
i
))
_ _
cos(v
0
n +f
0
)
(12)
Equation (11) will be used for simulating icker source in the
test systems.
4 Voltage icker in S-transform
In this section, the behaviour of S-transform for a voltage
waveform with icker effect is investigated. Regarding the
model described in Section 3, the waveform for a simulated
voltage icker signal with 10% uctuation and frequency of
5 Hz is shown in Fig. 2. The corresponding 3D S-
transform of icker signal along with its magnitudetime
plots is shown in Figs. 3 and 4.
For a suitable frequency resolution considering low-
frequency contents of voltage icker, the value of a is
chosen to be 0.25. As it is obvious from Figs. 2 and 3,
there is a close relation between uctuations of voltage
icker and magnitudetime contour. This characteristic is
used in extracting the desired feature for icker evaluation.
The new icker index that can be used as a measure of
occurrence of icker is derived from magnitudetime
contour of S-transform and is dened by
FI = max
i
( max
j
|s
i, j
|) min
i
( max
j
|s
i, j
|) (13)
where FI is the icker index and s
i,j
is the element in the ith
row and jth column of complex matrix S.
As (5) shows, S-transform depends on both frequency and
amplitude of the signal. The magnitudetime contours of
two signals with the same amplitude and different
frequency are not the same and since icker is usually
voltage uctuations with variable and stochastic frequency,
the magnitudetime contour of two different signals with
same amplitude but different frequency may yield different
icker index. This issue is illustrated in Figs. 57, where
the magnitudetime contours of icker waveforms with
the same icker amplitude of 10% but with different icker
frequencies of 3, 10 and 25 Hz are tested. In order to
mitigate the impact of frequency changes on icker index,
this index is modied by normalising (13) based on the
following criteria:
The icker index of all voltage measurements based on
(13) is computed.
Figure 2 Pure sine wave icker with amplitude 10% and
frequency of 5 Hz
Figure 3 3D S-transform plot for icker waveform of Fig. 3
Figure 4 Magnitudetime contour of S-transform for
icker waveform of Fig. 2
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The computed indices are normalised to the maximum
icker index in the measurement group.
With the above modications, the computed icker
indices will be independent of frequency, since the absolute
values have been replaced by relative values. This is a key
benet of the new icker index, which will reduce the
computation cost of training in neural network detection
scheme. In the next section, this index will be used as an
input to an MLP neural network for icker detection.
5 Neural network
Articial neural networks (ANN), which are parallel-
distributed information processing units with different
connection structures and processing mechanism, are
particularly suitable to link the different variables of a
physical system, where the relationship between the
independent and the dependent variables are not easily
quantiable [13]. ANNs have been used in a broad range
of applications including: pattern classication, pattern
recognition, mapping, optimisation, prediction and
automatic control. The application of ANNs in different
power system operation and control strategies has lead to
acceptable results [1416]. In this paper, ANN is used as a
classier for icker detection and its source identication in
a distribution power system.
For intelligent identication of icker source in a
distribution power system, an MLP neural network as
shown in Fig. 8 is considered. Training a network by back-
propagation involves three stages: the feed-forward of the
input training pattern, the back-propagation of the
associated error and the adjustment of the weights. During
the learning process, the ANN weights are adapted in
order to create the desired output vectors. The inputs to
the ANN are the icker indices calculated based on
S-transform. The outputs of the ANN are the status of
existence of a icker source in a certain bus. The number
of inputs to the neural network is the same as the number
of measurements in the system and the number of outputs
from ANN is equal to the number of buses. Levenberg
Marquardt Back-propagation algorithm is used in the
training of neural network. Weights and biases are updated
by Gradient Descent with Momentum Weights and
Biases. MATLAB Neural Network toolbox is used for
Figure 5 Magnitudetime contours of S-matrix for
waveform of 10% icker amplitude and icker frequencies
of 3 Hz
of 10 Hz
Figure 8 Schematic of the MLP neural network for icker
detection
of 25 Hz
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ANN training. Transfer functions between input and hidden
layer are logarithmic sigmoid; hyperbolic tangent sigmoid
functions are selected for other layers. In the training stage,
neural network outputs are considered as binary numbers, that
is, the contaminating bus is chosen 1 and non-contaminating
are 0. To identify the icker source location, the output of
ANN is analysed as follows, if all values excluding the
maximum are less than 0.5, the bus with the maximum value
is considered as the contaminating bus. When there are more
than one value greater than 0.5, these buses are doubtful of
being icker source and a zone containing these buses is
considered as contaminating buses. Therefore in a large
network seeking to nd the contaminated bus is restricted to a
few number of buses (usually 2 or 3) which can be studied
with the methods proposed in [1] or [2] to identify the main
location of icker source.
