Indian Journal of Psychological Science, Jan-2013

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L OF PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE
Volume-3 (2)
NAPS
A PUBLICATION OF
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE (Regd.)
IJPS
IJPS
NAPS
January - 2013
ISSN 0976 9218
Indexed & Listed at:
Ulrich's Periodicals Directory , ProQuest, U.S.A.,
INDIAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE
01. General Self-efficacy, Health Locus of Control and Lifestyle 001-011
as Predictors of Self-Rated Health
*Radhey Shyam **Renu ***S.R. Khan
02. A Study of Relationship of Spiritual Intelligence and 012-016
Adjustment of Adolescents
*Meena Jain **Santosh Meena
03. Positive Psychology and Organizational Effectiveness 017-029
*Aakanksha Kataria **Pooja Garg ***Renu Rastogi
04. Percieved Self among the Managers of Telecom Sector: 030-039
A Gender Study
*Shukla Archana **Fatima Amreen
05. Problems Faced by The Teachers Engaged in Special and 040-046
Integrated Schools for Hearing Impaired Children
*Swaha Bhattacharya **Monimala Mukherjee
06. Body Mass Hurts Adolescent Girls More Than 047-060
Thin-Ideal Images
*Javaid Marium **Ahmad Iftikhar
07. Stress, Somatic Complaints and Anxiety : A Comparative 061-072
Study of The Adolescents of Jammu and Kashmir Regions.
*Nila Majied **Mahmood S. Khan
08. Demographic Correlates of Emotional Intelligence: 073-084
Indian Scenario
*Soni Kewalramani **Mukta Rani Rastogi
NAPS
Volume-3 (2) January-2013 ISSN-0976 9218
Contents
INDIAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE
09. Influence of Peer Relationship on Adolescents' Well-Being 085-089
*Manika Mohan **Aditi Sharma
10. Achievement Motivation, Study Habits and Inferiority 090-102
among Children of high and low Educated Parents
*Mandeep Kaur **Puneet Kaur
11. The Effect of 'Sahaj Marg Raja Yoga Meditation' Practice 103-111
on Mental Health
*Samriddhi Singh **Manika Mohan Saxena
12. Effects of Stress on Caregivers of Chronically ILL Patients 112-122
*Tanushree Saha **Reeta Kumar ***Bipin Kumar
13. Self-efficacy in Militancy Affected Youth of Kashmir Valley 123-128
*Ahmad Kaiser Dar **AhmadNavshadWani
NAPS
Contents
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Specimen references:
Kumar, R. & Lal, R (2006). Role of Self e-fficacy and gender differences among
adolescents. Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology; 32 (3): 345-350.
Lal, R. & Kumar, R. (2007). Vigilance in children as a function of psyhcoticism and
intelligence. Indian Journal of Psychology and Mental Health,1, 77-85.
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Introduction :
Health is an asset, most valuable
resource of one' s l i fe. I t i s usual l y
conceptualized as a state or disposition of a
person's freedom either from illness or capacity
to resist illness in a discrete manner. It affects
every aspect of life i.e. ability to work, to play, to
enjoy etc. all depend upon health. Health is not
merely the absence of disease rather it is more
than that. It has been clearly outlined in WHO's
definition of health (World Health Organization,
001
Abstract
General Self-efficacy, Health Locus of Control and Lifestyle as
Predictors of Self-Rated Health
*Radhey Shyam **Renu ***S.R. Khan
Through several factors affect the health of a person yet the lifestyle related factors have
been reported to play a major role in the maintenance and promotion of health. Self- efficacy and
health locus of control have also been reported to be related to health, though there are variations in
the direction and strength of relationship. Present study was intended to examine the relationship of
self-efficacy, health locus of control and lifestyle with self- reported health. It was also intended to
identify the role of self- efficacy, health locus of control and lifestyle in determining health. A sample
of 300 adults (150 male and 150 female) selected on incidental basis from Rohtak city and adjoining
villages (Haryana state, India) were administered self- efficacy scale (Sud, Schwarzer and Jerusalem,
1998), health locus of control scale of Wallston and Wallston and De Vellis (1978) and lifestyle check
assessment (Hall and Ches, 2001). All the respondents were asked to rate their health status on a five
point scale ranging from poor (1) to excellent (5). The obtained data were analyzed by Pearson
coefficient of correlation. To identify the role of self-efficacy, health locus of control and lifestyle in
predicating self reported health stepwise multiple regressions was done. Result revealed that self-
efficacy, health locus of control (internal, chance, powerful others) and lifestyle (total score as well
as component parts) were significantly and positively related with self reported health, through
the strength of the relationship varied from low to moderate. Lifestyle emerged as the strongest
predictor of self- reported health accounting 31% of variance. The other significant predicators were
internal health locus of control, eating practices (component of lifestyle scale) and self- efficacy and
taken together with lifestyle (total score) all these accounted for 36% of the variance in self
reported health. Findings are discussed in the light of previous studies and implications are
discussed.
1946) which says Health is a state of complete
physical, mental and social well being and not
merely, the absence of disease or infirmity.
Health is commonly measured by
health status, health care and health
maintenance (Bond and Bond, 1994). Campbell
et al. (1976) found respondents to judge, good
health as the most important of various life
domains. Watten et al. (1997) suggested that
perception of health is more important than
objective health in their effects on subjective
Indian Journal of Psychological Science, ISSN-0976 9218 January-2013
wellbeing. Multiple studies, conducted in a
variety of cultures and settings, have
consistently shown that persons reporting
poorer self-rated health suffer a higher
subsequent risk of mortality. Such studies have
spanned a wide range of populations, from
persons with illnesses such as cancer (Shadbolt,
Barresi and Craft, 2002) and cardiovascular
disease (Bardage, Isacson and Pedersen, 2001),
to the elderly (Ishizaki, Kai and Imanaka, 2006;
Idler, Kasl and Lemke, 1990; Mossey and
Shapiro, 1982) and to general populations
(Franks, Gold and Fiscella, 2003; Larsson,
Hemmingsson, Allebeck and Lundberg, 2002).
Poor self-rated health has also been shown to
be independently predictive of subsequent
morbidity and higher healthcare utilization
(Salvo, Fan, McDonell and Fihn, 2005).
Health is not a matter of luck, there are
many factors which independently and
interactively influence health. Psychosocial
factors affecting health include belief,
personality, stress, coping strategies, locus of
control, attitude, general self-efficacy, social
support, self-esteem, negative affectivity etc.
Dahlgren and Whitehead (1991) gave a
framework for the determinants of health. His
framework was multilayered onion like
structure which placed the individual at the
centre, endowed with fixed factors of age, sex
and genetic factors, but firmly surrounded by
four layers of influence consisting of individual
lifestyle, social and community influences,
living and working conditions and general
socioeconomic, cultural and environmental
conditions. Han, Lee, Lee and Park (2003)
revealed that the combination of health
promoti ng behavi our, acti vi ty rel ated
affect, self-esteem, health perception and
002
commitment to planned action, social support
and perceived barriers to action accounted for
57% of the variance in quality of life. Kaplan,
Sallies and Patterson (1993) on the basis of their
study reported that about 40% of variance in
health is accounted for by behavioural factors.
A person who believes in being able to
cause an event can conduct a more active and
self-determined life course. This can
docognition mirror a sense of control over
one's environment. The feeling of can do
refers to self-efficacy. In 1977, the famous
psychologist Albert Bandura at Stanford
University introduced the concept of perceived
self-efficacy in the context of cognitive
behaviour modification. This concept has been
applied to such diverse areas as school
achievement, emotional disorders, mental and
physical health, career choice and sociopolitical
change. It has become a key variable in clinical,
educational, social, developmental, health and
personality psychology (Bandura, 1977, 1992).
A strong sense of personal efficacy has been
reported to be related to better health
(Schwarzer and Fuchs, 1995). In one study
Fallon, Wilcox and Ainsworth (2005) examined
the correlates of self-efficacy for physical
activity in African-American women and
reported that self-efficacy was positively
correlated with perceived health status,
physical activity and negatively with social role
constraint. Similarly, Riazi, Thompson and
Hobart (2004) found both baseline and changes
in self-efficacies were strong and independent
predictors of changes in health status.
Health locus of control is defined as
one's belief that the state of one's health is
determined by internal or external factors as
well as, the level of personal control over
*Radhey Shyam **Renu ***S.R. Khan Volume-3 (2)
desired outcomes (Bane, Hughes and McElnay,
2006; Takaki and Yano, 2006). Locus of control
refers to an i ndi vi dual ' s general i zed
expectations concerning where control over
subsequent events resides (Rotter, 1954). It has
been suggested that those who strongly believe
that internal factors control their health tend 'to
seek more health related information,
remember the information better and respond
more readily to messages encouraging medical
examination than do those who believe in
external control. Many researchers for example
Poortinga, Dunstan and Fone (2008) found and
reported that the HLC was significantly
associated with individual and neighborhood
socio-economic status, as well as with self-rated
health. Simoni and Ng (2002) examined abuse,
health locus of control and perceived health
among 230 predominantly poor Hispanic and
African American women aged 25 to 61 years
living with HIV/AIDS in New York City.
Multivariate analysis revealed that controlling
for relevant covariates, the powerful others and
i nt e r na l c ont r ol s ubs c a l e s of t he
Multidimensional Health Locus of Control Scale
acted as independent predictors of perceived
health rather than (as hypothesized) mediators
of the association between trauma and
perceived health. Swinney (2002) reported that
subjects tended to view God as the powerful
other capable of influencing their health and
well-being. Self-esteem and an internal health
locus of control were found to account for 23%
of the perceived variance in health status and a
significant positive relationship was discovered
between self-esteem and powerful others
health locus of control. Though, there is an
abundant literature suggesting association
003
between health and internality yet there are
some studies suggesting lack of agreement and
ambiguities and that the relationship is far from
established (Norman and Bennett, 1995).
Life style refers to the general pattern of
living and behaving e.g. diet, exercise, sleep,
etc. There are some people who have faulty
habits; they may either not exercise at all or
indulge in very heavy exercise. In health
psychology two types of life style/behaviours
have been mentioned. These are health
promoting and health endangering life
style/behaviours. Health promoting life style
may include, taking a balanced/nutritious diet,
doing exercise regularly, adequate and sound
sleep, abstinence from smoking and heavy
drinking etc. Smoking, heavy drinking, taking
unbalanced diet, lack of exercise, irregular
sleeping schedules, etc. on the contrary are
health-endangering behaviours. The behaviour
pattern followed by a person, predicts his
health e.g. in a study of Japanese-Americans, it
was found that smoking accounted for 29% of
all cancers and 85 percent of lung cancers
(Chyou, Nomura and Stemmermann, 1992). De
Groot, Verheijden, Henauw, Schroll and Van
Staveren, et al. (2004) reported that a healthy
lifestyle was related to stable self-perceived
health, a delay in functional dependence and
mortality. Faulty lifestyle i.e. alcohol use, lack of
exercise and being a current smoker were
associated with poor self-rated health (Rutten,
Abel, Kannas et al., 2001; Okosun, Seale, Daniel
and Eriksen, 2005).
There is abundant research literature
whereby the relationship between such factors
as the general self-efficacy, health belief or
health locus of control with health has been
examined. Though majority of studies have
reported a positive relationship, yet there are
studies which either failed to find such
relationship or have contrary findings.
Moreover, in such studies general health or
psychological health has been taken up. In
recent years in health psychology, the health
behaviour or lifestyle choice of the person have
also been examined and linked with health. The
healthy lifestyle or health promoting behaviour
is reported to be associated with good health
and health endangering behavior has been
found to be associated with poor health.
Therefore, the present study was planned to
examine the relationship among general self-
efficacy, health locus of control, lifestyle and
self-rated health. It was also intended to
identify the role of general self- efficacy, health
locus of control and lifestyle in predicting self-
rated health.
Sample
The sample of the study comprised of
300 (150 male & 150 female) persons in the age
range of 20-50 years (Mean age = 34.95,
S.D=10.07 years). The sample was selected on
incidental sampling basis from urban and rural
areas of Rohtak district (Haryana, India).
Tools
Self Rated Health
Self-rated health is frequently used in
large population surveys and is a useful
"opener" in interview situations that allow
interviewers to seek more nuanced and
complex responses about people's perceptions

of their health (Lim, Ma, Heng, Bhalla and Chew,
2007). It was measured by single item i.e. in
general, what would you say about your present
health? It was rated on 5 point scale ranging
004
from 'excellent' (5) to 'poor' (1). A score of 5 was
given to 'excellent', 4 to 'very good', 3 to 'good',
2 to 'fair', 1 to 'poor'. The score ranged from 1 to
5 and high score indicate good self rated health.
Such single item measures and checklists of
happi ness heal th and wel l bei ng/ l i fe
satisfaction have been used extensively
(Easterlin, 2001; Veenhoven, 1993).
Self-efficacy Scale
Self-efficacy was measured by self-
efficacy scale (Sud, Schwarzer and Jerusalem,
1998). The scale was originally developed in
German by Jerusalem and Schwarzer in 1981. It
is a 10-item scale designed to assess optimistic
self-beliefs used to cope with a variety of
demands in life. Items were rated on 4 point
scale from not at all (1) to exactly true (4).
Thus, the score may range from a minimum of
10 and maximum of 40. Higher scores indicate
stronger belief in self-efficacy. Studies have
shown that the general self efficacy scale has
high reliability and construct validity (Leganger,
Kraft and Roysamb, 2000; Schwarzer, Mueller
and Greenglass, 1999).
Health Locus of Control Scale (HLOC)
HLOC belief was assessed by using form
A of the multidimensional health locus of
control scale, developed by Wallston, Wallston
and DeVellis (1978). It measures one internal
and two external dimensions (chance and
powerful others) of health locus of control. It
consists of 18 items. There are 6 items for each
of the subscales i.e. internal, chance and
powerful others. Subjects were required to
mark their responses using a 6 point response
scale from strongly disagree to strongly
agree. A scoring weight of 1 was given for
strongly disagree and a weight of 6 was given for
strongly agree, thus the possible score of each dimension (internal, chance and powerful others) of
health locus of control ranged from 6-36. Reliability indices for internal, chance and powerful others
were 0.60, 0.58, 0.74 respectively (Moshki, Ghofranipour, Hajizadeh and Azadfallah, 2007). The
Cronbach alpha coefficient was 0.68 for internal, 0.72 for powerful others and 0.66 for chance
health locus of control. The concurrent validity was 0.57 for internal, 0.49 for powerful others and
0.53 for chance (Moshki, Ghofranipour, Hajizadeh and Azadfallah, 2007).
Lifestyle Check Assessment
For measuring lifestyle choices lifestyle check assessment developed by Hall and Ches
(2001) was used. It is based on the U.S. Department of health and Human Services of healthy people
on 2010 health objectives. It consist of 29 items related to five areas of life style i.e. practices, eating
practices, mental and social health, safety and health examination. There are 7 items for practices, 9
for eating practices, 7 for mental and social health and 4 for safety and 1 item for health
examination. High score indicate healthier or health promoting lifestyle.
Results and Discussion
To examine the relationship among the variables (i.e. self-reported health, health locus of
control, lifestyle and self-efficacy) coefficients of correlations were calculated and the
intercorrelation matrix is given in Table1. For identifying the role of health locus of control, lifestyle
and self-efficacy stepwise- multiple regression was done and results are given in Table 2.
005
Table-1 Intercorrelation matrix (Mean and SD'S are given in the last two rows)
SE IN C PO LS (TS) P EP M&SH S HE SRH
SE
1
IN
0.21** 1
C
0.08

0.26**
1
PO
0.19**

0.44**
0.47** 1
LS(TS)
0.19** 0.14* 0.13* 0.19** 1
P
0.02 0.05 0.15* 0.04 0.69** 1
EP
0.12* 0.10 0.10 0.12* 0.68** 0.33** 1
M&SH
0.21**
0.
14*
0.02 0.17* 0.72** 0.23** 0.24** 1
S
0.14* 0.07 0.10 0.17* 0.41** 0.19** 0.17** 0.12* 1
HE
0.06 0.05 -0.02 0.14* 0.19** -0.08 0.04 0.13* 0.19** 1
SRH
0.24**

0.26**
0.17** 0.16** 0.55** 0.39** 0.45** 0.34** 0.23** 0.06 1
Mean
3.40 27.4 19.56 22.99 33.57 11.41 9.52 9.86 1.50 1.28 3.04
S.D
5.67 6.09 6.53 6.89 4.06 1.71 1.56 2.01 0.73 0.45 0.90

**Significant at the 0.01 level * Significant at the 0.05 level.
In-Internal health locus of control
It was found that except health
examination (r=0.06) all other factors i.e. health
locus of control (internal, chance and powerful
others), lifestyle (total score, practices, eating
practices, mental and social health, safety) and
general self-efficacy were found to be
significantly and positively associated with self-
006
SE = Self-efficacy EP = Eating practices
IN = Internal MH & SH = Mental and Social Health
C = Chance S = Safety
PO = Powerful Others HE = Health exam
LS(TS) = Lifestyle total score SRH = Self rated health
P = Practice

Index :
Table-2 Stepwise Multiple Regression of Self rated health on other variables
Model
No.
Variables Mean

Regression
Coefficient
(b)
SE R R
2
F-value
Criterion SRH 3.04
Predictors
1
LS
Constant
33.57 0.12
-1.09
0.01
0.36
0.55 0.31 131.05
(1,298)
2 LS
In
Constant
33.57
27.64

0.12
0.03
-1.65
0.01
0.01
0.38
0.58 0.34 76.27

(2,297)
3 LS

In
EP
Constant
33.57
27.64
9.52

0.10
0.03
0.08
-1.71
0.01
0.01
0.04
0.38
0.59 0.35 53.21

(3,296)
4 LS

In
EP
SE
Constant
33.57
27.64
9.52
30.40
0.09
0.03
0.08
0.02
-2.02
0.01
0.01
0.04
0.01
0.40
0.60 0.36 41.70

(4,295)

SRH - Self rated health
LS-Lifestyle
EP-Eating behaviour
SE-Self-efficacy
reported health (Table-1). The size of the
coefficients varied from r=0.55 (for lifestyle
total score), r=0.45(eating practices, r=0.39 (for
practices) to as low as r=0.16 for powerful
others. Stepwise multiple regression revealed
(Table-2) that lifestyle (total score) was the
strongest predictor of self-reported health. It
2
accounted 31 percent(R=0.55, R = 0.31) of the
variance in self-reported health. When the next
significant predictor was taken up, internal
health locus of control along with lifestyle (total
score) accounted for 34 percent of the variance
in self-reported health. Eating practices (a
component of lifestyle) and self-efficacy were
the third and fourth significant predictors of
self-reported health. But both of these
accounted only one percent additional variance
(each). Thus, all the four significant predictors
[Lifestyle (total score), internal health locus of
control, eating practices and general self-
efficacy] together accounted 36 percent of the
variance in self-reported health (Table 2).
Results of the study (Table-1) revealed
that general self-efficacy was significantly and
positively correlated with self-rated health. It
implies that those who believed that they are
efficacious enough and believe in themselves
had reported their health as good. Finding of
the present study are in agreement with earlier
study of Fallon, Wilcox and Ainswoth, (2005)
reporting that self-efficacy was positively
correlated with perceived health status.
Schwarzer and Fuchs, (1995) also found that a
strong sense of personal efficacy is related to
better health. In patients with clinical
manifestations of atherosclerotic vascular
diseases appeared to have high levels of self-
efficacy regarding medication use, exercise and
controlling weight (Sol, van der Graff, van der
Bijl, Goessens and Visseren, 2006).
Dimensions of health locus of control
i.e. internal, chance, powerful others health
locus of control found to be positively and
significantly related with self-rated health.
Finding attest the result of Poortinga, Dunstan
and Fone (2008) reporting that health locus of
control (internal, chance and powerful) were
significantly associated with self rated health it
007
seems to forms a part of the pathway between
individual, neighborhood socioeconomic status
and health. Johansson, Grant, Plomin et al.
(2001) found modest associations between
health control beliefs and self rated health.
Internal health locus of control found to be the
significant and positive predictor of self-rated
health. This finding implies that people, who
believe that they are responsible for their
health, rated their health as good. Internal
factors control their health tend 'to seek more
health related information, remember the
information better and respond more readily to
messages encouraging medical examination
than do those who believe in external control
(Quadrel and Lau, 1989).Results of the present
study do not support findings of Simoni and Ng,
(2002) who reported that multidimensional
health locus of control acted as independent
predictor of perceived health, where as
Norman, Bennett, Smith and Murphy (1998)
revealed that overall health locus of control
found to be weak predictor of health/ health
behaviour.
Lifestyle total score was found to be
significantly and positively correlated with self-
rated health. Taking the components of lifestyle
checklist, it was found that practices, eating
practices, mental and social health and safety
were significantly correlated with self-rated
health and the direction was positive. Lifestyle
total score emerged as strongest predictors
(Table 2) of self rated health. Results are in
consonance with popular belief that 'one's
health is the product of one's actions' i.e. what
one is doing is related with his/her health. The
importance of lifestyle as a determinant of
health status is also reported by Rohrer, Arif,
Pierce and Blackburn, (2004). Several studies
conducted in this area (e.g. Wei-yen, Stefan,
Derrick, Vineta and Kai, 2007) have also
reported results similar to the present study.
Results of the present study are in line with
those of earlier studies of De Groot, Verheijden,
de Henauw, van Staveren and Seneca (2004)
reporting that a healthy lifestyle was related to
stable self-perceived health. Many researchers
(Rutten, Abel, Kannas et al., 2001; Okosun,
Seale, Daniel and Eriksen, 2005) have reported
that faulty lifestyle i.e. alcohol use, lack of
exercise and being a current smoker were
associated with poor self-rated health. The
component of lifestyle i.e. eating practices also
emerged as the significant and positive
predictor of health. This implies that good
eating practices like eating balanced diet leads a
person to report their health as positive.
Findings of the present study have
implications for the health professionals as well
as for the lay man as it suggest the casual link
between lifestyle, general self-efficacy, health
locus of control and self rated health. The
increasing incidence of diabetes, cardiovascular
and other diseases is a challenge for the health
professionals and the government of these
countries. The intervention programs need to
be focused on increasing the level of awareness
as well as for the prevention and management
of these illnesses and promotion of health.
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Englewood Cliffs N.J. : Prentice Hall.
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(2006). The impact of depressive
008
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Bardage, C., Isacson, D., and Pedersen, N.L.
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011
*Professor of Psychology, M.D.University, Rohtak
** Department of Psychology, M.D.University, Rohtak
*** Department of Psychology and Counseling, Sultan Idris Education University(UPSI),
Sultan Azlan Shah Campus,Proton City, Tanzong Malim, Perak dar ul Ridzuan, Malaysia
Introduction :
Spiritual Intelligence can be defined as a deep
self awareness in which one becomes more and
more aware of the dimensions of self, not
simply as a body, but as the mind, body and
spirit. (Sisk and Torrance, 2001).
Spiritual Intelligence holds the key for
attaining our highest human potential. It frees
us from the limitations of the obvious, the
material, and the immediate (Khaveri, 2000).
According to Gomes (2005), it is an act of
freedom, a state of inner tranquility.
However, Spiritual Iintelligence, According to
Zohar, and Marshall (2000) refers to the
development of our longing and capacity for
012
Abstract
A Study of Relationship of Spiritual Intelligence and
Adjustment of Adolescents
*Meena Jain **Santosh Meena
Spiritual values and methods have a potential role in helping to increase emotional stability
and improve adjustment. Values energize everything concerned with. For an individual, committing
to and applying values release fresh energies, which always attract success, achievement and well-
being.Adjustment refers to utilization of skills and experiences that facilitate personal integration
into the society to which one belongs. Adjustment is what everybody needs to cope with life. There is
no perfect individual, but adjustment makes the difference for excellence among individuals. Only
an adjusted person can be happy, hopeful and productive in whatever environment he finds himself.
The key objective of the present study is to enlighten how spiritual intelligence related with
various facets of adjustment (home, educational, health, social and emotional) of adolescent
college girls. Purposive Sampling was planned for the study. The sample of 100 female adolescents
was taken from Banasthali University of Rajasthan. The subjects were administered (i) Spiritual
intelligence test (Khalil A. Khaveri, 2000) (ii) Adjustment inventory for college students (A.K.P Sinha
and R.P Singh,2002). Data analysis was done with the help of product moment correlation. The
results disclosed the significant positive relationship with spiritual intelligence and adjustment
among adolescents.
meaning, vision and value which facilitates a
dialogue between reason and emotion,
between mind and body, and which enables us
t o i nt egrat e t he i nt er pers onal and
intrapersonal, to transcend the gap between
self and others. Wigglesworth(2002) further
conceptualized Spiritual Intelligence to be the
ability to behave with Compassion and Wisdom
while maintaining inner and outer peace
(equanimity) regardless of the circumstance.
Spiritual Intelligence is therefore a necessary
Personal Empowerment which enables one to
maintain both inner and outer peace and
display love regardless of the circumstances
whether stress or acute conflict. It could
therefore help in conflict management and
peaceful co-existence in the Society.
College Students Encounter obstacles
which interfere with their Involvement,
integration and thus, prevent them from taking
full Advantage of the college Experiences. First
year Students face a number of problems in
Adjusting to University life. These include
developing an appropriate identity and
becoming Socially integrated into the college as
well as attaining and learning generic Skills and
Qualities such as Critical thinking and
Intellectual rigour. (Astin, 1984 and Tinto, 1987)
Adolescence is a period of Social Expansion and
development. The Adolescents spend a great
deal of their life around the activities, interest
and attitudes of their peers. As the result, the
peers attain great importance during this
peri od. Accordi ng to Sl as (1993) the
Bel ongi ngness to the group becomes
progressively important for the Adolescents
Adjustment refers to utilization of skills
and experiences that facilitate personal
integration into the society to which one
belongs. Adjustment is what everybody needs
to cope on with life. There is no perfect
individual, but Adjustment makes the
difference for excellence among individuals.
Only an Adjusted person can be happy, hopeful
and be productive in whatever Environment he
finds Himself (Animasahun 2010).
Howe v e r, t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n
Psychological factors that enhance individuals'
Adjustment. Some of these are identified to be
intelligence quotient Emotional Intelligence
and spiritual intelligence (Goleman 1998;
Goltfredson 1998; Zohar andMarshall 2000;
Zohar and Berman 2001; Akinboyeet et. al.
013
2002; and Adeyemo 2007, 2008.).
Objective
To study the relationship between
spiritual intelligence and adjustment (home,
health, social, emotional and educational).
Hypoyhesis
There would be a positive correlation between
spiritual intelligence and adjustment (home,
health, social, emotional and educational).
Method
Sample
A sample of 100 female adolescents in the age
range of 18-20 years was taken through
purposive sampling, residing in Banasthali
University.
Tools
1. Spiritual Intelligence Test Developed By
Khalil A. Khavari, (2000)
2. Adjustment Inventory for College
Students Developed By A.K.P Sinha and
R.P Singh (2002).
Procedure
In this study, the sample was selected
from the students of graduation of Banasthali
University. After deciding the tools to be used
for the study purpose, the investigation was
carried out. The participants were made aware
of the purpose of the study and were
confidentiality of responses and mutual rapport
was establ i shed. Thereafter a set of
questionnaire comprising a test of spiritual
intelligence, emotional intelligence and
adjustment was handed to each subject. The
subject was thanked for voluntary participation
and cooperating in administration of the test.
100 questionnaires were thus completed for
the study.
*Santosh Meena **Sandhya Gupta Volume-3 (2)
Result
The present study is aimed to studying
the relationship between Spiritual Intelligence
and Adjustment (Home Health Social Emotional
Educational) among Adolescent girls of
Banasthali University. Coefficient of Correlation
was applied according to the aims of the study.
Correlational Table
Discussion
Spiritual intelligence and adjustment
has a positive correlation (r = 0.75, significant at
0.01 level). The finding is consistent with the
studies by Rotimi and Animasahun (2001),
results revealed significant positive correlations
between the intelligent quotient, spiritual
intelligence and prison adjustment with
emotional intelligence.
Tate and Forchheimer(2002) conducted
an extensive study on spirituality and found it to
be associated with quality of life, life satisfaction
and adjustment.
Insignificant positive correlation
between spiritual intelligence and home
adjustment (r = 0.18, insignificant at 0.01 level)
was seen.
014
Table shows significant positive
correlation between Spiritual intelligence and
Health Adjustment (r = 0.56, significant at 0.01
level). The results are in accordance with Zarina
and Mohamad (2010), who concluded that
spiritual intelligence positively associated with
general health. Those who had spiritual
intelligence tended to have better health. The
ability to conduct daily life with sanctification
based on one's spiritual
belief was the most dominant factor of good
Health. The study suggested that spirituality is
related to Health and has a positive effect on
participants' overall Health.
Health can be influence by spiritual
intelligence and emotional intelligence.
(Shabani, Hassan, Ahmad& Baba, 2010). Gurklis
and Menke (1988), after an extensive study
concluded that spirituality plays a very
important role in coping with chronic illness.
Similar results obtained from a study by
Rowe and Allen (2004), suggests an inverse
relationship between ill health and spiritual
well-being.
In order to test the hypothesis
constructed in the present study, an attempt
was made to study the relationship between
spiritual intelligence and social adjustment in
table. The results obtained indicate a positive
and significant relationship (r = 0.72, significant
S.No. VARIABLES CORRELATION
1 Spiritual intelligence & Total adjustment 0.75*
2 Spiritual intelligence & Home adjustment 0.18
3 Spiritual intelligence & Health adjustment 0.56*
4 Spiritual intelligence & Social adjustment 0.72*
5 Spiritual intelligence & Emotional adjustment 0.63*
6 Spiritual intelligence & Educational adjustment 0.51*

