CHAPTER 2

DIGITAL MODULATION
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Referring to Equation (2.1), if the information signal is digital
and the amplitude (lV of the carrier is varied proportional to the
information signal, a digitally modulated signal called
amplitude shift keying (A!) is produced.
"f the frequency (f) is varied proportional to the information
signal, frequency shift keying (#!) is produced, and if the
phase of the carrier ($) is varied proportional to the information
signal, phase shift keying (PSK) is produced.
"f %oth the amplitude and the phase are varied proportional to
the information signal, quadrature amplitude modulation
(&A') results. A!, #!, (!, and &A' are all forms of
digital modulation)
(2.1)
#igure 2*1 sho+s a simplified %loc, diagram for a digital
modulation system.
1
"n the transmitter, the precoder performs level conversion and
then encodes the incoming data into groups of %its that
modulate an analog carrier.
-he modulated carrier is shaped (filtered), amplified, and
then transmitted through the transmission medium to the
receiver.
-he transmission medium can %e a metallic ca%le, optical fi%er
ca%le, Earth.s atmosphere, or a com%ination of t+o or more
types of transmission systems.
"n the receiver, the incoming signals are filtered, amplified,
and then applied to the demodulator and decoder circuits,
+hich e/tracts the original source information from the
modulated carrier.
-he cloc, and carrier recovery circuits recover the analog
carrier and digital timing (cloc,) signals from the incoming
modulated +ave since they are necessary to perform the de*
modulation process.
#"01RE 2*1 implified %loc, diagram of a digital radio
system.
2
2-2 INFORMATION CAPACITY, BITS, BIT RATE,
BAUD, AND MARY ENCODING
2-2-1 Informa!on Ca"a#!$, B!%, an& B! Ra'
"

2 / t (2.2)
+here "3 information capacity (%its per second)
B 3 %and+idth (hert4)
t = transmission time (seconds)
#rom Equation 2*2, it can %e seen that information capacity
is a linear function of %and+idth and transmission time and is
directly proportional to %oth.
"f either the %and+idth or the transmission time changes, a
directly proportional change occurs in the information
capacity.
-he higher the signal*to*noise ratio, the %etter the
performance and the higher the information capacity.
'athematically stated, the Shannon limit_for information
capacity is

(2.5)
or
(2.6)
+here " 3 information capacity (%ps)
2 3 %and+idth (hert4)
N
S
3 signal*to*noise po+er ratio (unitless)
5
#or a standard telephone circuit +ith a signal*to*noise po+er
ratio of 1$$$ (5$ d2) and a %and+idth of 2.7 ,84, the
hannon limit for information capacity is
" 3 (5.52)(27$$) log
1$
(1 9 1$$$) 3 2:.; ,%ps
hannon.s formula is often misunderstood. -he results of the
preceding e/ample indicate that 2:.; ,%ps can %e propagated
through a 2.7*,84 communications channel. -his may %e true,
%ut it cannot %e done +ith a %inary system. -o achieve an
information transmission rate of 2:.; ,%ps through a 2.7*,84
channel, each sym%ol transmitted must contain more than one
%it.
2-2-2 M-ar$ En#o&!n(
M-ary is a term derived from the +ord inary!
M simply represents a digit that corresponds to the num%er of
conditions, levels, or com%inations possi%le for a given
num%er of %inary varia%les.
#or e/ample, a digital signal +ith four possi%le conditions
(voltage levels, frequencies, phases, and so on) is an '*ary
system +here ' " 6. "f there are eight possi%le conditions, '
= < and so forth.
-he num%er of %its necessary to produce a given num%er of
conditions is e/pressed mathematically as
M N
2
log =
(2.=)
+here N 3 num%er of %its necessary
M 3 num%er of conditions, levels, or com%inations
possi%le +ith N %its
6
Equation 2*= can %e simplified and rearranged to e/press the
num%er of conditions possi%le +ith N %its as
#
N
"M (2.:)
#or e/ample, +ith one %it, only 2
1
3 2 conditions are
possi%le. >ith t+o %its, 2
2
3 6 conditions are possi%le, +ith
three %its, 2
5
3 < conditions are possi%le, and so on.

2-2-) Ba*& an& M!n!m*m Ban&+!&,
2aud refers to the rate of change of a signal on the transmission
medium after encoding and modulation have occurred.
8ence, %aud is a unit of transmission rate, modulation rate, or
sym%ol rate and, therefore, the terms sym%ols per second and
%aud are often used interchangea%ly.
'athematically, %aud is the reciprocal of the time of one output
signaling element, and a signaling element may represent
several information %its. 2aud is e/pressed as
%aud 3
s
t
1
(2.7)
+here %aud 3 sym%ol rate (%aud per second)
t
s
3 time of one signaling element (seconds)
-he minimum theoretical %and+idth necessary to propagate a
signal is called the minimum ?yquist %and+idth or sometimes
=
the minimum ?yquist frequency.
-hus, f
%
3 22, +here f
%
is the %it rate in %ps and 2 is the ideal
?yquist %and+idth.
-he relationship %et+een %and+idth and %it rate also applies to
the opposite situation. #or a given %and+idth (2), the highest
theoretical %it rate is 22.
#or e/ample, a standard telephone circuit has a %and+idth of
appro/imately 27$$ 84, +hich has the capacity to propagate
=6$$ %ps through it. 8o+ever, if more than t+o levels are used
for signaling (higher*than*%inary encoding), more than one %it
may %e transmitted at a time, and it is possi%le to propagate a
%it rate that e/ceeds 22.
1sing multilevel signaling, the ?yquist formulation for channel
capacity is
f
%
3 2 log
2
' (2.<)
+here f
%
3 channel capacity (%ps)
2 3 minimum ?yquist %and+idth (hert4)
' 3 num%er of discrete signal or voltage levels
Equation 2.< can %e rearranged to solve for the minimum
%and+idth necessary to pass '*ary digitally modulated carriers
2 3

M
f

2
log
(2.;)
"f ? is su%stituted for log
2
', Equation 2.; reduces to
:
2 3

N
f

(2.1$)
+here ? is the num%er of %its encoded into each signaling
element.
"n addition, since %aud is the encoded rate of change, it also
equals the %it rate divided %y the num%er of %its encoded into
one signaling element. -hus,
2aud 3

N
f

(2.11)
2y comparing Equation #!$% +ith Equation #!$$ the %aud and
the ideal minimum ?yquist %and+idth have the same value
and are equal to the %it rate divided %y the num%er of %its
encoded.
2-) AMPLITUDE-SHIFT -EYING
-he simplest digital modulation technique is amplitude-shift
keying (A!), +here a %inary information signal directly
modulates the amplitude of an analog carrier.
A! is similar to standard amplitude modulation e/cept
there are only t+o output amplitudes possi%le. Amplitude*
shift ,eying is sometimes called digital amplitude
modulation (@A').
'athematically, amplitude*shift ,eying is

7
(2.12)
+here
&
ask
(t) " amplitude*shift ,eying +ave
v
m
(t) 3 digital information (modulating) signal (volts)
AA2 3 unmodulated carrier amplitude (volts)
B
c
3 analog carrier radian frequency (radians per second, 2Cf
c
t)
"n Equation #!$#' the modulating signal Dv
m
(t)E is a
normali4ed %inary +aveform, +here 9 1 V 3 logic 1 and *1 V
3 logic $. -herefore, for a logic 1 input, v
m
(t) 3 9 1 V, Equation
#!$# reduces to

and for a logic $ input, v
m
(t) 3 *1 V, Equation #!$# reduces to

-hus, the modulated +ave &
ask
(t)'

is either A cos(B
c
t) or $.
8ence, the carrier is either (on(or (off'( +hich is +hy
amplitude*shift ,eying is sometimes referred to as on-off
keying(FF!).
#igure 2-# sho+s the input and output +aveforms from an A!
modulator.
<
#rom the figure, it can %e seen that for every change in the
input %inary data stream, there is one change in the A!
+aveform, and the time of one %it (t

) equals the time of one

analog signaling element (t,).
2 3 f
%
A1 3 f
%
%aud 3 f
%
A1 3 f
%
#"01RE 2*2 @igital amplitude modulation) (a) input %inaryG
(%) output @A' +aveform
-he entire time the %inary input is high, the output is a constant*
amplitude, constant*frequency signal, and for the entire time the
%inary input is lo+, the carrier is off.
-he rate of change of the A! +aveform (%aud) is the same as
the rate of change of the %inary input (%ps).
E.am"/' 2-1
@etermine the %aud and minimum %and+idth necessary to pass a
1$ ,%ps %inary signal using amplitude shift ,eying.
olution
#or A!, ? 3 1, and the %aud and minimum %and+idth are
;
determined from Equations 2.11 and 2.1$, respectively)
2 3 1$,$$$ A 1 3 1$,$$$
%aud 3 1$, $$$ A1 3 1$,$$$
-he use of amplitude*modulated analog carriers to transport digital
information is a relatively lo+*quality, lo+*cost type of digital
modulation and, therefore, is seldom used e/cept for very lo+*
speed telemetry circuits.
2-0 FRE1UENCY-SHIFT -EYING
#! is a form of constant*amplitude angle modulation
similar to standard frequency modulation (#') e/cept the
modulating signal is a %inary signal that varies %et+een t+o
discrete voltage levels rather than a continuously changing
analog +aveform.
Honsequently, #! is sometimes called inary )SK (2#!).
-he general e/pression for #! is
(2.15)