6 Determination of number and
location of measurement points
Due to the high cost of monitoring devices, optimal selection
of measurement points and their numbers is a crucial task; so
that the whole network can be observed using minimum
number of monitoring devices.
In this part, an algorithm is proposed for selecting the
number and locations of measurement points. The
proposed algorithm is as follows:
1. In the simulation process, voltages of all buses are sampled.
2. The modied icker index is then calculated for different
cases of icker amplitude to nd sensitivity of each bus in
icker identication.
3. The standard deviation of indices for each measurement
in different simulation cases is calculated.
4. The calculated values in Step 3 are sorted decreasingly.
5. In each stage, the input vector of neural network (icker
indices for each measurement) is added according to the
sorted value and the output (location of icker source) is
analysed and this process is continued till the output
reaches a satisfactory result.
The owchart of the proposed algorithm is summarised in
Fig. 9.
7 Simulation results
To verify the accuracy of the proposed method in
identication of icker source location, a sample 14-bus
distribution system as shown in Fig. 10 is simulated in
ATP/EMTP. The distribution system data are presented in
the Appendix. For modelling the icker source a three-
phase resistor bank with variable resistance that simulates
(11) is used to model the icker source. This is a simple
model of arc furnace; which is the main source of icker in
power systems.
According to the method presented in Section 6, the
measuring points are selected in Bus 1, Bus 3 and Bus 4.
Figure 9 Flowchart for the selection of number and
location of measurements
Figure 10 Studied 14-bus distribution system
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The selected neural network is a two-layer perceptron with
3 neurons in the input and 16 neurons in the hidden layer.
For training ANN, data from ickers of amplitudes 1, 4
and 10% and frequency of 8 Hz in different buses of
system are used. The icker indices of measuring buses 1, 3
and 4 are used to train the ANN. It is worth noting that as
discussed in Section 4, the effects of frequency changes in
the magnitudetime contours are compensated by
normalisation process and there is no need to train ANN
for different frequency of icker.
Calculated indices in three different cases of voltage
uctuations for the 14-bus system are given in Table 1.
These indices are used as inputs for training the ANN.
Test results for ickers with amplitude of 2, 6 and 8% and
frequency of 8 Hz are presented in Table 2. As results
show when the contaminating load is connected in buses 1,
2, 3, 4, 13 and 14, the proposed algorithm can exactly
identify the icker source. However, for the remaining
buses when the contaminating load is in these buses the
algorithm identies more than one bus as the icker
sources. Simulation results show that when the buses in the
network are closely located (like Bus 8 and Bus 9) or when
there is a kind of symmetry in the network (like Bus 11
and Bus 12 to Bus 10), a group of buses may be identied
as icker sources. To verify the validity of the method for
different icker frequency event, the network is tested for
frequencies of 4 and 15 Hz and with different amplitudes.
The results are shown in Tables 3 and 4.
7.1 Real signal consideration
In order to test the robustness of the method when real
signals are analysed, the effects of different disturbances are
addressed in this section.
Flicker is a uctuating voltage with frequency between
0.5 and 25 Hz. Thus, considering the amplitude
modulation effect of icker, maximum and minimum
frequency in the signal is in the range 2575 Hz.
Regarding the cut-off frequency of the Gaussian window, it
can be deduced from Fig. 1 that components over the
icker range will be ltered.
In analysing the actual power system disturbance data, the
real waveform captured and recorded by a digital recorder is
usually contaminated with different distortions. There are
Table 1 Simulated indices for ANN training
Contaminating
bus no.
Measurements 1% 4% 10%
1
V
1
0.8936 0.8937 0.9001
V
3
0.9021 0.9022 0.908
V
4
1 1 1
2
V
1
1 1 1
V
3
0.9964 0.9964 0.9967
V
4
0.9853 0.9854 0.9865
3
V
1
0.6885 0.6879 0.6954
V
3
0.7688 0.7684 0.7735
V
4
1 1 1
4
V
1
0.8154 0.8158 0.8268
V
3
1 1 1
V
4
0.8572 0.8575 0.8662
5
V
1
0.6933 0.6923 0.6981
V
3
0.7723 0.7717 0.7753
V
4
1 1 1
6
V
1
0.6022 0.6027 0.6173
V
3
0.6399 0.6405 0.6537
V
4
1 1 1
7
V
1
0.6945 0.6925 0.6945
V
3
0.7732 0.7718 0.7726
V
4
1 1 1
8
V
1
0.6929 0.6914 0.6953
V
3
0.772 0.771 0.7733
V
4
1 1 1
9
V
1
0.7997 0.7997 0.8082
V
3
0.9374 0.9373 0.9386
V
4
1 1 1
Continued
Table 1 Continued
Contaminating
bus no.
