Temporary Structures

A. Formwork for Concrete

Recommended Textbooks:
Hurd, M. K., Formwork for Concrete. 6th edition, American Concrete Institute,
Detroit, Michigan, 1995.
Ratay, Robert T., Handbook of Temporary Structures in Construction. 2nd edition,
McGraw Hill, New York, 1996.

Introduction

Formwork development has paralleled the growth of concrete construction throughout the
20th century. The increasing acceptance of concrete as a major construction material
presents the form builder a new range of problems in the development of appropriate
sheathing materials and maintenance of rigid tolerances. Formwork is a classic temporary
structure in the sense that:
it is erected quickly
highly loaded for a few hours during the concrete placement and
within a few days disassembled for future use.

Also classic in their temporary nature are the connections, braces, tie anchorages, and
adjustment devices which forms need.

The term "Temporary Structures" may not fully imply the temporary, since some forms, tie
hardware, and accessories are used hundreds of times, which necessitates high durability
and maintainability characteristics and design that maximizes productivity. Unlike
conventional structures, the formwork disassembly characteristics are severely restricted by
concrete bond, rigidity, and shrinkage, which not only restricts access to the formwork
structure but causes residual loads that have to be released to allow stripping from the
concrete which initiates disassembly.

Lumber was once the predominant form material, but developments in the use of plywood,
metal, plastics, and other materials, together with the increasing use of specialized
accessories have changed the picture. Formwork was formerly built in place, used once, and
wrecked. Because of ever increasing labor costs, the trend today is toward increasing
prefabrication, assembly in large units, erection by mechanical means such as flying forms
into place by crane, and continuing reuse of the forms.

At the turn of the 20
th
century, the use of wood versus steel formwork was debated at
various conventions. Also, the advantages of modular panel forming with its own connecting
hardware, and good for extensive reuse were realized. By 1910 in the US, steel forms for
paving were being produced commercially and used in the field.


A 1909 construction scene shows the first application of steel forms for street paving in US.

Today modular panel forming is the norm.



Objectives of Form Building

Forms mold the concrete to desired size and shape and control its position and alignment.
But formwork is more than a mold; it is a temporary structure that supports:
its own weight +
the freshly placed concrete +
construction live loads (including materials, equipment, and personnel).

Basic objectives in form building are three fold:
Quality - In terms of strength, rigidity, position, and dimensions of the forms
Safety - for both the workers and the concrete structure
Economy - the least cost consistent with quality and safety requirements

Cooperation and coordination between engineer / architect and the contractor are necessary
to achieve these goals.

Economy is a major concern since formwork costs constitutes up to 60 percent of the total
cost of concrete work in a project. In designing and building formwork, the contractor should
aim for maximum economy without sacrificing quality or safety.

How Formwork Affects Concrete Quality

Size, shape, and alignment of slabs, beams, and other concrete structural elements depend
on accurate construction of the forms. The forms must be:
Sufficiently rigid under the construction loads to maintain the designed shape of the
concrete,
Stable and strong enough to maintain large members in alignment, and
Substantially constructed to withstand handling and reuse without losing their
dimensional integrity.

The formwork must remain in place until the concrete is strong enough to carry its own
weight, or the finished structure may be damaged.

Causes of Formwork Failure

Formwork failures are the cause of many accidents and failures that occur during concrete
construction which usually happen when fresh concrete is being placed. Generally some
unexpected event causes one member to fail, then others become overloaded or misaligned
and the entire formwork structure collapses.


Formwork collapse causes injuries, loss of life, property damage, and construction delays.

The main causes of formwork failure are:
Improper stripping and shore removal
Inadequate bracing
Vibration
Unstable soil under mudsills*, shoring not plumb
Inadequate control of concrete placement
Lack of attention to formwork details.

*Mudsill: A plank, frame, or small footing on the ground used as a base for a shore or post
in formwork.

Causes of Failure

(a) Improper Stripping and Shore Removal

Premature stripping of forms, premature removal of shores, and careless practices in re-
shoring can produce catastrophic results.

i. Case study:

Too early shore removal at Bailey's Crossroads in Virginia, US, (1972): 26-stories +
apartment building. Forms were supported by floors 7-days old or older. Failure occurred on
the 24th floor, where it was shored to the 5-day-old 23rd floor. The overloaded 23rd floor
failed in shear around one or more columns, triggering a collapse that carried through the
entire height of the building.




(b) Inadequate Bracing

The more frequent causes of formwork failure, however, are other effects that induce lateral
force components or induce displacement of supporting members. Inadequate cross bracing
and horizontal bracing of shores is one of the factors most frequently involved in formwork
accidents. Investigations prove that many accidents causing thousands of dollars of damage
could have been prevented only if a few hundred dollars had been spent on diagonal bracing
for the formwork support.

Inadequate Bracing Use of Diagonal Bracing

High shoring with heavy load at the top is vulnerable to eccentric or lateral loading.



Diagonal bracing improves the stability of such a structure, as do guys or struts to solid
ground or competed structures.

ii. Case study:

The main exhibition floor of the New York Coliseum collapsed when concrete was being
placed. Forms for the floor slab were supported on two tiers of shores.



New York Coliseum: Formwork collapsed, where rapid delivery of concrete introduced lateral
forces at the top of high shoring. Increased diagonal bracing was added to all remaining
shoring, following partial collapse of formwork.





When a failure occurs at one part, inadequate bracing may permit the collapse to extend to a
large portion of the structure and multiply the damage. Suppose a worker accidentally rams
or wheelbarrow into some vertical shores and dislodges a couple of them. This may set up a
chain of reaction that brings down the entire floor. One major objective of bracing is to
prevent such a minor accident or failure from becoming a disaster.

(c) Vibration

Forms sometimes collapse when their supporting shores or jacks are displaced by vibration
caused by:
passing traffic
movement of workers and equipment on the formwork
the effect of vibrating concrete to consolidate it.

Diagonal bracing can help prevent failure due to vibration.

(d) Unstable Soil under Mudsills, Shoring not Plumb

Formwork should be safe if it is adequately braced and constructed so all loads are carried
to solid ground through vertical members. Shores must be set plumb and the ground must
be able to carry the load without settling. Shores and mudsills must not rest on frozen
ground; moisture and heat from the concreting operations, or changing air temperatures,
may thaw the soil and allow settlement that overloads or shifts the formwork. Site drainage
must be adequate to prevent a washout of soil supporting the mudsills.

