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LEADERSHIP STYLES: IDENTIFYING APPROACHES AND
DIMENSIONS OF LEADERS
Javed Iqbal, Assitant professor
Sumaira Inayat, MS Scholar
Madiha Ijaz, MS Scholar
Anam Zahid, MS Scholar
Faculty of Management Sciences, Sector H-10
International Islamic University Islamabad,
Pakistan

Abstract
The aim of this study is to conduct a review analysis of literature of different leadership
styles over thirteen years. The analysis focuses on major topic area of leadership styles.
Information was extracted after reviewing thirty articles from four journals on leadership
styles. It relates different leadership styles to theory X and theory Y. Furthermore, the
study recommends that transformational and transactional leadership styles are more
important as more work has been done about it and there are other areas of leadership
styles which need more attention from the future researchers.
KEYWORDS: LEADERSHIP STYLES, REVIEW, THEORY X, THEORY Y
1. INTRODUCTION
When leaders interact with followers they employ combination of traits, skills and
behaviors that is called leadership style (Lussier, 2004). The style which leader adopt
commonly based on combination of their beliefs, ideas, norms, and values. Different
theories and assumptions leads to a number of different leadership styles that includes
authoritarian, democratic and laissez faire. Transformational and transactional leadership
were also widely studied in order to identify the best possible way for leaders to interact
with their followers.
There are many studies in context of different countries and industries focusing on
leadership behaviors and styles. For example, leadership style and its relationship with
dominant brain hemisphere that exerts two dimensions of leadership style i.e. task relation
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and human relation; a study was conducted on managers of medical university of shiraz in
order to find out the relationship between right and left brain with hemisphere with
leadership style. (Jahromi, Gholtash & Saeedian, 2011). Another study investigates the
characteristics of high performance firms in turkey in order to highlight the factors which
played major role in their success, during the time of crises. Leadership was studied in
order to examine/identify high performing organizations; the aim of another study was to
find out mediating role of learning orientation between the leadership style and firm
performance in manufacturing industry. Three types of leadership behaviourtask oriented
leadership behavior, relations oriented leadership behavior and change oriented leadership
behavior-were examined (zsahin, Zehir & Acar, 2011).
Given that the aim of this study is to identify different approaches and dimensions of
leadership styles. From previous literature we have identified many dimensions such as:
task oriented, relation oriented, autocratic, democratic, transformational and transactional
leadership styles. In this study we have identified various approaches and dimensions of
leadership styles and than they have been related with theory x and y, the two extremes on
the topic.
The rest of the paper has been arranged as follows: the next section discusses the
methodology followed by the findings; the last section of the paper presents conclusions.
2. METHODOLOGY
Research methods are both inductive and deductive. Iqbal (2007) states The primary
purpose of the inductive approach is to allow research findings to emerge from the
frequent, dominant or significant themes inherent in raw data, without the restraints
imposed by structured methodologies. Empirical research especially surveys induct from
the frequent occurrences to arrive at appropriate conclusions. In the preliminary selection
of literature, we have pursue three studies of (Nonak and Peltokorpi (2006); Serenko and
Bontis (2004) and Dwivedi et.al., (2011)). First, Nonak and Peltokorpi (2006) have
analyzed and placed 20 most recurrently cited knowledge management articles in
management journals. Second, Serenko and Bontis (2004) focused on three leading
journals in their study i.e. Journal of Intellectual Capital, Journal of Knowledge
Management, and Knowledge and Process Management, in order to carry out meta-
analysis of knowledge management and intellectual capital literatures. These two studies
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were taken as basis for selecting multiple journals. Finally, Dwivedi et.al (2011), have
conducted an analysis of 1,043 articles on knowledge management that was available in
peer-reviewed journals between 1998-2011. Following criteria was used on the basis of
aforementioned studies for selecting articles on leadership styles.
Current study searched for leadership styles articles published between 1998 to 2012 in
four journals from a single database i.e. ScienceDirect. The selection of this database has
been made on the basis of more number of articles on leadership styles it contains.
Furthermore, according to Dwivedi et.al (2011), relying on single database helps to
overcome potential problem of duplication, which can occur in case of multiple databases.
Also these four journals are Procedia (Social and Behaviroal Science), The leadership
quarterly, International Journal of project management and International journal of
hospitality management. The advance search tool was used to search leadership styles
keyword in title of articles. As a result 89 hits appeared. But thirty articles were selected
for further analysis as per requirement of this review paper.
Various analyses were performed on the search output; data were then presented in count
and percentages. Many variables employ to classify the search output. These variables are
then analyzed on the basis of year of publications, author, authors institutes, country and
continent. In order to extort important information regarding leadership style a detailed
examination was conducted. Hence, for this purpose each article was thoroughly studied,
then the information was individually inspected to attain information such as unit of
analysis, areas and so on related to leadership styles.
Different categories included in tables were adopted from (Avison et al., 2008; Dwivedi et
al., 2008 & 2011; Barki et al., 1993). In order to streamline the data we have adopted
categorization scheme from Dwivedi et al., (2011) who previously adopted it from Barki,
Rivard, & Talbot (1993). The nature of research is related with different dimensions of
leadership styles so which were presented on the basis of these categories. Furthermore;
these dimensions were classified under the umbrella of Theory X and Theory Y.
Though some of the dimensions didnt fall under these theories but were related to
different sub-dimensions; they have been subsumed accordingly.