*Value significant at p<.01
at 0.01 level). Similar results were found in the
study of Landis (1996), who concludes that
there is positive relationship between spiritual
well-being and psychosocial adjustment.
The correlation scores between
spiritual intelligence and emotional adjustment
shows positive and significant correlation (r =
0.63, significant at 0.01 level).
Spiritual intelligence and values and
methods have a potential role in helping to
increase emotional stability and improve
adjustment. Values energized everything
concerned with. For an individual, committing
to and applying values releases fresh energies,
which always attract success, achievement and
well-being.
It can be observed from the results in
table that spiritual intelligence and educational
adjustment have the positive and significant
correlation (r = 0.51, significant at 0.01 level).
Hosseini, Elias, and Aishah (2010) concluded
that Conceiving spirituality as a sort of
intelligence extended the psychologist's
conception of spirituality and allowed its
association with the rational cognitive
processes like goal achievement and problem
solving.
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015
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*Santosh Meena **Sandhya Gupta Volume-3 (2)
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*Associate Professor, Dept. of Psychology, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur
**Assistant Professor, Dept. of Psychology, Banasthali Vidyapeeth, Tonk, Rajasthan
Introduction :
THE PROCREATIVE INTEGRATION OF POSITIVE
PSYCHOLOGY to the organizational settings
(Luthans, 2002) has certainly led to a paradigm
shift from the traditional notions of job
satisfaction, involvement, and organizational
commitment to a more comprehensive and
dynamic approach of 'employee engagement'.
Employee engagement refers to an individual
empl oyee' s cogni ti ve, emoti onal , and
behavioral state directed toward desired
organizational outcomes (Shuck & Wollard,
2010). Therefore, in pursuit of adopting positive
practices at workplace while focusing on human
strengths and optimal functioning, employee
engagement has increasingly been looking at as
a potential psychological capacity (Luthans et
al., 2008), the benefits of which are directly
oriented towards both individuals as well as
organi zati ons. For i nstance, engaged
employees have consistently been shown to be
more productive, profitable, safer, healthier,
and less likely to turnover (Fleming & Asplund,
017
Abstract
Positive Psychology and Organizational Effectiveness
*Aakanksha Kataria **Pooja Garg ***Renu Rastogi
With the advent of positive psychology movement in almost every sphere of human life
including organizations advocating for the investment of employees' focused efforts and positive
energies towards organizational goals, there has been a tremendous encouragement to human
creative capabilities and optimism. Keeping this in view, the present study focuses its attention on
investigating the function of employee engagement, a positive individual-level behavioral construct
in occupational psychology towards increased organizational effectiveness. Data was collected
from 152 managers in Indian IT organizations and the results of regression analysis depicted a
positive association between the elite study variables as expected. The study posits employee
engagement as a substantial element to the sustenance of organizational performance and growth,
and further, establishes the need to develop conditions via positive organizationalclimate for
higher engagement level of employees.
Keywords: Positive Psychology, Employee Engagement, Organizational Effectiveness,
Organizational-Climate.
2007; Wagner & Harter, 2006; Wollard, 2011).
In addition, increased complexities in
surmounting global competition and uncertain
conditions of state economies have intensified
expectations of organizations for their
employees. Organizations expect their
employees to be proactive and show initiative,
collaborate smoothly with others, take
responsibility for their own professional
development, and to be committed to high
quality performance standards (Bakker &
Schaufeli, 2008). In specific, the notion of
employee engagement has become salient and
gained considerable attention in present times.
In fact, engaged employees being highly
involved, committed, and enthusiastic about
the success of employer have been recognized
as constitutional in sustaining organizational
success and performance.
Though the vast popularity of the
notion of employee engagement has often
been attri buted to the practi ti oners'
community, yet substantial academic research
has also been flourishing determining construct
validity, establishing its potential antecedents,
and consequences lately. Consequences of
engagement are particularly important, as
organizations are increasingly looking for the
cost effective ways to improve organizational
performance (Halbesleben, 2011). Previous
researches have established engagement as a
substantial antecedent to many bottom line
organizational outcomes such as productivity,
profits, business growth, quality, customer
satisfaction, employee retention, and low
absenteeism (Buckingham & Coffman, 1999;
Coffman & Gonzalez- Molina, 2002; Buchanan,
2004; Gallup Organization, 2004; Hewitt
Associates LLC, 2005; Fleming and Asplund,
2007; Lockwood, 2007; Sundaray, 2011).
Therefore, consequences of employee
engagement are thought to be valuable to
achieve organizational effectiveness (Saks,
2008; Sundaray, 2011; Welch, 2011; Cameron et
al., 2011). But, no explicit empirical research
i nvesti gati ng the associ ati on between
employee engagement and organizational
effectiveness has been coming from any side of
the world and the relationship is yet to be
confirmed.
Keepi ng i n vi ew, organi zati onal
effectiveness as the continuing theme of
management research and practice for more
than over 50 years and also as a unifying idea of
achi evi ng organi zati onal success and
continuous performance through collaborative
efforts of skilled employees, present study
focuses its attention on examining the role of
employees' level of engagement to achieve and
sustain organizational effectiveness.
State of the art
Employee engagement
Recent research studies in psychology,
management and organizational sciences have
018
manifested employee engagement as a positive
organizational construct which reflects not only
physical and cognitive involvement of
employees' but also emotional attachment to
their work and organization. Employees'
psychological connection with their work has
gained critical importance in management
discourse of the twenty first century (Bakker,
Albrecht, & Leiter 2011). According to Saks,
(2006) employee engagement is a distinct and
unique construct that consists of cognitive,
emotional, and behavioral components that are
associated with individual role performance. In
spite of the recent emergence, the term
'employee engagement' has captivated
substantial interest from industry and
management in a short span of time. The vast
popularity has been attributed to the beguiling
organizational outcomes of engagement in
terms of high involvement, passion and zeal in
employees' efforts to perform up to their
potential, while creating the high performing
organizations. Engaged employees have a clear
and defining connection to the organization's
mi ssi on and purpose, and empl oyee
engagement is reflected in behaviors that meet
or exceed expectations of service at the work
place (Litten et al., 2011).
Kahn (1990) has been credited for
pioneering the engagement research in
academic literature. While using the framework
of personal engagement and disengagement
Kahn (1990) posited engagement as a state in
which employees bring in their personal
selves during work role performances, investing
personal energy and experiencing an emotional
connection with their work. In specific, the
term Employee Engagement was first used
distinctively in 1990's by Gallup organization
(Buckingham, & Coffman, 1999). The Gallup
Research Group coined the term Employee
Volume-3 (2) *Aakanksha Kataria **Pooja Garg ***Renu Rastogi
Engagement as a result of 25 years of
interviewing and surveying employees and
managers (Little & Little, 2006). With the
popular release of the book First Break All the
Rules (Buckingham & Coffman, 1999), touted
posi t i ve consequences of empl oyee
engagement became overnight sensation in the
business consulting world. There has been a
sharp increase in the number of academic
researches on engagement thereafter. Leiter &
Maslach (1998); Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter
(2001); Schaufeli, Salanova, Gonzalez-Roma, &
Bakker (2002) posited employee engagement
as positive antithesis to burnout and it was the
first major work on engagement. Robinson
(2004); May (2004); Hallberg, & Schaufeli
(2006); Saks (2006); Schaufeli (2002) explored
the uniqueness of the concept and stated
employee engagement is positively related to
but distinct from other similar constructs such
as, organizational citizenship behavior, job
satisfaction, job involvement organizational
commitment etc. Schaufeli et al.'s (2002)
conceptualization of engagement has been very
popular in engagement literature which states
engagement as a positive fulfilling, work
related state of mind characterized by vigor,
dedication, and absorption.
Vigor is characterized by the high levels of
energy and mental resilience while working, the
willingness to invest effort in one's work and
persistence even in the face of difficulties.
Dedication explicates being strongly involved
in one's work, and experiencing a sense of
significance, enthusiasm, inspiration, pride, and
challenge.
Absorption refers being fully concentrated
and happily engrossed in one's work whereby
time passes quickly and one has difficulties with
detaching oneself from work.
019
In sum, engagement is posited as the
high levels of personal investment in the work
tasks performed on job (e.g., Kahn, 1990;
Macey & Schneider, 2008; May et al., 2004; Rich
et al., 2010; Schaufeli et al, 2002). Previous
researches concerning employee engagement
have well established its possible importance
for the organizations for example; engagement
leads to better job performance (Bakker & Bal,
2010; Demerouti & Cropanzano, 2010;
Xanthopoulou, Bakker, Demerouti, & Schaufeli,
2009) and focused more on individual level
analysis. In fact, there is a paucity of empirical
research concerning employee engagement
and its organizational outcomes (Cameron, et
al., 2011). Furthermore, more researches
establ i shi ng the val i di ty, di fferenti al
antecedents and differential outcomes
associated with engagement is warranted
(Gruman, & Saks, 2011). Hence, the concept of
employee engagement is an important arena of
research that deserves further attention
(Christian, et al., 2011).
Organizational effectiveness
In order to develop and gain sustainable
competitive advantage in contemporary
business world organizations need to be
effective. Organizational effectiveness serves as
a unique source of strategic advantage to
organizations for their continuous growth and
development. Therefore, the underlying goal of
most research on organizations is to improve
their effectiveness (Noruzi, 2010). There have
been many foci on defining organizational
effectiveness (Mzozoyana, 2002).
Organizational effectiveness is defined
in terms of the extent to which an organization
achieves its goals (Steers, 1977).
Hannan & Freeman (1977) defined
organizational effectiveness as the degree of
congruence between organizational goals and
observable outcomes.
Organizational effectiveness is a
company's long term ability to achieve
consistently its strategic and operational goals
(Fallon & Brinkerhoff, 1996).
Mott (1972) defined organizational
effectiveness as the ability of an organization
to mobilize it centres of power, for action,
production and adaptation. In fact, effective
organizations are those that tend to produce
more and adapt more easily to environmental
and internal problems than do other similar
organizations.
In sum, organizational effectiveness
has been widely accepted as the degree to
which an organization realizes its goals (Daft,
1995). Notwithstanding, organizations are
typically viewed as rational entities in the
pursuit of goals (Perrow, 1970; Etzioni, 1964)
and organizational effectiveness is a broader
term encompassing multiple constituents of
organizational performance in terms of
i ncreased out put , qual i t y, quant i t y,
adaptability, and efficiency. In fact, it has been
hard to describe what exactly constitutes
organizational effectiveness (Cameron &
Whetton, 1981; Rahimi, & Noruzi, 2011) and
due to its multidimensional and paradoxical
character (Cameron, 1986), it has been
observed that an organization can be
simultaneously judged effective by one
criterion and ineffective by another (Mi Cho,
2008). In addition, a variety of approaches and
frameworks have been devel oped to
understand the dynamic perspective of
organizational effectiveness such as goal-
020
attainment, system resource, internal process,
strategic constituency, and competing values
approach. Different approaches involve
different criteria for evaluating organizational
effectiveness. For instance, goal attainment
approach evaluates the extent to which an
organization is able to achieve its short and long
term goals, while system resource approach
refers to the ability of an organization in either
absolute or relative terms, to exploit its
environment in the acquisition of scarce and
valued resources to sustain its functioning, and
strategic constituencies approach focuses its
attention on the minimal satisfaction of all the
strategic constituencies of the organization for
i nstance, consumers of the products,
supporters, facilitators, dependents and the
resource providers (Cameron, 1981; Ashraf &
Kadir, 2012). This paper includes the
stakeholder approach towards organizational
effectiveness while considering employees'
percepti on of effecti veness i n thei r
organizations. Perceived organizational
effectiveness refers to the subjective employee
attitudes about how well their organization is
performing (Caillier, 2011), and it has been
recommended as a reasonable measure of
organizational effectiveness (Brewer & Selden,
2000; Cai l l i er, 2011) . Mott ' s ( 1972)
measurement of perceived organizational
effectiveness has been found to be the most
frequently used criteria in various models
pertaining to effectiveness (Steers, 1975;
Sharma & Samantara, 1995; Luthans et al.,
1988).
021
psychologically involved are more able to invest
their active physical strength and emotional
energy towards the fulfilment of organizational
goals. Furthermore, it has also been suggested
that engaged employees not only contribute
more but are also more loyal and therefore less
likely to voluntarily leave the organization
(Macey & Schneider, 2008).
Thus, based on the previous findings,
assumptions, and axioms in existing literature
concerning organizational context of employee
engagement, it is argued that employee
engagement in general and as a whole will be
related to organizational effectiveness.
Positive psychology, employee engagement,
and organizational effectiveness
Employees' active commitment and
involvement is of greater significance when it
comes to i nnovat i on, organi zat i onal
performance, and competitive advantage
(Bakker & Schaufeli, 2008). Therefore, the
positive psychology movement has certainly
persuaded organizations to adopt positive
practices at work place in order to create and
develop a positive psychological context to help
employees thrive at workplace. Positive
practices such as respectful treatment of
employees at work place, career planning and
development etc. are significantly associated
wi th organi zati onal effecti veness. The
association between positive practices and
organizational effectiveness takes into account
that positive practices at work place (for
instance, organizational justice, managerial
support, fair rewards, recognition, performance
management, fulfilment of psychological
contract, trust, integrity, workplace spirituality,
and work-life balance etc.) produce positive
affect (such as satisfaction, psychological well-
being) in employees resulting into the positive
individual behaviours for instance, retention
and engagement which is further suggested as
an antecedent to the organi zati onal
effectiveness (Cameron, et al., 2011). In this
connection, the construct of employee
engagement has been obs er ved i n
organizational context, connoting it as a
desirable condition, has an organizational
purpose, and connotes i nvol vement,
commitment, passion, enthusiasm, focused
effort, and positive energy, (Erickson, 2005;
Macey & Schneider, 2008). This posits, engaged
employees being enthusiastic, dedicated, and
Study Hypothesis
H1. Employee engagement will positively and
significantly influence organizational
effectiveness.
H1a. Vigor will positively and significantly
influence organizational effectiveness.
H1b. Dedication will positively and significantly
H1c. Absorption will positively and significantly
Method
Participants
The respondents were 152 middle level
managers from different IT organizations. Of the
152 participants', a large proportion (71 %)
were males and the rest of the others were
females. The average age of the participants
was 31 years. The work experience profile of the
participants varies from the minimum 3 year of
experience from maximum of 7 years and the
average work experience was 4.5 years. 32 %
were unmarried of all the participants and the
022
Organizational effectiveness
An 8-item scale developed by Mott (1972) is
used as a measure of organi zati onal
effectiveness, summative overall effectiveness
scale. The scale consists of 8 items e.g.,
Thinking now of the various things produced
by the people you know in your division, how
much are they producing? Their production is,
measured on a five-point scale ranging from 1 to
5. Each item needed a different adjective as its
response, so the scaling of the items was
different. The Cronbach's alpha () was .88.
Data analysis technique
The Statistical Package for Social Science
version 17.0 (SPSS 17.0) was used to analyze the
data. Correlation and regression analysis was
conducted to investigate the relationship
bet ween empl oyee engagement and
organizational effectiveness in the IT industry.
Results
Relationship between employee engagement
and organizational effectiveness