(e) Inadequate Control of Concrete Placement

The temperature and rate of vertical placement of concrete are factors influencing the
development of lateral pressures that act on the forms. If temperature drops during
construction operations, rate of concreting often has to be slowed down to prevent a build up
of lateral pressure overloading the forms. If this is not done, formwork failure may result.
Failure to regulate properly the rate and order of placing concrete on horizontal surfaces or
curved roofs may produce unbalanced loadings and consequent failures of formwork.




(f) Lack of Attention to Formwork Details

Even when the basic formwork design is soundly conceived, small differences in assembly
details may cause local weakness or overstress loading to form failure. This may be as
simple as insufficient nailing, or failure to tighten the locking devices on metal shoring. Other
details that may cause failure are:
Inadequate provisions to prevent rotation of beam forms where slabs frame into them
on the side.
Inadequate anchorage against uplift for sloping form faces.
Lack of bracing or tying of corners, bulkheads, or other places where unequal
pressure is found.

Planning for Safety

Occupational Safety and Health regulations and the local building standards and code
requirements and recommendations for formwork should be followed regarding:
Supervision and Inspection
Platform and Access for Workers
Control of Concreting Practices
Improving Soil Bearing and Bracing
Shoring and Re-shoring
Relationship of Architect, Engineer and Contractor
Maintaining and Coordinating Tolerances
Preparing a Formwork Specification

B. Form Materials and Accessories
Practically all formwork jobs require some timber. Local supplier will advise what material
and sizes are in stock or promptly obtainable, and the designer or builder can proceed
accordingly. Cypress and pine timbers are widely used in structural concrete form here in
Kenya. They are easily worked and are the strongest in the softwood group. Both hold nails
well and are durable. They are used in sheathing, studs, and wales.

Plywood sheathing is more common used than board sheathing material. A concrete form tie
is a tensile unit adapted to holding concrete forms secure against the lateral pressure of
unhardened concrete. A wide variety of ready-made ties with safe load are used today. They
consist of internal tension unit and external holding device, and are manufactured in two
basic types:
Continuous single member
Internal disconnecting type

Continuous Single Member Ties

Continuous single member, in which the tensile unit is a single piece, and a special holding
device is added for engaging the tensile unit against the exterior of the form. Some single
member ties may be pulled as an entire unit from the concrete; others are broken back a
predetermined distance, some are cut flush with the concrete surface.

Internal Disconnecting Type Ties

Internal disconnecting type, in which the tensile unit has an inner part with threaded
connections to removable external members which make up the rest of the tensile unit. They
generally remain in the concrete.

Ties

The two types of tying devices are identified commercially by various descriptive names,
such as form clamps, coil ties, rod clamps, snap ties, etc. Except for taper ties, the
continuous single member type is generally used for lighter loads, ranging up to about 2000
kg safe load. The internal disconnecting type of tie is available for light or medium loads but
finds its greatest application under heavier construction loads (up to about 30 tons).

Timber Finish and Sizes

Timber which has been surfaced in a planning machine to attain smoothness of surface and
uniformity of size is called dressed timber. The surfacing may be on one side (S1S), one
edge (S1E), two sides (S2S), two edges (S2E), or combination of sides and edges (S1S1E,
S1S2E, S2S1E) or on all four sides (S4S). Dressed timber is generally used for formwork,
because it is easier to handle and work, but rough sawn boards and timbers may be used in
bracing and shoring, or as a form surfacing material to secure a special texture effect in the
finished concrete.

Minimum sizes of both rough and dressed timber are specified by the relevant KEBS
standard. Timber is commonly referred to by its nominal size. Minimum sizes for green
timber are selected so that as moisture is lost, it becomes the same size as dry timber.

Form Materials and Accessories

Actual dimensions and cross section properties timber at 18 percent moisture content, not
nominal, sizes must always be used for design. Design for formwork is based on the
allowable or working stresses. Allowable stress depends on so many factors including the
species of wood, grade, cross section, moisture content, and load duration.

Adjustment for Load Duration

For formwork materials with limited reuse, design codes permits design using allowable
stresses for temporary structures or for temporary loads on permanent structures. In case of
timber, this is interpreted to mean the 25 percent working stress increase (adjustment factor
of 1.25) for 7 days or less duration of load.

Adjustment factors for size and Flat Use

Size Factor: Timber frequently used for formwork is subject to stress adjustment
based on member size.
Flat use factor: When dimension lumber 50 to 100mm thick is loaded on the wide
face, the base value of bending stress can be multiplied by appropriate adjustment
factors.

Engineered Wood Products

Plywood

Plywood is widely used for job built forms and prefabricated form panel systems. Plywood is
a flat panel made of a number of thin sheets of wood. A single sheet in the panel may be
referred to as a ply, or layer. A layer may consist of a single ply or it may be two or more
plies laminated together with their grain direction parallel.

Plywood at the bottom face grain parallel to span is used the strong way. With face grain
perpendicular to the span direction, the specimen at the top is used the weak way.

Vertical Loads

Vertical loads on formwork include:
The weight of reinforced concrete
The weight of forms themselves (dead load)
The live loads imposed during the construction process (material storage, personnel
and equipment).

It is recommended that both vertical supports and horizontal framing components of
formwork should be designed to provide for weight of personnel, runways, screeds and other
equipment such as carts.





Live load including power buggy and the concrete crew

When slab form members are continuous over several supporting shores, dumping concrete
on one span of the form member may cause uplift of the form in other spans. Forms must
me designed to hold together under such conditions. If form members are not secured to
resist this uplift, they should be built as a simple pan.

Lateral Pressure of Fresh Concrete

Loads imposed by fresh concrete against wall or column forms differ from the gravity load on
a horizontal slab form. The freshly placed concrete behaves temporarily like a fluid,
producing a hydrostatic pressure that acts laterally on the vertical forms. This lateral
pressure is comparable to full liquid head when concrete is placed full height within the
period required for its initial set.

With slower rate of placing, concrete at the bottom of the form begins to harden and lateral
pressure is reduced to less than full fluid pressure by the time concreting is completed in the
upper parts of the form. The effective lateral pressure, a modified hydrostatic pressure, has
been found to be influenced by the weight, rate of placement, temperature of concrete mix,
use of retardant admixtures, and vibration.

Factors Affecting Lateral Pressure on Forms

Weight of concrete
Rate of placing (the average rate of rise in the form)
Vibration
Temperature (affecting the set time)
Other variables
Consistency of concrete
Ambient temperature
Amount and location of reinforcement
Maximum aggregate size (MSA)
Cement type, etc.

