PHOTOSYNTHESIS, LIGHT REACTION AND

CALVIN CYCLE
BY :
NI LUH PUTU WILIUDIARI (0913041038)
KADEK KENY DEWANTHI (09130410!)
NI PUTU ASTUTI "ANIK GALIH (091304108)
CLASS A
BIOLOGY EDUCATION DEPART"ENT
"ATHE"ATIC AND NATURAL SCIENCE #ACULTY
GANESHA UNIVERSITY O# EDUCATION
SINGARA$A
%009&%010
#OREWORD
At first, writers would like to express this great gratitude to the almighty God
because of His Mercy we have finished this task, make a paper about Anabolism, especially
in photosynthesis, light reaction and Calvin cycle. hen, also would like to thank to !ra. "i
#utu $istiati, M.#d as the lecturer of Capita %electa sub&ect for guidance and correction in
writing this paper. his paper is one of report for complete assignment in Capita %electa
sub&ect.
'e know that making this paper is not easier because writer get many
problems. (ecause of our group compactness and with the work hard, all of difficulty can
handle by ourselves.
)inally, writers deeply reali*es that this paper is certainly far from perfectness.
herefore, any critic and suggestion for the development of this paper are highly appreciated.
%ingara&a, +,
th
"ovember +--,
'riters
BRIE# CONTENT
TITTLE
#OREWORD
BRIE# CONTENTS
CHAPTER I PRE#ACE
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CHAPTER II CONTENTS
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%'3
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%'
CHAPTER III CLOSING
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
ATTACH"ENT
CHAPTER I
PREFACE
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.ur present knowledge of photosynthesis, like that of many other plant
processes, has developed over a long period of time. )or centuries the concept of
Aristotle prevailed that plants obtained their food directly from the soil. his food was
believed to consist of preformed particles of organic matter that were absorbed by the
roots and utili*ed by plants without important chemical change.
he first experimental evidence against the theory of Aristotle was
provided by /an (aptista van Helmont 012334156-7, a (elgian philosopher, chemist, and
physician. 8an Helmont placed +-- pounds of soil, previously dried in an oven, in an
earthenware container. He planted in the soil a willow shoot weighing five pounds. )or
the next five years the experimenter watered his plant regularly with rain water, and the
willow grew and prospered. At the end of that time the weighed the tree and found that it
totaled 156 pounds. He dried the soil again and weighed it. 9ts weight was the +--
pounds, less only two ounces. 'herever the plant material came from it certainly had not
all come from the soil and van Helmont concluded that the 156 pounds of bark, wood,
roots, and leaves had been derived from water. His conclusions were wrong, in part
because of innaccuries in drying and weighing his soil, but primarily because the
elementary concepts of chemistry were unknown at the time. His experiment was far
ahead of the period in the application of the scientific method. !uring the next three
centuries important contributions helped to piece together the story of how plants
manufacture food by photosynthesis.
#hotosynthesis evolved early in the evolutionary history of life, when all
forms of life on :arth were microorganisms and the atmosphere had much more carbon
dioxide. he first photosynthetic organisms probably evolved about ;,2-- million years
ago, and used hydrogen or hydrogen sulfide as sources of electrons, rather than water.
Cyanobacteria appeared later, around ;,--- million years ago, and changed the :arth
forever when they began to oxygenate the atmosphere, beginning about +,6-- million
years ago. his new atmosphere allowed the evolution of complex life such as protists.
:ventually, no later than a billion years ago, one of these protists formed a symbiotic
relationship with a cyanobacterium, producing the ancestor of the plants and algae. he
chloroplasts in modern plants are the descendants of these ancient symbiotic
cyanobacteria.
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(assed on the background above, the writer found several problems about
this material. hey are <
+.1 what is the meaning of photosynthesis as a part of anabolism process=
+.+ how about the process of light reaction=
+.; how about the Calvin cycle process=
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:verything that we do, of course have a purpose as a orientation in our
work. %o it is. he task to make a paper about anabolism, especially light reaction and
Calvin cycle. he purpose are<
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he general purpose of this activities is to adding and deeping our
knowledge about (iology and about anabolism especially. (eside that, as a
student of university we should make a paper in every task. %o, we must do it.