Table 1 presents the means, standard
deviations, correlations of the key study. It is
worth noting here that a significant relationship
has been found bet ween empl oyee
engagement and organizational effectiveness
on an over-all basis with the calculated r =.47
(significant at .01 level). This clearly outlines
that higher engagement level of employees in
organization is associated with increased
organizational effectiveness.
rest was married. The sample was comprised of
management graduates (55%) and engineering
graduates (45%).
Procedure
The present study attempts to explore the
relationship between employee engagement in
terms of vigor, dedication, and absorption and
organizational effectiveness. The study was
carried by means of a self administered
questionnaire using the scales discussed below.
Purposive sampling was used for the data
collection.
Measures
Employee engagement
Employee engagement was measured using the
Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES-9) as
reported by Schaufeli et al. (2006a). This scale
consists of 9 items and measures three sub-
dimensions of employee engagement.
Vigor is characterized by willingness to invest
efforts while experiencing high levels of positive
energy and mental resiliency at work. (e.g., At
my work, I feel bursting with energy).
Dedication refers to the strong involvement in
one's work, a feeling of meaningfulness,
significance, pride and challenge. (e.g., My job
inspires me).
Absorption explains one's state of being fully
engrossed and concentrated in the work
(Schaufeli, Bakker & Salanova, 2006). (e.g., I
get carried away when I am working)
All items relating to these three sub dimensions
were measured on a seven- point scale ranging
from 0 = Never to 6 = Always. Cronbach
alpha () for this scale was 0.92.
023
organizational effectiveness was regressed on
the all three dimensions of employee
engagement. As depicted in Table 2, the
criterion variable employee engagement on an
over-all basis accounted for 22 % of the variance
in the prediction of organizational effectiveness
with F value = 42.35, p<.01, = .47, and ? = .18.
All the three dimensions of employee
engagement exhibited significant variance in
organizational effectiveness as the first
dimension vigor accounted for remarkable
variance as 17% with the calculated R=.41 (F=
29.98, p<.01, = .41, ? = .17). The second
dimension that is dedication also explained a
si gni fi cant vari ance i n organi zati onal
effectiveness as 15% with the calculated R=.40
(F= 27.77, p<.01, = .40, ? = .15). Lastly,
another significant dimension of employee
engagement, Absorption explained highest
variance as 18% of all the dimensions with the
calculated R=.43 (F= 33.45, p<.01, = .43, ? =
.18), depicting that absorption was the
strongest predi ctor of organi zati onal
effectiveness among all the dimensions of
employee engagement.
A perusal of correlations shown in
Table 1 illustrates that all three dimensions of
employee engagement as: vigor, dedication,
and absorption correlate positively with
organizational effectiveness. A significant
relation between vigor and organizational
effectiveness has been found with the
calculated correlation value as .41, (significant
at .01 level). Another dimension dedication has
also been found to be correlated with the
organizational effectiveness as shown in Table
1, and has been found that dedication is
significantly correlated with organizational
effectiveness with the correlation value as
.40** (significant at .01 level). The correlation
between the third dimension of employee
engagement t hat i s absor pt i on and
organizational effectiveness has been found to
be most favourable with the calculated r value =
.43**, (significant at .01 level).
I mpact of empl oyee engagement on
organizational effectiveness
Further, in order to know how much
variance will be explained in organizational
effectiveness by employee engagement,
regression analysis was conducted. In which
Mean Standard deviations 1 2 3 4 5
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Vigor
Dedication
Absorption
Employee
Engagement
Organizational
Effectiveness
5.17
5.83
5.39
16.20
11.15
1.03
.75
.92
2.23
1.44
1
.53**
.47**
.68**
.41**
1
.45**
.64**
.40**
1
.62**
.43**
1
.47**
1
Notes : *p =.05; **p=.01
Table 1 Descriptive statistics and correlations of the key variables (N-152)
024
and perform better in their jobs. They are better
able to meet the increasing job demands at
cont empor ar y wor k pl ac e. Second,
organizational performance is the collaborative
efforts of engaged employees, as engagement
of one person may transfer to others and
indirectly improve composite performance of
teams (Bakker, 2011). A positive gain spiral of
engagement at workplace would constructively
lead to increased organizational performance
as engaged employees does not only contribute
more but are also more loyal and therefore less
likely to voluntarily leave the organization
(Macey & Schneider, 2008).
Third, it has been suggested that
engaged employees are also willing to invest
extra efforts and go beyond the call of the duty
(Schaufeli et al., 2006b; Christian et al., 2011).
Engaged employees often experience positive
emotions, they are happier at work and more
helpful to others than non-engaged employees
(Bakker & Demerouti, 2008). In this direction,
Rurkkhum & Barlett, (2012) have recently
reported a positive and significant relationship
between employee engagement and OCB's.
Engaged employees have a clear and defining
connection to the organization's mission and
purpose, and employee engagement is
Discussion and conclusions
The investigation of variables provided
support for the hypotheses that employee
engagement in general and as a whole is
significantly related to the organizational
effectiveness. On the whole, research findings
suggest that absorption is the most significant
di mensi on l eadi ng to organi zat i onal
effectiveness although with no remarkable
difference with the other two dimensions of
employee engagement as vigor and dedication.
Results of the study are consistent with
conceptual suppositions in existing literature as
it has been clearly observed that engaged
employees are a vital element in achieving
organizational success, performance, and
competitive advantage. In fact, leaders and
mangers across the globe recognize employee
engagement as a vital element affecting
organizational effectiveness (Welch, 2011).
Engaged empl oyees augment
organizational performance and effectiveness
in four ways. First, as discussed earlier,
engagement is a positive and high arousal
affective state characterized by energy and
involvement (Bakker et al., 2011), engaged
empl oyees bei ng hi ghl y enthusi asti c,
efficacious and involved tend to work harder
Dependent
Variable
Organizational
effectiveness
Organizational
effectiveness
Organizational
effectiveness
Organizational
effectiveness
Notes: significant at .01 level
Independent
Variable
R R2 Adjusted R2 F-Value Standardized
Value
Employee
engagement
Vigor
Dedication
Absorption
.47
.41
.40
.43
.22
.17
.16
.18
.22
.16
.15
.18
42.33**
29.98**
27.77**
33.45**
.47**
.41**
.40**
.43**
Table 2 Regression analysis with employee engagement and its dimensions as independent
variable and organizational effectiveness as dependent variable.
025
to sustain and develop conditions for high
engagement level of employees. Employers
should create an organizational context where
employees feel enthusiastic and motivated
about their jobs (Bakker et al., 2011). For
instance, increased job demands require
greater efforts on the part of organizations to
provide employees necessary job resources
(supervisor support, recognition, job autonomy,
feedback, person-job fit, skill variety) that are
conducive to intrinsic motivation, personal
learning, growth, and development (Bakker,
2011). When an organization anytime is
ineffective to meet the expectations and
requirements of the employees, they also tend
to drawback thei r energi es from j ob
engagement (Frank, 2004; Rashid et al., 2011).
Thus, there is a need to acknowledge the factors
that would lead to high commitment and
psychological attachment of employees
towards the organization and to develop a
positive psychological and social context in
which employees can perform up to their full
potential. Specifically, human resource
managers play a significant role to facilitate
engagement among their employees (Bakker,
2011; Fairlie, 2011; Shuck et al., 2011; Wollard,
2011). Integrating engagement enhancing
strategies into human resource practices at
work place would be a substantial step in
creating effective organizations.
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*Research Scholar, Department of HSS, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee,
Uttarakhand (India) 247667
**Assistant Professor, Department of HSS, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee,
***Professor, Department of HSS, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee,
Introduction :
Self is the center of our being; it is a core
of our personality. Self is above all, totally
unaffected by the flow of bodily conditions. In
words of Sullivan (1950) the self is said to be
made up of reflected appraisals. Self includes
the totality of man; the four functions of
thinking, feeling, sensation and intuition, man's
relationships with life and with the inanimate
universe. Self on the one hand, provides
awareness of one's unique nature and on the
other hand, a feeling of oneness with the
cosmos. According to Jung (1940) Self is not
only the center but also the circumference that
encloses consciousness and unconsciousness; it
is the center of this totality as the ego is the
center of consciousness.
Most theorists have assigned a major
role to the environment and experience in the
development of self. The social experiences play
a very significant role in the formation of self-
perception. An Individual perception of his
physical and psychological attributes is known
as the perceive self. Perceived self can be
positive or negative depending upon the
favorable and unfavorable appraisals assigned
030
Abstract
Percieved Self among the Managers of Telecom Sector: A Gender Study
*Shukla Archana **Fatima Amreen
The objective of the present study is to find out the perceived self among the managers of
telecom sector and to study the gender difference among them. 50 managers were selected (25
males and 25 females) through purposive sampling. The age range of the sample is 30 to 40 years.
WHO AMI? Technique by Bugental and Zelen(1950) is used in the present study for the better
understanding of perceived self among the managers of telecom sector. Gender differences were
found in the perception of self. Male managers' personality bears more positive shades as compared
to female managers. Males' perception is more self-focused as compared to females whose
perception of self is other- focused.
Keywords: Percieved Self, Ideal Self, Real Self, Personality
to self. According to Rogers (1961) perceived
self is composed of three sides of the triangle;
the perceived self (how person see self & and
others see him/her), the Real Self (how person
really is), and the Ideal Self (how person would
like to be). In views of Rogers the ideal self is the
base for the other two elements of self - the
perceived and the real self.
Interestingly the importance of self has
been recognized by the modern organizations.
Many researches Shamir (1991), Vathanophas
and Thaingam (2007) and Wright (2007) has
accepted the role of manager's self-concept as a
source behind the organizational success.But
surprisingly there is a dearth of literature on
perceived self especially with reference to the
managers of telecom sector in Indian
perspective. Very limited and scanty work has
been done studying perceived self and gender
differences in the managers of telecom sector,
as the managers have to be vigilant in their
work, meet the targets, work at the odd hours of
the day etc. This encouraged the researcher to
take up the present study. While reviewing the
literature some questions came in the mind of
the researcher; how does the managers of
telecom sector perceived themselves? Is there any gender difference in the perceived self among
the managers of telecom sector? Do males managers have better perceived self as compared to
female managers? Since it's impossible to answer all the questions in a single study, hence an
attempt has been made to answer some of them in the present study.
Objective of The Study:
To study the perceived self among the managers of telecom sector and to find out the
gender difference among them.
Sample:
The study was conducted on 50 managers of telecom sector. Age range of the subjects was
30 -40 years and the mean age was 112.3. Subjects were selected through purposive sampling.
Nature of the Study:
An ex post facto research with exploratory orientation in nature.
Varaible:
Perceived self
Gender
Tool Used:
Who am I? Technique was given by Bugental and Zelen (1950). There are many variant of
Who am I? Technique In the present study one of the variant of Who am I? (What is good and not
so good about me the positives and negatives of the self) introduced by Arkoff (1985) was used.
Who am I? Is a tool, which explores one's perceived self on the one hand, and on the other hand
serves as the base for identifying how the individual view does him /her?
Administration of Who Am I? Technique:
Who am I? Technique was administered with the generation of self-descriptive statements.
Following instructions were given to the subjects:
You must have seen yourself in a mirror, in a pot of water, or in a pool. What did you see?
Right you saw your face, how you look physically, or how others see you. Today we are going to show
you a different kind of a mirror, which will tell you how you are from within. Look in it and see who
are you?
Initially the managers were motivated by the researcher and were informed that there is no
right and wrong answer. Further they were also ensured that their responses will be kept
confidential and their identity will not be disclosed to anyone.
031
Volume-3 (2) *Shukla Archana **Fatima Amreen
032
Figure .1
Figure .2
033
When the responses of male and females were looked into (fig.1 and fig.2.) it depicts a clear picture
that there is a gender difference in terms of positive and negative statements. Majority 58% of
male's responses (fig.1) were positive while only 42% responses fall in to negative category. On the
other hand, maximum responses (52%) of females (fig 2) were negative and only 48% of responses
were positive.
First and foremost positive responses of males were analysed and divided into 6 sub- categories.
Male positive responses were depicted in the diagram below:
Figure .3
First category with maximum number of responses indicates that 26% of males were self-
focused. Some of the responses in this category were: I am a Fighter and I have a happy nature.
A positive perceived self, adheres confidence and trust in ones capabilities. Therefore the above
percentage suggests males possess the feelings of self-worth and they are aware of their strengths
and are willing to use it in a positive manner (Shamir 1991)
Next category that emerged is job with 21% of males' statements. The positive attitude
towards job was marked by the verbatim like I feel content with my job and my job provides me
the opportunity to explore more. This category go hand in hand among the managers of Indian
telecom sector, as they are more job oriented, they are spending most of their hours in their job,
making an effort to perform better at the expense of their respective personal lives. This finding was
also supported by Abbas, Hameed and Waheed (2011)
Further (17%) of male responses suggests the dominance of others. In words of Hurlock
(1965) Others focused self refers to how a person views herself/ himself through the eyes of
034
othersThis category goes hand in hand with the present scenario, where positive appraisal by
others becomes necessary in order to keep up with the daily problems of life. Statements like my
colleagues think I am hard working, and People trust me for my honestywere given by the
subjects.
Fourth category was approach towards life. 14 % of male managers stated that they have
adopted a positive approach towards life. Statements in this category were for example I have a
positive approach towards life. They further reported that the positive approach helps them to
strike a balance with their hectic schedule and stress.
Surprisingly 12% of the managers perceived themselves in terms of relationships. Some of
the statements were; I value relationships. Relationships are said to be the core of our lives, which
is the reason that the focus of responses in this category was on relationship development,
maintenance of relationship with family members and friends.
Spirituality can be defined as the ultimate reality. It is a path which enables a person to
discover the essence of his/ her being. It provides deepest values and meanings to a person's life.
Spirituality is (10%) the last category among positive responses. Responses in this category were I
pray every day, because it helps me to stay claim even in the worst of situations Managers also
mentioned that they do meditation everyday which in return helps them to feel content with what
they have in live.
Further when the data was reviewed in terms of females' positive responses, six categories
emerged. These categories are mentioned below:
Figure .4
035
Fig.4 shows that majority (23 %) of females self is other focused. This in comparison to
males' positive responses (fig.3) is in complete contrast; as the males were more self-focused where
as females perception of self is entirely based on the judgements of others. Statements in this
include; People say I have an attractive face, and others think I am charming personality. This
finding was supported by findings of Crocker, Sabiston, Kowalski, McDonough and Kowalski (2006)
indicated that specific physical self-perceptions by others were the important predictors of physical
activity, dietary restraint and social physique anxiety in females.
Further 24% of females reported positive attitude towards their job. Statements in this
were I am good at managing work. Positive attitude towards job suggests all the positive
experiences which a person holds towards their job. With reference to this finding Grobeleny and
Wasiak (2010) stated The most satisfied with income were masculine women managers, the least
feminine women non-managers.
Moving on to the next category of positive responses, (19%) of females perceived
themselves with regards to their family. Some of the responses in this category were like; I love my
family and I like to spend time at home. It is ironical yet true, that in our Indian culture no matter
at what position a female is, how much she is earning, family remains the prime importance. The
present finding similarly supports the Indian values of working women.
Another category was social with 16% of the females' responses. Verbatim under this were,
I like to be with others, I am good at maintaining relationship and I like to socialize at
times.Major focus of responses in this category was on socializing, interacting with others, and
developing interpersonal skills.
It is an interesting finding to know that only 13% of females' perception is self-focused.
Statements in this category were as I respect myself and I am good at managing things. This
finding indicates the feminine stereotype. Feminine stereotype in our Indian culture suggests that
females have a tendency of self-negligence. They think about themselves in the last; for them their
family, children and others come first, despite the fact how educated they are and at what position
they were working. This stereotype also goes hand in hand among the female managers of telecom
sector.
Lastly 9% of females 'mentioned that they have positive life expectations. Some of the
verbatim were: things will improve in the future and I will be able to accomplish my goals very
soon. Positive expectations about life indicates the optimism among females about future, this
also suggests that despite the present situations females try to maintain a positive outlook towards
their lives.
036
Majority of males 42 % have a negative perceived self. Statements in this category were like
I havea bad temper and I slightly egoistic. A negative perceived self in words of Besser and Priel
(2011) is marked by the personality predisposition of dependency, higher levels of negative affect
and interpersonal rejection. With reference to the previous finding (fig.3) this was opposite of what
managers reported about positive perception of self.
Fig.4 clearly depicts that (34%) of males hold the negative attitude towards their job.
Verbatim in this category were like: Due to my job I have become aggressive in nature and I have a
very demanding job. Negative responses clearly suggest their dissatisfaction in job. Thus the
feeling of negative affect can said to result due to the aggressive and hectic nature of their jobs in
the telecom sector.
Moving to the last category, of males' negative responses it was found that 24% of male
managers self is other focused. Following were some of the example; others think I am a bad
person. It was very shocking to find out that the manager holds such a negative view about
themselves despite the fact that their job requires them to maintain a positive outlook as they have
to largely deal with others. Present finding supports the concept of dissonance. It becomes
ironical yet true that for the managers working in telecom sector have to represent themselves as a
positive person in front of the others, despite the fact how negative and gloomy they feel within
themselves.
After the reviewing the males' negative responses, females' negative responses were taken
into the consideration. The five categories for negative responses were mentioned below:
Moving on to the next, the percentage of negative responses among males was divided into the
three sub categories were as under:
Figure .5
037
Majority of females perceived themselves
negatively (38%). Negative perceived self is
witnessed in the verbatim likeI have a very
short temper and I am easily frustrated. A
negative perception towards self suggests that
one is not content with herself/ himself and
holds negative views about self.
(26%) of females negative responses
states that their self is other focused.
Statements in this category were like: Others
think I am in decisive. For a person having a
negative perceived self, what others think is
more important than how he or she is in reality.
In other words negative perceived self is
characterized by the negative evaluations by
others.
Next category of was job with 22% of
females instances. Responses in this category
were My job is very demanding in nature and
Due to hectic schedule at work I am not able to
spend time at home. Females also mentioned
that they had problems in their job and because
of the nature of job they were unable to
Figure .6
maintain a proper balance between job and
personal life.
Gossip was the last category with 14%
of female's responses. Verbatim in this category
were: I like to include in office politics and
Often I like to talk about othersGossip refers
to the talking bad about others, back biting and
interest in others doing. It also refers to idle talk
or rumour about the personal or private affairs
of other. De Gouda, Vuuren and Crafford (2005)
mentioned workplace gossip could have direct
implications on trust in workplace relationships,
might undermine principles espoused by
corporate governance and could therefore lead
to higher staff absenteeism and turnover.
The data analysis clearly points that
majority of males perception is self-focused.
Further suggesting that they are aware of their
strengths and positives points. Job has
predominance in their lives. They also
acknowledge themselves through the eyes of
others. Males try to maintain a positive
approach towards life to strike a work life
038
balance. They also seem to value relationships.
Lastly spirituality helps them in maintaining this
positive outlook of life. Whereas the data
analysis of females positive responses suggests
that largely females perception is other
focused. Family is of great importance in the
lives of females. They were more concerned
about maintaining relationships. While trying to
maintain this positive outlook in life females
have positive expectations from their
respective lives.
Interestingly the content analysis of
negative responses portrays that the males in
the sample had a negative perception of self.
They hold a negative perception of their job,
suggesting that they were not happy with their
present job conditions, pressure at job and
exhaustive working hours. On the other hand
females perceived more themselves negatively
as compared to males. They are more
influenced by the how negatively others
perceived them than what they actually are.
Females have a negative job perception; they
feel their job is very demanding and time
consuming and to add more negativity at times
they like to gossip about others.
Summary and Conclusion:
Findings of the study suggest that there
is a gender difference in the perceived self
among the managers of telecom sector.
Reasons could be the nature of jobs in telecom
sector is very demanding and requires dealing
with lot of pressure, working at odd hours of the
day. Which males can do easily than females
due to the social norms? As a result of this it is a
male dominated industry. With reference to
males dominance in the managerial positions,
the Office for National Statistics (2008) showed
that 19% of men in the United Kingdom
occupied managerial and positions of seniority
compared to 12% of women, Further, as of
2009, the overall pay gap between men and
women in the industry was 22% in favour of
men (Government Equalities Office, 2009)
Females on the other hand have more
responsibilities; they have to manage their
homes, children, and their respective lives. This
imposes certain limitations and creates
imbalance in personal and professional life. This
further develops feelings of job demotivation,
and results in negative perception of self. This
finding was also supported by Iacobucci and
Ostrom, (1993) In the emerging telecom sector
of India the present study provides insights on
the perceived self among the managers working
in telecom sector. This study provides useful
inputs to the future researches by exploring the
ways in which perceived self, effects the work
life of the managers. On the basis of the findings
it can be suggested that personal counselling
and useful training programs should be
organized by the company for the managers to
overcome feelings of negative self-perception
and stress and to make the working
environment more conducive. In the end to sum
up in words of Assagioli (1966) can be said the
SELF is the universal and I am aware that I am
SELF.
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*Assist. Professor Dept. of Psychology Lucknow University
** Research Scholar Dept. of Psychology Lucknow University
Introduction :
Hearing impairment in children does
not only make it difficult for them to
communicate with other people but it also
slows down their learning. Hearing is what
keeps us in touch with our world. It plays a
significant role in expressing and receiving
language. Hearing loss creates problems in how
an individual expresses and receives language
which in turn causing social, communication,
and educational problems (Hall et al., 2001).
Educators therefore need to consider the short
and long term effects of how hearing loss
impairs a person's ability to understand spoken
language when developing their programs.
Teachers need to make special considerations
when teaching with the hearing impaired
children.
It is commonly held that placing
disabled children in special schools leads to
their segregation from their non-disabled
counterparts, which in turn, can isolate them
from day-to-day experiences with other
040
Abstract
Problems Faced by The Teachers Engaged in Special and Integrated
Schools for Hearing Impaired Children
*Swaha Bhattacharya **Monimala Mukherjee
Hearing impairment is a generic term including both deaf and hard of hearing which refers
to persons with any type or degree of hearing loss that causes difficulty in many cases. Hearing
impairment is a permanent hearing loss or decrease in hearing that is so significant which
negatively affects a child's performance in school or ability to learn. The aim of the present
investigation is to study the problems of hearing impaired children as perceived by the teachers of
integrated and special school. Accordingly, a group of 40 (20 from Integrated and 20 from Special
school) teachers were selected as sample in this investigation. General Information Schedule and
Perceived Problem of Hearing Impaired Children Questionnaire were used as tools in this
investigation. The findings reveal that communication, lack of accurate information, attendance are
the main reasons behind the difference between the two groups of teachers engaged in integrated
and special schools for hearing impaired children. Measures may be taken to reduce the problems as
children, while integrating them into regular
schools which will help them to achieve their
maximum potential in a more favourable
educati onal and soci al envi ronment.
Integration is an ongoing process of learning to
live together, and it also involves increasing
knowledge about self and others. For deaf
children, the question of integration is more
complex than it usually appears. An integrated
educational programme with no special
methods, prepares the child for a life in a
hearing community (Webster and Ellwood,
1985). It is said that integration is the way to
provide deaf children with what they cannot
gai n f rom t hei r deaf envi ronmental
experiences. Social, business and professional
contacts in life cannot be fully achieved without
effective language and communication skills
(Blumberg, 1973). According to Dalvi (1992)
success or failure of an hearing impaired child
initially depends not so much on whether the
child is severely or profoundly deaf, as on his
level of intelligence, ability to lip-read, his
language development, the help and training he
gets from his parents and his special school, and
the availability of a resource teacher to guide
him in studies in the regular school curriculum.
Integration thus involves the efforts of many
people working as a team, such as teachers of
regular schools and special schools, parents of
the deaf child, other specialists like the resource
teacher, social worker, audiologist and speech
therapist. The identification, development and
co-ordination of this team effort are both a
challenge and a critical requirement in meeting
the needs of deaf children (La Porta et al, 1978).
According to Musselman et al. (1996), although
not all results are equally negative, the
preponderance of the evidence supports the
conclusion that special schools for the deaf
foster socio-emotional growth better than
mainstream schools. Deaf students in
mainstream schools report feeling socially
isolated and lonely and have lower self-esteem
than those students in special schools.
Considering the above the present investigation
has been designed to study the problems of
hearing impaired children as perceived by the
teachers of integrated and special school.
Objective
To study the problems faced by the teachers
engaged in Special and Integrated School for
taking care of hearing impaired children.
Hypothesis
Teachers engaged in Special and Integrated
School differ significantly in terms of problems
faced by them for taking care of hearing
impaired children.
Study Area and Subjects
A group of 40 teachers (20 from Special School
and 20 from Integrated School) engaged in
different Special and Integrated Schools of
Kolkata and Howrah Districts were selected as
041
sample in this investigation. The pertinent
characteristics of the subjects are :
a) Age range : 35 to 50 years
b) Educational qualification : At least
graduate wi th B. Ed i n speci al
education.
c) Duration of service : At least three
years.
TOOLS USED
(1) General Information Schedule. It
consists of items like name, age,
address, education, marital status,
duration of service etc.
(2) Perceived problem of hearing impaired
children questionnaire
It consists of 15 statements answerable in a
three point scale viz; Yes (Y), Sometimes (S) and
No (N) in connection with communication,
infrastructural facilities, attendance, accurate
information, curriculum, emotional instability
etc.
Administration, Scoring and Statistical
Treatment
General Information Schedule and Perceived
problem of hearing impaired children
questionnaire were administered to a group of
40 teachers engaged in Special and Integrated
school by giving proper instruction. Data were
collected and properly scrutinized. Frequency
and percentages were calculated for General
Information Schedule and also for Perceived
Problem of Hearing Impaired Children
Questionnaire. Comparisons were made by
applying Chi- square test.
Results and Interpretation
The General Characteristic data inserted in
Table 1 reveals the characteristic features of
the subjects under study.
*Swaha Bhattacharya **Monimala Mukherjee Volume-3 (2)
Data inserted in Table 2 reveals the problems faced by the teachers engaged in special
school who are taking care of hearing impaired child. 85% teachers opined that they face problems
due to lack of infrastructural facilities regarding proper hearing aids and sound proof rooms. 80% of
them have expressed about the necessity of more advanced technologies and aids for hearing
impaired children. Less emotional stability, bullyed by the normal children are some of the
remarkable problems faced by the teachers engaged in special school (70%). They gave emphasis on
appointment of psychologists, audiologists and therapists for guiding both the hearing impaired
children and their parents about the problems so that they can adjust with the school environment.
Social structure for the hearing impaired children is also an important factor in this regard. Besides
this, 60% teachers have expressed that due to lack of accurate information about the problems of
hearing impaired children sometimes creates problem to cope with properly.
042
Table 1: General Characteristic features of the teachers engaged in Special and
Integrated School.

General Characteristic Features

Teachers of Special school
(N=20)

Teachers of Integrated
school
(N=20)
f % f %
1. Age in years (mode value) 39 years 42 years
3. Education
(a) B.A/ B.SC & B.ED in special education
(b) M.A/ M.SC & B.ED in special
education

08
12

40
60

11
09

55
45

4. Marital Status
(A) Married
(b) Unmarried

16
4

80
20

14
6

70
30

5. Duration of Service
(a) Below 10 years
(b) Above 10 years

7
13

35
65

9
11

45
55

Data inserted in Table 3 reveals the problems faced by the teachers engaged in integrated
school. 85% of them gave emphasis mainly on poor infrastructural facilities viz., proper hearing aids,
sound proof rooms etc. 70% teachers opined that they face problems due to bullied by normal
children. Sometimes, it is very difficult to communicate properly. 60% of them have expressed
about the necessity of more advanced technologies and aids of hearing impaired. Adjustment
problem and poor attendance in class are also the significant factors which creates problem for
proper handling the hearing impaired children.
043
Table 2: Problem faced by the teachers engaged in Special School

Sl
no.

STATEMENTS
Problems faced by the teachers of
special school (N=20)

Yes

Sometimes

No
f % f % f %
1. Difficult to introduce new lessons in the class. 3 15 3 15 14 70
2. Difficult to communicate with hearing impaired
children.
3 15 3 15 14 70
3. Difficult to handle the student properly. 10 50 5 25 5 25
4. Lack of infrastructural facilities which creates
problem.
17 85 3 15 0 0
5. Bullied by normal children is difficult to control. 14 70 3 15 3 15
6. Hearing impaired children always create
disturbances.
3 15 3 15 14 70
7. Inadequate information about hearing impaired
children creates confusion.
12 60 4 20 4 20
8. Faces problems for adjustment between normal
and hearing impaired children.
8 40 8 40 4 20
9. Faces problems due to lack of infrastructural
facilities.
16 80 4 20 0 0
10. Poor attendance in the class. 4 20 4 20 12 60
11. Lack of cooperation of parents. 10 50 5 25 5 25
12. Faces problem due to coping. 12 60 5 25 3 15
13. Lack of emotional stability which creates
problem.
14 70 3 15 3 15
14. Inadequacy of involvement of other professionals
for betterment.
14 70 3 15 3 15
15. Inadequate social structures negatively affect the
learning process.
14 70 3 15 3 15

When comparison was made between these two groups of teachers engaged in Special and
Integrated school in terms of problems faced by them to handle the hearing impaired children,
significance difference was observed for the item number 1 (difficult to introduce new lessons in
the class), 2 (difficult to communicate with hearing impaired children), 6 (hearing impaired
children always creates disturbances), 7 (inadequate information about hearing impaired children
which creates problems) and 10 (poor attendance in the class) respectively. On the contrary,
teachers engaged in both special and integrated schools face some common problems, viz; poor
infrastructural facilities, lack of advancement of modern technologies etc. Thus the Hypothesis,
044
Table 3: Problem faced by the teachers engaged in Integrated School

Sl
no
.

STATEMENTS
Problems faced by the teachers of
integrated school (N=20)

Yes

Sometimes

No
f % f % f %
1. Difficult to introduce new lessons in the class. 10 50 5 25 5 25
2. Difficult to communicate with hearing impaired
children.
10 50 5 25 5 25
3. Difficult to handle the student properly. 8 40 8 40 4 20
4. Lack of infrastructural facilities which creates
problem.
17 85 3 15 0 0
5. Bullyed by normal children is difficult to control. 14 70 3 15 3 15
6. Hearing impaired children always create
disturbances.
7 35 7 35 6 30
7. Inadequate information about hearing impaired
children creates confusion.
6 30 6 30 8 40
8. Faces problems for adjustment between normal
and hearing impaired children.
10 50 5 25 5 25
9. Faces problems due to lack of infrastructural
facilities.
12 60 6 30 2 10
10
.
Poor attendance in the class. 10 50 5 25 5 25
11
.
Lack of cooperation of parents. 6 30 10 50 4 20
12
.
Faces problem due to coping. 8 40 8 40 4 20
13
.
Lack of emotional stability which creates
problem.
8 40 8 40 4 20
14
.
Inadequacy of involvement of other professionals
for betterment.
10 50 8 40 2 10
15
.
Inadequate social structures negatively affect the
learning process.
10 50 6 30 4 20

which states, Teachers engaged in Special and Integrated School differs significantly in terms of
problems faced by them for taking care of hearing impaired children - is accepted for item nos. 1, 2,
6, 7 and 10 and is rejected for other statements.
045
Table 4: Comparison between perceived problems of teachers engaged in Special and
Integrated School for taking care of hearing impaired children.
Item Numbers Chi square value Item Numbers Chi square value
1. 8.52** 9. 2.06*
2. 8.52** 10. 5.54**
3. 1.02* 11. 2.76*
4. 0.00* 12. 1.64*
5. 0.00* 13. 4.06*
6. 6.40** 14. 3.14*
7. 3.74** 15 1.80*
8. 1.02*