+here
v
fs,
(t) 3 %inary #! +aveform
V
c
" pea, analog carrier amplitude (volts)
f
c
" analog carrier center frequency (hert4)
If 3 pea, change (shift) in the analog carrier frequency
(hert4)
v
m
(t) 3 %inary input (modulating) signal (volts)
1$
#rom Equation 2.15, it can %e seen that the pea, shift in the
carrier frequency (If) is proportional to the amplitude of the
%inary input signal (v
m
DtE), and the direction of the shift is
determined %y the polarity.
-he modulating signal is a normali4ed %inary +aveform +here a
logic 1 3 9 1 V and a logic $ 3 *1 V. -hus, for a logic l input,
v
m
(t) 3 9 1, Equation 2.15 can %e re+ritten as

#or a logic $ input, v
m
(t) 3 *1, Equation 2.15 %ecomes

>ith %inary #!, the carrier center frequency (f
c
) is shifted
(deviated) up and do+n in the frequency domain %y the %inary
input signal as sho+n in #igure 2*5.
#"01RE 2*5 #! in the frequency domain
As the %inary input signal changes from a logic $ to a logic 1
and vice versa, the output frequency shifts %et+een t+o
frequencies) a mar,, or logic 1 frequency (f
m
), and a space, or
11
logic $ frequency (f
s
). -he mar, and space frequencies are
separated from the carrier frequency %y the pea, frequency
deviation (If) and from each other %y 2 If.
#requency deviation is illustrated in #igure 2*5 and e/pressed
mathematically as
If 3 Jf
m
K f
s
J A 2 (2.16)
+here If " frequency deviation (hert4)
Jf
m
K f
s
J 3 a%solute difference %et+een the mar, and
space frequencies (hert4)
#igure 2*6a sho+s in the time domain the %inary input to an #!
modulator and the corresponding #! output.
>hen the %inary input (f

) changes from a logic 1 to a logic $

and vice versa, the #! output frequency shifts from a mar, ( f
m
)
to a space (f
s
) frequency and vice versa.
"n #igure 2*6a, the mar, frequency is the higher frequency (f
c
* If) and the space frequency is the lo+er frequency (f
c
* If),
although this relationship could %e Lust the opposite.
#igure 2*6% sho+s the truth ta%le for a %inary #! modulator.
-he truth ta%le sho+s the input and output possi%ilities for a
given digital modulation scheme.
12
#"01RE 2*6 #! in the time domain) (a) +aveform) (%) truth
ta%le
2-0-1 FS- B! Ra', Ba*&, an& Ban&+!&,
"n #igure 2*6a, it can %e seen that the time of one %it (t

) is the
same as the time the #! output is a mar, of space frequency
(t
s
)! -hus, the %it time equals the time of an #! signaling
element, and the %it rate equals the %aud.
-he %aud for %inary #! can also %e determined %y
su%stituting ? " 1 in Equation 2.11)
%aud 3 f
%
A 1 3 f
%
-he minimum %and+idth for #! is given as
2 3 J(f
s
K f
%
) K (f
m
K f
%
)J
3 J(f
s
K f
m
)J 9 2f
%
and since J(f
s
K f
m
)J equals 2If' the minimum %and+idth can %e
appro/imated as
2 3 2(If 9 f
%
) (2.1=)
15
+here
23 minimum ?yquist %and+idth (hert4)
If" frequency deviation J(f
m
K f
s
)J (hert4)
f

" input %it rate (%ps)

E.am"/' 2-2
@etermine (a) the pea, frequency deviation, (%) minimum
%and+idth, and (c) %aud for a %inary #! signal +ith a mar,
frequency of 6; ,84, a space frequency of =1 ,84, and an input %it
rate of 2 ,%ps.
So/*!on
a. -he pea, frequency deviation is determined from Equation
2.16)
If 3 J16;,84 * =1 ,84J A 2 31 ,84
%. -he minimum %and+idth is determined from Equation 2.1=)
2 3 2(1$$$ 9 2$$$)
3 : ,84
c. #or #!, N " 1, and the %aud is determined from Equation 2.11
as
%aud 3 2$$$ A 1 3 2$$$
2essel functions can also %e used to determine the
appro/imate %and+idth for an #! +ave. As sho+n in #igure
2*=, the fastest rate of change (highest fundamental fre*
quency) in a non*return*to*4ero (?RM) %inary signal occurs
+hen alternating 1s and $s are occurring (i.e., a square +ave).
16
#"01RE ;*= #! modulator, t
%
, time of one %it 3 1Af
%
G f
m
mar,
frequencyG f
%
,

space frequencyG -
1
,

period of shortest cycleG
1A-
1
, fundamental frequency of %inary square +aveG f
2
,

input %it
rate (%ps)
ince it ta,es a high and a lo+ to produce a cycle, the highest
fundamental frequency present in a square +ave equals the
repetition rate of the square +ave, +hich +ith a %inary signal is
equal to half the %it rate. -herefore,
f
a
3 f
%
A 2 (2.1:)
+here
f
a
3 highest fundamental frequency of the %inary input signal
(hert4)
f
b
= input %it rate (%ps)
-he formula used for modulation inde/ in #' is also valid for
#!G thus,
h 3 If A f
a
(unitless) (2.17)
+here
h 3 #' modulation inde/ called the h*factor in #!
f
o
3 fundamental frequency of the %inary modulating
signal (hert4)
1=
If " pea, frequency deviation (hert4)
-he pea, frequency deviation in #! is constant and al+ays at
its ma/imum value, and the highest fundamental frequency is
equal to half the incoming %it rate. -hus,
2
2
J J

s m
f
f f
h

=
or

s m
f
f f
h
J J
=
(2.1<)
+here
h 3 h*factor (unitless)
f
m
3 mar, frequency (hert4)
f
s
" space frequency (hert4)
f

3 %it rate (%its per second)

E.am"/' 2-)
1sing a 2essel ta%le, determine the minimum %and+idth for the
same #! signal descri%ed in E/ample 2*1 +ith a mar, frequency of
6; ,84, a space frequency of =1 ,84, and an input %it rate of 2 ,%ps.
olution -he modulation inde/ is found %y su%stituting into
Equation 2.17)
h3 J6; ,84 * =1 ,84J A 2 ,%ps 3 1
3 2 ,84 A 2 ,%ps
#rom a 2essel ta%le, three sets of significant side%ands are
produced for a modulation inde/ of one. -herefore, the
%and+idth can %e determined as follo+s)
2 3 2(5 / 1$$$)
3 :$$$ 84
1:
-he %and+idth determined in E/ample 2*5 using the 2essel ta%le
is identical to the %and+idth determined in E/ample 2*2.
2-0-2 FS- Tran%m!'r
#igure 2*: sho+s a simplified %inary #! modulator,
+hich is very similar to a conventional #' modulator and
is very often a voltage*controlled oscillator (VHF).
-he center frequency (f
c
) is chosen such that it falls half+ay
%et+een the mar, and space frequencies.
#"01RE 2*: #! modulator
17
A logic 1 input shifts the VHF output to the mar, frequency,
and a logic $ input shifts the VHF output to the space
frequency.
Honsequently, as the %inary input signal changes %ac, and
forth %et+een logic 1 and logic $ conditions, the VHF
output shifts or deviates %ac, and forth %et+een the mar,
and space frequencies.
#"01RE 2*: #! modulator
A VHF*#! modulator can %e operated in the s+eep mode
+here the pea, frequency deviation is simply the product of the
%inary input voltage and the deviation sensitivity of the VHF.
>ith the s+eep mode of modulation, the frequency deviation is
e/pressed mathematically as
+f " &
m
(t)k
l
(2*1;)
v
m
(t) 3 pea, %inary modulating*signal voltage (volts)
k
l
3 deviation sensitivity (hert4 per volt).
2-0-) FS- R'#'!3'r
1<
#! demodulation is quite simple +ith a circuit such as the one
sho+n in #igure 2*7.
#"01RE 2*7 ?oncoherent #! demodulator
-he #! input signal is simultaneously applied to the inputs of
%oth %andpass filters (2(#s) through a po+er splitter.
-he respective filter passes only the mar, or only the space
frequency on to its respective envelope detector.
-he envelope detectors, in turn, indicate the total po+er in each
pass%and, and the comparator responds to the largest of the t+o
po+ers.
-his type of #! detection is referred to as noncoherent detection.
#igure 2*< sho+s the %loc, diagram for a coherent #! receiver.
1;
-he incoming #! signal is multiplied %y a recovered carrier
signal that has the e/act same frequency and phase as the
transmitter reference.
8o+ever, the t+o transmitted frequencies (the mar, and space
frequencies) are not generally continuousG it is not practical to
reproduce a local reference that is coherent +ith %oth of them.
Honsequently, coherent #! detection is seldom used.
#"01RE 2*< Hoherent #! demodulator
-he most common circuit used for demodulating %inary #!
signals is the phaselocked loop ((NN), +hich is sho+n in %loc,
diagram form in #igure 2*;.
#"01RE 2*; (NN*#! demodulator
As the input to the (NN shifts %et+een the mar, and space
frequencies, the dc error &oltage at the output of the phase
comparator follo+s the frequency shift.
2$
2ecause there are only t+o input frequencies (mar, and space),
there are also only t+o output error voltages. Fne represents a
logic 1 and the other a logic $.
2inary #! has a poorer error performance than (! or &A' and,
consequently, is seldom used for high*performance digital radio
systems.
"ts use is restricted to lo+*performance, lo+*cost, asynchronous
data modems that are used for data communications over analog,
voice*%and telephone lines.
2-0-0 Con!n*o*%-P,a%' Fr'4*'n#$-S,!f -'$!n(
Hontinuous*phase frequency*shift ,eying (H(*#!) is %inary
#! e/cept the mar, and space frequencies are synchroni4ed
+ith the input %inary %it rate.
>ith H(*#!, the mar, and space frequencies are selected such
that they are separated from the center frequency %y an e/act
multiple of one*half the %it rate (f
m
and f
s
" n,f