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he special purpose of this activities are to knowing the meaning of
photosynthesis, to knowing the process of light reaction, and about the Calvin
cycle process also.
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he activity that we do hopely can give something that benefit for us. his
task can give us knowledge added that couldn>t we got in %enior High %chool.
Actually, that sub&ect study we get again in university. %o we must remember it again.
(ecause of this task, we can remember it. (eside that, we can practicing :nglish more
as our duty as student in 9nternational class.
CHAPTER II
CONTENT
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%ince the leaf is the chief site of the photosynthetic process, information on
the structure of this organ is fundamental to a full understanding of the leaf activities.
he tissues of the leaf may be classified as epidermis, mesophyll, and vascular bundles.
:pidermis is composed of a single layer of interlocked cells that usually
contain no chloroplasts. 9t is continous over both surfaces of leaf and is therefore
distinguished into upper and lower epidermis. 9t is covered by the cuticle, a varnishlike
layer, or film, that retards the movement of the water and gases into and out of the leaf.
'ithin the leaf, photosynthesis is locali*ed in the mesophyll. his tissue with the
exception of the vascular bundles, includes all the cells between the upper and lower
epidermis.
he mesophyll is usually divided into two parts. he cells toward the upper
side of the leaf are elongated at right angles to the surface and form one to three compact
layer. hese cells make up the palisade parenchyma, so called because of its resemblance
to a palisade, or row of stakes forming a wall. All the mesophyll cells contain
chloroplasts, embedded in the cytoplasm surrounding a large central vacuole. he
chloroplasts are most numerous in the palisade cells, perhaps two to three times as
numerous as in the spongy tissue.
8ascular bundles are speciali*ed strands of tissue that function both in
support and in conduction. he larger bundles within the leaf can be seen on the surface
as the main veins. he vascular bundles are usually located about halfway between the
upper and lower epidermis. hey are composed of two kinds of tissue of fundamental
importance, xylem and phloem. ogether these constitute the vascular tissue. ?ylem has
function to carries the water and mineral salts from the soil and reach the mesophyll cells
of the leaf. 'hereas, the phloem has function to moving the manufacturing of food and
carries to the part of the plant.
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Many process can occur in a leaf, but distinctive one and the most important
is food manufacture. Green plants possess the ability to manufacture food from raw
materials derived from the soil and the air, and upon this activity depends not only the
life of plants but also the life of animals, including man. All living things re@uire energy,
not only for growth and reproduction but also for the maintenance of life itself. his
energy comes from the chemical energy in the food consumed, and the food, in turn, has
its origin in photosynthesis. #hotosynthesis is the manufacture of sugar from two simple
raw materials, carbon dioxide and water, in the presence of chlorophyll with sunlight as
the source energy. Chlorophyll is the green coloring matter in plants.
he radiant energy of the sun is trapped and made available to living things.
'ith the exception of the source of energy utili*ed by a few kind of bacteria,
photosynthesis is the only process by which organic compounds are constructed from
inorganic substances, with a resultant storage of energy.
#hotosynthesis occurs in plants, algae, and many species of (acteria, but not
in Archaea. #hotosynthetic organisms are called photoautotrophs, since it allows them to
create their own food. 9n plants, algae and cyanobacteria photosynthesis uses carbon
dioxide and water, releasing oxygen as a waste product. #hotosynthesis is vital for life
on :arth. As well as maintaining the normal level of oxygen in the atmosphere, nearly all
life either depends on it directly as a source of energy, or indirectly as the ultimate
source of the energy in their food. he amount of energy trapped by photosynthesis is
immense, approximately 1-- terawatts< which is about six times larger than the power
consumption of human civili*ation. As well as energy, photosynthesis is also the source
of the carbon in all the organic compounds within organismsA bodies. 9n all,
photosynthetic organisms convert around 1--,---,---,--- tonnes of carbon into
biomass per year.
Generally, the chemical e@uation for photosynthesis is commonly written <
5C.
+
B 5H
+
. B 53+ kcal C
5
H
1+
.