Measurements 1% 4% 10%
10
V
1
0.6881 0.6882 0.6993
V
3
0.7685 0.7686 0.7764
V
4
1 1 1
11
V
1
0.6961 0.6924 0.6961
V
3
0.7715 0.7717 0.7738
V
4
1 1 1
12
V
1
0.6939 0.6921 0.694
V
3
0.7727 0.7715 0.7723
V
4
1 1 1
13
V
1
0.6933 0.691 0.6922
V
3
0.7723 0.7707 0.7709
V
4
1 1 1
14
V
1
0.6943 0.6924 0.6943
V
3
0.773 0.7717 0.7725
V
4
1 1 1
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ve primary types of waveform distortion, DC offset,
Harmonics, Interharmonics, Notching and Noise [17].
Therefore it is necessary to consider the robustness of
the method in these conditions. For the sake of proving
this point, the effects of mentioned waveform distortions
on the proposed Flicker Index are studied by simulation as
follows:
1. DC offset: According to (13) for the calculation of FI, any
DC offset will be automatically removed in the index. In
order to check this fact, DC offset of magnitude 5% was
added to the signal and FI showed no change.
2. Harmonics and Interharmonics: Flicker signal mixed with
harmonics sources of order 3rd and 5th and amplitudes of
20 and 15% and interharmonics of frequency 125, 180
with amplitude of 5% is simulated. Fig. 11 shows the
simulated signal with and without distortion. The
calculated FIs were completely similar in two cases.
Moreover, in order to test this fact in the identication of
icker source, icker signal mixed with harmonics sources
of order 3rd and 5th and amplitudes of 20 and 15% of
icker source current is simulated in the network. The
corresponding icker indices are tested in the trained
ANN. Results are shown in Table 5. As it can be observed
from this table, the proposed algorithm is capable of
identifying the bus or the zone where the icker source is
connected to.
3. Notching: Voltage notching represents a special case
that falls between transients and harmonic distortion.
However, the frequency components associated with
notching can be quite high and may not be readily
characterised with measurement equipment normally used
for harmonic analysis [17]. Therefore as concluded in the
previous paragraph about harmonics, similarly the voltage
notch effects will be removed thoroughly in the FI
calculation.
4. Noise impurities: As mentioned in [17], Noise are
unwanted electrical signals with broadband spectral content
lower than 200 kHz. The frequency range and magnitude
level of noise depend on the source, which produces the
noise and the system characteristics. A typical magnitude of
noise is less than 1% of the voltage magnitude. The
presence of noise in the signal does not affect the FI
substantially because of high-frequency nature of the noise
relative to icker frequency range.
In addition to the wide-band noise from environment and
EMI effects, a major source of noise is generated in the
digitisation process. This happens, for example, when using
digital signal processings (DSPs). Typical A/D noise
sources include quantisation noise, thermal noise and
sample clock jitter. Oppenheim and Schafer [18] have
shown that the quantisation noise can be assumed to be a
wide-sense stationary white-noise process with a zero
Table 2 Output of trained ANN for icker of 8 Hz with different amplitude
Amplitude of uctuations
Flicker source 10% 8% 6% 4% 2% 1%
Selected bus in the ANN Output
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3 3 3 3
4 4 4 4 4 4 4
5 5, 6, 7 5, 6, 7 5 5 5 5
6 5, 6 6 6 5, 6 6 6
7 7 6,7 7 7 7 7
8 8, 9 8, 9 8 8 8 8
9 8, 9 9 9 8, 9 9 9
10 10, 11, 12 10, 11, 12 10 10, 11, 12 10 10
11 10, 11, 12 10, 11, 12 11 10, 11, 12 11 11
12 10, 11, 12 10, 11, 12 12 10, 11, 12 12 12
13 13 13 13 13 13 13
14 14 14 14 14 14 14
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Flicker source 10% 8% 6% 4% 2% 1%
Selected bus in the ANN Output
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3 3 3 3
4 4 4 4 4 4 4
5 5, 6, 7 5, 6 5 5 5 5
6 5, 6 6 6 5, 6 6 6
7 7 6, 7 7 7 7 7
8 8, 9 8, 9 8 8 8 8
9 8, 9 9 9 8, 9 9 9