* Difference is insignificant
**p<0.05
Major Findings
1. Teachers of both Special and Integrated
schools have faced some common
problems to take care of hearing
impaired children properly.
2. The problems are mainly due to poor
infrastructural facilities viz., proper
hearing aids, sound proof rooms, lack
o f a d v a n c e me nt o f mo d e r n
technologies etc.
3. Teachers of Special school gave much
emphasized on appointment of
psychol ogi sts, audi ol ogi sts and
therapists for guiding both the hearing
impaired children and also for their
parents so that they are able to adjust
with school environment properly.
4. According to the teachers of integrated
school i t i s ver y di f f i cul t t o
communicate with the children in the
class mainly because hearing impaired
children are bullied by the normal
children. They also face difficulty to
maintain the curriculum properly.
5. Comparative picture reveals significant
difference between these two groups
for item no 1, 2, 6, 7 and 10 respectively.
Concluding Remarks
In conclusion it can be said that
teachers engaged in special and integrated
school have expressed some problems which
they face to take care of hearing impaired
children. Teachers of special schools gave
emphasis on infrastructural facilities viz.,
proper hearing aids, sound proof rooms and
necessity for more advanced technologies and
aids. On the other hand teachers engaged in
i ntegrated school gave emphasi s on
communication problem. Attendance is also an
important factor in this regard. To reduce the
problem appointment of psychologists,
audiologists and therapists are required for
046
guiding not only for the children but also for
their parents so that they can understand the
problem properly which will ultimately help to
adjust with the school environment and
teachers are able to do their duties properly.
References
Blumberg C. (1073) A school for the Deaf
Facilities Integration. In: Nort hcott W
(Ed), The Hearing Impaired Child in a
Regul ar Cl assroom: Pre-school ,
E l e me n t a r y a n d S e c o n d a r y
Years.Washington: The Alexander
Graham Bell's Association For Deaf.
Dalvi K. (1992) The Study of the Experiments
Done In Oral Education of Deaf Children
Through the Conversational Method.
Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of
Mumbai,
La Porta M., (1978). Mainstreaming Pre-
schoolers: Children with Hearing
Impairment- A Guide for Teachers,
Parents and Others who Work with
Hearing Impaired Pre-schoolers.
Washington : US Dept. of Health,
Education and Welfare, Office of
Human Development Services.
Musselman, C., Mootilal, A., and MacKay, S.
(1996). The social adjustment of deaf
adolescents in segregated, partially integrated,
and mainstreamed settings. Journal of
Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 1, 52-
63.
Hall, B. J., Oyer, H. J. and Haas, W. H. (2001).
Speech Language & Hearing Disorders:
A guide for the teacher (3rd ed.).
Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Webster A, Ellwood J. (1985.) The Hearing
impaired Child in the Ordinary School.
London : Croom Helm.
*Associate Professor, Department of Applied Psychology, University of Calcutta
**Lecturer, Department of Psychology, Women's College, Calcutta.
Introduction :
Images of thin-ideal women as
portrayed i n magazi nes, movi es and
commercials glorify slenderness of female
body. These images influence socio-cultural
norm for young people. Young girls idealize and
internalize thin-ideal models and judge their
body image after them (Heinberg & Thompson,
1995). The social desirability of thin body shape
and physical attractiveness involve young
adolescents in actual-ideal body comparisons.
047
Abstract
Body Mass Hurts Adolescent Girls More Than Thin-Ideal Images
*Javaid Marium **Ahmad Iftikhar
This study was aimed to identify factors that affect negative mood and body image
dissatisfaction in women. Positive and Negative Affect, Self Esteem, Body Image Satisfaction and
Figure Rating Scale was administered to 97 female undergraduate students. This served as a base
line data for correlation analysis in the first instance. One week later participants who volunteered
to appear in the second phase of the study (N=47) were shown thin- ideal images as an intervention
and soon after they completed Positive and Negative Affect Schedule and Body Image States Scale
again as a post test. Results indicated body mass as a strong negative predictor of body image
dis/satisfaction, self esteem was a moderate predictor and mood was not a significant predictor.
The participants whose actual body shape was markedly discrepant with the ideally desired body
shape had significantly low level of body image satisfaction (p < .001) than those with low
discrepancy. Similar results were found for self esteem (p <.004). Both self esteem and body mass
predicted body satisfaction about equally and significantly. However, on viewing thin-ideal images,
the participants of different body weight showed no change in their body image satisfaction than
before. Only the overweight participants were significantly affected on negative mood as a short
term reaction after viewing the thin ideal images. Comparing the three groups based on their body
mass, one-way ANOVA revealed significant difference in mean score of thin, average and
overweight participants on negative mood as well as body image satisfaction. This reveals body
mass as a potent and stable factor that consistently and strongly affected body satisfaction not the
transient portrayal of thin ideal images. Further, there is some evidence on the moderating role of
self esteem between body mass and body image satisfaction linkage. It therefore appears necessary
to explore in future researches whether enhancing self esteem can trade off body mass negative
effects on young girls.
Keywords: Body image satisfaction, thin-ideal images, media, mood affects, self esteem.
Most women perceive their actual figure as
significantly larger than the ideal figure
(Tiggemann & Pickering, 1996). According to
Ozer and Brindis (1998) about 44% of
adolescent girls believe they are overweight
and 60% are actively trying to lose weight
although majority of these girls are within
normal weight range. Similarly in a study
involving 15-19 years old 303 girls, Cash, Ancis
and Strachan (1997) found that 78.5% females
desired to be underweight, whereas based on
048
Body Mass Index (BMI) 79.2% were normal
weight, 18.2 % were underweight and 2.6%
were overweight. Watching television shapes
women mindset such that they become biased
agai nst thei r body sel f causes mood
annoyances and even body disorders such as
anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa, badly
interfering in their everyday life. The media
constructed reality of a slender and perfect
ideal figure is though pervasive but largely
unrealistic and almost unattainable by common
man (Cash & Pruzinsky, 1990). Thus women
suffer at large from 'body dissatisfaction'a
term generally used to refer to subjective
unhappi ness wi t h one' s appearance
(Thompson et al. 1999). A meta-analysis of the
studies of exposure to idealized images of
female body concluded that viewing these
images lead to a consistent but small effect on
body dissatisfaction (Groesz, Levine & Murnen,
2002).
Several psychological theories have
been referred to explain how one becomes
desirous of thin-ideal body self. Higgins (1987)
self-discrepancy theory holds that discrepancy
between a women's actual body shape and
what she ideally desires it to look like causes
distress, body dissatisfaction and eating
disorder. Leon Festinger (1954) held that
individuals tend to rate and evaluate
themselves in social comparison. Media, a
common household item, invokes comparison
of young viewers to the thin body that is heavily
idealized in the cultural shows, drama serials
and commercial ads. This causes negative
affect, low self esteem and high level of body-
image self-discrepancy in young female
viewers. For example, Triggeman and Slater
(2004) conducted a study exposing women to
ordinary looking women and then to music
video clips of highly attractive ones. They found
subjects feeling mood changes as they involved
themselves differently in the two conditions on
mood whi l e i nvol vi ng themsel ves i n
comparison with the idealized figures.
Comparison with the ideally thin and attractive
figures is in fact accentuated under culture and
familial influences as well (Schwartz, 1986) that
endorse notions of body perfect. For example
one of the popular notions is that physical body
is the true person and if the body is good (thin-
ideal) then the person is good enough. The
popular media, according to Pollack-Seid (1989)
does not show heavy women leading normal
and happy social lives. Girls are taught to be
good enough in order to be happy in their
marriages, their jobs, their families, and their
lives. This social cultural thin body ideal has a
great following among the young people. The
psychological toll of such self focused narratives
has a tremendousl y negati ve effect:
unhappiness, shame, guilt, depression and low
self-esteem (Stice & Shaw 1994; Unger &
Crawford, 1996).
The ideal images are focused on a
woman's physical appearance. Appearance
stereotype affects self-esteem when television
screen depicts thin women as successful. The
envious mostly overweight persons, reactively
battle their bodies to achieve the thin body by
dieting and reconstructive surgeries. Culture
usually promotes battling against negative body
image. Needless to say discrimination against
overweight persons is acceptable even today.
The media, as a cultural tool, contributes to
negative body image by depicting the thin ideal
as means to live a happy life.
Cash, Ancis and Strachan (1997) are of
the view that body image is psychological in
nature and is more about a person's self
percepti on than thei r actual physi cal
appearance / attractiveness. Majority of the
women desire to reduce weight although very
few are actually overweight. They hold that a
person's early socialization about physical
Volume-3 (2) *Javaid Marium **Ahmad Iftikhar
049
appearance and their experience of their body
during childhood and adolescence influences
how they will view their body as they grow up.
These feelings, impressions and experiences
partially shape their self or personality
especially self esteem. Tiggemann (2005)
reported that high school girls with perception
of being overweight were particularly
vulnerable to developing low self esteem. Self
esteem is how much one values one's self as a
valued person. Comparing groups based on
BMI, ANOVA detected small but significant
difference on self esteem scores. Secure
attachment in childhood however has been
found to withstand the socio-cultural
stereotype of the thin-ideal and the media
onsl aught of t he t hi n- i deal i mages.
Enlightenment as a result of education and
worldly exposure can also shield against the
stereotypical propaganda in favor of the thin-
ideal (Bostrom & Didrichson, 1997). In fact the
antecedents and correlates of body image are
complex and include the developmental
influences; cultural, familial, interpersonal as
well as actual physical characteristics (Cash &
Pruzinsky, 2002; Thompson & Smolak, 2002).
This study aims at finding problems of BMI as a
stable factor as well as those of media-culture
sponsored thin-ideal images as an ongoing
influence affecting young girls' body-self image.
Rationale of the study
The purpose of the study is to see how
well data from Pakistan support the western
literature on the effect of thin-ideal images on
the young women. There has been an influx of
media in the last 10 years with over 100
channels emerging in the private sector in
Pakistan. The life style of people has been
changed resultantly, especially of the middle
class.
A second interest in this investigation
concerns if self esteem can moderate the
influence of media portrayal of thin ideal
images and the body mass on body-image
satisfaction in women. The findings along these
lines are mixed. It could be that low self esteem
enhances vulnerability to media images or low
self esteem could be the effect of watching and
overly internalizing thin ideal images (Clay et al.,
2005).
The results of this study would likely
suggest how much body mass as well personal-
social construction of 'thin ideal image' affect
the women folk in Pakistan and the role of self
esteem as corrective factor towards healthy life
and well being.
Hypotheses
Two set of hypotheses pertaining to
correlational and experimental part of the study
were tested:
Phase -1
1. Participants' body mass will be
inversely related to mood affects and
body image satisfaction.
2. Participants with small discrepancy
between their ideal (desired) body-self
and actual (perceived) body-self will
have higher self-esteem and body
image satisfaction than those with large
discrepancy.
3. Self esteem mediates the effect of body
mass on body image satisfaction.
Phase- 2
4. Exposure to thin-ideal images will affect
mood and body image satisfaction
more in the overweight than in thin or
average body size participants in pre-
post comparisons.
050
Method
Participants
In all 97 undergraduate female students
between the age of 16 and 21 years participated
from a local private university. Their mean age
was 20.5 years (SD = 1.7). They were enrolled in
undergraduate programs in Psychology, Media
Studies, Textile Designing and Business studies.
All participants were single, belonging to good
household background and had access to the
television and internet. They were recruited
purposively for this study; persons with
different body shapes; thin, average and the
overweight. Their weight to height ratio (kg /
2)
m ) or BMI was about normal (M = 22.30, SD =
4.61). The participants reported watching TV
almost daily as one of their household chores
for the purpose of i nformati on and
entertainment.
Measures
Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965)
The 10 item Rosenberg Self Esteem Scale (RSES)
was ori gi nal l y desi gned to measure
adolescents' levels of global self-esteem: 'I feel
useless at times', 'I am satisfied with myself, 'I
am no good at al'. Participants respond to these
statements on a four point scale; strongly agree
=1 to strongly disagree=4. Scores range from 10
40, high score indicate greater level of self-
esteem. RSES has become the most widely used
instrument to measure self esteem in all age
groups, and is seen as highly reliable and
internally consistent instrument (Gray et al.,
1997). A Cronbach alpha of .88 is reported in
this study. It had sufficient test-retest reliability
of .84 (Rosenberg, 1965). Convergent validity of
RSES has been demonstrated with other
measures of self esteem (Ellis & Tayler, 1983).
Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (Watson
et al., 1988)
The Positive and Negative Affect
Schedule (PANAS) is a widely used measure of
current positive and negative moods. It consists
of 20 words which describe emotions and
feelings, half of which are positive (Proud,
Inspired, Interested etc.) and the other half
negative (Distressed, Upset, Guilty etc.). The
participants rate how well these terms describe
how they feel right now on 5 point scale; not at
all =1, extremely =5 . High score on positive
affect (PA) indicates individual's pleasant
involvement with the environment while high
score on negative affect (NA) indicates feelings
of distress. In the present study PANAS had
Cronbach alpha of .70 and .82 for positive and
negative affect, respectively. The reliability
coefficients are reported as .89 for PA and .85
for NA in the original research (Watson et al.,
1988). The two affectivities are inversely related
as opposite concepts.
The Body Image States Scale (Cash & Pruzinsky,
2002)
The Body Image States Scale (BISS) is
designed to evaluative self body image
dis/satisfaction. It is a short questionnaire of six
items that investigate the subjects' perception
of their physical appearance in a given moment,
participants express level of satisfaction or
otherwise with their body shape, size, overall
appearance, weight, feelings of physical
attractiveness or unattractiveness, current
feelings about one's looks. The questions are
answered on a nine point bipolar scale. High
scores on BISS indicate satisfaction with body
characteristics and low scores indicate
dissatisfaction. The current study reports
Cronbach alpha of .80. Cash and Pruzisky (2002)
reported an alpha of .77 in a sample of
undergraduate women and a test-retest
coefficient of .69 over 2-3 weeks. Sandoval
(2008) found that BISS is sensitive to
051
imaginational manipulation of body image
state.
Figure Rating Scale. (Stunkard et al., 1983)
The Figure Rating Scale (FRS) depicts
body shapes in nine categories; from very thin
to obese: The images 1 and 2 are underweight,
images 3 and 4 are appropriate weight, image 5
is slightly overweight, images 6 and 7 are
moderately overweight and images 8 and 9 is
very overweight. A participant rates how she
perceived her actual body shape close to the
corresponding image pictured on the FRS. In
this study participants were asked to indicate
along 1-9 images of different weight on FRS the
one which is closer to their actual body figure ---
'pick the figure that best represents how you
feel you look most of the time'. They also
indicated the body shape that would best
represent their body ideal. Finally, the Body
Image Discrepancy (BID) score is worked out by
subtracting ideal from the actual weight-size
figure: The greater the discrepancy, the lower
the level of satisfaction with ones body. A
negative discrepancy score indicates that the
subject perceives herself as fatter than her
desired figure whereas a positive score
indicates that a subject perceives her body
thinner than the ideal body figure. A score of
zero indicates that the participant perceives her
actual body just close to the ideal body shape.
Body Mass Index
Body Mass Index (BMI) is calculated as
2
[(weight (kg) / height (m )]. BMI is considered as
a major factor predicting body image concerns
among females. According to Thompson (2004)
BMI of 18.5 is the lower end of biologically
healthy body size. In another study, BMI up to
22 was considered thin, whereas persons
between 25 and 30 were consi dered
overweight (Zaninotto et al., 2006). Body Mass
Index can be considered as an alternative for
direct measures of body fat. All participants
were weighed on machine and their height was
scaled in feet to work out their BMI. The M BMI
was 22.31 (SD = 4.61) in this study.
Fi nal l y, par t i ci pant s provi ded
biographical information such as age, year of
education and subject. They were asked one
question as well: 'Do you watch TV daily at
home as a household chore for entertainment
purposes'? This question was asked to make
certain that they were media watchers and
could be potentially under media effect for the
thin ideal images.
Material / Thin Ideal Images
A set of 60 full body shots of thin images
of female models clad in revealing dress were
gathered from Asian websites and fashion
magazines, in the Pakistani / Indian culture
context. The images emphasized appearance
and were of unknown persons, not of
celebrities, so that other aspects e.g. life history,
work or public reputation etc. do not confound
participants' judgment or liking of the images.
A group of five girls other than the participants,
were asked to rate each picture overall as
unattractive = 1, attractive = 2 or highly
attractive = 3. A set of 30 attractive and highly
attractive pictures were then selected that were
unique and non-redundant within the set. This
stimuli / material were used as intervention in
this study. The images were purported to evoke
upward comparison with the participants as
they watched them in a power point
presentation and reported their resultant /
current feel i ngs on a post exposure
questionnaire.
Procedure
Phase -1
Data was collected in the spring
semester 2012 at the university campus during
free lesson hours. Subjects were briefed about
052
the research project and those who consented
for participation took Rosenberg Self-Esteem
Scale, Positive and Negative Affect Scale, Body
Image States Scale, Figure Rating Scale and
Biographic Information in order. The latter
included an open-ended question: Do you
watch TV daily as a household chore for
entertainment purposes? All the participants
answered the question in the affirmative
therefore they were included in the study for
the purpose of data analysis. The participants
were assured anonymity and the right to
withdraw from the study anytime.
All the protocols were scored. The data
set thus generated served as a baseline to carry
out descriptive and correlation analysis to test
set-I hypotheses. It also served as a pre-test
data to be compared with after-intervention
(post-test) scores i nvesti gati ng set-I I
hypothesis.
Phase-II
Next, the participants were invited to
participate in phase II of the study after a break
of 7 days. They appeared in groups of 5-7
persons on the specified schedule. Only 47
participants turned up. Phase-II study
comprised an intervention consisting of a set of
30 thin ideal images shown on power point
displaying each picture for 30 seconds. As soon
as they finished watching the slid show, they
were handed over PANAS and BISS again with
the instructions to complete them afresh
expressing their current state of feelings /
opinions through the questionnaires.
Finally, the participants were scaled for
their body weight (bare-footed) on digital
weighing scale reading to the nearest 0.1 kg and
the height was measured upright and relaxed,
with the help of a tape-meter affixed on the
wall. This served to categorize participants as
thin (BMI < 19), average (BMI 19-25) and
overweight (BMI > 25). The M BMI was 22.31
and SD = 4.61.
In the end, the participants were
thanked and were debriefed. About half the
participants were surprised over the true
purpose of research. They were told to contact
if they had any concern regarding their body
image or any feeling resulting from participating
in this study. They were encouraged to accept
one's body well enough gift of nature and
supplement it with other qualities of mind and
character.
Results
First, overall properties of the data
were examined in terms of descriptive statistics,
relationship among study variables and
reliability estimates of the measures (see Table
1). The participants had far higher positive
mood than negative mood t = 8.32, p <.000. On
BISS, a measure of body satisfaction where
scores could range 6 to 54, a mean of 36
indicated participants as mostly satisfied. Mean
score on self-esteem was also adequate. The
mean discrepancy between the participants'
idealized body figure and the perception of
their actual body figure was small. The M MBI =
22.31 (SD = 4.61) indicated majority of the
participants as average weight by WHO
standards for Asia-Pacific region; < 18.5 as thin
or underweight, > 25 as average, and >30 as
obese (WHO, 2010).
053
Overall, this indicated that participants
of the study were representative of normal
people. These results, serving as base line, make
one confident to proceed further with the
analysis.
The BISS and NA scales showed good
internal consistency of .82 and .80, whereas
positive mood and self-esteem scales showed a
moderate index of .70 and .65, respectively.
The positive mood was inversely related with
negative mood, as expected. Moreover, positive
mood had moderate positive relation with body
satisfaction as well as self esteem scores. It was
otherwise with negative mood, meaningfully
enough. Discrepancy between the actual-self
and the ideal-self score was negatively related
with body image satisfaction and self-esteem
i ndi cati ng that i ndi vi dual s wi th l i ttl e
discrepancy had more body satisfaction and
high self-esteem than others. BMI was strongly
and inversely related with body satisfaction and
moderately related with the ideal-actual body
discrepancy score or DIAS. Interestingly, body
based measures i.e. BMI, BISS and DIAS were
more interrelated than the psychological
measures i.e. mood affects and self esteem.
This evidence lends validity to these constructs:
Correlation coefficients among variables made
psychological sense and was theoretically in
line. It also indicated that the data generated in
this study was discrete, non- random and
credible enough to test the hypotheses as
follow.
H1: Body mass is inversely related to mood
affects and body satisfaction.
There was a strong and inverse
correlation between body image satisfaction
and body mass or the BMI (r = - .71, p < .001).
The latter was not related to either positive (r = -
.01) or negative moods (r = -.04). Thus the
hypothesis is partially supported. It means
2
one's BMI [(weight (kg) / [height (m) ] did not
affect mood but it did influence body image
satisfaction of the participants; lower the body

Variables

M (SD)

2

3

4

5

6

1

PM

31.3 (7.7)

.70

-.46**

.27**

.38**

-.05

.01
2 NM 20.5 (7.8)

.82 -.30** -
.46**
.00 .04
3 BISS 36.3 (9.3)

.80 .37** -.51** -.71***
4 SE 19.3 (4.0)

.65 -.20* -.19*
5

DIAS .75 (1.3)

_

-.41**
6 BMI 22.30(4.61 _
Note: PM = Positive Mood, NM = Negative Mood, BISS = Body Image States Scale, SE = Self-esteem, DIAS =
Discrepancy Ideal- Actual Self, BMI = Body Mass Index.
*p <0.05, **p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001

Table 1 : Mean, Standard Deviation and Correlation Matrix of the Study Variables (N=97)
054
mass, greater the body image satisfaction. The body image satisfaction therefore appears to be
more credible and sensitive psychological correlate of BMI than mood affects.
H-2 Participants with small discrepancy between their ideal (desired) body-self and actual
(perceived) body-self will have higher self-esteem and body image satisfaction than those with
large discrepancy.
Self esteem and body image satisfaction scores were compared of the two groups; those
with discrepancy of 2-5 points (between their actual-body self and the ideal-body self) and ones
with minimal discrepancy i.e. 1 points, on a nine point FRS (subtracting actual from ideal body-
shape rating). An independent sample t-test revealed significant difference (p<.004) between the
two groups (Table 2) on self-esteem as well as on body image satisfaction (p < .000). It means that if
participants perceive the actual-body self closer to their idealized body self, they would enjoy
greater self esteem and body image satisfaction and vice versa. There is sufficient power of statistics
(Cohen's d) supporting hypothesis 2, particularly for body image satisfaction.
Table 2 : Self-Esteem and Body Satisfaction Scores of Subjects With and Without Discrepancy
between Ideal and Actual Body Self (DIAS)
Variables
With
(n=31)
M(SD)
Without
(n=66)
M(SD)
t p 95%CI Cohen's d
DIAS
Self-Esteem
Body Satisfaction
17.7(4.01)
30.5(9.7)
20.1(3.80)
39.0(7.8)
3.0
4.2
.004
.000
[.80,4.1]
[4.8, 12.1]
0.60
0.85
Note: DIAS = Discrepancy between ideal and Actual Self
055
Table 3 : Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Self Esteem and Body Size as Predictors of
Body Satisfaction
Procedure R
2
R
2Change
B SE t p
Step-1
Step-2
Step-3
Constant
Self-Esteem
Constant
Self-Esteem
BMI
Constant
Self-Esteem
BMI
Negative affect
Positive affect
.143
.257
.305
.143
.114
.047
19.32
.88
37.94
.72
-.70
44.66
.41
-.77
-.20
.16
4.37
.22
6.39
.21
.18
8.39
.24
.18
.13
.12
.38
.31
-.34
.18
-.38
-.17
.13
3.98
3.42
-3.80
1.69
-4.19
-1.59
1.26
.000
.001
.000
.094
.000
.115
.208
(N=97)
H3: Self esteem mediates the effect of body
2
mass (kg /m ) on mood affects and body
satisfaction.
Body mass or BMI has emerged as a
major variable thus far which is associated with
creating a self judgment of dis/satisfaction
about one's body image and producing
concomitant mood affects. There is evidence
for self esteem bearing on body image
dis/satisfaction and negative mood effects as
outcomes (see Table 1). Taking lead from these
findings a hierarchical regression analysis was
run to estimate the effect of body mass i.e. BMI
on body image satisfaction controlling for self
esteem (Table 3). Self esteem was entered at
the first step in hierarchical regression analysis
in view of its logical priority and it explained 14%
of variance in body satisfaction scores. BMI,
entered in the second step explained another
11% of the variance, however, mood affects,
entered at the third step, could account for only
5% of the additional variance (p <.115 & p <
.208). Step-3 could well be dropped for
insignificance, confining regression analysis to
the second step. The regression coefficients for
the self esteem ( =.31) and body mass ( = -.34)
were nearly comparable towards determining
body image satisfaction, in opposite direction. It
means body mass discounts towards body
image satisfaction whereas self esteem adds or
compensates it. The moderating potential of
self esteem between BMI and body image
056
satisfaction is discerned also since all the three variables are significantly inter correlated :
Independent and mediating variables predict dependent variable in step-2 of and independent and
mediating variables are significantly related (r =.19, p < .05).
The mediation analysis was further supplemented by Sobel (1982) test. The test statistic
determines the indirect effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable through a
mediator. Reported p values are acquired from the unit normal distribution under the assumption
of a two-tailed test of hypothesis assuming the mediated effect is zero in the population using +/-
1.96 as the critical values (Preacher & Hayes, 2004). Results obtained after running the Sobel test
equation (z =1.92, p<.058) appear to be marginally significant at .05 level.
H4: Exposure to thin-ideal images will increase the feelings of body image dissatisfaction
among overweight participants more than on thin and average weight participants
Body Image States Scale (BISS) measures participants' self judgment of their body called
body image dis/satisfaction. The participants who were shown images of thin-ideal girls
(intervention) were also re-administered BISS and PANAS soon after as a post test. Table 4 presents
pre and post scores of thin, average and overweight participants. Difference in the pre and post
mean scores on BISS were not found significant for any category of participants, contrary to the
expectation. Similar results were found for positive mood affects. Negative mood affects were
however found in overweight participants t = 2.12, p <.05 followed by average body mass
participants who also showed somewhat similar scores. The overweight group marginally declined
on positive mood affect as well. The hypothesis that feeling of body image satisfaction would
change significantly after watching thin-ideal images more in the overweight than thin and average
groups of participants could not be supported. However, there was a partial support for the
negative mood effects. The Participants of different weight categories however strongly differed on
negative mood F (3, 45) = 6.1, p <.01 and body image satisfaction F (3, 45) = 5.6, p
Table 4 : Effect of Thin-Ideal Images on Participants' Mood and Body Satisfaction (N=49)
Conditions
Thin
(n=15)
M(SD)
Average
(n=20)
M(SD)
Overweight
(n=14)
M(SD)
F
Pre
Post
Positive Affect
Negative Affect
Body Satisfaction
32.3(4.5)
29.0(8.7)
t=1.56, p</83
18.0(9.0)
16.0(7.8)
t=0.63, p<.53
40.0(7.8)
37.5(9.2)
t=1.40, p<.18
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
32.0(8.7)
31.1(7.2)
t=1.56, p<.13
21.0(7.0)
19.0(8.4)
t=1.92, p<.06
38.0(7.5)
36.0(8.1)
t=1.93, p<.07
31.2(6.4)
29.2(7.2)
t=2.05, p<.83
19.1(5.7)
22.5(9.1)
t=2.12, p<.05
31.0(9.2)
29.0(9.6)
t=1.62, p<.13
F(3,45)=.21, p<.88
F(3,45)=6.1, p<.01
F(3,45)=5.6, p<.02
Note: Thin = BMI >19, Normal = BMI 20 - 25, Overweight = BMI < 25
057
<. 02. These categories of participants
had been set up on the basis of body mass or
BMI. It evidenced that BMI or body mass not the
portrayal of thin body images adversely
influenced body image satisfaction consistently
and strongly. Resultantly, body image
dis/satisfaction seems to be a stable factor: the
overweight were significantly less satisfied than
the average and thin body participants at the
outset (pre test) and their body image
satisfaction did not change any more after the
intervention (post test). Negative mood affect
was however discerned among the overweight
persons only, as a state / temporary sentiment.
Discussion
It was hypothesized that body mass
would directly affect mood and body image
satisfaction and that exposure to thin ideal
images would adversely affect the overweight
women still more. It was also hypothesizes that
self esteem protects body image satisfaction
and it mediates between BMI and body image
satisfaction.
Pr el i mi nar y anal ys i s y i el ded
psychol ogi cal l y meani ngful i ndi ces of
correlation among the variables of the study
and most of the instruments displayed
sufficient dispersion of scores indicating the
sample following a general population. On
another count, parti ci pants' BMI was
comparable to a study conducted by the Agha
Knan Medical University, Pakistan which
regarded incidence of BMI > 26 as overweight
and > 30 as obesity. MBI having a strong inverse
relationship with body satisfaction emerged as
the major variable of the study; larger the BMI,
lower the body satisfaction as well as ideal
actual body-self discrepancy. This is consistent
with the findings of Cash, Jakatdar and Williams
(2004) that increasing levels of BMI is related to
a poorer body image / quality of life among
females. Zain-Ul-Abideen, Farooq, Latif and
Khan (2010), conducted a study on the females
in Lahore and found that there was an inverse
relationship between the participants' BMI and
body image satisfaction.
One-Way ANOVA reveal ed that
overweight participants had significantly lower
body image satisfaction compared to the
average and thin body participants (p <.02).
However, exposure to thin-ideal images
(intervention) did not affect the body image
satisfaction further in any of the three groups
contrary to the expectation except that
negative mood increased and positive mood
decreased in the overweight group only (Table
4). This is an interesting result given the view
that meta-analysis of the media exposure
studies conducted by Groesz et.al. (2002) found
an effect of viewing ideal images on body
dissatisfaction. Stice and Shaw (1994) report
other studies that found no difference between
the scores of those watching ideal images and
the control (no model images) group.
To sum up BMI or body mass influenced
body image satisfaction, not the ideal-body
image display. One might question the efficacy
of the intervention in not affecting the body
image satisfaction. Besides, the study had
certain limitations such as involving a small
sample. These findings may thus be taken as
tentative. A major explanation to the findings is
that the concept of body dis/satisfaction is a
stable cognition or a trait based on very
cognizable MBI unlike mood states which are
transitory and subject to state effects. Following
Stice (2002) who postulated two distinct
pathways to body image satisfaction; one
involving social pressures to be thin and the
other involving body size, our findings support
the latter pathway; the intervention effects
were comparatively weak.
Weight reduction by traditional
methods is a popular way of managing the MBI
058
to counteract body dissatisfaction. However,
the latter can be reduced by alternatively
focusing on the positive aspects of the self
unique to an individual; ability, effort,
education, positivity and other characteristics
that might outweigh the body shape virtue.
Holding these in good esteem can be self
boosting and satisfying in body self judgment.
Conclusion
BMI is the major biological and
temporal-causal variable effecting body image
dis/satisfaction. The two are strongly inversely
correlated. More specifically, body size
influenced body image satisfaction and
negative mood in overweight persons more
than the average and the thin ones. Moreover,
self esteem as a psychological variable has been
found to have a moderating effect between
body size and body satisfaction and can
potentially trade off the effect of body size in
overweight persons. The enhanced self esteem
could bring about a re-cognition of one's body
self judgment compensating the body mass
effect. This can be investigated in future
research.
Limitations and suggestions for future
research. The present study involved small
sample and was limited to just one university in
order to control for variation in age and
education across different body weight
categories. Future studies may extend the study
to diverse samples in age as well as those with
different level of education and income to
comprehensively investigate the subject. Levels
of education and income could also affect our
perspective on self judgment of the body. There
must be multiple predictors of this very complex
construct called 'body image '. Second, this
study alluded to self esteem as a moderator
between body weight and body satisfaction. In
this regard, one might test the effect of boosting
self esteem to counteract hurting effect of large
BMI on body satisfaction. For example, self
compassion or a caring self outlook may trade
off body mass effect on body dissatisfaction.
Intervention on these lines could be carried out
aiming at 'thinking body positive' to feel good in
our bodies.
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*&** University of Management and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan
Introduction :
The WHO estimated that, in the
situations of armed conflicts throughout the
world, "10% of the people who experience
traumatic events will have serious mental
health problems and another 10% will develop
behaviour that will hinder their ability to
function effectively. The most common
conditions are depression, anxiety and
psychosomatic problems such as insomnia, or
back and stomach aches".People witnessing
061
Abstract
Stress, Somatic Complaints and Anxiety : A Comparative Study of
The Adolescents of Jammu and Kashmir Regions.
*Nila Majied **Mahmood S. Khan
Armed conflict, political uncertainty and unavoidable circumstances prevalent in the state
of Jammu and Kashmir since last two decades has a lasting and profound implication on the
emotional, psychological ,behavioural and other aspect of personality on the people of these
regions. It needs a specific mention that the adolescents experiencing 'storm and stress 'seemingly
to be the most consistently affected and are at extreme risk of psychological trauma during armed
conflict. Keeping these ideas in mind the present study was designed to examine the level of stress,
somatic dysfunction and anxiety among the adolescents of Jammu and Kashmir .Data was collected
from 200 adolescents studying in different higher secondary schools of two regions; Kashmir valley (
considered to be high conflict region)and Jammu (considered to be relatively low conflict region).
General Health questionnaire -28(GHQ-28) developed by Goldberg (1978) and Stress measuring
scale developed by Chashu &Khan (2009) was used to gather the response from adolescents. GHQ-
28 questionnaire has four subscales: Somatic complaints(1-7), Anxiety Insomnia(8-14), Social
dysfunction(15-21), Major depression(22-28).For the purpose of this study only 2 dimensions,
Somatic complaints(1-7), Anxiety Insomnia(8-14) were taken in to consideration. Data was
analysed by applying t-test as it fulfils the purpose of the study. The trend of the result showed that
adolescents belonging to Kashmir region have higher level of stress and somatic symptoms, and
lower level of anxiety as compared to adolescents belonging to Jammu region. Further comparing
male and female adolescents of Kashmir region it was found that female adolescents scored high on
all the above mentioned three variables than the males. While in case of adolescents belonging to
Jammu region it was found that both male and female have almost same scores on somatic
complaint and anxiety but females outscore males on the scores of stress. Showing that female
adolescents of Jammu region are more stressful than male counterparts.
Keywords: Armed conflict. Stress, Somatic Complaints , Anxiety ,Adolescents.
armed conflict and repeated political violence
often experience a continued threat to life and
to their sense of safety as well as disruption of
daily functioning. The state of Jammu and
Kashmir has been witnessing a conflict situation
for more than 20 years, with thousands of
people dead, injured and handicapped, many
missing or confined, thousands of children
orphaned, and women widowed, a enormous
damage to the property, and a damage to the
cultural ethos including en-mass migration of a
minority community.
Stress caused by feeling of insecurity
and dependency can deplete physical and
psychological buoyancy leading to many mental
problems, this has happened in most cases of
Jammu and Kashmir. According to Chang's
Dictionary of Psychology Terms, stress is a state
of physical or mental tension that causes
emotional distress or even feeling of pains to an
individual (Lai et al., 1996). Bronfenbrenner's
in his stress model (1977) explains adolescents
stress at each level of environment to create a
more complete picture of factors affecting the
adolescents .The first level is the micro system
and involves stressors immediately affecting
the adolescents. Adolescents experience of
stress may affect their emotions. The effect of
stress from immediate environment on the self
are well accepted (Lovallo,2005).The second
level is the meso system and involves the
interaction of various components at the level
of micro system. Multiple social risks like
poverty,terrorism,larger house holds create
greater stress and lead to impared child
outcome(Burchinal,Roberts,Zeisel,&Rowely,20
08).Experiencing social stressors seems to
affect adolescents health outcomes in a variety
of adolescents area including caregiver
relationships ,child academic achievements and
child personality factors .The third level is the
exosystem and involve stressors resulting from
settings not having a direct influence on the
adolescents. Socioeconomic andenvironmental
demands place adolescents in apposition more
vulnerable to stress .The fourth level is the
macrosystem and involves stressors resulting
from broader factors like cultural norms and
laws. The final level is the chronosystem and is a
recognition that the adolescent and their
environment are consistently interacting
.Exposure to stress, particularly multiple
exposures, makes adolescents vulnerable to
062
experience negative health outcomes such as
psychopathology or maladaptive behaviour.
Childhood exposure to trauma has
been associated with increased rates of somatic
symptoms (SS), which may contribute to
diminished daily functioning. The term
"somatization" describes a tendency to
experience and communicate psychological
distress in the form of physical symptoms.
Somatic symptoms often occur in reaction to
stressful situations and are not considered
abnormal if they occur periodically. Some
individuals, however, experience continuing
somatic symptoms, attribute them to physical
illness in spite of the absence of medical
findings, and seek medical care for them.
Somatization thus is characterized by the
presence of physical symptoms that are not
better explained by a medical condition
(Janssens et.al; 2010 , Garralda,1999&
Huasainet.al2007). Somatization is quite
common in childhood and adolescence and is
responsible for a significant number of visits to
pediatric care centers Sandberg,2008;
Masiet.al2000). According to the health officials
i n Kashmi r, somati zati on (headaches,
palpitations) is widely used to express
'tension'(Kaz De Jong 2000).
In many studies, somatization has been
associated with psychopathology, particularly
anxi et y and depressi on( Beck, 2008;
Campo2004). Anxiety is an unpleasant
emotional state characterised by fearfulness
and unwanted and distressing physical
symptoms. It is a normal and appropriate
response to stress but becomes pathological
when it is disproportionate to the severity of
the stress, continues after the stressor has
gone, or occurs in the absence of any external
stressor. Anxiety is best understood when
Volume-3 (2) *Nila Majied **Mahmood S. Khan
compared with the emotion of fear. Children
and youth experience different levels of anxiety,
and cope with anxiety in more, or less effective
ways. Anxiety becomes a problem when it
prevents individuals from enjoying normal life
experiences for a long period of time. Anxiety
disorders are the most prevalent class of mental
disorders, with lifetime prevalence rates found
to be 28.8%, (Kessler and Wang 2008). Among
youth, anxiety disorders are also the most
common psychological disorders (Cartwright-
Hatton 2006; Costello et al. 2005). Hawker and
Boulton (2000) found that peer victimization is
associated with social anxiety.
Previous studies have revealed that
children and adolescents are especially
vulnerable to traumatic events such as terrorist
attacks and are prone to developing post-
traumati c stress di sorder (PTSD): re-
experiencing intrusive thoughts, avoidance,
and arousal (Barenbaum, Ruchkin & Schwab
Stone, 2004; Garbarino, 2001) and developing
somatic complaints such as headaches,
stomach-aches, fatigue, attention difficulties,
or behavior problems (Vogel & Vernberg, 1993).
Lavi (2002) reported a very high incidence of
PTSD symptoms among Israeli children in these
times of recurrent terror and armed conflict. ).
These studies found that the levels of distress or
PTSD symptoms were related to the amount of
exposure to violent political acts. Solomon and
Lavi (2005)in their study found that the variance
in PTSD rates has been related to level of
exposure, type of exposure, measures of
posttraumatic stress, and socio-cultural
contexts. Mental health disorders, behavior
problems, somatic complaints, and impaired
cognitive functioning were reported for
children living in countries with continuous
violent conflicts (Macksoud & Aber, 1996;
063
Straker et al., 1996). Youth growing up in urban
environments with high levels of poverty,
overcrowding, and violence show a wide range
of mal adapt i ve outcomes, i ncl udi ng
internalizing symptoms such as anxiety, post-
traumatic stress symptoms, depression,
academic failure, and school disengagement
(Gibbs 1984; Lorion et al. 1999; Myers et al.
1992; Osofsky et al. 1993; Singer et al. 1995). In
a previous study,10 we investigated the effect of
longstanding armed conflict (Intifada, between
1987 and the Oslo peace treaty in 1993) on
Palestinian children. Many (41%) reported
moderate to severe post-traumatic stress
reactions and high rates of anxiety and
behavioural problems (27%). Baker11 also
established a high frequency of problems such
as fears leaving home (28%), fears of soldiers
(47%), and nightmares (7%), during the same
period of political and military violence.
Although studies suggest that physical
proximity to traumatic events is related to a
greater likelihood of experiencing traumatic
symptoms (e.g., Schelenger et al., 2002;
Schuster et al., 2001), people who do not
experience the event directly also may report
stress reactions (e.g., Pfeferbaum et al., 2001).
Objectives
1. To examine the level of Stress,somatic
symptoms and anxiety among the
adolescents of Jammu and Kashmir
Regions.
2. To examine whether the adolescents of
Kashmir region differ from that of
Jammu region on the scores of stress,
somatic symptoms and anxiety.
3. To examine the gender difference
amongst the adolescents of Jammu and
Kashmir Region.
Method
Setting
The sample was collected from various
higher secondary schools of district Anantnag
and Srinagar from Kashmir region( considered
to be high conflict region) ,and from district
Ramban and main Jammu city of Jammu region
(considered to be relatively low conflict region) .
Participants
The sample of the study consisted of
200 hundred adolescents out of which 100(50
male ,50 female) were taken from Kashmir
region and 100(50 male ,50 female) from
Jammu region. The sample was collected
through systematic random technique. The age
range of participants was 16-20 years.
Procedure
Researcher first seeked the permission
from the principals of the schools from where
the data was to be collected. Informed consent
for participation was taken from the students.
Then Questionnaires were administered in the
class room school during free hours epically
allotted for conducting the study. Before the
questionnaires were distributed to the
voluntary participants a good rapport was build
.Detailed instruction on how to fill the
questionnaire were also provided. Further
participants were assured of the confidentiality
of their responses.
064
Instruments : All the participants completed
the set of questionnaires in paper pencil format
.The set of questionnaires included a
demographic sheet ,Stress measuring device ,
and General health Questionnaire -28(GHQ-
28).
General Health Questionnaire 28 (GHQ
28):To assess the level of somatic symptoms and
anxiety among adolescents researcher used a
general health questionnaire with 28 items
developed by Goldberg in 1978(Goldberg1978)
. A general health questionnaire 28 (GHQ 28) is a
multiple choice paper pen questionnaire. It is
designed to detect current non psychotic
psychiatric disorders in the general population.
The questionnaire has four subscales: Somatic
complaints (1-7), Anxiety Insomnia(8-14),
S o c i a l d y s f u n c t i o n ( 1 5 - 2 1 ) , Ma j o r
depression(22-28). Foe the present study only
two sub-scales, Somatic complaints (1-7),
Anxiety Insomnia(8-14), were taken into
consideration.
Stress measuring scale: To asses the
level of stress, Stress measuring scale
developed by Chashu &Khan (2009) was used
.This scale was specially designed to asses the
stress level of adolescent living in conflict
areas.the scale has 20 of items.
Result:
Regions N Mean S.D Std. Error
Mean
t
Kashmir 100 64.8 12.05 1.20 1.55
Jammu 100 62.47 9.06 .960