5
B 5H
+
.
As a result of modern investigations, photosynthesis may be separated into three ma&or
groups of reactions. 9n the first of these, light energy is used to split water into hydrogen
and oxygen. 9n the second group, light energy is used, either directly or indirectly, in
building up a supply of usable chemical energy within the chloroplast. 9n the third and
final group of reactions, hydrogen and chemical energy are used to convert carbon
dioxide into sugars.
+.+ Cight $eaction
+.6 Calvin cycle
The Calvin cycle or Calvin-Benson-Bassham cycle is a series of
biochemical reactions that take place in the stroma of chloroplasts in photosynthetic
organisms. It was discovered by Melvin Calvin, James Bassham and Andrew Benson at
the niversity of California, Berkeley
!"#
by $sing the radioactive element, Carbon%"&. It is
one of the light%independent 'dark( reactions, $sed for carbon fi)ation.
!uring photosynthesis, light energy is used in generating chemical free energy, stored in
glucose. he light4independent Calvin cycle, also 0misleadingly7 known as the Ddark
reactionD or Ddark stage,D uses the energy from short4lived electronically4excited carriers to
convert carbon dioxide and water into organic compounds
E+F
that can be used by the organism
0and by animals that feed on it7. his set of reactions is also called carbon fixation. he key
en*yme of the cycle is called $u(isC.. 9n the following e@uations, the chemical species
0phosphates and carboxylic acids7 exist in e@uilibria among their various ioni*ed states as
governed by the pH.
he en*ymes in the Calvin cycle are functionally e@uivalent to many en*ymes used in other
metabolic pathways such as gluconeogenesis and the pentose phosphate pathway, but they
are to be found in the chloroplast stroma instead of the cell cytoplasm, separating the
reactions. hey are activated in the light 0which is why the name Ddark reactionD is
misleading7, and also by products of the light4dependent reaction. hese regulatory functions
prevent the Calvin cycle from being respired to carbon dioxide. :nergy 0in the form of A#7
would be wasted in carrying out these reactions that have no net productivity.
he sum of reactions in the Calvin cycle is the following<
; C.
+
B 5 "A!#H B 2 H
+
. B , A# G glyceraldehyde4;4phosphate 0G;#7 B + H
B
B
5 "A!#
B
B , A!# B H #
i
.$
; C.
+
B 5 C
+1
H
+,
"
3
.
13
#
;
B 2 H
+
. B , C
1-
H
15
"
2
.
1;
#
;
G C
;
H
2
.
;
4#.
;
+4
B + H
B
B 5
"A!#
B
B , C
1-
H
12
"
2
.
1-
#
+
B H #
i
9t should be noted that hexose 0six4carbon7 sugars are not a product of the Calvin cycle.
Although many texts list a product of photosynthesis as C
5
H
1+
.
5
, this is mainly a convenience
to counter the e@uation of respiration, where six4carbon sugars are oxidi*ed in mitochondria.
he carbohydrate products of the Calvin Cycle are three4carbon sugar phosphate molecules,
or Dtriose phosphates,D to be specific, glyceraldehyde4;4phosphate 0G;#7.
Steps of the Calvin cycle
". The en*yme +$BisC, catalyses the carbo)ylation of +ib$lose%",-%bisphosphate, a
-%carbon compo$nd, by carbon dio)ide 'a total of . carbons( in a two%step reaction
!"#. The initial prod$ct of the reaction is a si)%carbon intermediate so $nstable that it
immediately splits in half, forming two molec$les of glycerate /%phosphate, a /%
carbon compo$nd.
!/#
'also0 /%phosphoglycerate, /%phosphoglyceric acid, /12A(
3. The en*yme phosphoglycerate kinase catalyses the phosphorylation of /12A by
AT1 'which was prod$ced in the light%dependent stage(. ",/%bisphosphoglycerate
'glycerate%",/%bisphosphate( and A41 are the prod$cts. '5owever, note that two
12As are prod$ced for every C,3 that enters the cycle, so this step $tili*es 3AT1 per
C,3 fi)ed.(
/. The en*yme 2/1 dehydrogenase catalyses the red$ction of ",/B12A by 6A415
'which is another prod$ct of the light%dependent stage(. 2lyceraldehyde /%phosphate
'also 2/1, 21, T1, 12A7( is prod$ced, and the 6A415 itself was o)idi*ed and
becomes 6A41
8
. Again, two 6A415 are $tili*ed per C,3 fi)ed.