Form Design

When the material for formwork have been chosen, and the anticipated loading estimated, a
form should be designed strong enough to carry the anticipated loads safely, and stiff
enough to hold its shape under full load. At the same time the builder or contractor wants to
keep costs down by not overbuilding the form.

C. Shoring and Scaffolding
In multistory work, the shoring which supports freshly placed concrete is necessarily
supported by lower floors which may not yet have attained their their full strength, and which
may not have been designed to carry loads as great as those imposed during construction.
Construction loads may exceed design loads by an appreciable amount.

(a) Shoring

Therefore shoring must be provided for enough floors to develop the needed capacity to
support the imposed loads without excessive stress or deflection. Whether permanent
shores or re-shores are used at the several required lower floor levels depends on job plans
for reused of materials as well as the rate of strength gain in the structure.

There are several types of adjustable individual shores. The simplest of these, is based on
clamping device which permits the overlapping of two 50mmx 100mm timber members. A
portable jacking tool is used to make vertical adjustments.



Timber shores





Jacking tool

Metal shore jack fittings are available to fit over the end of 100mmx100mm or
150mmx150mm wood shore, thus transforming the piece of timber into an adjustable shore.
These devices are capable of varying the shore height as much as 300mm. A number of
patented shoring systems have been developed with adjustable legs which eliminate cutting,
close fitting, and wedging.


Scaffold-Type Shoring Shoring in a multistory building


When tubular steel frame scaffolding was first introduced, it was designed to support the
relatively light loads involved in getting workers to the work area. Later contractors began to
try out the scaffolding as a support for formwork because of the apparent advantages of its
modular assembly and system of jacks for leveling and adjusting elevations.

Scaffold-Type Shoring

End frames assembled with diagonal braces to form typical shoring tower.









(b) Scaffolding

(i) Walk-through-type frames used by masons

Scaffolding has been used for 5000 years to provide access areas for building and
decorating structures taller than people who work on them. The word scaffolding refers to
any raised platform or ramp used for ingress and egress for pedestrian movement and/or the
passage of building materials. Since the mid-1920s the concept of using steel pipes fastened
together with metal-form or cast clamps (couplers) instead of poles and ropes was
introduced.








Aluminum alloy pipes and couplers were developed for their lighter weight and speedier
construction. Aluminum alloy is only two-thirds as strong as steel, but it is only one-third to
one-half its weight. Because of the higher initial cost, aluminum is restricted mostly to
building maintenance scaffolds and suspended platforms.

General Design Considerations

Commonly, all types of scaffold have incorporated in their design a minimum safety factor of
4. This means that scaffolds and their components shall be capable of supporting without
failure at least 4 times the maximum intended load. To comply with this requirement, multiply
the design load by 4 and derive the limiting strength of the component from the yield stress
of the metal in accordance with acceptable engineering criteria and practices.

Design Loads

Design load ratings for scaffold platforms are as follows:
Light-Duty Loading. maximum working load for support of people and tools (no
equipment or material storage on the platform).
Medium-Duty Loading. maximum working load for people and material restricted
not to exceed this rating, often described as applying to bricklayers and plasters
work.
Heavy-Duty Loading. maximum working load for people and stored material often
described as applying to stone masonry work.

These ratings assume uniform load distribution. With the exception of the weight of stored
materials, scaffold loads most often consist of personnel, both stationary and transitory. It is
important to remember that the load-rating system is intended for guidance of field personnel
in the construction and use of non specifically engineered scaffolding applications.

(ii) Tube and Coupler Scaffolds

Tube and coupler scaffolds are assembled from three basic structural elements:
the uprights, or posts, which rise from ground or other solid support
the bearer, which supports the work platforms and / or provide transverse horizontal
connections between the posts;
the runners, which attach to the posts directly below the bearers and provide
longitudinal connections along the length of the scaffold.




These three elements are usually connected with standard or fixed couplers which provide a
90 connection in two places.

The three elements
(uprights, bearers,
runners)


Detail and terminology of a modular scaffolding system



Tube and coupler scaffold showing guard rails and timber toe board.



Scaffolding, formwork and falsework all in one on a high rise tower.

Extensive scaffolding on a building


Scaffolding showing required protection of a working platform with maximum dimensions. Butt-board
not visible. No couplers shown

Basic scaffold dimensioning terms. No boards, bracing or couplers shown

The spacing of the basic elements in the scaffold are fairly standard. For a general purpose
scaffold the maximum bay length is 2.1 m, for heavier work the bay size is reduced to 2 or
even 1.8 m while for inspection a bay width of up to 2.7 m is allowed. The scaffolding width
is determined by the width of the boards, the minimum width allowed is 600 mm but a more
typical four-board scaffold would be 870 mm wide from standard to standard. More heavy
duty scaffolding can require 5, 6 or even up to 8 boards width. Often an inside board is
added to reduce the gap between the inner standard and the structure.

The lift height, the spacing between ledgers, is 2 m, although the base lift can be up to 2.7
m. The diagram above also shows a kicker lift, which is just 150 mm or so above the ground.
Transom spacing is determined by the thickness of the boards supported, 38 mm boards
require a transom spacing of no more than 1.2 m while a 50 mm board can stand a transom
spacing of 2.6 m and 63 mm boards can have a maximum span of 3.25 m. The minimum
overhang for all boards is 50 mm and the maximum overhang is no more than 4x the
thickness of the board.




The basic assembly and components of tube and coupler scaffolds.


Diagonal bracing is used to stiffen the structure as necessary most important in the
longitudinal direction. Bracing is generally connected to the posts with adjustable or
swivel couplers which have the facility of adjusting a full 360. Diagonal bracing should
always be attached to the posts as closely as practical to the node points formed by the
runner-bearer connections.

Another important structural element is the building tie which connects the scaffold to the
wall or structure and is needed to provide rigidity and anchorage of the scaffold in the
transverse direction. Scaffolds need to be laterally supported; otherwise, they are unstable
because of their height-to-width ratio and have low strength to resist wind and other lateral
forces.

Methods of stabilizing against a building
(a) Wall tie and anchorage
(b) Window reveal tube
(c) Reveal between pilasters




Tube and Coupler Scaffolds Application

Tube and coupler scaffolds can be assembled in numerous ways because of the flexibility of
their assembly dimensions in the horizontal and vertical planes. Unlike sectional frame
scaffolds they are not restricted by frame width in the transverse direction, by brace length in
the longitudinal direction, or by frame height in the vertical direction. Consequently, they are
preferred for access to workplaces having irregular dimensions and contours, e.g., churches,
old auditoriums, etc.