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Table 1
List of articles
(Categories adapted from Nonaka and Peltokorpi, 2006)
1 Implanting Pygmalion leadership style through workshop training: seven field
experiments
2 The relationship between leadership style coaches and athletes` performance in soccer
and basketball teams In Zanjan-Iran
3 The relationship between the effectiveness of preschools and leadership styles of
school managers
4 Strategic Leadership Styles and Organizational Financial Performance: A Qualitative
Study on Private Hospitals
5 An exploration of stereotypical beliefs about leadership styles: Is transformational
leadership a route to women's promotion?
6 The relationship between vision strength, leadership style, and context
7 Do emotions play a mediating role in the relationship between owner leadership styles
and manager customer orientation, and performance in service environment?
8 The impacts of charismatic leadership style on team cohesiveness and overall
performance during ERP implementation
9 The association among project manager's leadership style, teamwork and project
success
10 Patterns of empowerment and leadership style in project environment
11 Linking leadership style to firm performance: the mediating effect of the learning
orientation
12 Does transformational leadership style foster commitment to change? The case of
higher education in Malaysia
13 Analysis of Head of Departments Leadership Styles: Implication for Improving
Research University Management Practices
14 The relationship between coaches leadership styles & player satisfaction in women
skate championship
15 The effects of leadership styles on the stress of schools directors
16 A study of the relationship between dominant brain hemispheres with leadership
styles, task oriented and relation oriented (integrated) among active managers of
Shiraz University of medical sciences
17 Leadership styles and ethical decision-making in hospitality management
18 Effects of leadership style, anonymity, and creativity-relevant processes and outcomes
meeting system context
19 Transformational leadership in a project-based environment: a comparative study of
the leadership styles of project managers and line managers
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20 Relationships between leadership style and vision content: The moderating role of
need for social approval, self-monitoring, and need for social power
21 Impact of leadership style and emotions on subordinate performance
22 Matching the project managers leadership style to project type
23 Leadership style and activating potential moderators of the relationships among leader
emotional displays and outcomes
24 Transformational leadership style, market competition and departmental
performance: Evidence from luxury hotels in Australia
25 Leadership styles of prime ministers: how individual differences affect the foreign
policymaking process
26 The relationship between the leadership styles of the school administrators and the
organizational citizenship behaviors of teachers
27 An experimental perspective over personality and leadership styles inside Romanian
organizations
28 Leadership styles in information technology projects
29 Coping with multicultural projects: the leadership styles of Finnish project managers
30 Combinative aspects of leadership style The ordering and temporal spacing of
leadership behaviors

3. FINDINGS
3.1 Leadership studies according to journals
Table 2 provides the list of journals consulted; the largest number of articles i.e., 36.67%
appeared in the journal Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences and the least numbers of
articles appeared in International Journal of Hospitality Management i.e., 10%. The
Leadership Quarterly contributed 30% and the International Journal of Project
Management 23%.