10 10, 11, 12 10, 11, 12 10 10, 12 10 10
11 10, 12 10, 11, 12 11 10, 11, 12 11 11
12 10, 11, 12 10, 11, 12 12 10, 11, 12 12 12
13 13 13 13 13 13 13
14 14 14 14 14 14 14
Flicker source 10% 8% 6% 4% 2% 1%
Selected bus in the ANN output
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3 3 3 3
4 4 4 4 4 4 4
5 5, 6, 7 5, 6 5 5 5 5
6 5, 6 6 6 5, 6 6 6
7 7 6, 7 7 7 7 7
8 8, 9 8 8 8 8 8
9 8, 9 9 9 8, 9 9 9
10 10, 11, 12 11, 12 10 10, 12 10 10
11 10, 12 10, 11, 12 11 10, 11 11 11
12 10, 11, 12 10, 11, 12 12 10, 11, 12 12 12
13 13 13 13 13 13 13
14 14 14 14 14 14 14
www.ietdl.org
mean. In [18], the authors showed that the total noise power
does not depend on the sample rate, where n is the number of
bits in the A/D converter and f
s
is the sample rate.
The mapping between an analogue sample, x
a
(m), and its
quantised value, x(m), can be expressed as x(m) Q[x
a
(m)]
where Q[
.
] is the quantising function. The quantisation
noise is dened as e(m) x(m) 2x
a
(m). The noise has a
uniformly distributed probability density function in (2D/
2, D/2), where D 2V/2
n
is the quantisation step size for
an n-bit quantiser with an amplitude range of +V volts.
The signal-to-quantisation noise ratio can be approximated
as: SQNR(n) 6n dB [19]. Thus for an 8-bit DSP, the
SQNR would be approximately 48 dB, which is a very low
noise to affect the FI substantially.
The proposed algorithm has also been implemented in a
37-bus IEEE test system. The results are not reported here
but are completely promising.
8 Conclusion
This paper discussed a new method to identify the location of
icker source in a distribution system. By sampling voltage in
Figure 11 Robustness evaluation of icker index in presence of harmonics and inter-harmonics
a Signal of 10% pure icker
b Magnitudetime plot of signal a
c Signal of 10% icker mixed with 3rd and 5th harmonic amplitude of 20 and 15% and interharmincs of frequency 125, 180 with amplitude
of 5%
d Magnitudetime plot of signal c
Table 5 Output of trained ANN for icker of 8 Hz mixed with harmonics for different amplitude
Flicker source 10% 8% 6% 4% 2% 1%
Selected bus in the ANN output
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
3 3 3 3 3 3 3
5 5, 6, 7 5, 6, 7 5 5 5 5
7 7 6, 7 7 7 7 7
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proper locations of the network and utilising S-transform, a
trained ANN can identify the location of icker-
contaminating load in the network. In cases where the bus
are located close together or when there is a kind of
symmetry in the network, this method is capable of
limiting the search in a wide network to a few bus. In
addition, the results show that the new index for icker
assessment is of a very low sensitivity one and can handle
the harmonics usually mixed with icker.
9 References
[1] HUGHES B.: Source identication for voltage sag and
icker. IEEE Power Engineering Society Summer Meeting,
2000, vol. 2, no. 1, p. 911
[2] DAN A.M.: Identication of icker sources. Eighth Int.
Conf. on Harmonics Quality of Power, Athens, Greece,
October 1998, vol. 2, pp. 11791181
[3] AXELBERG P., BOLLEN M.H.J., GU I.Y.H.: A measurement
method for determining the direction of propagation of
icker and for tracing a icker source. 18th Int. Conf. on
Electricity Distribution, June 2005
[4] AXELBERG P.G.V., BOLLEN M.H.J.: An algorithm for
determining the direction to a icker source, IEEE Trans.
Power Delivery, 2006, 21, (2), pp. 755760
[5] FARROKH PAYAM A., MIRZAEIAN DEHKORDI B., SADRI M.S., MOALLEM M.:
An energy method for determination of icker source at the
point of common coupling. Int. Conf. on Computer as
a Tool, (EUROCON 2007), Warsaw, September 2007, pp. 912
[6] AXELBERG P.G.V., BOLLEN M.H.J., GU I.Y.H.: Trace of icker
sources by using the quantity of icker power, IEEE
Trans. Power Delivery, 2008, 23, (1), pp. 465471
[7] NASSIF A.B., TAYJASANANT T., XU W.: Methods for
characterizing icker and its applications, Int. J. Emerg.