Basic Configuration

The basic configurations are as follows:

1. Double Pole. Also called independent wall scaffolds, these are used for access to
vertical surfaces for construction, alterations, or surface finishing and repair. They consist of
repetitive pairs of posts along the length, connected by bearers and runners.
2. Single pole. Also called putlog wall scaffolds, these are used for the construction of
masonry walls. They consist of single posts 900mm to 1.5 m away from the wall surface
spaced at regular or varying intervals along the wall. The different feature of this type of
scaffold is that the inside ends of the bearer are supported at joints or courses in the wall
being built instead of the inside posts.
3. Tower Scaffolds. These consist of one or few bays in either horizontal plane, constructed
to required height for access to ceilings or for specialized load support requirements not
conveniently achievable with sectional frames. They may be mounted on casters and
become mobile scaffolds or rolling towers.




An application of tower scaffolds is to provide stair access to unusual
structures such as cooling towers.

(iii) Sectional Scaffolding

The construction principle of sectional scaffolding is shown below.



Basic assembly of sectional scaffolding













Rolling
scaffold with
stand-off
ladder
(iv) Wooden scaffolding






Bamboo scaffolding





Timber scaffolding

D. Falsework
Falsework consists of temporary structures used in construction to support spanning or
arched structures in order to hold the component in place until its construction is sufficiently
advanced to support itself. Falsework also includes temporary support structures for
formwork used to mold concrete to form a desired shape and scaffolding to give workers
access to the structure being constructed.
BS 5975:1982 (Code of Practice for Falsework) defines falsework as: Any temporary
structure used to support a permanent structure while it is not self-supporting.

Falsework centering in the center arch of Monroe Street Bridge, Spokane, Washington

E. Cofferdams
A cofferdam is a temporary structure designed to keep water and/or soil out of the
excavation in which a bridge pier or other structure is built. Cofferdams are temporary
enclosures to keep out water and soil so as to permit dewatering and construction of the
permanent facility (structure) in the dry.

A cofferdam involves the interaction of the structure, soil, and water. The loads imposed
include the hydrostatic forces of the water, as well as the dynamic forces due to currents and
waves. Because cofferdams are typically constructed under adverse conditions in a marine
environment, and because significant deformations of elements may occur at various stages
of construction, it is difficult to maintain close tolerances. Ample provisions must be made for
deviations in dimensions so that the finished structure may be constructed according to plan.

The loads imposed on the cofferdam structure by construction equipment and operations
must be considered, both during installation of the cofferdam and during construction of the
structure itself. Removal of the cofferdam must be planned and executed with the same
degree of care as its installation, on a stage-by-stage basis. The effect of the removal on the
permanent structure must also be considered. For this reason, sheet piles extending below
the permanent structure are often cut off and left in place, since their removal may damage
the foundation soils adjacent to the structure.

In cofferdam construction, safety is a paramount concern, since workers will be exposed to
the hazard of flooding and collapse. Safety requires:
good design
proper construction
verification that the structure is being constructed as planned
monitoring the behavior of the cofferdam and surrounding area
provision of adequate access
light and ventilation, and
attention to safe practices on the part of all workers and supervisors.

Types of cofferdams:

Braced
Earth-Type
Timber Crib
Double-Walled Sheet Pile
Cellular

Braced Cofferdams

Formed from a single wall of sheet piling driven into the ground to form a box around
the excavation site.
The "box" is then braced on the inside.
Interior is dewatered
Primarily used for bridge piers in shallow water (9 10m depth)

Cofferdam Design Considerations

Scouring or undermining by rapidly flowing water
Stability against overturning or tilting
Upward forces on outside edge due to tilting
Stability against vertical shear
Effects of forces resulting from:
ice, wave, water, active earth and passive earth pressures

Advantages of Cofferdam

Allow excavation and construction of structures in otherwise poor environment
Provides safe environment to work
Contractors typically have design responsibility
Steel sheet piles are easily installed and removed
Materials can typically be reused on other projects

Items needed for installation

Pile driving hammer
Vibratory or Impact
Crane of sufficient size
Steel sheet piles are typically used
H-piles and/or wide-flange beams for wales and stringers
Barges may be required

Types of imposed loads

(i) Hydrostatic pressure

The maximum probable height outside the cofferdam during construction and the
water height inside the cofferdam during various stages of construction need to be
considered. These result in the net design pressure shown below:





Hydrostatic forces on partially dewatered cofferdam

(ii) Forces due to Soil Loads

The soils impose forces, both locally on the wall of the cofferdam and globally upon
the structure as a whole. These forces are additive to the hydrostatic forces.
Local forces are a major component of the lateral force on sheet-pile walls, causing
bending in the sheets, bending in the wales, and axial compression in the struts

(iii) Current Forces on Structure

With a typical cofferdam, the current force consists not only the force acting on the
normal projection of the cofferdam but also on the drag force acting along the sides.
With flat sheet piles, the latter may be relatively small, whereas with z-piles it may be
substantial, since the current will be forming eddies behind each indentation of
profile, as shown below.



(iv) Wave forces

Waves acting on a cofferdam are usually the result of local winds acting over a
restricted fetch and hence are of short wavelength and limited to height.
Waves can also be produced by passing boats and ships, especially in a restricted
waterway.

(v) Ice forces

the force exerted by the expansion of a closed-in solidly frozen-over area of water
surface (static ice force)

(vi) Seismic Loads

These have not been normally considered in design of temporary structures in the
past. For very large, important, and deep cofferdams in highly seismically active
areas, seismic evaluation should be performed.

(vii) Accidental loads

These are the loads usually caused by construction equipment working alongside the
cofferdam and impacting on it under the action of waves.

(viii) Scour

Scour of the river bottom or seafloor along the cofferdam may take place owing to
river currents, tidal currents, or wave-induced currents. Some of the most serious and
disastrous cases have occurred when these currents have acted concurrently. A very
practical method of preventing scour is to deposit a blanket of crushed rock or heavy
gravel around the cofferdam, either before or immediately after the cofferdam sheet
piles are set. A more sophisticated method is to lay a mattress of filter fabric,
covering it with rock to hold it in place.

Cofferdam Components

Sheet piling
Bracing frame
Concrete seal
Bearing piles

The typical cofferdam, such as a bridge pier, consists of sheet piles set around a bracing
frame and driven into the soil sufficiently far to develop vertical and lateral support and to cut
off the flow of soil and, in some cases the flow of water.