Table 2
Leadership style studies according to journal title
(Categories adapted from Dwivedi et al, 2011)

S. No Name of Journals Record count
1 The Leadership Quarterly 9
2 International Journal of Project Management 7
3 International Journal of Hospitality Management 3
4 Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 11

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3.2 Authors actively involved in publishing leadership
Table 3 describes authors with the top contributions; a total of 87 authors contributed.
Bruce J. Avolio and John J. Sosik have contributed two articles each. Rest of authors (85)
contributed a single article. Four authors contributed five papers, teams of three have
written 11, two together researched 7 pieces and six articles were written by single authors.
Table 3: Leadership styles studies according to actively involved authors
(Categories adapted from Dwivedi et al, 2011)

Author Name Count %
Bruce J. Avolio 2 6.7
John J. Sosik 2 6.7
3.3 Leadership styles studies published between 1998 and 2012
Table 4 portray that number of articles published on the topic of Leadership styles has
substantially increased by 2010. The largest percentage of articles is 37%, which appeared
in 2011 and smallest percentage i.e., 3% appeared in 2005, 2003, 2002, and 1998. 17% of
articles appeared in 2010, and rest of 7% articles appeared in 2000, 2001, 2004, 2007, and
2009.Within the scope of our article, these finding shows that not much research was done
on leadership styles prior to 2010. But later in 2011 extensive research was conducted on
different aspects of leadership styles. This represents the growing interest in this important
research area. That could help individuals in understanding effective leadership style, in
order to get prominent position in their organization.
Table 4 Leadership styles studies published between 1998-2012, (Categories adapted from Dwivedi et al, 2011)
Year
Article Count
(n=30)
2012 1
2011 10
2010 5
2009 2
2007 2
2004 2
2001 2
2000 2
2005 1
2003 1
2002 1
1998 1
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3.4 Universities involved in disseminating leadership styles work in journals
A total of 46 institutions have associated authors who contributed in 30 articles on
Leadership styles. Table 5 identifies the institutions which contributed most in the area of
leadership styles. The overall contribution of universities varies from 1 to 2. The Islamic
Azad University, Iran, University of Tehran, Iran, Okan University, Istanbul, and The
Pennsylvania State University, Malvern, USA has contributed the highest number and
therefore can be seen as important axis of Leadership styles related research. Table 4 also
illustrates that 42 universities contributed 1 article each. This table also supports the
findings of Table 7 (of country and continents) in that the majority of output work is
actually done by the institutions of Iran, Istanbul and USA. However there is still need for
keeping in mind that a significant number of articles and research can be found beyond the
scope of this study.

Table 5
Leadership styles study studies by universities
(Categories adapted from Dwivedi et al, 2011)
Universities Record Count %
Islamic Azad University, Iran 2 7
University of Tehran, Iran 2 7
Okan University, Istanbul, Turkey 2 7
The Pennsylvania State University, Malvern, USA 2 7
The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia 1 3
Indiana University, Indianapolis, IN 46202-5151, USA 1 3
Tel Aviv University 1 3
Ascott International, Australia 1 3
School of Hotel and Tourism Management Hong Kong 1 3
Polytechnic University, Hong Kong 1 3
Grith University, Brisbane 1 3
La Trobe University, Bundoora, Australia 1 3
Griffith University, Australia 1 3
International University of Tehran, Iran 1 3
Zanjan University, Iran 1 3
Tarbiat Moalem University, Iran 1 3
Gilan University, Iran 1 3
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, 1 3
Universiti Sains Malaysia 1 3
University Putra Malayisa, 1 3
National University of Sciences & Technology 1 3
Sejong University,Republic of Korea 1 3
Shenandoah University, USA 1 3
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University of Bucharest, Romania 1 3
Umea University, Groupe ESC Lille, Euralille, 1 3
Tamkang University, Tamsui, 1 3
National Kaohsiung University of Applied Sciences, Kaohsiung 1 3
National Central University, Taoyuan 1 3
University of Central Florida, Orlando 1 3
Erasmus University Rotterdam 1 3
VU University Amsterdam, Tilburg 1 3
Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 1 3
Oakton Community College, Des Plaines, IL 1 3
Marmara University, Istanbul, Turkey 1 3
Ondokuz Mays University, Turkey 1 3
Gebze Institute of Technology, Kocaeli, 1 3
State University of New York at Binghamton, USA 1 3
University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, USA 1 3
Eastern University, United States 1 3
Binghamton University, USA 1 3
Hebrew University , Israel 1 3
University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel 1 3
University of Kansas, 1 3
Ohio State University 1 3
The University of Oklahoma 1 3
The United States Army Research Institute 1 3