Electr. Power Syst., 2005, 4, (2), article id 5
[8] DASH P.K., PANIGRAHI B.K., PANDA G.: Power quality analysis
using S-transform, IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, 2003, 18,
(2), pp. 406411
[9] LEE I.W.C., DASH P.K.: S-transform-based intelligent system
for classication of power quality disturbance signals, IEEE
Trans. Ind. Electron., 2003, 50, (4), pp. 800805
[10] CHILUKURI M.V., DASH P.K.: Multiresolution S-transform-
based fuzzy recognition system for power quality events,
IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, 2004, 9, (1), pp. 323330
[11] STOCKWELL R.G.: S-transform analysis of gravity wave
activity from a small scale network of airglow imagers.
PhD thesis, Western Ontario University, 1999
[12] PETERSEN H.M., KOCH R.G., SWART P.H., HEERDEN R.V.: Modeling
arc furnace icker and investigating compensation
techniques. Conf. Record of the Industrial Application
Society, 1995
[13] LAURENE F.: Fundamentals of neural networks
architectures, algorithms and applications (Prentice Hall,
1994)
[14] GHOSH A.K., LUBKEMAN D.L.: The classication of power
system disturbance waveforms using a neural network
approach, IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, 1995, 10, (1),
pp. 109115
[15] TARAFDAR HAQUE M., KASHTIBAN A.M.: Application of neural
networks in power systems: a review. Proc. World
Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology, June
2005, vol. 6
[16] MANIMALA K., SELV K.: Power quality disturbances
classication using probabilistic neural network.
Proc. Int. Conf. on Computational Intelligence and
Multimedia Applications, (ICCIMA 2007), vol. 1,
pp. 207211
[17] IEEE Std 1159: IEEE recommended practice for
monitoring electric power quality, 1995
[18] OPPENHEIM A.V., SCHAFER R.W., BUCK J.R.: Discrete-time signal
processing (Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1998,
2nd edn.)
[19] VASEGHI S.V.: Advanced digital signal processing
and noise reduction (John Wiley & Sons Ltd., 2006, 3rd
edn.)
10 Appendix
10.1 Studied 14-bus distribution system
data
Conductor data
Conductor #1
Z (R +jX) in ohms per mile
0.3465 +j1.0179 0.1560 +j0.5017 0.1580 +j0.4236
0.3375 +j1.0478 0.1535 +j0.3849
0.3414 +j1.0348
B in micro Siemens per mile
6.2998 21.9958 21.2595
5.9597 20.7417
5.6386
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Conductor #2
Z (R +jX) in ohms per mile
0.7526 +j1.1814 0.1580 +j0.4236 0.1560 +j0.5017
0.7475 +j1.1983 0.1535 +j0.3849
0.7436 +j1.2112
B in micro Siemens per mile
5.6990 21.0817 21.6905
5.1795 20.6588
5.4246
Network equivalent impedance
R
th
(ohm) L
th
(mH)
5 1.43 1.43 21.6 7.21 7.21
5 1.43 21.6 7.21
5 21.6
Transformer data
Rated voltage: 66/20 Kv
R
1
: 0.7 V, R
2
: 0.06 V
X
1
: 11.6 mH, X
2
: 1.07 mH
Vector group: Dyn1
Table 6 Load data
Bus no. Load Ph-1 Ph-2 Ph-3
kW kVar kW kVar kW kVar
2 Y-PQ 160 110 120 90 120 90
7 Y-PQ 0 0 170 125 0 0
9 D-Z 0 0 230 132 0 0
11 Y-Z 128 86 0 0 0 0
12 D-PQ 385 220 385 220 385 220
13 Y-PQ 485 190 68 60 290 212
Table 7 Line data
Conductor type Line length (mile) Line no.
conductor #1 3 12
conductor #1 1 13
conductor #1 3 24
conductor #1 3 35
conductor #1 3 46
conductor #1 3 56
conductor #2 2 67
conductor #2 5 78
conductor #2 0.2 89
conductor #1 4 810
conductor #2 5 1011
conductor #1 1 1013
conductor #2 2 1314
conductor #1 5 1012
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Published in IET Generation, Transmission & Distribution

Received on 16th August 2009

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