Structural bracing frame







Sheet piles






Install Wale and Strut System for Framework /Template




The structure inside may be founded directly on rock or firm soil or may require pile
foundations. In the latter case, these generally extend well below the cofferdam. In order to
dewater the cofferdam, the bottom must be stable and able to resist hydrostatic uplift.
Placement of an underwater concrete seal course is the fastest and most common method.
An underwater concrete seal course may then be placed prior to dewatering in order to seal
off the water, resist its pressure, and also to act as a slab to brace against the inward
movement of the sheet piles in order to mobilize their resistance to uplift under the
hydrostatic pressure.

For a typical cofferdam, such as for a bridge pier, the construction procedure follow the listed
pattern.

1. Pre-dredge to remove soil or soft sediments and level the area of the cofferdam.
2. Drive temporary support piles
3. Temporarily erect bracing frame on the support piles.
4. Set steel sheet piles, starting at all four corners and meeting at the center of each
side
5. Drive sheet piles to grade.
6. Block between bracing frame and sheets, and provide ties for sheet piles at the top
as necessary.



7. Excavate inside the grade or slightly below grade, while leaving the cofferdam full of
water.


8. Drive bearing piles.
9. Place rock fill as a leveling and support course.


10. Place tremie concrete seal.




Tremie concrete seal.








11. Check blocking between bracing and sheets.
12. Dewater.
13. Construct new structure.





14. Flood cofferdam.



15. Remove sheet piles.
16. Remove bracing.
17. Backfill.





Traditional Sheet Pile Shapes



a. Z-Type (Z) - Used for intermediate to deep wall construction



b. Larson / U Type (U) - Used for applications similar to Z - Type



c. Flat / Straight Type (SA), (S) - Used for filled cell construction


d. Arch shaped & lightweight - Used for shallower wall construction



Typical types of interlocks


i. Ball & Socket (BS)


ii. Single Jaw (SJ)



iii. Double Jaw (DJ)


iv. Hook & Grip (HG)


v. Thumb & Finger one point contact (TFX)




vi. Braced Cofferdam Construction



Install Wale and Strut System for Framework /Template












Tips for installing Sheet piles:

Always set-up a template system
Rule of thumb: Crane Boom length should be twice that of the sheets
Drive the Sheets with the "male" interlock leading in order to avoid soil plugs
If the "female" interlock must lead, place a bolt or other object at the bottom to avoid
debris filling the slot
Align and plumb the first two sheets and drive carefully and accurately
Drive sheets in pairs when possible placing the hammer in the center of the pair
Some contractors recommend not driving a sheet more than 1/3 its length before
driving the adjacent pile
Letting the sheets "freefall" and drop in order to aid in penetration will generally
cause the sheets to fall "out of plumb"
Cellular cofferdams require that all sheets are set and "closed" before any driving is
done
Finally never rush the Pile Foreman!!


F. Tremie Concrete

Underwater concrete plays an important role in the construction of offshore structures. It may
be used to tie together various elements in composite action (i.e., to tie piling to the footing).
It:

Is a special mix with plasticizer
Is a high slump concrete with set retarders
Has smaller aggregate sizes
Has a four-hour workability
Is designed for placement under water via tremie pipe

The placement of tremie concrete is carried out through a tube, usually 250-to 300mm pipe.
The pipe may be sectional but joints should be flanged and bolted, with soft rubber gasket,
so as to prevent any in-leakage of water. The tremie pipe must have sufficient wall thickness
so that it negatively buoyant when empty.

Install a steel plate on the bottom end with a soft rubber gasket. The plate is tied with
twine to the pipe.












Breaking the tremie tube





Transition of the pipeline from vertical to horizontal.


The placement is started by placing the sealed pipe on the bottom and then partially filling it
with the tremie concrete mix. When tremie has been filled to a reasonable distance (distance
required to overcome the frictional head 1-2 m) above the balancing head of fresh concrete
versus surrounding liquid, the pipe is raised 150 mm, allowing the concrete to flow out. The
lower end of the pipe is kept embedded in fresh concrete, but no deeper than where the
concrete has taken the initial set (with retarder to prevent the initial set, the depth of
embedment becomes less sensitive).

The tip of the tremie pipe should always be immersed about 1 m as a minimum so as to
prevent water inflow into the pipe. The flow of concrete should be smooth, consistent with
the rate at which concrete can be delivered into the hopper at the top. The method of
delivery should provide relatively even feed to the hopper rather than large batches being
suddenly dumped. When large areas are to be covered, multiple tremie pipes should be
used. The distance tremie can flow without excessive segregation is between 6 and 20 m.














G. J ump form or slip form systems
Fully mechanised public housing construction in some countries like Hong Kong involves the
following features:
i. the use of a climbing formwork system (sometimes referred to as self-climbing or
self-lifting) to construct the central core walls,
ii. precast facades and steel panel formwork (or alternatively climbing formwork) to
construct the residential wings,
iii. aluminium system soffit formwork to construct the floor slabs.
The central core is typically constructed ahead of the residential wings by using a climbing
formwork system. The wings then "spiral" around the central core.
The jump form illustrated here is a climbing formwork system developed by Leighton
Contractors (Asia) Ltd.

The use of climbing formwork (jump form) to construct the cores. Precast facades
and steel panel formwork are used in the construction of residential wings.


The use of climbing formwork (jump form) to construct the cores. Precast facades and jump form are also used in
the construction of the residential wings.
The animation illustrates the process. A frame is constructed from structural steel members
over the central core. Steel formwork panels are hung from this frame, some supported on
rollers. After the concrete walls are poured, the formwork is released and rolled back from
the concrete face. Jacks then lift or climb the whole frame up one level. All the formwork
panels are attached to the frame. This process takes approximately one and a half hours.
Once the climbing formwork is in position, the formwork panels are closed and the next
concrete wall is poured. The cycle continues, which is normally four days. Faster times have
been achieved. However, the limiting factor to faster times is usually the construction of the
floor slabs, which are done as a separate process.

Go to website below for animation
http://www.cityu.edu.hk/CIVCAL/production/advanced/jump_form.html

Slip Forms

Self climbing electro-hydraulic slipform system may be defined as a method of continuously
moulding or forming concrete with the use of a moving formwork. The rate of movement, or
slipping, is controlled by the setting or curing rate of the concrete, which must be capable of
supporting at least its own weight when exposed by the moving formwork. This is
undoubtedly the most unique aspect of slipforming: the ability of concrete to stand safely and
unsupported within two to four hours after being placed into the formwork in a plastic state.