A #-)' +here n 3
any integer).
-his ensures a smooth phase transition in the analog output signal
+hen it changes from a mar, to a space frequency or vice versa.
#igure 2*1$ sho+s a noncontinuous #! +aveform. "t can %e
seen that +hen the input changes from a logic 1 to a logic $ and
vice versa, there is an a%rupt phase discontinuity in the analog
signal. >hen this occurs, the demodulator has trou%le follo+ing
the frequency shiftG consequently, an error may occur.
21
#"01RE 2*1$ ?oncontinuous #! +aveform
#igure 2*11 sho+s a continuous phase #! +aveform.
#"01RE 2*11 Hontinuous*phase '! +aveform
?otice that +hen the output frequency changes, it is a smooth,
continuous transition. Honsequently, there are no phase
discontinuities.
H(*#! has a %etter %it*error performance than conventional
%inary #! for a given signal*to*noise ratio.
-he disadvantage of H(*#! is that it requires synchro*
ni4ation circuits and is, therefore, more e/pensive to implement.
22
2-5 PHASE-SHIFT -EYING
Phase-shift keying ((!) is another form of angle-modulated'
constant-amplitude digital modulation.
2-5-1 B!nar$ P,a%'-S,!f -'$!n(
-he simplest form of (! is inary phase-shift keying
(2(!), +here ? " 1 and M " #!
-herefore, +ith 2(!, t+o phases (2
1
3 2) are possi%le for the
carrier.
Fne phase represents a logic 1, and the other phase represents
a logic $. As the input digital signal changes state (i.e., from a
1 to a $ or from a $ to a 1), the phase of the output carrier shifts
%et+een t+o angles that are separated %y 1<$O.
8ence, other names for 2(! are phase re&ersal keying ((R!)
and iphase modulation! 2(! is a form of square*+ave
modulation of a continuous .a&e (/0) signal.
#"01RE 2*12 2(! transmitter
25
2-5-1-1 BPS- ran%m!'r.
#igure 2*12 sho+s a simplified %loc, diagram of a 2(!
transmitter.
-he %alanced modulator acts as a phase reversing s+itch.
@epending on the logic condition of the digital input, the carrier
is transferred to the output either in phase or 1<$O out of phase
+ith the reference carrier oscillator.
#igure 2*15 sho+s the schematic diagram of a %alanced ring
modulator.
-he %alanced modulator has t+o inputs) a carrier that is in
phase +ith the reference oscillator and the %inary digital data.
#or the %alanced modulator to operate properly, the digital
input voltage must %e much greater than the pea, carrier
voltage.
-his ensures that the digital input controls the onAoff state of
diodes @1 to @6. "f the %inary input is a logic 1(positive
voltage), diodes @ 1 and @2 are for+ard %iased and on, +hile
diodes @5 and @6 are reverse %iased and off (#igure 2*15%).
>ith the polarities sho+n, the carrier voltage is developed
across transformer -2 in phase +ith the carrier voltage across -
1. Honsequently, the output signal is in phase +ith the reference
oscillator.
"f the %inary input is a logic $ (negative voltage), diodes @l and
@2 are reverse %iased and off, +hile diodes @5 and @6 are
for+ard %iased and on (#igure ;*15c). As a result, the carrier
voltage is developed across transformer -2 1<$O out of phase
+ith the carrier voltage across - 1.
26
#"01RE ;*15 (a) 2alanced ring modulatorG (%) logic 1 inputG
(c) logic $ input
2=
#"01RE 2*16 2(! modulator) (a) truth ta%leG (%) phasor
diagramG (c) constellation diagram
2-5-1-2 Ban&+!&, #on%!&'ra!on% of BPS-.
"n a 2(! modulator. the carrier input signal is multiplied %y
the %inary data.
"f 9 1 V is assigned to a logic 1 and *1 V is assigned to a logic
$, the input carrier (sin B
c
t) is multiplied %y either a 9 or * 1 .
-he output signal is either 9 1 sin B
c
t or *1 sin B
c
t the first
represents a signal that is in phase +ith the reference oscillator,
the latter a signal that is 1<$O out of phase +ith the reference
oscillator.
2:
Each time the input logic condition changes, the output phase
changes.
'athematically, the output of a 2(! modulator is
proportional to
2(! output 3 Dsin (2Cf
a
t)E / Dsin (2Cf
c
t)E (2.2$)
+here
f
a
3 ma/imum fundamental frequency of %inary
input (hert4)
f
c
3 reference carrier frequency (hert4)
olving for the trig identity for the product of t+o sine
functions,
$.=cosD2C(f
c
K f
a
)tE K $.=cosD2C(f
c
9 f
a
)tE
-hus, the minimum dou%le*sided ?yquist %and+idth (B) is
f
c
9 f
a
f
c
9 f
a
*(f
c
9 f
a
) or *f
c
9 f
a
2f
a
and %ecause f
a 3
f
%
A 2' +here f
b
= input %it rate,
+here B is the minimum dou%le*sided ?yquist %and+idth.
#igure 2*1= sho+s the output phase*versus*time relationship
for a 2(! +aveform.
Nogic 1 input produces an analog output signal +ith a $O
phase angle, and a logic $ input produces an analog output
signal +ith a 1<$O phase angle.
27
As the %inary input shifts %et+een a logic 1 and a logic $
condition and vice versa, the phase of the 2(! +aveform
shifts %et+een $O and 1<$O, respectively.
2(! signaling element (t
s
) is equal to the time of one
information %it (t

)' +hich indicates that the %it rate equals the

%aud.
#"01RE 2*1= Futput phase*versus*time relationship for a 2(!
modulator
E.am"/' 2-0
#or a 2(! modulator +ith a carrier frequency of 7$ '84 and an
input %it rate of 1$ '%ps, determine the ma/imum and minimum
upper and lo+er side frequencies, dra+ the output spectrum, de*
termine the minimum ?yquist %and+idth, and calculate the %aud..
2<
olution
u%stituting into Equation 2*2$ yields
output 3 Dsin (2Cf
a
t)E / Dsin (2Cf
c
t)E G f
a 3
f
%
A 2 3 = '84
3 Dsin 2C(='84)t)E / Dsin 2C(7$'84)t)E
3 $.=cosD2C(7$'84 K ='84)tE K $.=cosD2C(7$'84 9
='84)tE
lo+er side frequency upper side frequency
'inimum lo+er side frequency (N#))
N#37$'84 * ='84 3 :='84
'a/imum upper side frequency (1#))
1# 3 7$ '84 9 = '84 3 7= '84
-herefore, the output spectrum for the +orst*case %inary input
conditions is as follo+s) -he minimum ?yquist %and+idth (B) is
B 3 7= '84 * := '84 3 1$ '84
and the %aud " f