Table 1;Mean ,S.D and t-value of the adolescents of jammu and Kashmir for Stress.
The table 1 reveals the comparison of adolescents living in Jammu region with the
adolescents living in Kashmir region in terms of stress. From the table it is clear that the two groups
do not differ significantly,but the trend of result shows that adolescents from Kashmir have high
stress score than those belonging to Jammu region.
Table2;Mean ,S.D and t-value of the adolescents of jammu and Kashmir for somatic symptoms.
065
Mean
t
Kashmir 100 31.48 11.40 1.14 2.41**
Jammu 100 27.80 10.14 1.01

** significant at 0.05
The table 2 shows the comparisons of adolescents living in Jammu region with the
adolescents living in Kashmir region in terms of somatic symptoms. The above table clearly shows
that the two groups differ significantly ,with adolescents living in Kashmir region showing more
somatic symptoms than those living in Jammu region.
Table 3 ;Mean ,S.D and t-value of the adolescents of jammu and Kashmir for Anxiety.
Mean
t
Kashmir 100 18.46 6.87 .68 2.19**
Jammu 100 20.48 6.15 .61

The table 3 reveals the comparison between adolescents from Jammu with that of belonging to
Kashmir region in terms of their score on Anxiety. Results from the table shows that the groups
differ significantly. with adolescents living in Jammu region showing more anxiety level than those
living in Kashmir region. It indicates that adolescents from Jammu have more anxiety than Kashmiri
adolescents.
066
Table 4 shows mean comparison of male and female adolescents from Jammu and Kashmir region
on stress. The mean score of males of Kashmir region is 60.74 and for females M=64. Showing that
female adolescents are more stressful in Kashmir than males. The mean score of males of Jammu
region is 60.32 and that for females M= 66.62 and the t-value is 3.45, which shows that groups differ
significantly from each other. In both the cases females were more stressful than males.
Table 5 : Mean ,S.D and t-value of the male and female adolescents of Jammu and Kashmir for
Somatic complaints.
Table 4 :. Mean ,S.D and t-value of the male and female adolescents of Jammu and Kashmir
regions for Stress
Cc Gender N Mean S.D Std.
Error
Mean
t
Kashmir Male 50 60.74 9.47 1.34 1.76
Female 50 64.86 13.96 1.97
Jammu Male 50 60.32 9.56 1.35
3.45*
Female 50 66.62 8.64 1.22

Regions Gender N Mean S.D Std.
Error
Mean
t
Kashmir Male 50 29.58 12.06 1.70
1.681
Female 50 33.38 10.48 1.48
Jammu Male 50 27.82 9.74 1.37
.020
Female 50 27.78 10.62 1.50

067
Table 5 shows comparison between male and female adolescents of Kashmir region and of Jammu
region on Somatic symptoms .The mean score of males of Kashmir region is 29.58and for female
adolescents M=33.38 and t =1.68.From the scores it is evident that although the groups don't differ
significantly female adolescents tend to show more somatic symptoms than their counterpart in
Kashmir region. The mean score of males of Jammu region is 27.82 and for females it is 27.78 and
t=.020 which show that there is almost no difference between male and female adolescents of
Jammu region on the parameter of somatic symptom.
Table 6: Mean ,S.D and t-value of the male and female adolescents of Jammu and Kashmir for
Anxiety.
Regions Gender N Mean S.D t
Kashmir Male 50 17.68 5.67 1.136
Female 50
19.24 7.87
Jammu Male 50 20.84 6.74 .583
Female 50 20.12 5.54

Table 6 shows comparison between male and female adolescents of Kashmir region and of Jammu
region on Anxiety .If we look at the mean value we will find that the mean score of males living in
Kashmir region is 17.68 and that of female adolescents M=19.24 and t=1.13 which is not significant.
But the trend of the result shows that Female adolescents living in Kashmir have high level of anxiety
than males. The mean score of male adolescents from Jammu region is 20.84 and for females
M=20.12 ,showing that male and female adolescents of Jammu region are almost same in terms of
level of anxiety.
068
Table 7 shows the comparison of male adolescents of Jammu region with that of male adolescents
of Kashmir region on the scores of stress, somatic symptoms and anxiety. The above score reveals
that male adolescents belonging to Jammu do not differ much from those belonging to Kashmir
region in terms of stress score. But they differ in terms of somatic symptoms and anxiety, although
the difference is not significant, the trend of the result shows that adolescents belonging to Kashmir
show more somatic symptoms than adolescents from Jammu region. And adolescents from Jammu
region score more on anxiety than adolescents from Kashmir region.
Variables Region Mean S.D Std. Error
Mean
t

Stress
Kashmir
60.74 9.47 1.34
.22
Jammu
60.32 9.56 1.35

Somatic
symptoms
Kashmir
29.58 12.06 1.70
.80
Jammu
27.82 9.74 1.37

Anxiety
Kashmir
17.68 5.67 .80
.77
Jammu
20.84 6.74 .95

Table 7; Mean ,S.D and t-value of the male adolescents of Jammu and Kashmir for Stress,
Somatic Symptoms and Anxiety.
069
Table 8 reveals the comparison of female
adolescents of Jammu region with that of
female adolescents of Kashmir region on the
scores of stress, somatic symptoms and anxiety.
If we look at the mean scores we will find that
females adolescents belonging to Jammu
region differ from that belonging to Kashmir
region in terms stress ,although the difference is
not significant ,the trend shows that female
adolescents belonging to Kashmir region have
more stress than that belonging to Jammu
region. They also differ significantly (with
t=2.66)in terms of somatic symptoms, showing
that female adolescents from Kashmir show
Variables Region Mean S.D Std.
Error
Mean
t
Stress Kashmir
66.62 8.64 1.22

.76 Jammu
64.86 13.96 1.97
Somatic
Symptom
Kashmir
33.38 10.48 1.48

2.66* Jammu
27.78 10.62 1.50
Anxiety Kashmir
19.24 7.87 1.11

.65 Jammu 20.12
5.54 .78

more somati c symptoms than femal e
adolescents belonging to Jammu. Female
adolescents belonging to Kashmir region do not
differ significantly with that of belonging to
Jammu region on the scores of anxiety,but the
trend shows that female adolescents belonging
to Jammu region are more anxious than that
belonging to Kashmir region.
Discussion
The results obtained clearly indicate
that adolescents belonging to Kashmir region
(considered to be high conflict region) show
higher level of stress and somatic symptoms
than adolescents belonging to Jammu region
* signiticant at 0.01
Table8;Mean ,S.D and t-value of the female adolescents of Jammu and Kashmir for Stress,
Somatic Symptoms and Anxiety.
070
(considered to be low conflict region).
Fitzpatrick and Boldizar 1993; Freeman et al.
1993; Jenkins 1993; Martinez and Richters 1993
in their study also found that youth with higher
levels of exposure to community violence (via
incidence and/or severity) report significantly
more distress than those with lower exposure.
Mental health disorders, behaviour problems,
somatic complaints, and impaired cognitive
functioning were reported for children living in
countries with continuous violent conflicts
(Barenbaum et al., 2004; Macksoud & Aber,
1996; Straker et al., 1996) .From the tables it is
also evident that adolescents from Kashmir
exhibit lower level of anxiety than their
counterpart.this can be explained in terms of
the habituation or extinction model of fear
according to which prolonged contact with fear-
producing stimuli results in increased
physiological reactivity and subjective distress.
With repeated exposure, the physiological
reactivity and anxious distress are followed by
decreases in arousal and fear (i.e., the response
habituates or is extinguished; Mowrer 1960).
Repeated exposure to traumatic events has
enable the adolescents to get adapted to such
kind of situations, that is why Kashmiri
adolescents show low level of anxiety. It is also
revealed from the result that female
adolescents either living in Jammu region or
Kashmir region tend to show high level of
stress, somatic symptoms and anxiety as
compared to male adolescents . Khami (1998)&
Zakrison et al.(2004) also in their study on
Palestinian population living in the occupied
territories and subjected to continuous
violence, such as shooting, bombardment, and
physical injuries found that, especially women
and chi l dren, have devel oped severe
psychological distress .Garber et.al (1991) in
their study also found that girls endorse high
rates of somatic symptoms.
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*Research Scholar, Department of Psychology, AMU, Aligarh.
** Professor, Department of Psychology ,AMU,Aligarh.
Introduction :
Growing interest in the field of Positive
Psychology has led to a realization that human
life experiences are laden with a wide variety of
emotions which are inseparable part of our lives
and which govern how and why we behave the
way we do. Emotions are real time, on-line
indicators of how well we cope with our
environmental stresses. In this context, the
concept of Emotional Intelligence has gained
importance in every area of life be it in schools,
organizations, relationships to name a few.
The concept of Emotional Intelligence
was introduced to the general public in 1995
with the publication of Goleman's bestseller
"Emotional Intelligence" and it led to a
systematic study of emotions and their
i mportance i n human l i fe. Emoti onal
Intelligence relates to the area of affect and not
percept and cognition. Salovey and Mayer
(1990) defined EI as the "ability to monitor one's
own and other's feelings and emotions, to
discriminate among them and to use this
information to guide one's thinking and
actions". Daniel Goleman (1995) claimed that
"Emotional Intelligence is a master aptitude, a
capacity that profoundly affects all other
073
Abstract
Demographic Correlates of Emotional Intelligence: Indian Scenario
*Soni Kewalramani **Mukta Rani Rastogi
The interest and realization of the importance of emotions at work has resulted in a growing
interest in the field of Emotional Intelligence in organizational context. Today, our lives are filled with
changes at work and at home. The old expectations about work relationships just do not apply
anymore. In this context, the researcher was curious to find the effect of demographic variables on
Emotional Intelligence as this will give direction as how to enhance it. The organizational
demographic correlates studied in the present research are management level, mode of
recruitment, number of years in service, age and type of organization. The organizational variables
which have yielded the most significant effect on Emotional Intelligence are management level
followed by the type of organization and years in service.
abilities, either facilitating or interfering with
them". According to Harrod and Scheer (2005),
emotional intelligence is the collection of a
person's success oriented traits.
Whether we are at home or at work, Emotional
Intelligence is important in every area of life and
it can be developed. It thus becomes pertinent
to develop it from childhood. What are the
factors which help in its development? Studies
have shown that demographic correlates
influence many personality characteristics.
Thus, in this study demographic variables have
been taken so that factors which play an
important role in the development of Emotional
Intelligence can be identified. Various research
studies have been conducted to examine
whether emotional intelligence can be affected
by demographic factors. These studies revealed
si gni f i cant rel ati onshi p of emoti onal
intelligence with some demographic factors.
Review of Literature
Review of literature suggests that
basically two demographic variables have been
st udi ed ext ensi vel y wi t h Emot i onal
Intelligence- Gender and Age.
Gender
Perusal of literature suggest no
consistent findings regarding the relationship
between gender and Emotional Intelligence.
Few studies reveal no gender differences in
Emotional Intelligence. Roberts (2002) carried
out a research at an American based multi
national company. The study reported no
significant gender differences in Emotional
Intelligence. Singaravelu (2007) found no
significant difference in male and female
student teachers.
On the contrary there are researches
pointing out gender differences in Emotional
Intelligence wherein females show higher
Emot i onal I nt el l i gence t han mal es .
Harrod and Scheer (2005) noted a significant
relationship between Emotional Intelligence
and gender in adolescents wherein females
outscoring males.
TalentSmart researchers (2004) (in
EQ and Gender : Women Feel Smarter by Su and
Bradberry) in a worldwide study used
Emotional Intelligence Appraisal and showed
that women scored higher than men in three of
the four Emotional Intelligence skills including
Self -Management, Social Awareness and
Relationship Management. Women also scored
higher than men in overall Emotional
Intelligence. Both sexes scored equal on Self-
Awareness skill. The scores were highly
consistent in different regions of the world.
Petrides and Furnham (2000) had
two hundred and sixty participants complete a
measure of trait Emotional Intelligence and
estimated their score on 15 Emotional
Intelligence facets through self-estimated EI.
Results showed that females scored higher than
males on the "social skills" factor of measured
trait EI. The results also showed that males
believed they had higher Emotional
Intelligence than females. There was no
074
significant gender difference found in total
measured trait EI. The study also showed that
people had some insight into their Emotional
Intelligence.
Few researches have also shown that
males and females may be emotionally
intelligent in different ways. Simmons (2001)
reported that contrary to popular belief,
women are not more emotionally intelligent
than men. Women, on average, were more
aware of their emotions, show more empathy,
and are more adept interpersonally. Men are
more self-confident, optimistic and adaptable
and they handle stress better.
Similarly, research by Multi Health
Systems Inc. (MHS) (1997) on 4,500 males and
3,200 females throughout United States and
Canada showed that there were notable
differences between men and women. Women
had significantly stronger interpersonal skills
than their male counterparts, men had a
stronger sense of self and deal better with
stress.
Concludingly it may be mentioned
that findings of various researches do not posit
a definite relationship between gender and
Emotional Intelligence.
Age
Again researches relating age to
Emotional Intelligence bring out mixed findings.
Some researches report an increase in
Emotional Intelligence with age. A study by
Gowdhaman and Murugan (2009) found a
significant effect of age amongst B.Ed teacher
trainees (N=300) on Emotional Intelligence.
Goleman (1998) demonstrated a positive
correlation between Emotional Intelligence and
age in his research.
The results of study of Multi-Health
Systems Inc. (1997) showed that as the people
get older, they become more Emotionally
Intelligent. Stein in this study reports, "There
*Soni Kewalramani **Mukta Rani Rastogi Volume-3 (2)
was a consistent and significant age effect. The
total EQ score increased significantly with age,
peaking in the late forties or early fifties..."
Salovey and Mayer (1990) found that
adults had higher EQ. More than 3000 men and
women of ages varying from teens to the fifties
were evaluated and the results showed small
but steady and significant increases in their
Emotional Intelligence with advancing age. A
peak was observed in the forties age group.
An increase in Emotional Intelligence
was also reported. Cherniss, Goleman,
Emmerling, Cowan and Adler (1998) report that
a growing body of research on Emotional
Learning and behaviour change suggests that it
is possible to help people of any age to become
more emotionally intelligent at work.
Other researches show a mix finding.
A study by Fariselli, Ghini and Freedman (2008)
found that some parts of Emotional Intelligence
do increase with age, though the effect is slight;
in addition there are elements of Emotional
Intelligence which do not increase with age
indicating some competencies must develop
through training.
Harrod and Scheer (2005) studied the
relationship between age and adolescent
Emotional Intelligence. They used the Bar-On
Emotional Quotient Inventory Youth Short
Version (Bar-On EQ-i YV(S), 2000). The results
showed no significant relationship between
Emotional Intelligence and age.
Still other researchers have found no
effect of age on Emotional Intelligence. A study
by Adeyemo (2008) on two hundred and fifteen
workers randomly drawn from various
organizations in Oyo State found no significant
relationship between age and Emotional
Intelligence.
Other Demographic Characteristics
Few psychologists have also studied
the relationship of Emotional Intelligence with

075
other demographic variables like income,
location of residence, number of years in
service, management level and parental level of
education. Such researches are very few.
Studi es rel ati ng i ncome and
Emotional Intelligence found a positive
relationship. Harrod and Scheer (2005) studied
the relationship between household income
and adolescent Emotional Intelligence. The
results showed significant relationship between
the two. As the income increased, so did
adolescent Emotional Intelligence. Derksen and
Bogers in Holland also carried out the study
looking at the relationship between income and
EQ. They tested a large, carefully selected
sample of the Dutch population. They found a
significant relationship and concluded people
with higher EQ earned more money.
A positive relationship was found
between education and Emotional Intelligence.
Harrod and Scheer (2005) also studied the
relationship between parents' level of
education and Emotional Intelligence. The
resul ts showed a si gni fi cant posi ti ve
relationship between Emotional Intelligence
and mother's and father's education.
With reference to location of
residence, Shanwal (2005) found higher
emotional intelligence in primary students
belonging to rural areas than those belonging to
urban areas. However Harrod and Scheer
(2005) found no significant relationship
between Emotional Intelligence and location of
residence.
For Civil status, Garcia (2002) in his
study on Emotional Intelligence and leadership
competence reported that civil status had no
significant relationship with Emotional
Intelligence.
With Nature of Appointment, Garcia
(2002) in his study on Emotional Intelligence
and leadership competence also reported that

it was not a significant factor of difference on
Garcia (2002) also studied the
relationship of Emotional Intelligence and the
number of years in service and the relationship
was not found to be significant.
Few studi es have been reported for
Organizational Positions which showed mixed
results. Bradberry and Greaves (2003) who
reviewed a study analyzing the Emotional
Intelligence scores of individuals. EQ scores
dropped sharply for individuals holding titles of
Director and above. Mansi (2002) showed in her
results that there was not much difference on
Emotional Intelligence for assistant managers
and managers. Roberts (2002) carried out a
research at an American based multi-national
company. The study indicated the two levels of
managers- level 1 and level 2 did not have varied
EQ. The mean values, however, indicated that
level 1 managers are higher on EQ scores than
lower level managers (level 2)
What are the factors that influence
Emotional Intelligence in Indian context in the
area of work? Does management level effect
Emotional Intelligence or is it more influenced
by number of years in service? Is there a
difference in Emotional Intelligence in people
who are recruited directly and those promoted
to the present post? Is type of organization
important? These are the questions which
prompted this study. The demographic
correlates, thus, studied in the present research
are management level, mode of recruitment,
number of years in service, type of organization
and age.
With changes in the level of
management, the responsibilities of the
manager changes. As the manager approaches
higher level of management, he is required to
admit his mistakes. With self growth, he should
assimilate all others working with him
076
otherwise he will not have his impact on the
employees. When Emotional Intelligence is
exercised at higher level of management, it can
solve a number of problems.
With age, experience is accumulated.
How a person utilizes his knowledge of
experience brings a difference in his dealings
with others. Experienced people are supposed
to take benefit of their knowledge and thus age
and number of years in service may have its
influence on Emotional Intelligence.
Different types of organization -
service and manufacturing - have different
expectations and demands from their
employees. Service sector is more oriented
t owar ds meet i ng peopl e and mor e
interpersonal interactions are required than the
manufacturing sectors. Such differences may
have their impact on the perception of the
individual regarding his job requirements. This
may have its effect on Emotional Intelligence.
Mode of recruitment to the present
level of management - whether through direct
selection or through promotion - has its
influence on the perception of the individual.
Does this difference has its effect on the
Emotional Intelligence in the manager is
another inquiry of this study.
The study aims at relating Emotional
Intelligence with four independent variables i.e.
management level, type of organization, years
in service, mode of recruitment and age.
Research Design- It is an Ex-post facto research
Variables:
Independent Variable -
1. Management level - Management
functions at three levels. The top level is
policy management. It includes
directors or vice-president. The level-II
is that of executive management,
composed of those managerial employees who are charged by policy management with
the execution of the organization's work within some broad scope or function. Level-III is
the supervisory management. A manager's level in the organization determines the
relative importance of possessing technical, human and conceptual skills. All levels of
management need human skills in order to interact and communicate with other people
successfully.
In the present research, level-II and level-III managers have been included because there
were very few managers at the top level.
2. Type of organization - The two type of organizations studied in the present research are
manufacturing and service sector. The manufacturing sector organizations included in the
sample are Parag Dairy, Eveready and Eldeco. For the service sector organization, Food
Corporation of India, The Pradeshiya Industrial and Investment Corporation of U.P. (PICUP),
HDFC Bank and HDFC Homeloans were included. All the organizations are from Lucknow,
Uttar Pradesh, India.
3. Years in service - Years in service refers to the number of years the manager is employed in
his present job. Four groups in terms of years of service are as follows :
2 - 12 years
12+ - 22 years
22+ - 32 years
32+ - 40 years
4. Mode of recruitment - The two criteria taken in the present research for the mode of
recruitment to the present post are whether the manager is directly selected to the post he
holds or whether he was promoted on the basis of seniority.
5. Age - Four age levels have been included as follows :
Age Level- I 25 - 34 years
Age Level- II 35 - 44 years
Age Level- III- 45 - 54 years
Age Level- IV -55 years and above.
Dependent Variable
Emotional Intelligence - Emotional Intelligence is the ability to sense, understand and effectively
apply the power and acumen of emotions as a source of human energy, information,
connection and influence (Cooper and Sawaf, 1996).
Sample: The sample consists of 200 managers of level-II and level-III from manufacturing and
service sectors. The details of the sample according to the independent variables are
reported in table 3.1.
077
Tools :
1. EQ Map - EQ Map (1996) (version 4.5) employed in the present research is extensively
researched, statistically reliable and norm-tested on an employed work-force in United States
and Canada. Esther M. Orioli, Robert K. Cooper and Ayman Sawaf have given the concept of the
tool. It is amongst the oldest of the commercially available instruments for assessing Emotional
Intelligence. The tool consist of five areas- Current Environment, Emotional Awareness, EQ
Competencies, EQ Values and Attitudes and Outcomes. These areas contain subscales. In total
EQ Map has 20 subscales and the data was analysed for all 20 subscales as EQ Map does not
provide one single score for Emotional Intelligence.
2. Questionnaire for Biographical Information- To obtain information for various demographic
variables, a questionnaire was developed by the researcher. The questionnaire sought
information regarding name, age, years of service in the present job, management level, type of
organization and mode of recruitment.
Method of Data Collection:
Two hundred managers of level II and level III from service and manufacturing sector organization in
Lucknow were administered the EQ Map and the questionnaire for biographical information.
Permission was sought from the highest authority of the concerned organization in Lucknow before
data collection. The researcher took prior appointment with the managers to get the
questionnaires filled. On an average, the managers had to devote 45 minutes to fill the
questionnaire.
Data Processing:
The obtained data for Emotional Intelligence and demographic correlates were statistically
analyzed using Analysis of Variance.
Level II managers are charged with the execution of the organization's work within some
broad scope and function. Level III is the supervisory management. Change in management level
brings changes in responsibilities. Managers at higher management level are required to assimilate
all those working with them and progress on the path of personal growth. The obtained results
show that level II managers are higher on Life Satisfaction, Intentionality, Trust Radius, Personal
Power and Optimal Performance.
078
Variables Categories Total
Management Level Level-II 93 Level-III 107 200
Type of Organization Service Sector 116 Manufacturing Sector 84 200
Years in service
2-12
years 36
12+-22
years 40
22+-32
years 68
32+ years 56 200
Mode of
recruitment
Direct Selected 64
Selected according to Seniority
136
200
Age
25-34
years 32
35-44
years 24
45-54
years 80
55 & above 64 200

Table 1 - Details of the Sample
Since the Emotional Intelligence scales are interdependent, high scores on one scale may
strengthen the other related scales. Level II managers exercise more power, authority and influence
than level III managers. They are also financially well off than level II managers which results in more
concentration on the satisfaction of higher order needs in life (Maslow, 1964). The result is greater
Life Satisfaction and the ability to take action on purpose which is Intentionality. Further, this helps
develop a positive attitude towards life which results in higher degree and inclination to trust
others. These characteristics further encourage level II managers to believe in their ability to meet
challenges in life which is personal power and give their optimal performance at work.
079
Table 3 Mean, SD and F values according to Type of Organization.
Type of Org.
Scales
Service Sector
Manufacturing
Sector
Mean
difference
F p
Mean SD Mean SD
Life Pressures 36.15 16.68 30.82 16.62 -5.33 4.98 <.05
Life Satisfaction 39.87 10.66 40.57 10.09 0.70 0.22 >.05
Emotional Self Awareness 17.23 4.23 17.51 3.83 0.28 0.23 >.05
Emotional Expression 15.94 4.86 16.19 4.62 0.25 0.14 >.05
Emotional Awareness of
Others
22.19 5.95 21.80 5.80 -0.39 0.22 >.05
Intentionality 26.59 6.51 27.32 5.20 0.73 0.73 >.05
Creativity 17.63 6.27 18.76 5.76 1.13 1.70 >.05
Resilience 27.39 7.80 29.61 6.69 2.22 4.44 <.05
Interpersonal
Connections
20.27 4.45 20.21 4.22 -0.06 0.01 >.05
Constructive Discontent 16.49 3.50 17.35 4.77 0.86 2.13 >.05
Outlook 18.53 4.91 18.82 4.08 0.29 0.20 >.05
Compassion 23.50 5.05 23.44 4.59 -0.06 0.01 >.05
Intuition 20.02 5.94 20.37 5.20 0.35 0.19 >.05
Trust Radius 20.91 5.04 22.49 5.29 1.58 4.56 <.05
Personal Power 19.76 5.30 20.44 5.88 0.68 0.74 >.05
Integrated self 17.82 3.64 18.73 3.88 0.91 2.86 >.05
General Health Problems 23.09 16.73 22.06 16.81 -1.03 0.19 >.05
Quality of life 21.74 6.80 23.25 5.62 1.51 2.77 >.05
Relationship Quotient 15.43 4.92 15.83 3.65 0.40 0.40 >.05
Optimal Performance 15.05 4.07 15.51 3.63 0.46 0.68 >.05