3.5 Unit of analysis in leadership style study
Table 6 presented the list of common forms of unit of analysis working within leadership
styles. Organizations/firms, Group/Team categories in unit of analysis section are adapted
from Dwivedi et.al. (2011), however rest of categories have been customized according to
our topic. The results showed that majority of articles i.e. 33% studied leadership styles
and issues related to it at managers/project managers level, followed by the studies focused
on educational institutes i.e. 16.7%. Fewer percent studies focus on leadership in different
contexts and at different levels i.e. Service employees (10%), other (Gender stereotypes,
Prime ministers) (10%), Group/Team, Organizations/Companies and Sports (6.7%), IT/IS
projects, Employees and Sales personnel (3%). These findings showed mostly managers
and project managers were key interest of researchers in studying leadership styles. In
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addition educational sector was also focused of this subject. Researchers also studied
leadership styles portrayed by different genders and also by different prime ministers of
different countries. From our findings we can conclude that leadership styles are less
focused at organizational and group/team level. And least amount of studies analyzes this
topic with respect to information technology, employees and sales personnel perspective.

Table 6
Unit of analysis and leadership styles research (Categories adapted from Dwivedi et
al, 2011)

Unit of analysis Count % n=30

Managers/ Project managers 10 33
Educational institutes 5 16.7
Service employees 3 10
other(Gender stereotypes, Prime
ministers,
3 10
Group/Team 2 6.7
Organizations/firms 2 6.7
Sports 2 6.7
IT/IS projects 1 3
Employees 1 3
Sales personnel 1 3

3.6 Leadership style studies according to country
Table 7
Leadership styles studies by country
(Categories adapted from Dwivedi et al, 2011)

S. no Countries Count n= 30
1 USA 9
2 Australia 5
3 Iran 4
4 Turkey 4
5 Malaysia 2
6 Israel 2
7 Taiwan 2
8 The Netherlands 2
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Finding in Table 7 shows that in the field of leadership style across 30 publications, a total
of 15 countries have been covered. The largest numbers of publications are associated with
USA. Iran, Turkey and Australia have contributed much in the field of leadership styles. A
number of countries including Israel, Malaysia, Taiwan, The Netherlands, Pakistan,
Finland, France, Sweden, Hong Kong, Republic of Korea and Romania have been located
resulting in low number of publications. Over viewing the overall research activities at
country level it can be suggested that there exists still opportunities for future additional
research.
Analyzing the research activity at continent level it has been observed already that USA
has more publications in the area of leadership style, but vast majority of publications are
from Asia- Pacific (8.53%) than from Europe (5.33%) and then from Oceania (1.7%).


3.7 Leadership styles according to Research Design and Research Paradigm
The data presented in table 8 shows the comprehensive range of research methodology and
approaches that have been used in sample selected for the purpose of our study. Firstly,
Our findings depicts that positivism (used in 27 articles) was the most prominent paradigm
used by the studies included in our paper. It is a theoretical belief which ensures that
everything has its objective reality which can be explored by researcher. Second category
was interpretive that include 2 articles. One article includes a category which is unknown
that whether it falls in interpretive or positivism.
Secondly, most of the studies (included 27 articles) were empirically tested by using
different research methods like survey and data collection methods such as interviews,
questionnaires and field experiment etc. Two articles fell in non empirical category. For
one article it is difficult to identify whether it is empirical or non-empirical. Additionally, it
9 Pakistan 1
10 Finland 1
11 France 1
12 Sweden 1
13 Hong Kong 1
14 Republic of Korea 1
15 Romania 1
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supports the view that leadership style is complex concept, which is not easy to examine
for leading researchers.