or 1$ mega%aud.
2;
2-5-1-) BPS- r'#'!3'r.
#igure 2*1: sho+s the %loc, diagram of a 2(! receiver.
-he input signal may%e 9 sin B
c
t or * sin B
c
t .
-he coherent carrier recovery circuit detects and regenerates a
carrier signal that is %oth frequency and phase coherent +ith the
original transmit carrier.
-he %alanced modulator is a product detectorG the output is the
product d the t+o inputs (the 2(! signal and the recovered
carrier).
-he lo+*pass filter (N(#) operates the recovered %inary data
from the comple/ demodulated signal.
#"01RE 2*1: 2loc, diagram of a 2(! receiver
5$
'athematically, the demodulation process is as follo+s.
#or a 2(! input signal of 9 sin B
c
t (logic 1), the output of the
%alanced modulator is
output 3 (sin B
c
t )(sin B
c
t) 3 sin
2
B
c
t (2.21)
or
sin
2
B
c
t 3 $.=(1 K cos 2B
c
t) 3 $.= * $.=cos 2B
c
t
filtered out
leaving
output 3 9 $.= V 3 logic 1
"t can %e seen that the output of the %alanced modulator contains
a positive voltage (9D1A2EV) and a cosine +ave at t+ice the
carrier frequency (2 B
c
t ).
-he N(# has a cutoff frequency much lo+er than 2 B
c
t, and,
thus, %loc,s the second harmonic of the carrier and passes only
the positive constant component. A positive voltage represents a
demodulated logic 1.
#or a 2(! input signal of *sin B
c
t (logic $), the output of the
%alanced modulator is
output 3 (*sin B
c
t )(sin B
c
t) 3 sin
2
B
c
t
or
sin
2
B
c
t 3 *$.=(1 K cos 2B
c
t) 3 $.= 9 $.=cos 2B
c
t
filtered out
51
leaving
output 3 * $.= V 3 logic $
-he output of the %alanced modulator contains a negative
voltage (*DlA2EV) and a cosine +ave at t+ice the carrier
frequency (2B
c
t).
Again, the N(# %loc,s the second harmonic of the carrier and
passes only the negative constant component. A negative
voltage represents a demodulated logic $.
2-5-2 1*a'rnar$ P,a%'-S,!f -'$!n(
&(! is an '*ary encoding scheme +here ? " 2 and M" 6
(hence, the name PquaternaryP meaning P6P). A &(!
modulator is a %inary (%ase 2) signal, to produce four different
input com%inations,) $$, $1, 1$, and 11.
-herefore, +ith &(!, the %inary input data are com%ined into
groups of t+o %its, called diits! "n the modulator, each di%it
code generates one of the four possi%le output phases (96=O,
915=O, *6=O, and *15=O).
2-5-2-1 1PS- ran%m!'r.
A %loc, diagram of a &(! modulator is sho+n in #igure 2*
17. -+o %its (a di%it) are cloc,ed into the %it splitter. After %oth
%its have %een serially inputted, they are simultaneously parallel
outputted.
-he " %it modulates a carrier that is in phase +ith the reference
oscillator (hence the name P"P for Pin phaseP channel), and the
52
& %it modulate, a carrier that is ;$O out of phase.
#or a logic 1 3 9 1 V and a logic $3 * 1 V, t+o phases are
possi%le at the output of the " %alanced modulator (9sin B
c
t
and * sin B
c
t), and t+o phases are possi%le at the output of the
& %alanced modulator (9cos B
c
t), and (*cos B
c
t).
>hen the linear summer com%ines the t+o quadrature (;$O
out of phase) signals, there are four possi%le resultant
phasors given %y these e/pressions) 9 sin B
c
t 9 cos B
c
t, 9 sin
B
c
t * cos B
c
t, *sin B
c
t 9 cos B
c
t, and *sin B
c
t * cos B
c
t.
#"01RE 2*17 &(! modulator
55
E.am"/' 2-5
#or the &(! modulator sho+n in #igure 2*17, construct the truth
ta%le, phasor diagram, and constellation diagram.
olution
#or a %inary data input of & 3 F and "3 $, the t+o inputs to the "
%alanced modulator are *1 and sin B
c
t, and the t+o inputs to the &
%alanced modulator are *1 and cos B
c
t.
Honsequently, the outputs are
" %alanced modulator 3(*1)(sin B
c
t) 3 *1 sin B
c
t
& %alanced modulator 3(*1)(cos B
c
t) " *1 cos B
c
t and the output
of the linear summer is
*1 cos B
c
t * 1 sin B
c
t 3 1.616 sin(B
c
t * 15=O)
#or the remaining di%it codes ($1, 1$, and 11), the procedure is the
same. -he results are sho+n in #igure 2*1<a.
56
#"01RE 2*1< &(! modulator) (a) truth ta%leG (%) phasor
diagramG (c) constellation diagram
"n #igures 2*1<% and c, it can %e seen that +ith &(! each of
the four possi%le output phasors has e/actly the same
amplitude. -herefore, the %inary information must %e encoded
entirely in the phase of the output signal.
#igure 2*1<%, it can %e seen that the angular separation
%et+een any t+o adLacent phasors in &(! is ;$O.
-herefore, a &(! signal can undergo almost a96=O or *6=O
shift in phase during transmission and still retain the correct
encoded information +hen demodulated at the receiver.
#igure 2*1; sho+s the output phase*versus*time relationship
for a &(! modulator.
5=
#"01RE 2*1; Futput phase*versus*time relationship for a (!
modulator.
2-5-2-2 Ban&+!&, #on%!&'ra!on% of 1PS-
>ith &(!, %ecause the input data are divided into t+o
channels, the %it rate in either the " or the & channel is equal to
one*half of the input data rate (f
%
A2) (one*half of f
%
A2 " f
%
A6)!
-his relationship is sho+n in #igure 2*2$.
#"01RE 2*2$ 2and+idth considerations of a &(! modulator
"n #igure 2*2$, it can %e seen that the +orse*case input
condition to the " or & %alanced modulator is an alternative
1A$ pattern, +hich occurs +hen the %inary input data have a
11$$ repetitive pattern. Fne cycle of the fastest %inary
transition (a 1A$ sequence in the " or & channel ta,es the
same time as four input data %its.
5:
Honsequently, the highest fundamental frequency at the input
and fastest rate of change at the output of the %alance.)
modulators is equal to one*fourth of the %inary input %it
rate.
-he output of the %alanced modulators can %e e/pressed
mathematically as
(2.22)
+here

-he output frequency spectrum e/tends from f.
c
9 f
%
A 6 to f.
c
*
f
%
A 6 and the minimum %and+idth (f
?
) is
E.am"/' 2-6
#or a &(! modulator +ith an input data rate (f
%
) equal to 1$
'%ps and a carrier frequency 7$ '84, determine the minimum
dou%le*sided ?yquist %and+idth (f
N
) and the %aud. Also, compare
the results +ith those achieved +ith the 2(! modulator in
57
E/ample 2*6. 1se the &(! %loc, diagram sho+n in #igure 2*17
as the modulator model.
olution
-he %it rate in %oth the " and & channels is equal to one*half of
the transmission %it rate, or
f
%&
3 f
%1
3 f
%
A 2 3 1$ '%ps A 2 3 = '%ps
-he highest fundamental frequency presented to either %alanced
modulator is
f
a
3 f
%&
A 2 3 = '%ps A 2 3 2.= '84
-he output +ave from each %alanced modulator is
(sin 2Cf
a
t)(sin 2Cf
c
t)
$.= cos 2C(f
c
K f
a
)t K $.= cos 2C(f
c
9 f
a
)t
$.= cos 2CD(7$ K 2.=)'84Et K $.= cos 2CD(7$ K
2.=)'84Et
$.= cos 2C(:7.='84)t * $.= cos 2C(72.='84)t
-he minimum ?yquist %and+idth is
23(72.=*:7.=)'84 3 ='84
-he sym%ol rate equals the %and+idth) thus,
sym%ol rate 3 = mega%aud
5<
-he output spectrum is as follo+s)

"t can %e seen that for the same input %it rate the minimum
%and+idth required to pass the output of the &(! modulator is
equal to one*half of that required for the 2(! modulator in
E/ample 2*6. Also, the %aud rate for the &(! modulator is one*
half that of the 2(! modulator.
-he minimum %and+idth for the &(! system descri%ed in
E/ample 2*: can also %e determined %y simply su%stituting
into Equation 2*1$)
2 3 1$ '%ps A 2 3 = '84
2-5-2-) 71PS- r'#'!3'r8.
-he %loc, diagram of a &(! receiver is sho+n in #igure 2*
21. -he po+er splitter directs the input &(! signal to the "
and & product detectors and the carrier recovery circuit. -he
carrier recovery circuit reproduces the original transmit carrier
oscillator signal. -he recovered carrier must %e frequency and
phase coherent +ith the transmit reference carrier. -he &(!
signal is demodulated in the " and & product detectors, +hich
generate the original " and & data %its. -he outputs of the
product detectors are fed to the %it com%ining circuit, +here
they are converted from parallel " and & data channels to a
single %inary output data stream.
5;
-he incoming &(! signal may %e any one of the four
possi%le output phases sho+n in #igure 2*1<. -o illustrate the
demodulation process, let the incoming &(! signal %e *sin
B
c
t 9 cos B
c
t. 'athematically, the demodulation process is as
follo+s.