Referring to table 3, type of organization has a significant effect on three scales of
Emotional Intelligence namely Life Pressures, Resilience and Trust Radius.
Manufacturing sector concentrates mainly on production. Their interactions are limited
to those within the organization. On the other hand, service sector managers have different
priorities and functions. The line of communication between customer and service provider is
shorter than that between manufacturer and customer.
The obtained results reveal more life stress in service sector (mean = 36.15) than in the
manufacturing sector (mean = 30.82). The former need to provide services outside normal working
hours or around the clock, affecting their personal life resulting into more life pressures.
Results further point out that manufacturing sector managers are high on resilience
(mean = 29.61) than service sector managers (mean = 27.39). They interact more with each other.
Their interpersonal relationships are more rewarding which results in high ability to bounce back
and be flexible after a set back. They are higher on Trust Radius also (mean = 22.49). Since they
require grouping together of certain activities, they interact and rely more among themselves.
080
Years in Service

Scales
2-12 Years 12+ - 22 years 22+ -32 years 32+ years
F p
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
Life Pressures 34.81 18.09 32.90 17.12 33.98 16.24 33.96 16.88 0.08 >.05
Life Satisfaction 38.89 10.38 40.77 10.31 39.96 9.91 40.80 11.25 0.30 >.05
Emotional Self
Awareness
17.94 3.77 17.33 3.87 17.15 4.37 17.23 4.05 0.33 >.05
Emotional Expression 16.36 4.35 17.05 4.33 15.79 4.96 15.43 5.01 1.03 >.05
Emotional Awareness
of Others
23.53 4.93 22.70 5.10 21.78 6.20 20.86 6.40 1.73 >.05
Intentionality 27.39 5.00 26.90 5.89 26.47 6.67 27.09 5.90 0.21 >.05
Creativity 20.08 4.62 18.78 6.11 18.13 6.28 16.32 6.26 3.14 <.05
Resilience 30.00 5.06 28.85 6.75 27.28 8.36 28.12 7.85 1.15 >.05
Inter-personal
Connections
20.08 4.48 20.35 3.98 19.97 4.38 20.61 4.53 0.24 >.05
Constructive
Discontent
17.28 4.09 17.43 4.08 16.19 4.06 16.96 4.14 1.00 >.05
Outlook 19.31 4.01 18.40 4.48 18.23 5.06 18.91 4.39 0.53 >.05
Compassion 23.44 5.03 23.75 4.91 23.87 4.71 22.82 4.91 0.53 >.05
Intuition 21.19 4.53 19.10 6.10 20.12 5.75 20.32 5.78 0.89 >.05
Trust Radius 22.31 5.38 21.65 4.97 21.35 5.06 21.32 5.47 0.32 >.05
Personal Power 21.75 5.59 20.40 5.29 19.60 5.61 19.23 5.48 1.75 >.05
Integrated self 18.25 2.83 18.37 4.14 17.69 4.03 18.66 3.69 0.72 >.05
General Health
Problems
24.31 18.52 19.32 15.65 23.78 18.01 22.62 14.64 0.74 >.05
Quality of life 21.42 6.72 22.82 5.72 22.84 6.35 22.11 6.64 0.49 >.05
Relationship Quotient 15.61 3.74 15.92 3.91 15.15 4.54 15.91 5.07 0.40 >.05
Optimal Performance 15.14 3.94 15.72 3.30 15.01 4.11 15.25 4.03 0.29 >.05

Table 4 Mean, SD and F values according to Years in Service.
Table 4 denotes that year in service has a significant effect on only one out of twenty scales of
Emotional Intelligence i.e. Creativity. The findings indicate that less experienced managers are more
creative. Managers in the age group of 2+ - 12 years are most creative (mean = 20.08) and the least
creative managers are in the age group of 32+ years (mean = 16.32). As experience accumulates,
initiation and innovations tend to loose significance in their life. Managers at the beginning of their
careers have to prove themselves, and therefore they require to adopt creative and innovative
method. Further their enthusiasm adds to their creativity.
081
Table 5 Mean, SD and F values according to Mode of Recruitment.
Mode of
recruitment

Scales
Directly
Selected
Promoted
Mean difference F p
Mean SD Mean SD
Life Pressures 35.53 17.08 33.15 16.70 -2.38 0.87 >.05
Life Satisfaction 38.62 10.42 40.89 10.36 2.27 2.07 >.05
Emotional Self Awareness 16.84 3.98 17.59 4.08 0.75 1.47 >.05
Emotional Expression 15.61 4.65 16.25 4.80 0.64 0.79 >.05
Emotional Awareness of
Others
21.41 5.92 22.32 5.85 0.91 1.04 >.05
Intentionality 26.94 5.67 26.87 6.16 -0.07 0.004 >.05
Creativity 18.22 6.16 18.05 6.05 -0.17 0.03 >.05
Resilience 29.78 7.44 27.63 7.33 -2.15 3.70 >.05
Interpersonal
Connections
19.70 4.69 20.50 4.16 0.80 1.47 >.05
Constructive Discontent 16.72 4.44 16.91 3.93 0.19 0.10 >.05
Outlook 18.62 4.65 18.66 4.55 0.04 0.003 >.05
Compassion 23.42 5.13 23.50 4.73 0.08 0.01 >.05
Intuition 19.61 5.69 20.43 5.60 0.82 0.92 >.05
Trust Radius 21.70 5.36 21.51 5.13 -0.19 0.06 >.05
Personal Power 20.17 5.98 19.98 5.35 -0.19 0.05 >.05
Integrated self 17.78 3.95 18.40 3.67 0.62 1.17 >.05
General Health 23.83 18.45 22.11 15.90 -1.72 0.46 >.05
Quality of life 22.19 6.15 22.46 6.48 0.27 0.08 >.05
Relationship Quotient 15.37 4.39 15.71 4.46 0.34 0.24 >.05
Optimal Performance 14.80 4.01 15.46 3.83 0.66 1.25 >.05

Table 5 shows Mode of Recruitment does not have a significant effect on any of the scales of
Table 4 denotes that year in service has a significant effect on only one out of twenty scales of
Emotional Intelligence i.e. Creativity. The findings indicate that less experienced managers are more
creative. Managers in the age group of 2+ - 12 years are most creative (mean = 20.08) and the least
creative managers are in the age group of 32+ years (mean = 16.32). As experience accumulates,
initiation and innovations tend to loose significance in their life. Managers at the beginning of their
careers have to prove themselves, and therefore they require to adopt creative and innovative
method. Further their enthusiasm adds to their creativity.
082
Table 6 Mean, SD and F values according to Age.
Life Pressures
Life Satisfaction
Emotional Self Awareness
Emotional Expression
Emotional Awareness of Others
Intentionality
Creativity
Resilience
Inter-personal Connections
Constructive Discontent
Outlook
Compassion
Intuition
Trust Radius
Personal Power
Integrated self
General Health Problems
Quality of life
Relationship Quotient
Optimal Performance
Scales
Age 25-34 Years 35-44 Years 45-54 Years 55+ Years
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
F P
33.94
38.31
17.87
16.44
22.97
26.75
20.00
29.78
19.81
17.19
19.09
23.34
21.09
22.31
21.56
18.50
24.03
20.61
15.72
15.03
19.02
10.58
3.90
4.59
4.90
4.92
4.63
5.23
4.54
4.30
4.21
5.28
4.56
5.40
5.84
2.87
18.64
6.93
3.92
3.83
34.42
41.12
17.58
16.79
23.67
27.71
18.87
30.33
20.96
18.46
19.04
23.83
19.58
21.62
21.33
17.96
19.71
23.21
16.21
15.46
15.71
11.65
4.29
4.33
6.17
6.69
6.54
6.54
3.52
3.69
3.76
5.00
6.19
4.80
4.39
4.14
15.26
5.76
3.75
3.60
34.75
39.86
17.27
16.19
22.25
26.60
18.20
27.46
19.85
16.31
18.50
23.42
20.14
21.66
20.06
17.86
25.87
22.57
15.77
15.46
15.95
9.05
3.63
4.95
5.96
5.87
6.08
7.59
4.33
4.17
4.78
4.59
5.55
4.95
5.95
3.90
18.24
5.81
4.17
3.67
32.66
41.11
17.09
15.39
20.66
27.03
16.75
27.91
20.69
16.75
18.47
23.47
19.95
21.08
18.78
18.56
19.06
22.55
15.09
15.00
17.43
11.46
4.58
4.74
5.94
6.44
6.33
8.29
4.55
3.95
4.81
4.99
6.05
5.58
5.04
3.86
13.44
6.94
5.20
4.33
0.19
0.60
0.30
0.70
2.13
0.23
2.28
1.44
0.76
1.80
0.22
0.05
0.40
0.41
2.39
0.51
2.34
0.74
0.47
0.22
>.05
>.05
>.05
>.05
>.05
>.05
>.05
>.05
>.05
>.05
>.05
>.05
>.05
>.05
>.05
>.05
>.05
>.05
>.05
>.05
083
Adeyemo (2008) from the research article
Relationship of demographic factors
wi th emoti onal i ntel l i gence of
university students by M. Nasir* and S.
Iqbal from New Horizons in Science &
Technology (NHS&T), Volume 1(1):17-
21, International Network for
Scientific & Industrial Information
Bradberry, Travis and Greaves, Jean (2003), The
Emotional Intelligence Quickbook-
Everythi ng You Need To Know,
TalentSmart, San Diego.
Cherniss, Cary, Golemen, Daniel, Emmerling,
Robert, Cower, Kimberley and Adler,
Mitchel (1998), A Technical Report
Issued by The Consortium for Rsearch
on Emot i onal I nt el l i genc e i n
Organizations,www.eiconsortium.org,
An Article from the Internet
Cooper , Robert K., Sawaf, Ayman and Orioli,
Esther M. (1996, 1997), The EQ Map,
Version 4.5, AIT and Essi Systems Inc.
Derksen and Bogers, In Stein, Steven J. and
Book, Howard E. (2001), The EQ Edge-
Emotional Intelligence and Your
Success, Macmillan India Limited.
Fariselli, Lorenzo; Ghini, Massimiliano;
Freedman, Joshua, (2008) Publication
Date: May 16, 2006, Last Updated: Jan
8 , 2 0 0 8 , f r o m t h e we b s i t e
http://www.6seconds.org/sei/media/
WP_EQ_and_Age.pdf
Garcia, Resolito Amarillento (2002), Emotional
Intelligence and Leadership and
L e a d e r s h i p C o mp e t e n c e o f
Department Heads of the University f
Mindanao, An article for the Internet
Goleman (1998), In Goleman, Daniel (1999),
Working with Emotional Intelligence,
Bantam Books, New York, Toronto.
Table 6 shows that age has not emerged
significant for Emotional Intelligence.
The findings suggest that some
organizational variables have a more profound
role in influencing Emotional Intelligence as
compared to other variables. The organizational
variables which have yielded the most
significant effect on Emotional Intelligence are
management level followed by the type of
organization and years in service. This goes well
along with Maslow's view on importance of
work in individual's life. He suggested that work
is an area of life which provides optimum
conditions for self growth. In his views, for self-
actualizing persons, work is subjectively
experienced as a defining characteristic of
themselves. They live to work rather than work
to live. Maslow portrayed the self-actualizing
person's commitment to and absorption in
work as "meant for each other... the person and
(the) job fit together and belong together
perfectly like a key and a lock" (1971).
The findings hold importance as it
points out that organizational variables are
important for development of Emotional
Intelligence and thus the responsibility of
maintaining a conducive environment which is
helpful to the overall development of the
employee lies on the organization. More such
researches in Indian context will bring to core
other factors which need to be focussed while
designing Emotional Intelligence Intervention
Programmes in India.
References
Petrides, K.V. and Furnham, Adrian (March,
2000), Gender Differences in Measured
and Self-Estimated Trait Emotional
Intelligence, Sex Roles : A Journal of
Research, An Article from the Internet

084
Shanwal (2005) from the research article
Simmons, Kathy (2001), Emotional Intelligence :
What Smart Managers Know, Source,
Executive Update Feature, An Article
from the Internet
Singaravelu (2007) from the research article
Talent Smart (2004), EQ and Gender : Women
Feel Smarter, www.talentsmart.com,
An Article from the Internet
Golemen, (1995), In Goleman Daniel (1999),
Working with Emotional Intelligence,
Bantam Books, New York, Toronto.
Harrod, Nicholas R. And Scheer, Scatt D. (Fall
2005), An Exploration of Adolescent
Emotional Intelligence in Relation to
Demogr aphi c Char ac t er i s t i c s ,
Adolescence, An Article from the
Internet
K. Gowdhaman, K. And M. Bala Murugan,
(2009), Emotional Intelligence among
the B. Ed. Teacher Trainees, Psycho-
lingua, 39, 2, 187-190
Mansi (2002), ), In Singh, Dalip (2003),
Emotional Intelligence at Work- A
Professional Guide, Response Books,
New Delhi
Maslow, Abraham (1950), In Hjelle, Larry A. And
Zeigler, Daniel J. (1992), Personality
Theori es Basi c Assumpti ons,
Research and Applications, Mc. Graw
Hill, Inc.
Multi Health Systems (1997), Men and Women
have Different Kinds and Levels of
Emotional Intelligence, EQ for both
Sexes is the key to Workplace Success,
www.mhs.com, An Article from the
Internet
Roberts (2002), In Singh, Dalip (2003),
Emotional Intelligence at Work- A
Professional Guide, Response Books,
New Delhi
Salovey and Mayer (1990), In Singh, Dalip
(2003), Emotional Intelligence at Work-
A Professional Guide, Response Books,
New Delhi
*Lecturer, Amity University
**Head of the Department, Retd., Department of Psychology, University of Lucknow
Introduction :
Subjective well-being (SWB)
Subjective well-being (SWB) refers to how
people experience the quality of their lives and
includes both emotional reactions and
cognitive judgments. Psychologists have
defined happiness as a combination of life
satisfaction and the relative frequency of
positive and negative affect. SWB therefore
encompasses moods and emotions as well as
evaluations of one's satisfaction with general
and specific areas of one's life. Concepts
encompassed by SWB include positive and
negative affect, happiness, and life satisfaction.
Positive psychology is particularly concerned
with the study of SWB. SWB tends to be stable
over time and is strongly related to personality
traits. There is evidence that health and SWB
may mutually influence each other, as good
health tends to be associated with greater
happiness, and a number of studies have found
that positive emotions and optimism can have a
beneficial influence on health.
Peer group
A peer group is a social group consisting
of humans. A peer group is a primary group of
085
Abstract
Influence of Peer Relationship on Adolescents' Well-Being
*Manika Mohan **Aditi Sharma
The present study aimed to find out the influence of peer relationship on adolescents' well-
being. The sample of 100 adolescents (25 boys and 25 girls from Government schools and 25 boys
th th
and 25 girls from public schools) was taken who were the students of 11 and 12 standard from
various streams and administered on the Dimensions of Friendship Scale (DFS) by Sunanda Chandna
(Delhi) and N.K. Chadha (Delhi), 1986. Data interpretation of the peer group relations showed that
on the dimension of enjoyment, trust, mutual assistance, understanding and spontaneity the
students of Government and public schools did not differ significantly but on the dimension of
acceptance and confiding they showed significant difference.
Keywords- Well being, peer group.
people, typically informal, who share a similar
or equal status and who are usually of roughly
the same age, tended to travel around and
.
interact within the social aggregate Members
of a particular peer group often have similar
interests and backgrounds, bonded by the
premise of sameness. However, some peer
groups are very diverse, crossing social divides
such as socioeconomic status, level of
education, race, creed, culture, or religion.
Unlike the family and the school, the peer group
lets children escape the direct supervision of
adults. Among peers, children learn to form
relationships on their own. Peer groups also
offer the chance to discuss interests that adults
may not share with their children (such as
clothing and popular music) or permit (such as
drugs and sex).
Objectives
To study the adolescents' psychological well
being in relation to peer groups.
Methodology
Research methodology involves systematic
procedures which the researcher starts from
initial identification of the problem to its final
conclusion. The role of methodology consists of
procedures and techniques for conducting
study.
The purpose of the present study is to find out
how relation with peers influences the overall
personality and well being of adolescents.
Research Design
This study was designed to be descriptive,
correlation. Variables under study were-
a) Dependent variables i.e. personality
and wellbeing of adolescents
b) Independent Variables i.e. peer group.
Research Sample
The study was conducted on a sample of 100
adolescents (25 boys and 25 girls from
Government schools and 25 boys and 25 girls
from public schools) was taken who were the
th th
students of 11 and 12 standard from various
streams belonging to various socio economic
status.
Sampling Design
A convenience sample was used in this study.
The inclusion criteria were: voluntarily
participating in this study, being 16- 18 years,
from various socio economic statuses.
086
Measurements
The following standardized tool was used for
the present study:
Dimensions of Friendship Scale- Sunanda
Chandna (Delhi) and N.K. Chadha (Delhi)-1986.
Procedure of data collection
Visits were made to the Government and public
schools by the researchers, so that initial
rapport can be establ i shed wi th the
respondents. After employing the tools the
requisite data was collected and adolescents
were assured that the information collected will
be used only for research purpose.
Statistical Analysis
Statistical methods included mean, SD, SE and
D
t test.
Hypothesis
The healthy peer group relationship contributes
significantly to the psychological well being of
adolescents.
Results and Discussion :
Table No. 1.1
Showing comparison between students of
Government and public schools on the
dimension of enjoyment
The mean of Government school students is
more than the students of public school. The t-
ratio is found to be 0.50 which is not significant
at both the levels.
Government
Public
N
50
50
Mean
5.58
5.46
S.D.
1.19
1.20
SED
0.169
.0170
Df
98
T
0.50
Not
significant
*Manika Mohan **Aditi Sharma Volume-3 (2)
Table No. 1.2
Showing comparison between students of Government and public schools on the dimension of
Acceptance
087
Government
Public
N
50
50
Mean
5.58
6.60
S.D.
1.75
1.81
SED
0.25
0.26
Df
98
T
2.02
Significant
at 0.05
level
Results indicate that the mean scores of public school students are more than the Government
school students. It means level of acceptance is more in public school students than the
Government school students. The t- value is found to be 2.02 which is significant at 0.05 level.
Table No. 1.3
Trust
Government
Public
N
50
50
Mean
6.20
6.80
S.D.
1.77
1.44
SED
0.249
0.204
Df
98
T
1.86
Not
Significant
Results from the table indicate that there is only minute difference in the mean of both the groups.
Public school students are more trustworthy as compare to Government school students. The t is
found to be 1.86 which is not significant at both the levels.
Table No. 1.4
Respect
Government
Public
N
50
50
Mean
4.12
5.80
S.D.
1.28
1.16
SED
0.189
0.159
Df
98
T
6.95
Significant
at both the
levels
Results indicate that public school students score more than the Government school students. The
t- value is found to be significant at both the levels.
Table No. 1.5
Mutual Assistance
088
Government
Public
N
50
50
Mean
6.38
5.46
S.D.
1.51
6.60
SED
0.214
1.36
Df
98
T
0.77
Not
Significant
By observing the table it can be concluded that Government school students score high on the
mutual assistance dimension and t- value is found to be insignificant.
Table No. 1.6
Confiding
Government
Public
N
50
50
Mean
5.84
6.16
S.D.
1.61
1.46
SED
0.23
0.21
Df
98
T
1.04
Not
Significant
Government
Public
N
50
50
Mean
5.08
7.28
S.D.
1.51
1.39
SED
0.214
0.196
Df
98
T
7.59
Significant
at 0.05
and 0.01
level
Results indicate that public school students show more confiding nature than the Government
school students. The t value is found to be significant at both the levels.
Table No. 1.7
Understanding
*Manika Mohan **Aditi Sharma Volume-3 (2)
Mean of public school students found to more
as compared to Government school students
and the t- value is found to be insignificant.
Table No. 1.8
Showing comparison between students of
Government and public schools on the
dimension of Spontaneity
089
Government
Public
N
50
50
Mean
5.88
5.74
S.D.
1.59
1.10
SED
0.224
1.56
Df
98
T
0.051
Not
Significant
Results indicate that the mean of Government
school students is more as compared to public
school students. The t- value is 0.051 and
found to be insignificant at both the levels.
Disscussion and Conclusion
Data interpretation of the peer group
relations showed that on the dimension of
enj oyment, trust, mutual assi stance,
understanding and spontaneity the students of
Government and public schools did not differ
significantly but on the dimension of acceptance
and confiding they showed significant
difference. It has been seen that public school
students are more influenced by the peers as
compared to Government school students. The
reason can be that the public school students
are getting more exposure and spend more time
with the peers. Due to their healthy relationship
with peers they have more positive personality
and wellbeing in relation to Government school
students.
References
Brown, B.B., Clasen, D.R., & Eicher, S.A. (1986).
Perceptions of Peer Pressure, Peer
Conformity Dispositions, and Self-
Re p o r t e d B e h a v i o u r A mo n g
Adol es c ent s . Devel opment al
Psychology.
Chandna, Sunanda & Chadha, N.K. (1886).
Dimensions of Friendship Scale (DFS).
National Psychological Corporation,
Agra
Suggestions-
1. Sample size can be increased.2.
Sample can be taken from different
ethnic group.
*Prof. and Head, Dept. of Psychology, University of Jaipur
**Research Scholar, Dept. of Psychology, University of Jaipur
Introduction :
Parents play pivotal role in shaping
child's achievement, aspirations, education,
motivation, study habits and overall personality
(Hossler and Stage, 1992; Eccles and Harold,
1993; Beyer, 1995; Paulson, 1996). Their
educational level and unconditional love
provide necessary educational environment to
children which results in better performance.
By providing them various skills like problem
solving and decision making they enhance their
academic achievement and this supportive
behaviour helps the child to set goals in life and
to achieve them. Habel (1986) believed that the
psychological makeup of parents have a great
influence on the behaviour, attentiveness and
performance of a child. Lankard (1995)
indicated that motivation, norms, beliefs,
values, habits and attitudes of individuals with
the environment and expectations, the parents
have for their children influence educational
performances of their children. Children are
affected by who parents are (e.g., with respect
090
Abstract
Achievement Motivation, Study Habits and Inferiority among
Children of high and low Educated Parents
*Mandeep Kaur **Puneet Kaur
Parental education provides a robust indicator of parental functioning that predicts child
well being across diverse communities. The family in which the child grows up markedly influences
the child's attitude and behaviour. The child imitates his parents as a model for adjustment in
society. If the parents are well educated, this gives the child good modelling to adjust in school and
society. Thus to study the effect of parental education on the achievement, study habits and
inferiority of children, 100 children (50 children of high educated parents and 50 children of low
educated parents) were taken. The data was subjected to t-test. Findings revealed that children of
high educated parents were high in achievement motivation, good in study habits and low on
inferiority complex as compared to children of low educated parents.
Keywords: Achievement motivation, Study Habits, Inferiority Complex.
to gender, age, race/ethnicity, intelligence,
education levels, temperament), what parents
know (e.g., about child development and
normative child behaviour), what parents
believe (e.g., attitudes toward childrearing),
what parents val ue (e. g. , educati on,
achievement, obedience, interpersonal
relationships), what parents expect of their
children (e.g., age or developmentally
appropriate expectations for behaviour,
achievement expectations), and what parents
ultimately do (i.e., their parenting practices and
overall parenting styles). Thus the kind of
mental challenges to which a child is exposed at
various periods, is likely to determine the kind
of mental abilities which he/she displays.
Parents can take many positive steps to help
their children, they can encourage them to
pursue advanced course work, to invest
significant amount of time in their homework
and to devote more time to reading (Mullis,
2002). Bamidele (1987) asserts that parents'
aspiration for the child could affect his/her
achievement in school. Morish (1995), believes
that well educated parents will wish their own
children to benefit as they have done from their
good education and will provide them
necessary things to accomplish their goals.
Lankard (1995) points out that where parental
encouragement is low, relatively few children,
regardless of their intelligence or socio-
economic status levels, they plan to go to study.
On the other hand, where parental
encouragement is high even when socio-
economic status and intelligence are relatively
low; more students plan to go to study. They
concluded that the way and manner in which
the family is organised and the direction in
which the family system is changing is
important as this reflects on the child's
performance in school.
Onocha (1985) concludes that a child
from a well educated family with high socio-
economic status is more likely to perform better
than a child from an illiterate family. This is
because the child from an educated family has a
lot of support such as a decent and good
environment for academic work, parental
support and guidance, and good academic
materials. They are likely to be sent to good
schools where well qualified and trained
teachers will handle them.
According to Grissmer (2003), parents'
level of education is the most important factor
affecting child's academic achievement. Taiwo
(1993) suggests that parents' educational
background i nf l uence t he academi c
achievement of children because the parents
will guide and counsel the child on the best way
to perform well in education and provide the
necessary materials needed by child. Musgrave
(2000) supported that a child that comes from
091
an educated home would like to follow the steps
of his/her family and by this, work actively in
his/her studies. The parents who have more
than a minimum level of education are
expected to have a favoured attitude to the
child's education and to encourage and help
him/her with school work. They provide library
facilities to encourage the child for as reading of
newspapers, magazines and journals. They are
likely to have wider vocabulary by which the
children can benefit and develop language
fluency.
Achievement typically stresses the
i mportance of accompl i shments and
attainments with effort involved (Mandel &
Marcus, 1988). Achievement can also be
described as energy that is used to overcome
challenges and persevere to conquer a goal.
Motivation relates to an individual's reason for
engaging in an activity, the degree to which an
individual pursues the activity, and the
persistence of the individual (Graham & Weiner,
1996). Achievement motivation can be defined
as making good business or the orientation to
the actions which is important to compel with
the perfect standards (H.Can, 1992). It helps a
child to set realistic but challenging goals, they
need feedback and respond well to constructive
criticism. They do not fear failure which makes
them persi stent towards thei r goal s.
Achievement motivation has been associated
with task difficulty preferences. Atkinson (1957)
proposed that positively motivated subjects
(i.e., subjects with motive to achieve success
stronger than motive to avoid failure) would
prefer tasks of moderate difficulty, whereas
negatively motivated subjects (i.e., subjects
with motive to achieve success weaker than
Volume-3 (2) *Mandeep Kaur **Puneet Kaur
motive to avoid failure) would prefer either very
easy or very difficult tasks. Dykman (1998)
suggested that there are two main motivations
behind achievement, which he calls growth-
seeking vs. validation-seeking. Growth seekers
enjoy challenges and their ability to learn and
mature through chal l enges/mi stakes.
Validation seekers, feel under constant pressure
to prove themselves as likable and acceptable
to others. It's a defensive coping strategy that
develops in the context of critical and
perfectionist parenting. Academic achievement
motivation can be defined as child's need or
drive towards the achievement of success in
academic work (Amalaha, 1975; Moen and
Doyle, 1978).
Atkinson and Feather (1966) observed
that the achievement motivation of children
whose fathers have attained high educational
level and are in high income occupations tend to
be high. The development of high level
achievement motivation is attributed to early
independence training and achievement
training (Atkinson, Feather and Majoribanks,
1979). Atkinson and Feather argue that
successful parents tend to provide early
independence training which is necessary in the
development of achievement motivation.
Gesi nde ( 2000) suggest s t hat
achievement motivation is learnt through the
socialization process. He argues that the urge to
achieve varies from one individual to the other.
For some, the need for achievement is very high
while, for others it is very low. A high need for
achievement would develop among those who
have high achievers as their role models in their
early life experience, while those who have low
achievers as their role models will hardly
develop the need for achievement. The family is
092
a major socializing agent and therefore
important in determining the child's motivation
to achieve success in various areas.
Study habits are strongly linked and
related with academic performance (Reed &
Hagen, 1996; Elliot, McGregor & Gable, 1999;
Meter, 2001; Kagu, 2003 and Ossai, 2004).
Researchers have found that good study habits
contribute to high academic performance while
poor study habits lead to poor academic
performance. According to Mace (2002), study
is a systematic acquisition of knowledge and an
understanding of facts and principles that calls
for retention and application. Kelly (1998)
stated that study is the application of one's
mental capaci t y to t he acqui si t i on,
understanding and organization of knowledge.
It often involves some form of formal learning.
Crow and Crow (2000) explained that study is a
programme of subject matter mastery which
involves hard work. However, study involves the
individual's thinking, feeling, personality, social
interaction, physical activities and health.
Narramore (1974) defined habit as a pattern of
activity which, through repetition, has been
learned to the point that it has become
automatic and can be carried on with a
minimum of conscious effect. Study habit,
therefore, refers to learning which leads to the
achievement of a learner's goal, through a
prescribed pattern of steady behaviour. Crede
and Kuncel (2008) defines study habit as study
routines, including, but not restricted to,
frequency of studying sessions, review of
material, self-testing, rehearsal of learned
material, and studying in a conducive
environment.
Study habits is a well planned and
deliberate pattern of study which has attained a
form of consistency on the part of the student
towards understanding academic subjects and
passing at examination (Deese, 1959; Pauk,
1962; Akinboye, 1974). Students' study habits
seem to show differences in how they learn and
how serious they are about their learning
(Young, 1998).
Nonis & Hudson (2010) found that
study habits have a significant direct
relationship with the academic performance of
college students. Although not every learning
strategy or study habit produces useful results
in terms of academic achievement, it would be
expected that students who possess good study
habits in general are better performers than
those students with poor study habits.
Study habits have been associated with
academic achievement, independently of
scholastic aptitudes. Given a similar scholastic
aptitude, students with better strategies and
better study habits tend to show higher
academic achievement. Even students with low
scholastic aptitudes, but with good study
habits, may obtain better results than those
with higher aptitudes (Weigel & Wei-gel, 1967;
Wikoff & Kafka, 1981; Matt, Pechersky, &
Cervantes, 1991; On & Watkins, 1994). Both
research and educational experience have
demonstrated that students with good study
habits usually show more socialized behaviours,
hi gher responsi bi l i ty and peer-group
interaction, and less impulsiveness.
When a child is unable to achieve a goal,
perform poor in exams, is low on academic
achievement, weak in study skills and habits
and is not supported by his/her parents to
achieve something then the feelings of
inferiority arises. Whatever is their source,
when a child fear the consequences of being
093
inferior or subordinate to others (e.g. when
they fear that they will be rejected or vulnerable
to criticism, rather than helped or accepted)
they can become 'driven' to compete to avoid
both self and others making evaluations of self
'as inferior' (Gilbert, 1992, 2003). Inferiority
complex creates a sense of insecurity that can
reach a great extent and can make the sufferer
take a drastic step.
From Adler's perspective, an inferiority
complex is the presentation of the person to
himself and others that he is not strong enough
to solve a given problem in a socially useful way
(Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956). An inferiority
complex is a pervasive feeling that one's
abilities and characteristics are inferior to those
of other people. Early criticism from parents,
peer and sensitivity to the competitive
dynamics of social life through peer group
competition or media exposure, could sensitise
a child to fears of inferiority (Gilbert, 1992;
Dykman, 199
Objectives
To study:
1. The effect of parental education in
achievement motivation, study habits
and inferiority complex in their
children.
2. The academic achievement of children
of high and low educated parents.
3. The study habits of children of high and
low educated parents.
4. The inferiority complex among children
of high and low educated parents.
Hypotheses
1. Children of high educated parents
would be higher on achievement
motivation as compared to children of
low educated parents.
2. Study habits of children of low
educated parents would be poor as
compared to high educated parents.
3. Children of high educated parents
would be low on inferiority complex as
compared to children of low educated
parents.
Method
Sample: To study achievement motivation,
study habits and inferiority among children of
high and low educated parents, a sample of 100
children (50 children of high educated parents
and 50 children of low educated parents) from
various areas of Patiala were taken. Their age
ranges from 14 to 17 years. All the high
educated parents were above graduation and
low educated parents were senior secondary
pass. On the basis of the education of parents,
children were divided into two groups (50
children of high educated parents and 50
children of low educated parents) and were
considered for the present study. Prior consent
of parents and their wards were taken, only
those participants were taken who were willing
to participate in the study. The subjects were
provided with Academic Achievement
Motivation Test by T.R. Sharma (2011), Study
Habit Inventory by Mukhopadhyay and
Sansanwal (1983) and Social Comparison Scale
by Allan and Gilbert (1995).
Measures used in the study.
Academic Achievement Motivation Test by T.R.
Sharma (2011)
Academic Achievement Motivation Test
comprises of 38 items with two alternatives.
The test provides a direct numerical score
indicating how much an individual is motivated
in the field of academic achievement. The score
range from 0 to 38, indicating high, average and
094
low academic motivation. This test can be
administered to a group of not more than 40
children at a time. One score is awarded for
each correct answer. Reliability: the reliability of
the test is based on three methods, split half
N=100, reliability is 0.697, rational equivalence
N=100, r = 0.75 and test retest reliability boys
11
N=298, r = 0.795, girls N=301, r = 0.807. Validity:
content, criterion and construct validity on the
bases of pooled judgements of 40 judges. The
analysis of variance and Scheffe method results
differ siginificantly.
Study Habit Inventory by Mukhopadhyay and
Sansanwal (1983)
Study Habit Inventory consists of 52 items and 5
point likert scale from always to never. This
inventory has been constituted of nine different
kinds of study habits or behaviours. These are
comprehensi on, concent rat i on, t ask
orientation, sets, interaction, drilling, supports,
recording and language. Some items are
positive and some items in the inventory are
negative. Positive items have reversed scoring
(4 to 0) and negative items have straight scoring
(0 to 4). Reliability: the reliability of the
inventory was worked out by using split half
method. The reliability coefficient is 0.90.
Validity: internal consistency is evident, all the
coefficients are significant at 0.01 level and they
range between a minimum of 0.49 to a
maximum of 0.8%.
Social Comparison Scale by Allan and Gilbert
(1995)
Social Comparison Scale measures the self-
perceptions of social rank and relative social
standing. This scale uses a semantic differential
methodology and consists of 11 bipolar
constructs. Participants are required to make a
global comparison of themselves in relation to
other people and to rate themselves along a 10
point scale. The 11 items cover judgements concerned with rank, attractiveness and how well the
person thinks they 'fit in' with others in society. Low scores indicate feelings of inferiority and
general low rank self-perceptions. The scale has been found to have good reliability, with Cronbach
alphas of 0.88 and 0.96 with clinical population and 0.91 and 0.90 with student population.
Procedure: Data collection was divided into 2 sessions. In the first session, Academic Achievement
Motivation test and Social Comparison Scale were given. After the gap of 15 minutes, in the second
session, Study Habit Inventory was given to the subjects. The subjects were also assured that their
responses would be kept confidential so that they can reply honestly.
Statistical Analysis: t-test
Results:
Table no.1 - Showing the means, S.D's and t-ratio of high and low educated parents for academic
achievement motivation
095