0%implified versions of the Calvin cycle integrate the remaining steps, except for the last one,
into one general step 4 the regeneration of $u(# 4 also, one G;# would exit here.7
". Triose phosphate isomerase converts some 2/1 reversibly into dihydro)yacetone
phosphate '45A1(, also a /%carbon molec$le.
3. Aldolase and fr$ctose%",.%bisphosphatase convert a 2/1 and a 45A1 into fr$ctose
.%phosphate '.C(. A phosphate ion is lost into sol$tion.
/. Then fi)ation of another C,3 generates two more 2/1.
&. 9.1 has two carbons removed by transketolase, giving erythrose%&%phosphate. The
two carbons on transketolase are added to a 2/1, giving the ketose )yl$lose%-%
phosphate ':$-1(.
-. ;&1 and a 45A1 'formed from one of the 2/1 from the second C,3 fi)ation( are
converted into sedohept$lose%",<%bisphosphate '<C( by aldolase en*yme.
.. =edohept$lose%",<%bisphosphatase 'one of only three en*ymes of the Calvin cycle
that are $ni>$e to plants( cleaves sedohept$lose%",<%bisphosphate into
sedohept$lose%<%phosphate, releasing an inorganic phosphate ion into sol$tion.
<. 9i)ation of a third C,3 generates two more 2/1. The ketose =<1 has two carbons
removed by transketolase, giving ribose%-%phosphate '+-1(, and the two carbons
remaining on transketolase are transferred to one of the 2/1, giving another :$-1.
This leaves one 2/1 as the prod$ct of fi)ation of / C,3, with generation of three
pentoses which can be converted to +$-1.
?. +-1 is converted into rib$lose%-%phosphate '+$-1, +$1( by phosphopentose
isomerase. :$-1 is converted into +$1 by phosphopentose epimerase.
@. 9inally, phosphorib$lokinase 'another plant $ni>$e en*yme of the pathway(
phosphorylates +$1 into +$B1, rib$lose%",-%bisphosphate, completing the Calvin
cycle. This re>$ires the inp$t of one AT1.
hus, of 5 G;# produced, three $u(# 02C7 are made totalling 12 carbons, with only one
available for subse@uent conversion to hexose. his re@uired , A#s and 5 "A!#H per ;
C.
+
.
$u(isC. also reacts competitively with .
+
instead of C.
+
in photorespiration. he rate of
photorespiration is higher at high temperatures. DphotorespirationD turns $u(# into ;#GA
and +4phosphoglycolate, a +4carbon molecule that can be converted via glycolate and
glyoxalate to glycine. 8ia the glycine cleavage system and tetrahydrofolate, two glycines are
converted into serine BC.
+
. %erine can be converted back to ;4phosphoglycerate. hus, only
; of 6 carbons from two phosphoglycolates can be converted back to ;#GA. 9t can be seen
that photorespiration has very negative conse@uences for the plant, because, rather than fixing
C.
+
, this process leads to loss of C.
+
. C6 carbon fixation evolved to circumvent
photorespiration, but can occur only in certain plants living in very warm or tropical climates.
[edit] Products of the Calvin cycle
he immediate product of the Calvin cycle is glyceraldehyde4;4phosphate 0G;#7 and water.
wo G;# molecules 0or one )5# molecule7 that have exited the cycle are used to make larger
carbohydrates. 9n simplified versions of the Calvin cycle, they may be converted to )5# or
)2# after exit, but this conversion is also part of the cycle.
Hexose isomerase converts about half of the )5# molecules in to glucose454phosphate. hese
are dephosphorylated and the glucose can be used to form starch, which is stored in, for
example, potatoes, or cellulose used to build up cell walls. Glucose, with fructose, forms
sucrose, a non4reducing sugar that, unlike glucose, is a stable storage sugar.