#"01RE 2*21 &(! receiver
-he receive &(! signal (*sin B
c
t 9 cos B
c
t) is one of the
inputs to the " product detector. -he other input is the
recovered carrier (sin B
c
t). -he output of the " product detector
is
(2.25
)
6$
Again, the receive &(! signal (*sin B
c
t 9 cos B
c
t) is one of
the inputs to the & product detector. -he other input is the
recovered carrier shifted ;$O in phase (cos B
c
t). -he output of
the & product detector is
(2.26)
-he demodulated " and & %its ($ and 1, respectively)
correspond to the constellation diagram and truth ta%le for the
&(! modulator sho+n in #igure 2*1<.
2-5-2-0 Off%' 1PS-.
1ffset 2PSK (F&(!) is a modified form of &(! +here the
%it +aveforms on the " and & channels are offset or shifted in
phase from each other %y one*half of a %it time.
61
#"01RE 2*22 Fffset ,eyed (F&(!)) (a) %loc, diagramG
(%) %it alignmentG (c) constellation diagram
2ecause changes in the " channel occur at the midpoints of the
& channel %its and vice versa, there is never more than a
single %it change in the di%it code and, therefore, there is
never more than a ;$O shift in the output phase. "n
conventional &(!, a change in the input di%it from $$ to 11
or $1 to 1$ causes a corresponding 1<$O shift in the output
phase.
-herefore, an advantage of F&(! is the limited phase shift
that must %e imparted during modulation.
A disadvantage of F&(! is that changes in the output phase
occur at t+ice the data rate in either the " or & channelP.
Honsequently, +ith F&(! the %aud and minimum %and+idth
are t+ice that of conventional &(! for a given transmission %it
rate. F&(! is sometimes called F!&(! (offset-keyed
2PSK)!
62
2-5-) 9-PS-
>ith 3-PSK' three %its are encoded, forming tri%its and
producing eight different output phases. -o encode eight different
phases, the incoming %its are encoded in groups of three, called
tri%its (2
5
3 <).
2-5-)-1 9-PS- ran%m!'r.
A %loc, diagram of an <*(! modulator is sho+n in #igure 2*
25.
#"01RE 2.25 <*(! modulator
#"01RE 2*26 "* and &*channel 2*to*6*level converters) (a)
1*channel truth ta%leG (%) @*channel truth ta%leG (c) (A'
levels
65
-he %it rate in each of the three channels is f
%
,A5.
-he %its in the " and H channels enter the " channel 2*to*6*level
converter and the %its in the & and H channels enter the &
channel 2*to*6*level converter.
Essentially, the 2*to*6*level converters are parallel*input
digital-to-analog con&erter
'
(@AHs). >ith t+o input %its, four
output voltages are possi%le.
-he " or & %it determines the polarity of the output analog
signal (logic 139V and logic $ 3 *V), +hereas the H or H
%it determines the magnitude (logic 13 1.5$7 V and logic $ 3
$.=61 V).
#igure 2*26 sho+s the truth ta%le and corresponding output
conditions for the 2*to6*level converters. 2ecause the H and
Q
/
%its can never %e the same logic state, the outputs from the
" and & 2*to*6*level converters can never have the same
magnitude, although they can have the same polarity. -he
output of a 2*to*6*level converter is an '*ary, pulse-
amplitude-modulated ((A') signal +here ' " 6.
E.am"/' 2-:
#or a tri%it input of & 3 $, 1 3 $, and H 3 $ ($$$), determine the
output phase for the *(! modulator sho+n in #igure 2*25.
olution
-he inputs to the " channel 2*to*6*level converter are " 3 $ and H
" $. #rom #igure 2*26 the output is *$.=61 V. -he inputs to the &
channel 2*to*6*level converter are & 3 $ and
Q
/
" 1.
Again from #igure 2*26, the output is * 1.5$7 V.
-hus, the t+o inputs to the " channel product modulators are *$.=61
66
and sin B
c
t. -he output is
" 3 (*$.=61)(sin B
c
t) 3 *$.=61 sin B
c
t
-he t+o inputs to the & channel product modulator are * 1.5$7 V
and cos B
c
t. -he output is
& 3 (*1.5$7)(cos B
c
t) " - 1.5$7 cos B
c
t
-he outputs of the " and & channel product modulators are
com%ined in the linear summer and produce a modulated output
of
summer output 3 *$.=61 sin B
c
t * 1.5$7 cos B
c
t
3 1.61 sin(B
c
t * 112.=O)
#or the remaining tri%it codes ($$1, $1$, $11, 1$$, 1$1, 11$, and
111), the procedure is the same. -he results are sho+n in #igure
2*2=.
6=

#"01RE 2*2= <*(! modulator) (a) truth ta%leG (%) phasor
diagramG (c) constellation diagram.
6:
#rom #igure 2*2=, it can %e seen that the angular separation
%et+een any t+o adLacent phasors is 6=O, half +hat it is +ith
&(!.
-herefore, an <*(! signal can undergo almost a R 22.=O
phase shift during transmission and still retain its integrity.
Also, each phasor is of equal magnitudeG the tri%it condition
(actual information) is again contained only in the phase of
the signal.
-he (A' levels of 1.5$7 and $.=61 are relative values. Any
levels may %e used as long as their ratio is $.=61A1.5$7 and
their arc tangent is equal to 22.=O. #or e/ample, if their
values +ere dou%led to 2.:16 and 1.$<2, the resulting phase
angles +ould not change, although the magnitude of the
phasor +ould increase proportionally.
#igure 2*2: sho+s the output phase*versus*time relationship of
an <*(! modulator.
#"01RE 2*2: Futput phase*versus*time relationship for an <*
(! modulator
2-5-)-2 Ban&+!&, #on%!&'ra!on% of 9-PS-.
>ith <*(!, %ecause the data are divided into three channels,
the %it rate in the ", &, or H channel is equal to one*third of the
%inary input data rate (f

45)!
67
(2.2=)
+here

And S 3 R 1.5$7 or R $.=61
-hus

6<
#"01RE 2*27 2and+idth considerations of an <*(!
modulator
#igure 2*27 sho+s that the highest fundamental frequency in
the ", &, or H channel is equal to one*si/th the %it rate of the
%inary input (one cycle in the ", &, or H channel ta,es the same
amount of time as si/ input %its).
>ith an <*(! modulator, there is one change in phase at the
output for every three data input %its. Honsequently, the %aud
for < (! equals f

4 5' the same as the minimum %and+idth.
Again, the %alanced modulators are product modulatorsG their
outputs are the product of the carrier and the (A' signal.
6;
'athematically, the output of the %alanced modulators is
-he output frequency spectrum e/tends from f
c
* f

4 6 to f
c
-
f

4 6' and the minimum %and+idth (f
N
) is

E.am"/' 2-9
#or an <*(! modulator +ith an input data rate (f) equal to
1$ '%ps and a carrier frequency of 7$ '84, determine the
minimum dou%le*sided ?yquist %and+idth (f
N
) and the %aud.
Also, compare the results +ith those achieved +ith the 2(!
and &(! modulators in E/amples 2*6 and 2*:. "f the <*(!
%loc, diagram sho+n in #igure 2*25 as the modulator model.
olution
-he %it rate in the ", &, and H channels is equal to one*third of
the input %it rate, or 1$ '%ps
f
%c 3
f
%&
3 f
%1
3 1$ '%ps A 5 3 5.55 '%ps
-herefore, the fastest rate of change and highest fundamental
frequency presented to either %alanced modulator is
f
a
3 f
%c
A 2 3 5.55 '%ps A 2 3 1.::7 '%ps
-he output +ave from the %alance modulators is
(sin 2Cf
a
t)(sin 2Cf
c
t)
$.= cos 2C(f
c
K f
a
)t K $.= cos 2C(f
c
9 f
a
)t
$.= cos 2CD(7$ K 1.::7)'84Et K $.= cos 2CD(7$
=$
9 1.::7)'84Et
$.= cos 2C(:<.555'84)t * $.= cos
2C(71.::7'84)t
-he minimum ?yquist %and+idth is
23 (71.::7 * :<.555) '84 3 5.555 '84
-he minimum %and+idth for the <*(! can also %e determined
%y simply su%stituting into Equation 2*1$)
2 3 1$ '%ps A 5 3 5.55 '84
Again, the %aud equals the %and+idthG thus,
%aud 3 5.555 mega%aud
-he output spectrum is as follo+s)
2 3 5.555 '84
"t can %e seen that for the same input %it rate the minimum
%and+idth required to pass the output of an <*(! modulator is
equal to one*third that of the 2(! modulator in E/ample 2*6 and
=$T less than that required for the &(! modulator in E/ample 2*:.
Also, in each case the %aud has %een reduced %y the same
proportions.
=1
2-5-)-) 9-PS- r'#'!3'r.
#igure 2*2< sho+s a %loc, diagram of an <*(! receiver. -he
po+er splitter directs the input <*(! signal to the " and &
product detectors and the carrier recovery circuit.
-he carrier recovery circuit reproduces the original reference
oscillator signal. -he incoming <*(! signal is mi/ed +ith the
recovered carrier in the " product detector and +ith a
quadrature carrier in the & product detector.
-he outputs of the product detectors are 6*level (A' signals
that are fed to the 6*to*2*level analog-to-digital con&erters
(A@Hs). -he outputs from the " channel 6*to*2*level
converter are the " and H
Q
%its, +hereas the outputs from the
& channel 6*to*2*level converter are the & and
Q
/
%its. -he
parallel*to*serial logic circuit converts the "AH and &A
Q
/
%it
pairs to serial ", &, and H output data streams.
#"01RE 2*2< <*(! receiver.
=2
2-5-0 16-PS-
$6-PSK is an '*ary encoding technique +here ' 3 1:G there
are 1: different output phases possi%le. >ith 1:*(!, four
%its (called quadits) are com%ined, producing 1: different
output phases. >ith 1:*(!, n " 6 and M 3 1:G therefore, the
minimum %and+idth and %aud equal one*fourth the %it rate (
f