academic
achievement
motivation
means s.d.s df t-ratio
high
educated
parents
low
educated
parents
high
educated
parents
low
educated
parents

32.06 27.02 3.11 2.92 98 8.34**

** Significant at 0.01 level of significance.
Table no.2 - Showing the means, S.D's and t-ratio of high and low educated parents for
study habit

study habit
high
educated
parents
low
educated
parents
high
educated
parents
low
educated
parents

163.4 91.98 11.05 7.17 98 38.34**

Discussion: Based on the data analysis (t-test)
it's concluded that children from high educated
parents were high on achievement motivation
and study habits and low on inferiority as
compared to children from low educated
parents whose chi l dren were l ow on
achievement motivation and study habits and
high on inferiority. The analysis of Table no.1
revealed that children of high educated parents
(M=32.06) were high on achievement
motivation and children of low educated
parents (M=27.02) were low on achievement
motivation (t=8.34, p<.01). The reason can be
linked to parental education, parents involve
themselves with their children in studies and
guide them achieve their goal. If the parents are
educated, they can inculcate good values to
their children. This will further lead towards
establ i shi ng good study habi ts, more
confidence and sense of achievement. Baker
and Stevenson (1986) found well educated
mothers have higher knowledge of their
children's schooling, more contact with the
school, aware of their children's achievement
and lead them to pursue higher education. Reay
(2004) suggested most middle class mothers
096
have a good educational background and it is
invested in their children's educational success
in the form of self-confidence and participation.
Sewell and Hauser (1980) and Tudge, et al
(2006) found that a high level of education also
allows the children to have more opportunity to
develop motivation and educational aspirations
to involve in various educational activities.
Similarly in line with this thought, Poston and
Falbo's (1990) findings supports the idea that
educated parents tend to communicate and
interact with their children to enhance the
children to a positive learning and educational
achievement. Achievement motivation has
been shown to be higher in middle class than in
the working class (Atkinson and Feather, 1966).
The development of high level achievement
motivation is attributed to early independence
training and achievement training giving by
parents (Atkinson, Feather and Majoribanks,
1979). According to Majoribanks (1979), in
independence training parents insist on the
child's self-reliance and autonomy in decision
making situations. While, in achievement
training they insist on high achievement
through imposing high standards of excellence

inferiority
high
educated
parents
low
educated
parents
high
educated
parents
low
educated
parents

Total 96.34 63.74 6.18 5.99 98 26.81**

Table no.3 - Showing the means, S.D's and t-ratio of high and low educated parents for
inferiority
in tasks, setting high goals for the child and
expecting the child to show competence in
doing tasks well. Thus, achievement motivation
is among other factors dependent on child
parent interactions.
In a study by Gottfried, Fleming, and
Gottfried (1998), home environment was found
to have a statistically positive and significant
effect on academic intrinsic motivation.
Children whose homes had greater emphasis on
learning opportunities and activities were more
academically intrinsically motivated. These
findings imply that, a more favourable home
environment motivates a child to excel in
school. The high level of education which most
often goes with high occupational status means
that the parents will be able to provide the
necessary learning facilities and to assist the
chi l d wi th school work. Thi s parental
involvement which could be lacking in parents
whose education and occupation are low may
have a motivating effect on the child.
A parent with a small family will not
only find it easy to provide for the physical
needs of the child, but will also be in a position
to give him attention, encouragement,
stimulation and support with his schoolwork.
This could have a motivating effect on a child
from the small family in comparison with a child
from a large family where the parents are
always busy trying to find ways of meeting the
basic needs of the family.
The analysis of Table no.2 reveals that
children of high educated parents (M=163.4)
were high on study habits and children of low
educated parents (M=91.98) were low on study
habits (t=38.34, p<.01). Students' study habits
seem to show differences in how they learn and
how serious they are about their learning
097
(Young, 1998). Onwuegbuzie et al (2001)
conducted a series of studies to find out the
relationship between academic success and
study habit and reported positive relationship
between the two variables. Given a similar
scholastic aptitude, students with better
strategies and better study habits tend to show
higher academic achievement. Even students
with low scholastic aptitudes, but with good
study habits, may obtain better results than
those with higher aptitudes (Weigel & Wei-gel,
1967; Wikoff & Kafka, 1981; Matt, Pechersky, &
Cervantes, 1991; On & Watkins, 1994).
Lockheed et al., (1989) studies that the more
the standard of parent's education, the higher is
the education aspirations held by the parents
towards the academic achievement of their
children. Students with poor study habits do not
perform well academically, have low self-
concept, and consequently see little benefit to
academically perform at their true ability
(Trawick, 1992). According to Elliot and
Wendling (1996), 75% of students who are
academic underachievers have poor study
habits and examination techniques. Haynes
(1993) reports that improving study habits can
enhance academic achievement of the students
who have poor study habits. It has been argued
that study skills should be taught at the high
school level because many high school students
are deficient in reading, thinking, and study
skills (Tonjes and Zintz, 1981).
The analysis of Table no.3 reveals that
children of high educated parents (M=96.34)
were low on inferiority and children of low
educated parents (M=63.74) were high on
inferiority (t=26.81, p<.01). According to Adler
(1926) feelings of inferiority are as much more
than a sense of inadequacy. These feelings
provide the motivating force behind all growth
and development. Early criticism by parents and
peer group can lower the self belief of a child
and can thus sensitize a child towards the fear of
inferiority (Gilbert, 1992; Dykman, 1998). When
children fear the consequences of being inferior
or subordinate to others (e.g. when they fear
that they will be rejected or vulnerable to
criticism, rather than helped or accepted) they
can become 'driven' to compete to avoid both
self and others making evaluations of self 'as
inferior' (Gilbert, 1992, 2003) thus they perform
poorer in every field. Self other relationship
can be construed as competitive rather than
care-focused or cooperative, and an individual
can be highly oriented to social comparison and
shame sensitivities. This striving can be a source
of stress and individuals may find it hard to feel
content, socially accepted and safe in their
social networks (Gilbert, 1989). Most students
have low self concept and they are so passive
and negative, that affects their academic
achievements and their study habits in schools.
Academic success or failure can generate the
feelings of competence or incompetence in
students. These feelings can affect students'
performances by their willingness to continue
to learn or give up. It is believed that students
who have high achievement expectations
attribute success to internal and external
causes (Haynes, 1993). The results revealed that
students who have proper study habits and
attitudes are academically successful (Agnew et
al., 1993; Arslantas, 2001; Carter, 1999; Elliot et
al., 1990; Gordon, 1997; Jones et al., 1993;
Kleijn et al., 1994; Lammers et al., 2001; Lawler-
Prince et al., 1993; Schultz, 1989; Slate et al.,
1990; Sunbul et al., 1998; Ulug, 1981).
098
Thus well educated parents can
support their child to achieve goals in the best
way they can, they help in influencing their
chi l d' s behavi our, attenti veness and
performance. Thus the findings of the study
proves the hypotheses, that a well educated
parent can make a child cognitively strong and
in this way a child can communicate, interact
and can make their position in the society with
the help of skills which are provided by their
parents. A well educated parent with good
parenting style can make their child a brilliant
one.
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*Assistant Professor in Psychology Department, Punjabi University, Patiala.
** Research Scholar in Psychology Department, Punjabi University, Patiala.
Introduction :
The aim of the present research work
was to study the effect of Sahaj Marg Raja Yoga
meditation system on the mental health of its
practitioners in comparison to the group of
individuals not practicing such meditation
system. Raj Yoga Meditation is primarily
concerned with the mind. The mind is
traditionally conceived as the "king" of the
psycho-physical structure. Present Raj Yoga
Meditation is the evolved, modified and
simplified form of the ancient Raj Yoga
Meditation of Saint Patanjali (150 BC) to suit the
lifestyles of modern human beings. He stated
that Raj Yoga limits the oscillations of the mind
in which mind can create false ideations. This
process leads to a spontaneous state of quiet
mind, in which there is no mental object of
focus. This technique of meditation goes by the
name because it integrates one's physical,
mental and spiritual aspects without employing
any pressure or force. Hence, it is called the
103
Abstract
The Effect of 'Sahaj Marg Raja Yoga Meditation' Practice
on Mental Health
*Samriddhi Singh **Manika Mohan Saxena
The present research work was aimed to study the impact of Sahaj Marg Raja Yoga
Meditation on mental health of the practitioners & the non-practitioners. A group of 100
practitioners were chosen for the study. 50 practitioners of Sahaj Marg and 50 non-practitioners
were chosen for the study. It included males and females participants, who were studying in
graduation and belonged to upper middle socio-economic status. The age ranged between 18 to 25
years. They were administered the questionnaire to measure mental health. The t-test was
employed to differentiate between the practitioners & the non-practitioners. The obtained results
were in support of the framed hypothesized that the practice of Sahaj Marg Raj Yoga Meditation
would have positive effects on the mental health of the practitioners. The results indicated that with
the practice of Sahaj Marg Raj Yoga meditation, the practitioners manifested better mental health
than the non-practitioners and this difference was significant.
'yoga of mind'. This is a process which
progressively dilutes and dissolves all sorts of
prejudices, ego and pride, so that people can
live full and natural lives. Raj Yoga Meditation
teaches a person to create a sound balance
between the material and spiritual existences,
to lead a meaningful life. The process states that
if any of the two existence is given more value
than the other, it will create a state of imbalance
which will result in the psychological and
physiological deteriorated condition of the
individual. Hence, it is stressed that meditation
brings a balance between these two sides of
existence, resulting in a balanced and fully
functioning psychophysical health. As evident
from the study by Murthy (1988), who found
better functioning of neuro-physiological
aspects of the participants following Raj Yoga
System in comparison to the participants not
following and Orme (1988) found that
meditation technique significantly decreased
emotional numbness, alcohol consumption,
family problems, insomnia, unemployment
related stress, and overall post-traumatic stress

disorder. Smith (1978) found that the
meditation dropouts were more disturbed and
less self-critical than the person who continued
meditating. When both these sides of existence
are in balance, it prompts a psychological
wellbeing, it bears its effects on the
physiological health also, which starts
improving and an ideal health is achieved.
Aftanas and Golocheikine (2001) found that the
practice of Raj Yoga Meditation not only
regulates the brain electrophysiology and mood
but also regulates the anatomical and
biochemical functions for the physical
wellbeing.
Another necessary element of Raj Yoga
practice is cleaning. All the experiences, actions,
reactions, thoughts and emotions leave
impressions. These impressions accumulate
over time, influencing an individual's view of
reality and consequently his behavior. As habit
patterns emerge and solidify, the past
experiences influence the future action.
Through meditation, whatever is focused on,
tends to expand, whereas, cleaning is a process
whereby an individual directs his thought, in
combination with his will, to remove or clean
away these impressions of experience. Once
these impressions are removed, the root causes
of faulty behavior patterns and emotional
problems will gently and naturally fall away. The
cleaning is done for thirty minutes each evening
when the day's work is over. The cleaning is
approached in a general way with confidence
that all impediments to personal human growth
are leaving. A feeling of lightness is felt as the
weight of the day's impressions has been lifted
off. Manocha, Gordon, Black, Malhi & Seidler
(2009) indicated the potentiality of meditation
as an effective mental health promotion and
prevention strategy.
This 'ideal', cleaned, and positive
physiological and psychological health readies
the individual to meet the challenges, stress and
pressures of the demanding modern life.
Hence, resulting in improved job performance
(Frew, 1974), better emotional intelligence
(Dabrowski, Kawczak & Piechowski; 1970 &
Cranson, Alexander & Gackenbach; 1991),
increased self-development (Warner; 1987)
and wholeness leading towards an actualized
state. Alexander, Swanson, Rainforth, Carlisle,
Todd & Oates (1993) also found that with
regular practice of the mediation program,
empl oyees s howed i mproved wor k,
professional and personal satisfaction and
personal relationships.
The main objective of the study was to
explore the effects of Sahaj Marg Raj Yoga
Meditation on the mental health of the
practitioners. It was hypothesized that the
practice of 'Sahaj Marg Raj Yoga Meditation'
would influence the mental health of the
practitioners in comparison with the non-
practitioners.
Methodology
Participants
The present investigation was carried
out on 100 participants, with age ranging
between 20 to 30 years. The minimum
educational qualification was senior secondary
level. All the participants belonged to middle or
upper socio-economic status. The sample was
divided into two groups i.e., the group of
practitioners of Sahaj Marg Raj Yoga Meditation
and the group of non-practitioners. On the basis
of the inclusion/exclusion criteria, only those
participants were chosen for the practitioners'
104
*Samriddhi Singh **Manika Mohan Saxena Volume-3 (2)
group who were practicing Sahaj Marg Raj Yoga meditation, at least since one year.
Research design
The study involved a two group design- the practitioners of Sahaj Marg Raj Yoga meditation
and the non practitioners.
105
Two Group
Design
N=100
Practitioners
N=50
Non Practitioners
N=50 On Mental Health
Measures
The following measure was administered individually by contacting the participants
personally:-Mental Health Inventory (MHI) was developed by Jagdish and Srivastav (1984) for the
purpose of measuring positive mental health of normal individuals. The inventory has six
dimensions and 56 items. The dimensions were- Positive self-evaluation, self confidence, self
identity, self acceptance, feeling of worth-whileness and realization of one's potential.
Procedure
All the participants were contacted individually and a good rapport with all the participants
was established. 100 participants were assessed on their mental health. These participants were
divided into two groups- practitioners and non practitioners. The data for the practitioners' group
was collected from the organization, named, Sahaj Marg, wherein, these practitioners followed a
routine of meditation and cleaning under the system of Raj Yoga Meditation. Practitioners who
were regular in their daily practice of meditation, which included morning meditation and evening
cleaning, were chosen for the study, and this was confirmed by their trainer/preceptors. The non
practicing participants were randomly chosen from the ones who were not practicing Raja Yoga
Meditation. Their mental health was assessed. The mean values were drawn and t-test was
employed to find significant difference between the two groups on their mental health.
Results
Table No-1: Showing comparison between practitioners and non practitioners on the dimensions
of mental health- positive self-evaluation.
Groups N MEAN S.D. SED df t LEVEL OF
SIGNIFICANCE
Practitioners 50 24.04 4.39 0.65 48 0.98# Insignificant
Non-
Practitioners
50 23.4 3.64

106
Table 1 depicts that the two groups differ from each other insignificantly as shown by their t-test
score of 0.98. This means that the groups do not differ significantly, although, the mean of the
scores of the practitioners' group (24.04) was higher than that of the non practitioners' group
(23.4). Self-evaluation included self confidence, self identity, self acceptance, feeling of worth-
whileness, realization of one's potential.
Table No:2: Showing comparison between practitioners and non practitioners on the dimensions of
mental health- perception of reality.
Groups N MEAN S.D
.
SED df t LEVEL OF
SIGNIFICANCE
Practitioners 50 19.68 0.27 0.6 48 2.7** Significant at
0.01 level
Non-
practitioners
50 18.08 0.52

t-test score shows that the practitioners and non practitioners differ significantly from each other.
The mean of the practitioners' group (19.68) is higher than the mean of the non practitioners' group
(18.08). The practitioners have better perception of reality than the non practitioners. Their
perception is free from need distortion, absence of excessive fantasy and a broad outlook to the
world.
Table No-3: Showing comparison between practitioners and non practitioners on 'integration of
mental health'.
SIGNIFICANCE
Practitioners 50 28.49 3.12 0.71 48 2.11* Significant at
0.05 level
Non-
practitioners
50 27.01 4.04

As suggested by the means, the practitioners (28.49) have more integrated mental health than the
non practitioners (27.01). The t-test value (2.11) and the mean difference suggests that the two
groups differ substantially from each other and that the practitioners have better balance of psychic
forces, the ability to concentrate on work and interest in several activities, an ability to understand
and share other people's emotions.
Table No:4: Showing comparison between practitioners and non practitioners on the dimensions of
mental health- autonomy.
Groups N MEAN S.D. SED Df t LEVEL OF
SIGNIFICANCE
Non
practitioners
50 14.18 2.62 0.05 level

107
The table no-4 provides with the mean values of 15.16 and 14.18 for practitioners and non
practitioners, respectively and the t-test score of 2.1 suggesting that the practitioners differ from
non practitioners substantially on autonomy. The practitioners have stable set of internal standards
for their actions and are self dependent.
Table No-5: Showing comparison between practitioners and non practitioners on the dimensions of
mental health- group orientation.
SIGNIFICANCE
Non
practitioners
50 22.58 3.01 0.05 level

Table 5 exhibits t-test score of 2.3, which is significant at 0.05 level and mean values is 24.19 and
22.58 for practitioners and non practitioners, respectively. As suggested by the t-test score, both
the groups differ significantly from each other. The practitioners have higher ability to get along
with others, work with others and ability to find recreation than the non practitioners.
Table No-6: showing comparison between practitioners and non practitioners on 'environmental
competency'.
SIGNIFICANCE
Practitioners 50 23.78 3.68 0.7 48 1.06# Insignificant
Non
practitioners
50 24.84 4.37

The mean score of practitioners i.e. 24.78 is higher than the mean score of non practitioners i.e.
23.84 but this difference is found insignificant (t-test score=1.06). This means that the two groups
do not differ substantially on environmental competency. Both the groups are equally efficient
according to the situational requirements, have the ability to work, to play, to take responsibilities
and have the capacity for adjustment.

0
10
20
30
M
E
A
N

O
F

T
H
E

S
C
O
R
E
S

HISTOGRAPH SHOWING DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE MEANS FOLLOWERS AND NON FOLLOWERS ON THE
DIMENSIONS OF MENTAL HEALTH
FOLLOWERS
NON FOLLOWERS
M
E
A
N