Slipforming as a method of construction was first used in the early 1930s for the erection of
storage silos and similar structures. The system involved the use of manually operated jacks
and timber formwork. Since then, the technique has evolved and is widely used in
rapid construction of reinforced concrete wall structures such as silo complexes, chimneys,
reservoirs, medium to highrise housing, office buildings, hotels, hospitals, bridge piers,
inground shafts, caissons, dam structures and power stations. Recently, the method has
extended to reinforced concrete offshore oil production platforms.

The apparent simplicity of the slipform concept tends to camouflage the actual complexities
that need to be thoroughly understood in the practical application of the system. Concrete is
placed inside the forms in shallow and regular layers of around 150-200mm, and each layer
is vibrated with high frequency immersion-type vibrators. Within 2-3 hours of initial
placement of the concrete the vertical slipping of the formwork can commence. The
formwork at all times must be kept as full of concrete as possible to allow the concrete the
maximum period of time in the forms to gain strength before being exposed beneath the
sliding forms. As the forms are slid or jacked upward, concrete continues to be layered into
the top of the forms.

The speed of jacking is determined by the setting characteristics of the concrete rather than
by the speed of the jacking system. If jacking is too fast, plastic concrete will fall out as it is
exposed from the bottom of the forms. Conversely, if jacking is too slow, the concrete
surface will become dry, generating considerable friction between the sliding faces of the
formwork.
Jacks are used to lift the formwork and they climb on jack rods, which are located centrally in
the wall and cast into the concrete, the concrete providing lateral restraint against buckling of
the rods. Additional jack rods are added with the aid of screwed-end couplings as the
formwork rises.

Vertical reinforcement is located by guides fixed to the slipform. The horizontal
reinforcement has to be threaded beneath yoke heads as the slipform rises. Penetrations
are formed by fixing blocks of material such as polystyrene, precast weak concrete or timber
frames to the reinforcement.

Slipforming is normally undertaken on repetitive work, where speed or economy through the
maximum reuse of the same formwork is possible. The method can be carried out
continuously, 24 hours a day until the structure is completed; alternatively, slipforming can
be done on a non-continuous basis during daylight hours only.

Continuous Slipforming

Continuous slipforming is normal for the construction of silos or water retaining structures
where monolithic walls are required. On such projects, slipforming can be carried out at an
average speed of 300 to 400mm in height per hour.

Discontinuous slipforming

Discontinuous slipforming is preferred when building multi-story structures such as
apartment building and commercial offices. For projects of this type, it is normal to slipform
one full floor height per day (i.e. 3 to 4 metres). The following day is used to install window,
door and floor blockouts, fix all vertical reinforcement, install stairs and generally make ready
for the next floor height pour which would be completed the following day. This arrangement
gives a repetitive 2 day cycle per floor.
There are many factors which will influence the decision to slipform continuously or
discontinuously. For instance, where a slender or complicated structure is to be slipped, the
rate of strength gain of the concrete and stability considerations, particularly where strong
wind conditions are encountered, will dictate that a discontinuous or intermittent slipform
approach be adopted.
Structural design considerations will often dictate that discontinuous slipforming be used.
This will occur frequently when constructing service cores for high rise buildings. The core
itself may not be stable if erected to its full height without some inter-action with the
remainder of the structural frame of the building. Where this situation exists, it is normal to
stage Slipforming at no more than 3 or 4 floors ahead of the construction of the remainder of
the building.

Custom assembled to your specifications

It is possible to slipform quite complex shapes. Almost any rectangular, cellular, curved or
convoluted shape can be slipped. Generally, for economic reasons, the plan shape of a
structure to be slipformed should remain constant throughout its full height. Whilst this is a
desired requirement, it should not be taken as a limiting factor as it is quite possible to
change wall thicknesses and to add to or remove walls from a slipform during construction.
Since the formwork must slide past the face of the concrete wall it is essential that any
horizontal projections from this face be eliminated or at least minimised. This requirement
calls for special attention to floor slab and beam connections to slipformed walls. Where
projections from the wall face have to be provided as an essential part of the structural
design, such as corbels or haunches to provide seating for precast beams or panels, then
these can be formed integrally with the slipformed wall by the use of static formwork panels.
These remain stationary in place as the slipform rises. This type of detail tends to complicate
a slipform and as such should only be used where no alternatives are structurally or
economically possible.


Jumpformed concrete silos on the left and slipformed concrete mainhouse at an elevator
facility




Concrete Pavement constructed by Slip Form Paver

Rigid - Slipform Paving

Slipform paving is defined as a process used to consolidate, form into geometric shape and
surface finish a Portland Cement Concrete (PCC) mass by pulling the forms continuously
through and surrounding the plastic concrete mass. Slipform paving is most appropriate for
larger jobs that require high production rates. Particular advantages of slipform paving are:
Uses low-slump PCC. Low-slump PCC (on the order of 0 - 75 mm (0 - 3 inches)) is
necessary so that the fresh PCC is able to hold its shape once the slipform paver has
passed. Low slump PCC can be made with less water and usually has higher
compression and flexural strengths than comparable high slump mixes.
High productivity. Large jobs generally require high production rates in order to be
profitable. Slipform paving production rates are typically in the range of 65 - 100
m
3
/hr (85 - 131 yd
3
/hr) for mainline paving. That translates into between 70 - 90 m/hr
(230 - 300 ft./hr) of 3.66 m (12 ft.) wide, 250 mm (10 inch) thick PCC surface course.
Smooth riding surface. Automation and computer control allow slipform pavers to
produce very smooth riding surfaces
Pavement slipforming involves PCC placement, consolidation, finishing and curing as it is
typically done in slipform paving. Most often, these steps are accomplished by three pieces
of equipment: the placer/spreader (used for rough placement), the concrete paver (used for
final placement, consolidation and initial finishing), and the texturing and curing machine.
These machines usually travel together in series down the length of the project.

Placer/Spreader

Although not always used, placer/spreaders are quite common. They place a metered
supply of PCC in front of the paver using a series of conveyor belts, augers, plows and
strikeoff devices (see Figures (a) and (b) below). Using a placer/spreader allows the
contractor to receive material from transport vehicles and place a uniform amount of PCC in
front of the entire paver width, while minimizing segregation.