47)!
#"01RE 2*2; 1:*(!) (a) truth ta%leG (%) constellation
diagram
#igure 2*2; sho+s the truth ta%le and constellation diagram
for 1:*(!, respectively. Homparing #igures 2*1<, 2*2=, and
2*2; sho+s that as the level of encoding increases (i.e., the
values of n and M increase), more output phases are possi%le
and the closer each point on the constellation diagram is to an
adLacent point. >ith 1:*(!, the angular separation %et+een
adLacent output phases is only 22.=O (1<$
$
A < ). -herefore, 1:*
(! can undergo only a 11.2=O (1<$
$
A 1:) phase shift during
transmission and still retain its integrity.
#or an '*ary (! system +ith :6 output phases (n " :), the
angular separation %et+een adLacent phases is only =.:O (1<$ A
52). -his is an o%vious limitation in the level of encoding (and
=5
%it rates) possi%le +ith (!, as a point is eventually reached
+here receivers cannot discern the phase of the received
signaling element. "n addition, phase impairments inherent on
communications lines have a tendency to shift the phase of the
(! signal, destroying its integrity and producing errors.
2.6 1UADRATURE ; AMPLITUDE MODULATION
2-6-1 9-1AM
3-28M is an '*ary encoding technique +here ' 3 <. 1nli,e <*
(!, the output signal from an <*&A' modulator is not a
constant*amplitude signal.
2-6-1-1 9-1AM ran%m!'r.
#igure 2*5$a sho+s the %loc, diagram of an <*&A'
transmitter. As you can see, the only difference %et+een the <*
&A' transmitter and the <(! transmitter sho+n in #igure 2*
25 is the omission of the inverter %et+een the H channel and
the & product modulator. As +ith <*(!, the incoming data are
divided into groups of three %its (tri%its)) the ", &, and H %it
streams, each +ith a %it rate equal to one*third of the incoming
data rate. Again, the " and & %its determine the polarity of the
(A' signal at the output of the 2*to*6*level converters, and
the H channel determines the magnitude. 2ecause the H %it is
fed uninverted to %oth the " and the & channel 2*to*6*level
converters. the magnitudes of the " and & (A' signals are
al+ays equal. -heir polarities depend on the logic condition of
the " and & %its and, therefore, may %e different. #igure 2*5$%
sho+s the truth ta%le for the " and & channel 2*to*6*level
convertersG they are identical.
=6
#"01RE 2*5$ <*FA' transmitter) (a) %loc, diagramG (%) truth
ta%le 2*6 level converters
E.am"/' 2-<
#or a tri%it input of & 3 $, "3 $, and H " $ ($$$), determine the
output amplitude and phase for the <*&A' transmitter sho+n in
#igure 2*5$a.
olution
-he inputs to the " channel 2*to*6*level converter are "3 $ and H 3
$. #rom #igure 2*5$%,
the output is *$.=61 V. -he inputs to the & channel 2*to*6*level
converter are & 3 $ and H 3 $. Again from #igure ;*5$%, the
output is *$.=61 V.
-hus, the t+o inputs to the " channel product modulator are *$.=61
and sin B
c
t. -he output is
" 3 (*$.=61)(sin B
c
t) 3 *$.=61 sin B
c
t.
-he t+o inputs to the & channel product modulator are *$.=61 and
cos B
c
t.. -he output is
& 3 (*$.=61)(cos B
c
t.) " *$.=61 cos B
c
t.
==
-he outputs from the " and & channel product modulators are
com%ined in the linear summer and produce a modulated output of
summer output 3*$.=61 sin B
c
t. *$.=61 cos
B
c
t.
3 $.7:= sin(cos * 15=O)
#or the remaining tri%it codes ($$1, $1$, $ll, 1$$, 1$1, 11$, and
111), the procedure is the same. -he results are sho+n in #igure 2*
51.
#igure 2*52 sho+s the output phase*versus*time relationship for an
<*&A' modulator. ?ote that there are t+o output amplitudes, and
only four phases are possi%le.
#"01RE 2*51 <*&A' modulator) (a) truth ta%leG (%) phasor
diagramG (c) constellation diagram
=:
#"01RE 2*52 Futput phase and amplitude*versus*time
relationship for <*&A'
2-6-1-2 Ban&+!&, #on%!&'ra!on% of 9-1AM.
-he minimum %and+idth required for <*&A' is f

4 5' the
same as in <*(!.
2-6-1-) 9-1AM r'#'!3'r.
An <*&A' receiver is almost identical to the <*(! receiver
sho+n in #igure 2*2<.
2-6-2 16-1AM
As +ith the 1:*(!, $6-28M is an '*ary system +here M "
1:. -he input data are acted on in groups of four (2
7
3 1:). As
+ith <*&A', %oth the phase and the amplitude of the
transmit carrier are varied.
2-6-2-1 1AM ran%m!'r.
-he %loc, diagram for a 1:*&A' transmitter is sho+n in #igure
2*55.
=7
#"01RE 2*55 1:*&A' transmitter %loc, diagram
-he input %inary data are divided into four channels) ", "., &,
and &.. -he %it rate in each channel is equal to one*fourth of the
input %it rate (f
%
A6).
-he " and & %its determine the polarity at the output of the 2*
to*6*level converters (a logic 1 3 positive and a logic $ 3
negative).
-he ". and &. %uy determine the magnitude (a logic 1 3 $.<21
V and a logic $ 3 $.22 V).
#or the " product modulator they are 9$.<21 sin B
c
t, *$.<21 sin
B
c
t, 9$.22 sin B
c
t' and *$.22 sin B
c
t.
#or the & product modulator, they are 9$.<21 cos B
c
t, 9$.22 cos
B
c
t, *$.<21 cos B
c
t, and *$.22 cos B
c
t.
-he linear summer com%ines the outputs from the " and &
channel product modulators and produces the 1: output
conditions necessary for 1:*&A'. #igure 2*56 sho+s the truth
ta%le for the " and & channel 2*to*6*level converters.
=<
#"01RE 2*56 -ruth ta%les for the "* and &*channel 2*to*6*
evel converters) (a) " channelG (%) & channel
E.am"/' 2-1=
#or a quad%it input of "3 $, ". 3 $, & 3 $, and &. 3 $ ($$$$),
determine the output amplitude and phase for the 1:*&A'
modulator sho+n in #igure 2*55.
olution
-he inputs to the " channel 2*to*6*level converter are " 3 $
and ". 3 $. #rom #igure 2*56, the output is *$.22 V. -he inputs
to the & channel 2*to*6*level converter are &3 $ and &. 3 $.
Again from #igure 2*56, the output is *$.22 V.
-hus, the t+o inputs to the " channel product modulator are
*$,22 V and sin B
c
t. -he output is
" 3 (*$.22)(sin B
c
t) 3 *$.22 sin B
c
t
-he t+o inputs to the & channel product modulator are *$.22 V
and cos B
c
t. -he output is
& 3 (*$.22)(cos B
c
t) 3 *$.22 cos B
c
t
-he outputs from the " and & channel product modulators are
com%ined in the linear summer and produce a modulated output
of
summer output 3 *$.22 sin B
c
t * $.22 cos B
c
t
3 $.511 sin(B
c
t * 15=O)
#or the remaining quad%it codes, the procedure is the same. -he
=;
results are sho+n in #igure 2*5=.

#"01RE 2*5= 1:*&A' modulator) (a) truth ta%leG (%) phasor
diagramG (c) constellation diagram.
:$
#"01RE 2*5: 2and+idth considerations of a 1:*&A'
modulator
2-6-2-2 Ban&+!&, #on%!&'ra!on% of 16-1AM.
>ith a 1:*&A', the %it rate in the ", "., &, or &. channel is
equal to one*fourth of the %inary input data rate (f
%
A6).
#igure 2*5: sho+s the %it timing relationship %et+een the
%inary input dataG the ", ".. &, and &. channel dataG and the "
(A' signal. "t can %e seen that the highest fundamental
frequency in the ", "., &, or &. channel is equal to one*eighth of
the %it rate of the %inary input data (one cycle in the ", "., &, or
:1
&. channel ta,es the same amount of time as eight input %its).
Also, the highest fundamental frequency of either (A'
signal is equal to one*eighth of the %inary input %it rate. >ith
a 1:*&A' modulator, there is one change in the output signal
(either its phase, amplitude, or %oth) for every four input data
%its. Honsequently, the %aud equals f
%
A6, the same as the
minimum %and+idth.
Again, the %alanced modulators are product modulators and
their outputs can %e represented mathematically as
(2.2:)
+here

and
-hus,


-he output frequency spectrum e/tends from f
c
9 f
%
A < and
f
c
* f
%
A < the minimum %and+idth (f
N
) is