O
F

T
H
E

S
C
O
R
E
S
108
Histogram showing graphical representation of
the mean difference between the practitioners
and non practitioners on the dimensions on
mental health.
Discussion
The study was an attempt to find out the
effects of Sahaj Marg Raj Yoga Meditation on its
regular practitioners in comparison with the
participants of the non practicing group on their
mental health. It is evident through the results
that the Raja Yoga Meditation has considerable
impact on the mental health of its practitioners.
The result confirms the hypothesis that the
practice of Sahaj Marg Raj Yoga Meditation
would have positive effects on the mental
health of the practitioners. Among the six
dimensions of mental health as given in the
MHI, on four dimensions, the two groups
(practi ti oners and non practi ti oners)
significantly differed from each other. Their
mean values depicted that the practitioners
have better perception of reality, greater
integration of mental health, more autonomy
and are more group orientation than the non
practitioners.
The practice of Raja Yoga Meditation
includes daily morning meditation of 45-60
minutes and daily evening cleaning for 30
minutes. The results show that due to the
practice of Raja Yoga Meditation, the
practitioners' perception of reality became
independent from need distortion, absence of
excessive fantasy and presented a broader
outlook to the world than that of the non
practitioners' perception. Benn (2003) found
that this practice positively affected emotional
development, affectivity, self-esteem, and
emotional competence.
They have better balance of psychic
forces, they are able to concentrate on work in a
better and efficient way, they take interest in
many other activities, they have an ability to
understand and share other's emotions. They
express empathy, care, respect, love and
understanding in their relationships and
towards self as also indicated by results of a
study by Shapiro (1978), which confirms the
proposition that meditation leads to an increase
in responsibility and self-control.
The practitioners gained stable set of
internal standards for their actions and are self
dependent. The practitioners possess the ability
to get along with others to work with others and
the ability to recreate with others. Kotwal
(2007) found positive significance of meditation
and other techniques for effective self-
development and self-management.
The t wo groups di d not di f fer
substantially on the dimensions of mental
heal th- ' posi ti ve sel f-eval uati on' and
'environmental competency'. Both the groups
are equally efficient when the situation
requires, procure the ability to work, to play, to
take responsibilities and the capacity for
adjustment, have self-confidence, sense of self-
identity, self-acceptance, deeper feelings of
worthiness and wholeness, and have higher
realization of their potential. Although, the t-
test did not show any significant difference
among the two groups on positive self
evaluation (table no-1) and environmental
competency (table no-6) but if their mean
values were to be compared then it can be said
that the mean values of the practitioners were
higher than the mean values of the non
109
practitioners.
This is the most unique system as it has a
major difference from other meditation
techniques that is, it has an added procedure of
evening cleaning through which a practicing
individual can throw out all the negativity,
reduces anxiety and the intensity of painful
experiences by using their will power. This
corrects the flow of psychic energy and brings
balance in an individual. Modern life has many
sources of anxiety, stress, negativity and
pressures which creates an imbalance in the
individual's psyche which later results in
somatic problems and hence, creates a vicious
cycle of misery and pain. Raja Yoga Meditation is
equipped to counter such faulty styles of living
and cognition and at the same time makes the
practitioner more competent to face the world.
Raj Yoga Cleaning is an active process in which
the practitioner uses his will power to get rid of
all the harmful and dangerous psychic
elements. The morning meditation strengthens
will power and motivates the practitioner to
move towards a more 'self-actualized' state. It is
already emphasized by many previous studies
that meditation brings positive vitality,
increases concentration and strengthens inner
composition and when it is combined with the
process of cleaning, can lead to a positive and
improved mental health. Travis, Haaga, Hagelin,
Tanner, Arenander, Nidich, Gaylord-King,
Grosswald, Rainforth, & Schneider (2010) found
that the TM program produced beneficial
effects for health, brain functioning, and
cognitive development.
Meditation alone also enhances many
creative and positive attributes of an individual
as supported by the results of a study conducted
by Dabrowski (1973), who found that
meditation is encouraging for certain positive
developmental functions, while inhibiting
functions that retard development. In addition,
meditation is considered as a help in the process
of transcending one's psychological type, i.e.,
introverts develop extroversion and vice versa.
He claims that meditation promotes the growth
of the personality ideal. Meditation along with
cleaning can prove to be a correctional method
for changi ng negati ve and confl i ctual
personality traits towards a balanced and
integrated personality. This notion is confirmed
by a study by Varadachari (1966), who found
positive correlation between Raj Yoga
meditation system and resolved personality
problems.
In future, researchers can study the effect
of Raj Yoga Meditation and Raj Yoga cleaning on
physiological health and on the individuals
suffering from any kind of neurosis. A future
research can attempt to study the effectiveness
of Raj Yoga Meditation in comparison with the
other methods of Meditation. The difference in
the effects of meditation and cleaning could
also be a topic of future research.
110
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**HOD, Dept. of Psychology, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur.
Introduction :
A chronic illness can be referred to as
the long-term altered health condition of an
individual which cannot be treated by a surgery
or by a simple, short-term pharmacotherapy. It
may or may not be lifelong or terminal in nature,
although it takes away quite a number of years
of the patient's life. Chronic illness, in some
cases, can be disabling to the individual. Such
i l l nesses i ncl ude Al zhei mer' s di sease,
Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, paralysis
and so on.
Indi vi dual s sufferi ng from such
di sabl i ng i l l nesses cannot often l i ve
independently and need constant help and
support from another individual in the form of
caregiving. Hence, care giving is assisting or
helping an individual who is either ill or disabled
and cannot perform his/ her daily personal or
other non-personal activities on his/her own.
Care giving has been classified
into two types: formal and informal. Formal
caregivers include trained staffs and nurses of
112
Abstract
Effects of Stress on Caregivers of Chronically ILL Patients
*Tanushree Saha **Reeta Kumar ***Bipin Kumar
Chronic illnesses like Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, paralysis and so on can be
disabling for a patient. Under these conditions the patient becomes dependent on another person
and constantly need help from him/ her, even in the activities of daily living. The services provided by
this person is called 'caregiving', while the person himself/herself is called the 'caregiver'. Caregivers
can be either formal (nurses and trained staffs of hospitals) or informal (family members and
friends). In case of informal caregivers, the responsibilities of maintaining a regular family life and
career in addition to the duties of caregiving naturally leads to great stress. Dealing with this stress
on a regular basis affects both the caregivers' mental as well as physical health, which if not
monitored at the right time can become life-threatening. This study can help create an awareness
amongst the family members of a primary caregiver as well as medical professionals to keep a check
on the health status (both psychological and physical) of the caregiver in order to prevent him/her
from becoming a patient himself/herself.
hospitals, whereas, informal caregivers include
spouse, parents, children, brothers, sisters,
other relatives or even friends. Informal
caregivers are also called family caregivers and
provide unpaid services to the disabled patient.
In case of family (or informal)
caregivers, the added responsibilities of
caregiving, along with the already present
pressures of maintaining a family and
professional life, are quite likely to produce a lot
of stress. This stress in caregivers can be of two
types, i.e., primary stress and secondary stress.
Primary stress arises from daily personal care
services, such as feeding, washing and so on and
this results in secondary stress in the form of
restricted social life, family conflicts as well as
financial hardships and other stress producing
consequences. Ultimately, both these primary
and secondary stresses are likely to lead to
psychological and physiological malfunctioning
in caregivers.
Psychological Consequences of Caregiving
Stress
Several studi es have reported
psychological problems like feelings of burden,
depression, anxiety, fatigue as well as sleep
disturbances among caregivers.
Burden among Caregivers
In a recent study by Sreeja, Gupta, Lal,
and Singh (2009), a comparison between
caregi vers of chroni c mental i l l ness
(schizophrenia) and chronic physical illness
(epilepsy), showed that there was significant
level of burden due to caregiving on both the
groups. In a study by Elmahdi et al. (2011) on
caregivers of patients either suffering from a
psychiatric illness or a chronic physical illness, it
was reported that level of subjective burden
was higher among wives than mothers.
Personal tasks like feeding and washing the
patient are perceived as more difficult and
burdensome than non-personal tasks like doing
the groceries (Horowitz, 1985). Given,
Stommel, Collins, King, and Given (1990) stated
that the more confining the caregiving tasks
are, the more they create burden. Race
(Horowitz & Reinhard, 1995), perceived social
support (Edwards & Scheet, 2002) and
depressive symptoms (Caap-Ahlgren & Dehlin,
2002) in caregivers are also important variables
for predicting burden in caregivers.
Depression among Caregivers
Higher rates of depressive symptoms
are consistently reported in family caregivers of
ill patients in comparison to their same age
control sample (Aneshensel, Pearlin, Mullan,
Zarit, & Whitlatch; 1995, Dura, Stukenburg, &
Kiecolt-Glaser, 1990; Tennstedt, Cafferata, &
Sullivan; 1992). In recent studies, 32% to 50% of
caregivers were found to have depressive
symptoms of a level suggesting clinical
113
depression (Burtler, Turner, Kaye, Ruffin, &
Downey; 2005, Carter, 2002; Covinsky et al.,
2003). Depression is found in caregivers of
almost all chronically ill patients. It is found
among caregivers of people suffering from
HIV/AIDS (Folkman, Chesney, Cooke, Boccellari,
& Collette, 1994; Land & Hudson, 2002;
LeBlanc, London, & Aneashensel; 1997),
Alzheimer's disease (Lawton, Miriam, Mortan,
Allen, & Michael, 1991; Semple, 1992) and also
of those who are hospitalized for a long time
(Rosenthal, 1993). In a study on caregivers of
spinal cord injury patients (Weitzenkamp,
Gerhart, Charlifue, Whiteneck, & Savic, 1997), it
was seen that the spouses reported more
symptoms of depression than the patients
themselves as well as the non-caregivers. There
are a number of factors that lead to the
development of depressive symptomatology in
family caregivers. Rivera (2009) has given a list
of factors which include age, race, sleep
disturbances, social support and so on. It was
found that younger caregivers have higher
depression scores (Given et al., 2004; Kurtz,
Kurtz, Given, & Given, 2005; Williams, 2005). In
studies related to the gender of the caregivers,
it has been found that female caregivers report
higher levels of depression as compared to their
male counterparts (Cho, Dodd, Lee, Padilla, &
Slaughter, 2006; Covinsky et al., 2003; Haley,
LaMonde, Han, Burton, & Schonwetter, 2003;
Thompson et al., 2004). In a study conducted on
female caregivers of patients suffering from
either a psychiatric illness or a chronic physical
illness, it was found that 34% were suffering
from major depression (Elmahdi et al., 2011).
Studies on race of caregivers have reported that
Caucasians have significantly more depressive
symptoms than African- Americans and
Hispanics (Gallagher-Thompson et al., 2006;
*Tanushree Saha **Reeta Kumar ***Bipin Kumar Volume-3 (2)
Williams, 2005). In a study on cancer caregivers
by Carter (2002), the family caregivers showed
depression and chronic sleep loss. The family
caregivers have reported that the chronic sleep
loss made them feel irritable towards the
patients. This irritability in turn led to angerwith
the patients' increasing care demands, which
further resulted in feelings of guilt. This
guiltiness later made the caregivers feel
depressed. Depression has been reported to be
the cause of coronary heart disease and
mortality in both the genders of caregivers
( Fer ket i c h, Sc hwar t z baum, Fr i d, &
Moeschberger, 2000; Ford et al., 1998; Kouzis,
Eaton, & Leaf, 1995).
Anxiety among Caregivers
Anxiety is also found to occur
significantly in caregivers of chronically ill
patients. Deshmukh, Patwardhan, Bakshi,
Paranis, and Kelkar (2011) reported significant
levels of anxiety in caregivers of cancer patients.
In a study by Grov, Dahl, Moum, and Fossa
(2005), the anxiety level in caregivers of both
genders was found to be significantly higher
than age and gender adjusted controls. Similar
results were also found in caregivers of
dementia patients (Cooper, Balamurali, &
Livingstone, 2007). Elmahdi et al. (2011)
reported a 22.3% prevalence of generalized
anxiety disorder in female caregivers of patients
suffering from either a psychiatric illness or a
chronic physical illness. Like depression even
anxiety in caregivers depends on several
factors. Higher anxiety scores have been
reported by female caregivers (Gaston-
Johansson, Lachica, Fall-Dickson, and Kennedy,
2004; Iconomou, Viha, Kalofonos, and
Kardamakis, 2001; Langer, Abrams, and Syrjala,
2003; Matthews, 2003). Singlehood, lower
income, higher levels of sleep disturbances,
114
increased fatigue and caregiver strain are other
factors related to higher anxiety in caregivers
(Flaskerud, Carter & Lee, 2000; Gaston-
Johansson, Lachica, Fall-Dickson, & Kennedy,
2004; I conomou, Vi ha, Kal ofonos, &
Kardamakis, 2001; Rossi Ferrario, Zotti,
Massara, & Nuvolone, 2003). Younger
caregivers are reported to be more anxious
than their older counterparts (Deshmukh et al.,
2011).
Fatigue among Caregivers
Fatigue is yet another outcome of
caregiving. Studies showed higher fatigue
scores in the family caregivers of patients with
cancer, dementia and Parkinson's disease (Sato,
Kanda, Anan, & Watanuki, 2002; Teel & Press,
1999). In family caregivers, fatigue has been
found to be physically induced by the constant
demands of caregiving and psychologically
induced by concerns regarding the diagnosis,
treatment and prognosis of the patient (Jensen
& Given, 1993). Female gender (Cho, Dodd, Lee,
Padilla, & Slaughter, 2006), lower income levels
(Gaston-Johansson, Lachica, Fall-Dickson, &
Kennedy, 2004), number of hours of daily care
(Jensen & Given, 1993) and levels of caregiver
strain (Passik & Kirsh, 2005) are some factors
related to higher fatigue in caregivers.
Sleep Disturbances among Caregivers
Sleep disturbance is yet another
outcome of caregiver stress. In a study on
caregivers of Parkinson's disease patients it was
reported that spouses involved in daily
caregiving had a seven-fold increased risk of
sleeping badly compared to partners not
involved in caregiving (Happe & Berger, 2002).
In a study on caregivers of Parkinson's disease
patients it was reported that 48% female, in
contrast to only 27% male, caregiver spouses
suffered from sleep disturbances (Smith,
Ellgring, & Oertel, 1997). Caregivers of adults
with dementia also reported more sleep
complaints than healthy controls of similar age
(Wilcox & King, 1999). In studies on caregivers
of cancer patients it was reported that more
than 95% of the caregivers were experiencing
moderate to severe overall sleep problems
(Carter, 2002; Carter & Chang, 2000). Teel and
Press (1999) reported higher levels of sleep
disturbances in caregivers of cancer, dementia
and Parkinson's disease patients than non-
caregivers. In other studies on caregivers of
dementia patients, family caregivers showed
higher sleep problems than non-family
caregivers (Sato, Kanda, Anan, & Watanuki,
2002; Smith et al., 1997; Wilson, 1989). It may
be added here that both anxiety and depression
are predictors of sleep disturbances (Quan et
al., 2005; Spira et al., 2005). Female gender
(Smith et al., 1997), lower levels of education,
psychol ogi cal di stress, care reci pi ent
disruptions (Wilcox & King, 1999), lack of social
support, fatigue and other familial issues
(Aslan, Sanisoglu, Akyol, & Yetkin, 2009) lead to
sl eep di sturbances. Caregi vers' sl eep
disturbances are associated with higher levels
of fatigue, anxiety, depression, lowered
immune function, elevated stress hormones,
increased risk for cardiovascular diseases and
premature mortality (Martire & Hall, 2002; von
Kanel et al., 2006).
Physiological Consequences of Caregiving
Stress
Apart from psychological problems,
caregiving stress also leads to physiological
malfunctioning.
Hypertension and Heart Desease among
Caregivers
Eventhough caregiving stress has been
reported to cause somatic complaints like heart
115
palpitations, headaches and digestive problems
(Grasel, 2002, Kreutzer et al., 2009; Thompson
et al., 2004), studies also indicate that it can
lead to hypertension and coronary heart
disease (Aronson, 1988). Moritz, Kasl, and
Ostfeld (1992) reported that systolic blood
pressure was higher among men whose wives
were more cognitively impaired. Shaw et al.
(1999) reported that caregivers experienced
67% increase in the risk for borderline
hypertension compared with controls and this
difference remained statistically significant
after controlling for age, gender, education,
socioeconomic status, body mass index and use
of anti-hypertensive medications. Lee, Colditz,
Berkman, and Kawachi (2003) reported that
there is almost two-fold increased risk of
coronary heart disease in family caregivers of ill
spouses when compared with non-caregivers.
In another study it was found that male
caregivers had greater chances of coronary
heart disease than non-caregivers (Vitaliano et
al., 2002).
Altered Insulin Level among Caregivers
Insulin levels are also influenced by
caregiving. Vitaliano, Scanlan, Krenz, Schwatz,
and Marcovina (1996) observed significantly
elevated insulin levels in non-diabetic spousal
caregivers of dementia patients as compared
with gender-matched spouses of non-
demented older adults. Higher rates of diabetes
is also reported in informal caregivers (Haley,
Levin, Brown, Berry, & Hughes, 1987; Pruchno &
Potashnik, 1989).
Disturbed Metabolic Functioning among
Caregivers
With respect to metabolic functioning,
significant differences between caregivers and
non-caregivers were revealed. Older male
caregivers had a significantly higher body mass
index and were more obese than controls and
female caregivers showed a greater increase in
weight than controls over a fifteen to eighteen
months period of time (Vitaliano, Russo,
Scanlan, & Greeno, 1996). These metabolic
changes put caregivers at risk for adverse health
outcomes including elevated lipid levels, high
blood pressure, cardiovascular diseases and
arthritis in weight bearing joints (hips and
knees).
Immune System Deterioration among
Caregivers
Chronic stress related to caregiving also
results in deterioration of the immune system.
In a study conducted by Kiecolt-Glaser, Glaser,
Gravenstein, Malarkey, and Sheridan (1996) on
spousal caregivers of dementia patients, it was
indicated that chronic elevations in stress can
lead to impairments in immunity and in turn
may result in increased vulnerability to
infectious diseases. The study also reported
that response to vaccination against influenza
virus was compromised in caregivers as
compared to same aged non-caregivers.
Caregivers of relatives with Alzheimer's disease
have shown increased wound healing time as
compared to age matched control (Kiecolt-
Glaser, Marucha, Malarkey, Mercado, & Glaser,
1995).
Other Physiological Disturbances among
Caregivers
Informal caregivers are reported to
have higher rates of arthritis, ulcers and
anaemia than non-caregivers (Haley, Levine,
Brown, Berry, & Hughes, 1987; Pruchno &
Potashnik, 1989). Health issues like back
problems and peptic ulcers have been
associated with demands of providing full time
care to a spouse (Cohen, 1982; Snyder & Keefe,
1985). In a descriptive report on caregivers of
116
Parkinson's disease patients, it was stated that
caregivers had higher rates of medical
conditions including arthritis, asthma, diabetes,
cardiac problems and also hypertension
(Guinta, Parrish, & Adams, 2002). Caregiving
stress is also reported to result in faster aging
and mortality. In a study conducted by Epel et al.
(2004), on mothers of chronically ill children, it
was found that chronic stress accelerates the
effects of aging by actually shortening cell life
which in turn leads to weakened muscles, skin
wrinkles and even organ failure. Caregivers of
Alzheimer's patients experiencing emotional or
physical strain were found to have 63% greater
mortality than caregivers without strain or non-
caregivers (Schulz & Beach, 1999).
Conclusion
The ill effects of caregiving stress has
gradually come to the forefront. It is observed
that the caregiver's stress leads to feelings of
burden, which in turn leads to depression,
anxiety, sleep disturbances and fatigue, and
ultimately affects the physical well-being of the
caregiver to the extent that if neglected it can
also claim the caregiver's life. It is therefore very
essential for the family and friends of a primary
caregiver to be vigilant towards the caregiver's
mental and physical health. Any slight change
should not be ignored and reported to the
physician as early as possible. Medical and
psychiatric professionals should also be aware
of the ill consequences of caregiving stress and
identify those caregivers who are at a risk of
developing psychological and physical health
problems and hence provide early and proper
interventions to minimize the risk of any long
lasting damage. The significance of the problem
needs to be realized firstly, in context to the
reducing sizes of families which makes the
availability of caregivers, especially the informal
caregivers, less feasible. Secondly, and more
importantly it needs to be remembered that
informal caregivers provide an all important
quotient of love, affection and emotional care
which is paramount for the patient's physical
and psychological well-being.
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*Research Scholar, **Professor, ***Research Scientist,
Department of Psychology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India.
Introduction :
The concept of self-efficacy lies at the
centre of psychologist Albert Bandura's social
cognitive theory. Bandura's theory emphasizes
the role of observational learning, social
experience, and reciprocal determinism in the
development of personality. According to
Bandura, a person's attitudes, abilities, and
cognitive skills comprise what is known as the
self-system. This system plays a major role in
how we perceive situations and how we behave
in response to different situations. Self-efficacy
plays an essential part of this self-system.
According to Albert Bandura, self-
efficacy is "the belief in one's capabilities to
organize and execute the courses of action
required to manage prospective situations." In
other words, self-efficacy is a person's belief in
his or her ability to succeed in a particular
situation. Bandura described these beliefs as
determinants of how people think, behave, and
feel (1994). It has also been defined as the belief
123
Abstract
Self-efficacy in Militancy Affected Youth of Kashmir Valley
*Ahmad Kaiser Dar **AhmadNavshadWani
Self-efficacy is a competence belief about one's judgments of their capabilities to organize
and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances (Bandura, 1986,
p. 391). There are multiple sources of self-efficacy beliefs, but mastery experienceshow one
interprets, evaluates, and judges their competenceis the most powerful source (Bandura,
1997).Hence, the aim of the present investigation was to study self-efficacy in militancy affected
youth of Kashmir valley. Self-efficacy was studied in two groups- militancy affected group and
militancy non-affected group. Sample comprised 100 participants, 50 each in two groups. Self-
efficacy was measured through General Self-efficacy Scale developed by Ralf Schwarzer and
Matthias Jerusalem. t test showed that the control group scored significantly higher than the
experimental group. When compared in terms of gender no significant difference was found in
experimental group where as in control group significant difference was found as females outshined
males.
Key words: self-efficacy, militancy, youth
that one is capable of performing in a certain
manner to attain certain goals (Ormrod 2006). It
has been described in other ways as the sense of
belief that one's actions have an effect on the
environment (Steinberg, 1998) as a person's
judgement of his or her capabilities based on
mastery criteria; a sense of person' s
competence within a specific framework,
focusing on the person's assessment of their
abilities to perform specific tasks in relation to
goals and standards rather than in comparison
with other's capabilities. Aditionally, it builds on
personal past experience of mastery. The idea
of self-efficacy is one of the centre points in
positive psychology; this branch of psychology
focuses on factors that create a meaning for
individuals. It is believed that our personalized
ideas of self-efficacy affect our social
i nt er ac t i ons i n al mos t ever y way.
Understanding how to foster the development
of self-efficacy is a vitally important goal of
positive psychology because it can lead to living
a more productive and happy life.
Since Bandura published his seminal
1977 paper, "Self-Efficacy: Toward a Unifying
Theory of Behavioral Change," the subject has
become one of the most studied topics in
psychology. Why has self-efficacy become such
an important topic among psychologists and
educators? As Bandura and other researchers
have demonstrated, self-efficacy can have an
impact on everything from psychological states
to behaviour to motivation.
Virtually all people can identify goals
they want to accomplish, things they would like
to change, and things they would like to
achieve. However, most people also realize that
putting these plans into action is not quite so
simple. Bandura and others have found that an
individual's self-efficacy plays a major role in
how goal s, tasks, and chal l enges are
approached.
Since the present study was taken up in
Kashmir, it is, therefore imperative to present a
brief overview of the circumstances prevailing
there in Kashmir. Insurgency in Kashmir has
existed in various forms. Kashmir has been the
target of a campaign of militancy by all sides in
the conflict. Thousands of lives have been lost
since 1989 due to the intensified insurgency.
A widespread popular insurgency
started in Kashmir with the disputed 1987
elections with some elements from the State's
assembly forming militant wings which acted as
a catalyst for the emergence of armed
insurgency in the region.
Kashmir has been witnessing the state
of chronic socio-political conflict for about two
decades now. The conflict has left in its
aftermath many thousands of people dead,
maimed, and disabled, many missing or
confined, thousands of children orphaned and
124
women widowed. In addition, there has been a
colossal damage to the property and cultural
fabric. During the same time, natural disasters
too have frequently traumatized already
suffering people.Keeping these factors, to
mention a few, into consideration, it would not
be an exaggeration to state that militancy/
insurgency has direct as well as indirect
implications on the self-efficacy of people living
there in Kashmir.
Hence the present investigation was
taken up to figure out self-efficacy in
insurgency/militancy affected youth of Kashmir
valley while keeping into consideration the
prevailing circumstances in Kashmir since 1989.
Method
Participants
The sample comprised 100 participants
falling in two groups: militancy affected
(experimental group) and militancy non-
affected (control group). Each group consisted
of 50 participants. The experimental group was
purposively selected from different militancy
affected households of Kashmir while the
control group was drawn out of the general
population of valley.
Measures
General Self-Efficacy Scale:The General
Self-efficacy Scale aims at a broad and stable
sense of personal competence to deal
efficiently with a variety of stressful situations.
The German version of this scale was originally
developed by Matthias Jerusalem and Ralf
Schwarzer in 1981, first as a 20-item version and
later as a reduced 10-item version (Jerusalem
&Schwarzer, 1986, 1992; Schwarzer&
Jerusalem, 1989). It has been used in numerous
research projects, where it typically yielded
internal consistencies between alpha .75 and
.90.
Volume-3 (2) *Ahmad Kaiser Dar **AhmadNavshadWani
The scale is not only parsimonious and reliable, it has also proven valid in terms of
convergent and discriminant validity. For example, it correlates positively with self-esteem and
optimism and negatively with anxiety, depression and physical symptoms.
Results
The results obtained and their interpretations have been presented in Table number 1 to 3.
A perusal of table 1 reveals that mean scores of militancy affected (experimental group) and
militancy non-affected (control group) were 59.72 and 73.19 with SD 10.23 and 15.37 respectively.
The t-ratio between the two means was found to be 5.16 which was significant at 0.05 level of
confidence.
A look at table 2 reveals that mean scores of militancy affected males and females were
46.87 and 50.13 with SD 15.93 and 17.42 respectively. The t-value between the means of the two
groups was found to be 0.68 which was insignificant at 0.05 level of confidence.
Table 3 depicts that the mean scores of militancy non-affected males and females which
were 39.87 and 65 with SD 12.72 and 15.93 respectively. The t-ratio between the two means was
found to be 6.76 which was significant at 0.05 level of confidence.
125
Table 1:Comparison of mean scores of militancy affected and militancy non-affected group
Table 2: Comparison of mean scores of militancy affected males and females
Table 3: Comparison of mean scores of militancy non-affected males and females
Groups
MAG
MNAG
N
50
50
Mean
59.72
73.19
SD
10.23
15.37
T
5.16
P
0.05
Groups
MAM
MAF
N
25
25
Mean
46.87
50.13
SD
15.93
17.42
T
0.68
P
NS
Groups
MNAM
MNAF
N
25
25
Mean
39.87
65
SD
12.72
15.93
T
6.76
P
0.05
Note:
MAG (militancy affected group)
MNAG (militancy non-affected group)
MAM (militancy affected males)
MAF (militancy affected females)
MNAM (militancy non-affected males)
MNAF (militancy non-affected females)
Discussion
The concept of "sel f-effi cacy",
introduced and investigated by Bandura (1977,
1986, 1995), is described as a self-perception
that is formed in the context of behavior in
specific areas (Bandura, 1977, 1986). This
perception develops through a gradual learning
process whereby the individual receives
information from various sources regarding
his/her abilities in a specific area of functioning.
Thi s accumul ati on of feedback
indicating success or failure in the given area
naturally affects the perception of one's ability,
creating a high level of self-efficacy in the case
of positive messages and successes, and an
opposite effect in the case of messages of
failure (Bandura, 1977). The self-perception
formed as a result of these experiences
influences aspects such as stability and
persistence in certain behaviors, patterns of
thinking, and emotional response, decisions
concerning course of action, and occupational
choices. People also develop specific self-
efficacy beliefs with regard to their ability to
lead based on experiences of success in
influencing people (e.g., Murphy, 2002).
The present study aimed at finding out
differences between militancy affected youth
and militancy non-affected youth with respect
to their self-efficacy. The findings revealed that
126
the two groups- militancy affected and
militancy non-affected group did exhibit
statistically significant difference in relation to
their self-efficacy. As the t-ratio (t = 5.16, p<.05)
between the means of the two groups was
found significant. When militancy affected
group was compared in terms of gender, no
significant difference was found. Since the t-
ration (t=0.68, p>.05) which was insignificant at
0.05 level of confidence. Nevertheless,
statistically significant difference was found
when militancy non-affected males and females
were compared on self-efficacy. As the t-ratio
(t= 6.76, p<.05) between the means of the two
groups was found significant. The results of the
present study showed that the mean scores of
militancy affected and militancy non-affected
group on self-efficacy were found to be 59.72
and 73.19 respectively. Therefore, militancy
non-affected group scored higher than
militancy affected group on self-efficacy. The
mean scores of the militancy affected males and
females were found to be 46.87 and 50.13
respectively. Though the militancy affected
females scored slightly higher than their male
counterparts but this difference was not found
statistically significant. The mean scores of
militancy non-affected males and females were
found to be 39.87 and 64 respectively.
Therefore, militancy non-affected females
scored higher than their male counterparts on
self-efficacy.
The findings of the present study have
some direct and indirect support from the
studies and surveys conducted by various
reputed organisations and institutes. A survey
report on Jammu and Kashmi r by a
Holland-based humanitarian group Medecins
Sans Frontieres (MSF) maintains that a third of
its respondents suffered from psychological
distress. Nearly one in 10 people reported
having lost one or more members of their
immediate family due to violence in the period
from 1989-2005. The survey reported that
almost half (48.1%) of the respondents said that
they felt only occasionally or never safe.It also
indicated that violence or the threat of physical
violence seems to have had a significant effect
on the mental health and self-efficacy of
people.
According to MSF, interviewees
reported witnessing (73.3%) and directly
experiencing themselves (44.1%) physical and
psychol ogi cal mi streatment, such as
humiliation and threats thus causing extensive
damage to their psychological health.
Psychologists maintain that people
living at a place ravaged by conflict are often
faced with a number of psychological problems.
They say that the physical environment in which
people live and survive has a direct bearing on
their mental health, psychological wellbeing
and self-efficacy. Stress caused by feelings of
insecurity and dependency can deplete physical
and psychological buoyancy leading to varied
mental problems, this has happened in most of
the cases in Jammu and Kashmir, said Dr
AdarshBhargav.
In this connection, a recent exhaustive
review by Hobfoll et al. (2007) distils the
findings of
empirical research to endorse five
elements of immediate and mid-term mass
trauma intervention. These elements are the
127
promotion of safety, calming, collective and
sel f-effi cacy, connectedness and hope.
Interventions guided by these five elements can
be applied at individual, group and community
levels. Significantly, these include activities that
are broadly economic-developmental.
To conclude the possibility of low self-
efficacy involving violence, activism and other
antisocial activities could not be ruled out
completely owing to multiple restraints.
Keeping these limitations into account more
efforts are required to be made to delve deep
into the problems of persons with low levels of
self-efficacy and to come up with certain
remedial measures, rehabilitation and,
guidance and counselling.
References
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unifying theory of behavioural change.
Psychological Review, 84, 191-215.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of
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Hall.
Bandura, A. (1992) Exercise of personal agency
through the self-efficacy mechanisms.
In R. Schwarzer (Ed.), Self-efficacy:
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Bandura, A. (1994). Self-efficacy.In V. S.
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Bandura, A. (1995). Self-Efficacy in Changing
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Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of
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Hobfoll, S. et al. (2007). Five essential elements
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Jerusalem, M., &Schwarzer, R. (1992). Self-
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128
*Research Scholar at Department of Psychology JamiaMilliaIslamia, New Delhi-110025
**Assistant Professor at Govt. College for Women M. A. Road, Srinagar-19000
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(valid for 12years).
Student Membership: Any student/research scholar in psychology and allied
discipline can get the membership by paying Rs. 1000/-. Validity up to student life
only.

SPECIAL INCENTIVES:
NAPS Newsletter will be provided free of cost as and when started.
All the Members will get special concession for registration at the NAPS
conferences.
The NAPS publishes a bi-annual research journal Indian Journal of
Psychological Science. The original empirical research papers pertaining to
Psychology and allied sciences considered for publication.
Life members will be nominated as a Coordinator of the respective States/Union
Territories and the list will be available on the NAPS website as and when
launched.
Life members will be recommended (on request) to participate in the International
Conference/Symposia etc.
The NAPS will honour the best psychological scientific award annually to
encourage/popularized the field among the mass. Any member can
apply/nominate/recommend the name of suitable person and the decision of the
Governing Body will be final in this regard.

Indian Journal of Psychological Science, Jan-2013

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