Table 8
Research Design- empirical vs. non-empirical
(Categories adapted from Dwivedi et al, 2011; Avison et al., 2008)

Research methodology Count (n=30) %
Empirical 27 90
Non-empirical 2 6.67
Not Known 1 3.33

3.8 Major Research topic in leadership styles
Though the author have covered and presented the major area of Leadership ship styles and
categories them in their literature. Here, we are going to present the specific and core
topics of leadership styles; according to our research and finding we concluded that in the
majority of research articles studies shows that Transformational and transactional
leadership style category (43.3%, C= 13), this style of leadership involves in motivating,
enhancing the morale of their employees through reward system and goals, followed by
task oriented leadership styles (20%, C= 6) focuses only on getting the job done, this type
of leadership style involves in planning, organizing and monitoring the task to be done.
Charismatic leadership style (16.6% C= 5) this type of leadership style is more likely to
transformational leadership style; the leader is trying to inject motivation and enthusiasm
in his/her team. Autocratic, contingent, laissez-faire leadership styles are rated equally at
(6.67%, C= 2) where autocratic is a leader who apply high level of power over his/her team
members on the other hand laissez-faire leaders eaves everything on their team members to
get on with their work and contingent leadership style based on contingency theory where
leaders adopt the leadership style according to situation. And eventually Polycentric,
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Machiavellian and Bureaucratic, Synergistic, Ethnocentric, expansionist, Pygmalion
leadership styles which are also the part of this study and are rated very low.


Table 9
Frequency and percentage of major research areas (Categories adapted
from Dwivedi et al, 2011; Avison et al., 2008; Barki et al., 1993)
S. No Leadership style area Frequency Percent
1 Transformational and Transactional Style 13 43.3
2 Task oriented leadership styles 6 20
3 Charismatic leadership style 5 16.6
4 Contingent reward leadership 2 6.67
5 Laissez-faire leadership styles 2 6.67
6 Autocratic leadership style 2 6.67
7 Polycentric Leadership Styles 1 3.34
8 Machiavellian and Bureaucratic styles 1 3.34
9 Synergistic Leadership Style 1 3.34
10 Ethnocentric Leadership Style 1 3.34
11 Expansionist leadership style 1 3.34
12 Pygmalion Leadership Style 1 3.34

3.9 Leadership styles consistent with Theory X and Theory Y:
When talking about management practice, theory X and theory Y signify two type of view
about human personality and conduct. Theory X and Theory Y are human motivational
theories developed by Douglas McGregor in 1960s. According to McGregor; Theory X
depicts that managers role is to forcefully control their employees; According to their
assumption employees are lazy, dislike to work and avoid it whenever it is possible for
them. So it is tend to be negative view about humans. In our study we have identified
different leadership style dimensions, and this section represents that which dimension is
consistent with theory X and theory Y respectively. As discussed earlier theory X has a
negative view about employees, they set high objective with very low or no participation
from employees. Under theory X Autocratic, task oriented, Machiavellian and
Bureaucratic and ethnocentric leadership styles will fall. Since these styles show control,
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follow strict rules and emphasize on job done rather than motivating people and trusting
them. Because of these characteristics these styles are consistent with theory X.


Table 10
Leadership styles consistent with Theory X and Theory

Theories Leadership Styles
Theory X Autocratic
Task oriented
Machiavellian
Bureaucratic and Ethnocentric
Theory Y Transformational and transactional
Contingent reward
Laissez-faire
Synergistic
Expansionist
Pygmalion

Theory Y is opposite of theory X. This view presents positive side of human nature and
conduct. According to theory Y people are not lazy. Management role is to develop
potential towards common goals and motivate their employees to perform their tasks. As
discussed in our study transformational and transactional leadership style, contingent
reward leadership, and laissez-faire leadership styles, Synergistic Leadership, expansionist
leadership style, Pygmalion leadership styles comes under theory Y, because these styles
emphasis on motivating people. Rather controlling them it believes in people own self
control, also these styles emphasis on harmony, collaboration and integrity.
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So, from above discussion we can conclude that managers, supervisors or any person in
leading role tends to theory X display different leadership style as compare to those who
will be more tend towards assumptions of theory Y.