:2
E.am"/' 2-11
#or a 1:*&A' modulator +ith an input data rate (f
%
) equal to
1$ '%ps and a carrier frequency of 7$ '84, determine the
minimum dou%le*sided ?yquist frequency (f
?
) and the %aud.
Also, compare the results +ith those achieved +ith the 2(!,
&(!, and <*(! modulators in E/amples 2*6, 2*:, and 2*<.
1se the 1:*&A' %loc, diagram sho+n in #igure 2*55 as the
modulator model.
olution
-he %it rate in the ", "U, &, and &U channels is equal to one*
fourth of the input %it rate,
f
%"
3 f
%"U
3 f
%&
3 f
%&U
3 f
%
A 6 3 1$ '%ps A 6 3 2.=
'%ps
-herefore, the fastest rate of change and highest fundamental
frequency presented to either %alanced modulator is
f
a 3
f
%"
A 2 3 2.= '%ps A 2 3 1.2= '84
-he output +ave from the %alanced modulator is
(sin 2Cf
a
t)(sin 2Cf
c
t)
$.= cos 2C(f
c
K f
a
)t K $.= cos 2C(f
c
9 f
a
)t
$.= cos 2CD(7$ K 1.2=)'84Et K $.= cos 2CD(7$ 9
1.2=)'84Et
$.= cos 2C(:<.7='84)t * $.= cos
2C(71.2='84)t
-he minimum ?yquist %and+idth is
:5
23(71.2= * :<.7=) '84 3 2.= '84
-he minimum %and+idth for the 1:*&A' can also %e
determined %y simply su%stituting into Equation 2*1$)
2 3 1$ '%ps A 6 3 2.= '84.
-he sym%ol rate equals the %and+idthG thus,
sym%ol rate 3 2.= mega%aud
-he output spectrum is as follo+s)
#or the same input %it rate, the minimum %and+idth required to
pass the output of a 1:*&A' modulator is equal to one*fourth that
of the 2(! modulator, one*half that of &(!, and 2=T less than
+ith <*(!. #or each modulation technique, the %aud is also
reduced %y the same proportions.
E.am"/' 2-12
#or the follo+ing modulation schemes, construct a ta%le sho+ing
the num%er of %its encoded, num%er of output conditions,
minimum %and+idth, and %aud for an information data rate of 12
,%ps) &(!, <*(!, <*&A', 1:*(!, and 1:*&A'.
:6
#rom E/ample 2*12, it can %e seen that a 12*,%ps data stream can
%e propagated through a narro+er %and+idth using either 1:*(!
or 1:*&A' than +ith the lo+er levels of encoding.
-a%le 2*1 summari4es the relationship %et+een the num%er of
%its encoded, the num%er of output conditions possi%le, the
minimum %and+idth, and the %aud for A!, #!. (!, and
&A'.
>hen data compression is performed, higher data transmission
rates are possi%le for a given %and+idth.
-a%le 2*1 A!, #!, (! A?@ &A' summary.
:=
2-: BAND>IDTH EFFICIENCY
Band.idth efficiency (sometimes called information density or
spectral efficiency, often used to compare the performance of
one digital modulation technique to another.
'athematical %and+idth efficiency is
9ert:
s its
9: and.idth imum
ps rate it on transmissi
B
A
) ( min
) (
= =
(2.27)
>here 2

3 %and+idth efficiency
E.am"/' 2-1)
#or an <*(! system, operating +ith an information %it rate of 26
,%ps, determine (a) %aud, (%) minimum %and+idth, and (c)
%and+idth efficiency.
olution
a. 2aud is determined %y su%stituting into Equation 2*1$,
%aud 3 26 ,%ps A 5 3 <$$$
%. 2and+idth is determined %y su%stituting into Equation 2*11)
2 3 26 ,%ps A 5 3 <$$$
c. 2and+idth efficiency is calculated from Equation 2*27)
2

3 26, $$$ A <$$$

3 5 %its per second per cycle of %and+idth
E.am"/' 2-10
#or 1:*(! and a transmission system +ith a 1$ ,84 %and+idth,
determine the ma/imum %it rate.
::
olution
-he %and+idth efficiency for 1:*(! is 6, +hich means that four
%its can %e propagated through the system for each hert4 of
%and+idth. -herefore, the ma/imum %it rate is simply the product
of the %and+idth and the %and+idth efficiency, or
%it rate 3 6 / 1$,$$$ 3 6$,$$$ %ps
-a%le 2*2 A!, #!, (! and &A' summary
2-9 DIFFERENTIAL PHASE-SHIFT -EYING
;ifferential phase-shift keying (@(!) is an alternative form of
digital modulation +here the %inary input information is
contained in the difference %et+een t+o successive signaling
elements rather than the a%solute phase.
2-9-1 D!ff'r'n!a/ BPS-
2-9-1-I DBPS- ran%m!'r.
#igure 2*57a sho+s a simplified %loc, diagram of a
:7
differential inary phase-shift keying (@2(!) transmitter. An
incoming information %it is S?FRed +ith the preceding %it
prior to entering the 2(! modulator (%alanced modulator).
#or the first data %it, there is no preceding %it +ith +hich to
compare it. -herefore, an initial reference %it is assumed. #igure 2*
57% sho+s the relationship %et+een the input data, the S?FR
output data, and the phase at the output of the %alanced modulator.
"f the initial reference %it is assumed a logic 1, the output from the
S?FR circuit is simply the complement of that sho+n.
"n #igure 2*57%, the first data %it is S?FRed +ith the
reference %it. "f they are the same, the S?FR output is a logic
1G if they are different, the S?FR output is a logic $. -he
%alanced modulator operates the same as a conventional 2(!
modulatorG a logic " produces 9sin B
c
t at the output, and a
logic $ produces *sin B
c
t at the output.
:<
#"01RE 2*57 @2(! modulator (a) %loc, diagram (%) timing
diagram
2-9-1-2 DBPS- r'#'!3'r.
#igure ;*5< sho+s the %loc, diagram and timing sequence for
a @2(! receiver. -he received signal is delayed %y one %it
time, then compared +ith the ne/t signaling element in the
%alanced modulator. "f they are the same. V logic 1(9 voltage)
is generated. "f they are different, a logic $ (* voltage) is
generated. Df the reference phase is incorrectly assumed, only
the first demodulated %it is in error. @ifferential encoding can
:;
%e implemented +ith higher*than*%inary digital modulation
schemes, although the differential algorithms are much more
complicated than for @2( !.
-he primary advantage of @2(! is the simplicity +ith
+hich it can %e implemented. >ith @2(!, no carrier
recovery circuit is needed. A disadvantage of @2(! is, that
it requires %et+een 1 d2 and 5 d2 more signal*to*noise ratio to
achieve the same %it error rate as that of a%solute (!.
#"01RE 2*5< @2(! demodulator) (a) %loc, diagramG (%)
timing sequence
2-< PROBABILITY OF ERROR AND BIT ERROR RATE
Proaility of error P(e) and it error rate (2ER) are often
used interchangea%ly
2ER is an empirical (historical) record of a system.s actual
%it error performance.
#or e/ample, if a system has a 2ER of 1$
*=
, this means that
in past performance there +as one %it error for every
7$
1$$,$$$ %its transmitted.
(ro%a%ility of error is a function of the carrier-to-noise po.er
ratio (or, more specifically, the average energy per it-to-noise
po.er density ratio) and the num%er of possi%le encoding
conditions used ('*ary).
Harrier*to*noise po+er ratio is the ratio of the average carrier
po+er (the com%ined po+er of the carrier and its associated
side%ands) to the thermal noise po.er Harrier po+er can %e
stated in +atts or d2m. +here
H
(d2m)
3 1$ log DH
(+atts)
A $.$$1E (2.2<)
-hermal noise po+er is e/pressed mathematically as
N " K<B (+atts) (2.2;)
+here
N = thermal noise po+er (+atts)
K 3 2olt4mann.s proportionality constant (1.5< = 1$
-25
Loules
per ,elvin)
-3 temperature (,elvin) $ !3*275O H, room temperature
3 2;$ !)
2 3 %and+idth (hert4)
tated in d2m, ?
(d2m)
3 1$ log D!-2 A $.$$1E (2.5$)
'athematically, the carrier*to*noise po+er ratio is
H A ? 3 H A !-2 (unitless ratio) (2.51)
+here
H 3 carrier po+er (+atts)
N 3 noise po+er (+atts)
71
tated in d2, H A ? (d2) 3 1$ log DH A ?E
3 H
(d2m)
K ?
(d2m)
(2.52)
Energy per %it is simply the energy of a single %it of information.
'athematically, energy per %it is
E
%
3 H-
%
(VA%it) (2.55)
+here
>

3 energy of a single %it (Loules per

%it)
-
%
3 time of a single %it (seconds)
H 3 carrier po+er (+atts)
tated in d2V, E
%(d2V)
3 1$ log E
%
(2.56)
and %ecause -

" $4f

' +here f

is the %it rate in %its per second,
>

can %e re+ritten as
E
%
3 H A f
%
(VA%it) (2.5=)
tated in d2V, E
%(d2V)
3 1$ log H A f
%
(2.5:)
3 1$ log H K 1$ log f
%
(2.57)
?oise po+er density is the thermal noise po+er normali4ed to a 1*
84 %and+idth (i.e., the noise po+er present in a 1*84 %and+idth).
'athematically, noise po+er density is
?
o
3 ? A 2 (>A84) (2.5<)
+here
72
N
o
3 noise po+er density (+atts per hert4)
N 3 thermal noise po+er (+atts)
B 3 %and+idth (hert4)
tated in d2m, ?
o(d2m)
3 1$ log (?A$.$$1) K 1$ log 2
(2.5;)
Hom%ining Equations 2.2; and 2.5< yields
?
o
3 !-2 A 2 3 !- ( >A 84 ) (2.61)
tated in d2m, ?
o(d2m)
3 1$ log (!A$.$$1) 9 1$ log - (2.62)
Energy per %it*to*noise po+er density ratio is used to compare
t+o or more digital modulation systems that use different
transmission rates (%it rates), modulation schemes (#!, (!,
&A'), or encoding techniques ('*ary).
'athematically, >
%
4N
o
is
>
%
4N
o
" (/4f