(a) Large Placer/Spreader (b) Smaller Placer/Spreaders

Paver

The paver usually performs screeding, consolidation and initial finishing. A typical track-
mounted, self-propelled paver operates at speeds between 1 and 2.5 m/minute. Some
pavers are equipped to place reinforcing steel (if needed), dowel bars and tie rods as well.
Figure (a) shows the basic slipform paving process as it occurs underneath the paver. First,
an auger spreads the PCC in front of the strike off plate. Second, the strike off plate
(screed) removes excess portions of the auger-placed PCC and brings the slab near its final
elevation. Third, the PCC is consolidated by a group of vibrators. Fourth, a tamper (typically
operating between 0 and 150 strokes per minute), if present, pushes large aggregate
particles below the slab surface. Finally, the profile pans level off the slab at the right
elevation and provide initial finishing. The remainder of this section describes this process in
more detail.

Screeding

Slipform pavers first use an auger to perform any final material spreading and then strike off
the PCC at the correct elevation using a simple strike off plate, or screed.

Consolidation

After screeding, the paver consolidates the fresh PCC using a series of vibrators (see Figure
(c)). Typically, the most effective vibrator position is after the strike-off mechanism and at
the final slab elevation. Depending upon mix design and slab depth, vibrators are usually
set in the 7,000 - 9,000 vibrations per minute (VPM) range. Vibrators are positioned next to
one another such that their influence zones overlap by about 50 - 75 mm (2 - 3 inches) at
normal paver speed (ACPA, 1995). Gaps between the influence zones (caused by incorrect
vibrator settings or excessively fast paver operation) can cause segregation (ACPA, 1995).
Most pavers use fully adjustable vibrator spacing to account for different conditions and mix
types, while still providing adequate influence zone overlap.

Figure (c): PCC Vibrators on the Underside of a Paving Machine

Initial Finishing

Initial finishing is accomplished by
extruding the PCC mass through a
moving form made up of the base
course (bottom), the side forms
(vertical edges of the paver) and the
profile pan (flat paver pieces mounted
behind the vibrator) (see Figure (d)).
Extruding PCC through the resulting
rectangular shape provides the final
slab dimensions and also serves to
imbed larger aggregate particles
below the surface, which results in a
smooth finish. Some pavers are also
equipped with a hydraulic tamper bar
(sometimes called a "jitterbug"),
located just behind the vibrators. By
moving up and down, the tamper bar
is thought to:
1. Assist in consolidation and
finishing by tamping large
aggregate particles below the
slab surface.
2. Keep the large aggregate
moving in an area where it
may have tendencies to stop
or stick.
3. Keep the material moving
around the vibrators so as not
to collect and cause flow
problems.


However, a tamper may not be necessary on many jobs. Although it forces the coarse
aggregate away from the surface, making finishing easier, it can also creates a mortar-rich
surface layer which could scale or craze. Usually, a tamper is not necessary with a well
designed PCC mixture, however, it may be helpful when finishing a harsh, low-slump
mixture.
Additional finishing, when needed, occurs just behind the profile pan and is usually
accomplished using simple floats (see Figure (e). Microtexturing is usually accomplished by
dragging a section of burlap (see Figure (f)) or artificial turf (see Figure (g)) behind the paver.



Figure (d): Sideforms and Profile Pan




Figure (e): Hand Finishing Behind the Paver

Figure (f): Burlap Drag Figure (g): Artificial Turf Drag

Texturing and Curing Machine
The texturing and curing machine follows the paver and is used to impart macrotexture
(usually by dragging a tined instrument across the fresh pavement - see Figure (h)) and
apply a curing membrane over the pavement. Sometimes the paver is equipped with a
tining machine, while a separate machine is used for applying the curing membrane.
Although it used to be quite common, slipformed PCC pavement is rarely if ever water cured
due to the high material and labor costs. Figures (i) and (j) show curing machines in
operation.
Curing is typically done once finishing of an area is complete and the original wet sheen has
nearly disappeared. On tined pavements, curing is usually specified to occur in two passes,
one forward and one in reverse, to ensure both sides of the texture ridges are coated with
curing membrane.


Figure (h) (left): Tined Texturing Carriage


Figure (i): Spraying the Curing Membrane Figure 7.141 (below right): Spraying Curing
Membrane Close-up

The Features are;
As it paves sliding attached forms, no works of setting up forms beforehand and
removing them afterward is needed.
As laying, compaction and smooth finishing are done by one machine, it requires
fewer machines as compared to conventional set form type of paving.
As the machine steers by itself and has automatic height control unit, high accuracy
of construction is achieved.
As it has electric driven vibrators, it can compact the concrete as tight as method of
paving done by conventional equipment.
As the paving depth can be as thin as 5 cm, it is applicable to Thin Layer Overlay as
rehabilitation method of existing concrete pavement.
It is also applicable for conventional set form type of paving.
By attaching special attachment, it can construct other type of concrete structures
such as concrete barriers.
Applicable to Structures described below
Concrete Pavement : ordinary roads, agricultural roads, piers of harbors, apron of
airport, yards in factories
Ditches : site constructed U and V shape ditches
Barriers : site constructed center barriers

H. Excavations and Excavation Supports
In many construction jobs deep excavations must be made before the structure can be built.
When excavations have the potential to endanger lives or adjacent properties, bracing to
support the soil must be designed. The Occupational Safety and Health regulations requires
that all trenches exceeding 1.5m in depth be shored. In large construction areas, excavation
walls may be sloped, instead of providing structural support.

Slope Failure Mechanisms

Translational slice in cohesionless sand or gravel
Slip along plane of weakness
Rotational Slump in homogeneous clay

Slope Stability

Driving forces: the component of soil weight down slope (forces causing instability).
Resisting forces: the soil strength acting in the opposite direction (resisting forces).
Mechanism of failure: When driving forces exceed the resisting forces.

Factor of safety (FS): the ratio of resisting forces (or moments) to the driving forces (or
moments).
If FS 1, the slope will fail
If FS > 1, the slope is theoretically stable.
The usual FS required is between 1.3 and 1.5

To estimate the factor of safety for a slope, the following information is required:
The soil and water profile
The kinematics of potential slope failure
The strength and weight of soils, and
The proposed slope geometry.

This estimate is for homogeneous materials.



Theoretical Safe Heights for Homogeneous Clay Cut Slope with Vertical Sides

Soil consistency* Safe height (m)
Very soft
Soft
Medium
Stiff
Very stiff
Hard
<1.5
1.5 3.0
3.0 6.0
6.0 12.0
12.0 24.0
>24.0
Soil consistency* based on unconfined compressive strength and cohesion values

The slope failures are probable in shallow excavations only for very soft to medium
homogeneous clays. By flattening the slope angle from 90 to 45, significant improvement
in the factor of safety for a slope of a given height can be achieved.