3.10 Discussion
In todays business world, rapid changes are occurring in different industries and sectors
which have created a high-level competition among different organizations. In order to
attain this competitive advantage, everyone is striving for the best approach. For this
reason, there is a critical need for strategic direction which leads to strong need for
groomed leaders who can stream line the functions of organization and can be a driving-
force for their Human Resource.
Subsequently, to cater this purpose our review paper presents the concise literature about
different dimensions of leadership styles on basis of previous studies. This study provides a
complete and comprehensive picture of different leadership styles; which can be beneficial
for supervisors, team leads, CEOs and managers to understand that how they can get
maximum productivity from their employees by depicting proper leadership style. Heads
of different departments will explore the style define in our study consistent with their
personality and would try to improve their ways of administrating different functions.
4. CONCLUSION
In this research 30 research articles has been studied from four different journals and a
single database from 1998 till 2012. Keeping in view limited scope of our study, we have
presented our unique results about leadership styles including journals which contain a
large amount of published articles about this topic; authors contributing more in subject
area, most frequently used research methodology and unit of analysis etc. This review aims
to provide complete and practical implications related to research gap and future research
directions of leadership styles.
Our research includes four journals in order to analyze 30 articles within the constraints of
current research. The largest number of articles was appeared in the journal Procedia
Social and Behavioral Sciences and least numbers of articles appeared in journal of
International Journal of Hospitality Management. This study contains total of 87 authors
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who were involved in accomplishment of 30 papers, among these only 2 authors have
contributed in two articles and rest 85 articles have been by 1 author each. There are five
such articles which have been written by single writer, which shows that these areas of
leadership styles gained more amount of effort at authors end as compare to other areas
that includes more than one author.
In 2011, the most frequent publications on leadership styles were appeared and least
publications on this topic were in 2005, 2003, 2002, and 1998. A total of 46 institutions
have associated with authors who contributed in 30 articles on Leadership styles, in which
four universities Islamic Azad University, Iran, University of Tehran, Iran, Okan
University, Istanbul, and The Pennsylvania State University, Malvern, USA has
contributed the highest number i.e. 2 and remaining contributed in 1 each. The results
showed that majority of articles studied leadership styles and issues related to it at
managers/project managers level and least were at Employees and Sales personnel level.
In the field of leadership style across 30 publications, a total of 15 countries have been
covered in which the largest numbers of publications are associated with USA i.e. 9,
However according to the continent vise data, depicts that largest number of articles were
published by Asia-Pacific i.e. 17 and least were from Oceania and Europe 5. Results
showed that the major topic area of this research was Transformational and transactional
leadership style category and least were eventually Polycentric, Machiavellian and
Bureaucratic, Synergistic, Ethnocentric, expansionist, Pygmalion leadership styles. On the
basis of these finding, we can conclude that Transformational and transactional leadership
style is mainly highlighted area, and gained a lot of attention and importance from different
authors of various countries. This demonstrates the significance of these styles of
leadership. Researchers should explore and give attention to highlight further aspects of
these specific leadership styles because of its tremendous implications. Further those styles
on which less work has been done, researchers should conduct more studies in order to fill
the gap.



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4.1 Limitations
Although this review paper has been prepared carefully, however there is some limitation
regarding data collection, which should be taken into account. First, within a scope of this
study, our sample size was very small. We took 30 papers from one database to analyze
our research question, which are not enough to highlight every aspect of leadership style.
Therefore number of data should be increased in order to have more accurate results by
more journals and databases. Second there was a limited time of four months during which
we had to complete our study. Also we have limited our time span from 1998 to 2012; our
research result may be significantly different if we expand our time period. Further
limitations were lack of accessibility of all articles and our selection of articles were
limited to research papers only.
4.2 Suggestions and recommendations for Future research
We can conclude that transformational and transactional leadership styles are most
important research topics. The majority of the studies are analyzing these important aspects
of leadership styles. This shows that researchers are very well familiar with powerful
impact of these styles. More work is required to explore different dimensions of these
styles. Further in order to get more accurate results sample size and time span should be
increased. Our finding also shows some not so common dimensions of leadership styles
like Synergistic, Ethnocentric, expansionist, Pygmalion leadership styles, Machiavellian.
Future research should be done on these styles as well in order to analyze, if there are any
significant impact of these styles. We have also discussed these styles in accordance with
theory X and theory Y. This should be empirically tested in order to define a proper link
between these theories and leadership styles.








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