) 4 (N4B) (2.65)
+here >
%
4N
o
is the energy per %it*to*noise po+er density ratio.
Rearranging Equation 2.65 yields the follo+ing e/pression)
>
%
4N
o
" (/4N) ? (B4f

) (2.66)
+here
>
%
4N
o
" energy per %it*to*noise po+er density ratio
/4N " carrier*to*noise po+er ratio
B4f

3 noise %and+idth*to*%it rate ratio

tated in d2, >
%
4N
o
(dB) " $% log (/4N) * $% log (B4f

)
(2.6=)
75
3 $% log >

- $% log N
o
(2.6:)
E.am"/' 2-15
#or a &(! system and the given parameters, determine
a. Harrier po+er in d2m.
%. ?oise po+er in d2m.
c. ?oise po+er density in d2m.
d. Energy per %it in d2V.
e. Harrier*to*noise po+er ratio in d2.
f.. >

lN
o
ratio.
H 3 1$
*12
>
#
%
3 :$ ,%ps
? 3 1.2 / 1$
*16
>
2 3 12$ ,84
olution
a. -he carrier po+er in d2m is determined %y su%stituting into
Equation 2.2<)
H 3 1$ log (1$
*12
A $.$$1) 3 * ;$ d2m
%. -he noise po+er in d2m is determined %y su%stituting into
Equation 2-5%@
? 3 1$ log D(1.2/1$
*16
) A $.$$1E 3 *1$;.2 d2m
c. -he noise po+er density is determined %y su%stituting into
Equation 2-7%@
?
o
3 *1$;.2 d2m K 1$ log 12$ ,84 3 *1:$ d2m
d. -he energy per %it is determined %y su%stituting into equation
76
2.5:)
E
%
3 1$ log (1$
*12
A :$ ,%ps) 3 *1:7.< d2V
e! -he carrier*to*noise po+er ratio is determined %y su%stituting
into Equation #!57@
H A ? 3 1$ log ( 1$
* 12
A 1.2 / 1$
* 16
) 3 1;.2 d2
f. -he energy per %it*to*noise density ratio is determined %y
su%stituting into Equation #!7A@
E
%
A ?
o
3 1;.2 9 1$ log 12$ ,84 A :$ ,%ps 3 22.2 d2
2-1= ERROR PERFORMANCE
2-1=-1 PS- Error P'rforman#'
-he %it error performance is related to the distance %et+een
points on a signal state*space diagram.
#or e/ample, on the signal state*space diagram for 2(! sho+n
in #igure 2.5;a, it can %e seen that the t+o signal points (logic 1
and logic $) have ma/imum separation (d) for a given po+er
level (@).
-he figure sho+s, a noise vector (V
N
), +hen com%ined +ith
the signal vector (V
s
), effectively shifts the phase of the
signaling element (B
S>
) alpha degrees.
"f the phase shift e/ceeds 9;$O, the signal element is shifted
%eyond the threshold points into the error region.
#or 2(!, it +ould require a noise vector of sufficient
amplitude and phase to produce more than a R;$O phase shift in
the signaling element to produce an error.
7=
#or (! systems, the general formula for the threshold points is
-( 3 R C A ' (2.67)
+here ' is the num%er of signal states.
#"01RE 2*5; (! error region) (a) 2(!G (%) &(!
-he phase relationship %et+een signaling elements for 2(!
(i.e., 1<$
$
out of phase) is the optimum signaling format,
referred to as antipodal signaling' and occurs only +hen t+o
%inary signal levels are allo+ed and +hen one signal is the
e/act negative of the other. 2ecause no other %it*%y*%it
signaling scheme is any %etter, antipodal performance is often
used as a reference for comparison.
7:
-he error performance of the other multiphase (! systems
can %e compared +ith that of 2(! simply %y determining
the relative decrease in error distance %et+een points on a
signal state*space diagram.
#or (!, the general formula for the ma/imum distance
%et+een signaling points is given %y
in W 3 sin 5:$
$
A 2' 3 (dA2) A@ (2.6<)
d 3 error distance
' 3 num%er of phases
D ? pea, signal amplitude
Rearranging equation 2.6< and solving for d yields
d 3
?;
M

$
1<$
sin 2
(2.6;)
#igure 2*5;% sho+s the signal state*space diagram for &(!.
#rom #igure 2*5; and Equation 2.6<, it can %e seen that &(!
can tolerate only a R 6=O phase shift.
#rom Equation 2.67 the ma/imum phase shift for <*(! and 1:*
(! is R22.=O and R11.2=O, respectively.
-he higher the level of modulation, the smaller the angular
separation %et+een signal points and the smaller the error
distance.
-he general e/pression for the %it error pro%a%ility of an '*
phase (! system is
((e) 3 (1 A log
2
' ) erf (4) (2.=$)
+here erf 3 error function
4 3 sin(CA') (
M
2
log
)( $
A N >
)
77
2y su%stituting into Equation 2.=$, it can %e sho+n that &(!
provides the same error performance as 2(!. -his is %ecause
the 5*d2 reduction in error distance for &(! is offset %y the
5*d2 decrease in its %and+idth (in addition to the error
distance, the relative +idths of the noise %and+idths must also
%e considered).
-hus, %oth systems provide optimum performance. #igure 2*
6$sho+s the error performance for 2*6*, <*, 1:*, and 52*( !
systems as a function of E
%
A ?
o
.
#"01RE 2*6$ Error rates of (! modulation systems
E.am"/' 2-16
7<
@etermine the minimum %and+idth required to achieve a P(e) of
1$
*7
for an <*(! system operating at 1$ '%ps +ith a carrier*to*
noise po+er ratio of 11.7 d2.
olution
#rom #igure 2*6$, the minimum E
%
A ?
o
ratio to achieve a P(e) of
1$
-C
for an <*(! system is 16.7 d2. -he minimum %and+idth is
found %y rearranging Equation 2.66)
2 A f
%
3 E
%
A ?
o
3 H A ?
3 16.7 d2 K 11.7 d2 3 5 d2
2 A f
%
3 antilog 5 3 2 G 2 3 2 / 1$ '%ps 3 2$ '84
2-1=-2 1AM Error P'rforman#'
#or a large num%er of signal points (i.e., '*ary systems
greater than 6), &A' outperforms (!. -his is %ecause the
distance %et+een signaling points in a (! system is smaller
than the distance %et+een points in a compara%le &A'
system. -he general e/pression for the distance %et+een
adLacent signaling points for a &A' system +ith N levels on
each a/is is
d 3
;
D 1
2

(2.=1)
+here d 3 error distance
D 3 num%er of levels on
each a/is
D = pea, signal amplitude
"n comparing Equation 2*6; to Equation 2*= 1, it can %e seen
that &A' systems have an advantage over (! systems +ith
7;
the same pea, signal po+er level. -he general e/pression for
the %it error pro%a%ility of an N*level &A' system is
) (
1
log
1
) (
2
: erfc
D
D
D
e P

=

(2.=2)
>here erfc(4) is the complementary error function
#igure 2*61 sho+s the error performance for 6*, 1:*, 52*, and
:6*&A' systems as a function of E
%
A?
o
.
-a%le 2*6 lists the minimum carrier*to*noise po+er ratios and
energy per %it*to*noise po+er density ratios required for a
pro%a%ility of error 1$
-6
for several (! and &A'
modulation schemes.
E.am"/' 2-1:
>hich system requires the highest >

4N
o
ratio for a pro%a%ility of
error of 1$
-6
, a four*level &A' system or an <*(! systemX
olution
#rom #igure 2*61, the minimum >

4N
1
ratio required for a four*
level &A' system is, 1$.: d2. #rom #igure 2*6$, the minimum
>

4N
o
ratio required for an <*(! system is 16 d2 -herefore, to
achieve a P(e) of 1$
-6
, a four*level &A' system +ould require 5.6
d2 less >

4N
1
ratio.
<$
#"01RE 2*61 Error rates of &A' modulation systems.
-a%le 2*6 (erformance Homparison of various digital
modulation schemes (2ER 3 1$
*:
)
2-1=-) FS- Error P'rforman#'
>ith noncoherent #!, the transmitter and receiver are not
frequency or phase synchroni4ed. >ith coherent #!, local
<1
receiver reference signals are in frequency and phase loc, +ith
the transmitted signals. -he pro%a%ility of error for noncoherent
#! is
#"01RE 2*62 Error rates for #! modulation systems

=
o

N
>
e P
2
e/p 2 A 1 ) (
(2.=5)
-he pro%a%ility of error for coherent #! is
$
) (
N
>
erfc e P

=
(2.=6)
#igure 2*62 sho+s pro%a%ility of error curves for %oth coherent
and noncoherent #! for several values of >

4N
o
!

#rom
Equations 2*=5 and 2*=6, it can %e determined that the pro%*
a%ility of error for noncoherent #! is greater than that of
coherent #! for equal energy per %it*to*noise po+er density
ratios.
<2