Temporary slope protection should be provided to prevent sloughing of soil materials into the
excavation, such as coating or other impervious material applied to the slope. To prevent
slope erosion in rainstorms, spray-on product are used on silty soil materials to bind the soil
particles on the surface. Plastic covering can be used to prevent changes in moisture
content on the surface of the slope to maintain stability. Chain link fence can be draped over
a slope surface, when the slope contains significant amount of loose large rocks.




Shallow Trenches

Cross-trench bracing are used in utility trench excavations.


Intermittent sheeting and bracing



Trench shielding


Continuous sheeting and bracing







Deep Cuts

Excavation depths exceeding 3m to 6m, require specialized planning for support. Lateral
earth pressure is proportional to the vertical pressure. As a cut is made, the soil at the face
tend to expand and move into the cut area. If a support is placed against the excavation
surface to prevent the soil movement, then the pre-excavation stress is maintained.

Soldier beam and lagging

Pairs of soldier beams are driven to a depth slightly below the final excavation. Their spacing
is in the order of 1.5m to 3m so that available timber can be used for lagging. The lagging
timber, which is slightly shorter than the spacing but on the order of 50mm to 100mm thick,
are installed behind the front flange to retain the soil as excavation proceeds. Some hand
excavation is usually required to get the lagging into the place.



Soldier piles are installed with conventional pile-driving equipment or in augured holes. The
horizontal sheeting or lagging is installed behind the flange closest to the excavation (inside
flange). The sheeting can be installed on the inside face of the front flange and held in place
by various methods such as clips, welded studs, or bars, etc.

The soldier pile and lagging method is inappropriate for perfectly cohesionless soil. For
cohesionless soils sheeting must be used.










Workers install lagging The soldier beam and lagging retaining wall




Soldier beam and lagging retaining wall Close up of soldier beam and lagging

Soil Nailing

Soil Nailing is an insitu reinforcing of the soil while it is excavated from the top down. An
array of soil nails which are passive inclusions are installed in a grid that functions to create
a stable mass of soil. This mass of reinforced soil functions to retain the less stable material
behind it. In the right soil conditions, soil nailing is a rapid and economical means of
constructing excavation support systems and retaining walls.

In many applications soil nailing can be the least disruptive way to construct a retaining wall.
Soil nailing requires an unusual amount of hand work, craftsmanship and geotechnical
knowledge to construct. The typical construction sequence begins with the excavation of a
shallow cut. Then shotcrete is applied to the face of the cut and soil nails are drilled and
grouted. This sequence is then repeated until subgrade is reached.

Soil Nailing Examples

NorthWest Animal Facility, UC Berkeley, CAL.


Construction of an underground laboratory at the UC Berkeley, required temporary shoring on all four
sides of the excavation. The tolerances for the shoring was specified to be no more than plus or
minus one inch. The excavation depth varied from 4.5 to 11m, and was constructed in colluvial soils,
consisting of stiff sandy clays and dense clayey sands with gravel and some cobbles. Approximately
1,300 m
2
of area was soil nailed.

Chemistry Building, Washington State University, Pullman, WA

The 12m deep excavation at this site was made in stiff to hard, slightly clayey silt, with
standard penetration resistances ranging from 15 to 45. At one corner of the site, a two
story brick auditorium was located ten feet behind the soil nailed wall. Eight rows of soil nails
were designed to support the excavation.


Excavation Bracing

For narrow excavations, internal struts are most appropriate. Before struts are installed, a
horizontal member called waler is placed against the soil support. Intermediate struts are
then installed from waler to waler across the excavation. Cross-lot struts are not feasible for
very wide excavations.





For very wide excavations, raker bracing is used. The support for the rakers (driven piles or
footings) are installed at the bottom of the excavation.




Construction of the soil support and removal of the remainder of the excavation then begins.
Compared to cross-lot bracing, in raker bracing system the central portion of the work area is
relatively uncluttered.







wale


raker

temporary foundation









Raker bracing

Tiebacks (or anchors) are a structural system which acts in tension and receives its support
in earth or rock. The system consists of:
o the earth or rock, which provides the ultimate support for the system
o A tension member (or tendon) which transfers the load from the soil-retention
system to the earth or rock.
o A stressing unit which engages the tendon, permits the tendon to be stressed,
and allows the load to be maintained in the tendon.

Tieback Systems

Earth anchors are usually installed at an angle of 10 to 20 down from horizontal. If the
acceptable soil is not encountered at these levels, it is necessary to change the angle to
engage the proper soil stratum.

Anchors or tiebacks eliminate obstructions in the excavation inherent in rakers or struts.











They consist of rods that extend well beyond any potential failure surface into firm
undisturbed soil or rock. Some tiebacks are made with high tensile cables grouted into rock
and prestressed against a wale, and others utilizing ordinary steel rod or reinforcing steel.
Tieback systems are generally very successful in preventing movements of the excavation
walls. Usually, the excavation wall is left in place after the permanent construction inside the
braced excavation is complete. Its is often used as the back form for the permanent
basement of the structure. Tiebacks, if left in place, are always cut to relieve tension when
the permanent structure can safely carry the load.

Tieback Example
Two Renaissance Square, Phoenix, AZ


This is a 19m deep tiedback excavation. The subsurface material through which this major
excavation was installed consisted of 7.5m of medium dense to dense sands and gravel,
underlain by very dense sand, gravel and cobbles (SGC). The SGC contained a large
percentage of cobbles up to 18 inches in diameter. The job consisted of 6000m
2
of shoring
and 500 tiebacks.

Glossary of terms
Waler: Horizontal timber used to hold close sheeting in position.
Lagging: Lengths of sawn hardwood timber planks used to support the sides, walls or roof as necessary of shafts and drives and to
prevent material from those faces falling into the excavation. The term is also sometimes used when referring to the layer of poling boards
doing the same duty in trenches. The lagging is supported in turn by walkings, legs, caps, sets or frames, as applicable. (See also "lathes"
below).
Lathes: Short lengths of hardwood timber usually split and about 1.25 to 1.5 metres long used to support the side walls (and roof in
drives) and supported in turn by walings, legs or caps as applicable.
Strut: Hardwood timber (usually horizontal) in compression resisting thrust or pressure from the face or faces of an excavation.
Soldier: Vertical upright hardwood timber used for supporting a trench wall, taking the thrust from horizontal walers and supported by
struts.