2013

[BIO-PHYSICS
APPLICATIONS IN
BIO-MEDICAL
ENGINEERING, PART-1
]
[NOTES ON BIO-PHYSICS IN BIO-MEDICAL
ENGINEERING]
[TEXT-BOOK NAME: INTRODUCTORY-BIO-PHYSICS BY FREDERICK-ROSSHALLELT,P.A.SPEIGHT,ROBERT-HENRY-STINSON-WG. ]

[MOHAMMAD-SIKANDER-KHAN-LODHI]
[BIO-MEDICAL-ENGINEERING GUIDE.INC BY SIKANDER-LODHI]
3/14/2013

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PART-1 ]

BIO-PHYSICS NOTES:

Contents

STRUCTURE-OF-ATP:- ........................................................................................................................... 2

HOW-ATP-WORK-IN-MUSCLES:- ......................................................................................................... 4

TRANSPORTATIONS-ACROSS-THE-BIOLOGICAL-MEMBRANE:- .................................................................... 5
EAR: [ SENCE-OF-HEARING ] ......................................................................................................................... 7
SENCE-OF-EQUILIBRIUM :- ......................................................................................................................... 10
SENCE-OF-TASTE:- ....................................................................................................................................... 11
ANATOMY-OF-EYE:...................................................................................................................................... 14

STRUCTURE-OF-ATP:1. The ATP is consists of Adenosine plus tri-phosphate.

2. This ATP complex molecules contain nucleoside-Adenosine and three inorganicphosphate.
3. This nucleoside-adenosine contain base-Adenine plus ribose-sugar.
4. [:. Nucleoside-Adenosine= base-Adenine + Ribose-sugar ].
5. The basic building block used to construct ATP are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen,
and phosphorus.
DISCRIPTION:1) When ever Glucose-molecules enter in the cell-membrane, then glucose-molecules will be
Glycolysis [Glycolysis=splitting of sugar or glucose molecules ].
2) Then this glucose-molecules will pass through Glycolysis-process and converted into
Pyruvic-Acid, in cytoplasm.
3) So, this Pyruvic-Acid form Acetial-CoA in cytoplasm, this Acetial-CoA enter inside
the mitochondria, in KREB-CYCLEs .
4) Now, this Acetial-CoA dividing into hydrogen[H.]-atom and carbondioxide[CO2]molecule.
5)
6) Now, this hydrogen-atom[H.] gives its electrons [e-] , from its outer most valence-shall,
and this electron[ e-] passes through Electron-transfer-chain [electron-carrier-molecules],
then hydrogen-atom will no more remain hydrogen-atom, because its lose one of its

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electron[e-] therefore, that hydrogen-atom become a single hydrogen-proton[H+-ion], which
is also called proton.
7) TWO-TYPES-OF-PROCESS-BY-WHICH-ATP-IS-TO-BE-CONSTRUCTED:These are as followed.
i.
ii.

Phosphorylation-process.
Chemeosmosis-process.

A. PHOSPHORYLATION-PROCESS:a) In phosphorylation-process the hydrogen-ion [H+ ion ] have only one proton [ positivecharge (+ve )] in its ionic-structure.
b) This hydrogen-proton [H+ ion] combine with oxygen molecules [ O2 (g) ] inside the
mitochondria and produce H2O[l] +
[biological-free-energy].
c) [
]
d) Now then, this free-energy[ ] cause to activated the ATP-synthetase-enzymemolecules;
e) Then, this activated-ATP-Synthetase-enzymes-molecules, cause to add ADP with
Inorganic-phosphate [Pi] which form ATP-molecules.
f) [
g) HOW-CELL-MAKE-ATP PHOSPHORYLATION:-

].

Phosphorylation-process cause to add an inorganic-phosphate to ADP.

ADP + PiATP.
h) SUBSTRATE-LEVEL- PHOSPHORYLATION:Where a substrate-molecules [X-P], denotes its phosphate [Pi] to ADP which make ATP-molecules.
Example like may be : creatine-molecules enter in cell to gives ATP through substrate-levelphosphorylation process example..
B. CHEMI-OSMOSIS-PROCESS (OR) OXIDATIVE-PHOSPHO-RYLATION-PROCESS:1. As when the free-electron passes down on gradient from of NADH to oxygen so, it
release energy [Delta-H=dH=change in free energy ].
2. This energy[delta-H] cause to activated the Proton-Pump.
3. So, when proton-pump activated then at the initial-state, the concentration of proton [H
+ve ions ] are higher inside the mitochondria-membrane in matrix.
4. So, this proton-pump cause to pumping out the proton [H +ve ions ] against proton [H +ve
ions] concentration gradient in the matrix of mitochondria, to passes through [via] internal-

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mitochondria-membrane, and then this proton simultaneously trapped in between the both
internal and external mitochondrion-membrane ;
5. In this way the concentration gradient of proton [H +ve ions] becomes higher in between the
internal and external mitochondrion-membrane so, this proton [ H +ve ions] enter once
again inside the internal-membrane-of mitochondria due to higher concentration gradient ;
6. So, there is only way to entered inside the internal mitochondrion membrane that is by
through ATP-Synthase-enzymes-molecules.
7. So, when proton [ H +ve ions ] enter by through the ATP-Synthase-enzyme, so, it cause to
activated it so, this activated ATP-Synthase-enzyme, cause to join ADP with inorganicphosphate [Pi] molecule to form ATP in the matrix..
------------------------------finished here------------[new-topic]

HOW-ATP-WORK-IN-MUSCLES:-

INTRODUCTION:1. A ATP compose of Adenosine with three inorganic-phosphate [Pi] molecules;

2. ATP is work in living organism as a Bio-logical-fuel which needed by the biological-cells.
3. ATP-molecule releasing energy [delta-H] by bonding with water, in a process called
hydrolysis.
4. Due to this, ATP-molecule divide into two parts that is [1.] ADP [2.] Pi ;
5. [
] [:. =free-energy=12000
calories ].
6. This energy [:. =free-energy=12000 calories ] use in number of different way in each cells
of body as in muscle-cell.
7. It use to give power to Actin and Myosin filament that cause the contraction in musclefilament.
PROCESS:1. The Actins contain Active-sides and the Myosin head attached on Active-side;
2. When the Myosin-head slides on Actins-filament, than contraction occur in muscle.
3. Then, ATP is use by myosin head, to release its one inorganic-phosphate [Pi] and gain energy
by the myosin-head;
4. Then, myosin-head will be activate and slide to move to contract the actin filament so, as the
result of it that the contraction in muscle-filaments will happen.
-----------------finished here----------------

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TRANSPORTATIONS-ACROSS-THE-BIOLOGICAL-MEMBRANE:There are two types of transportations across the biological cell membrane.

1
2

Passive-Transportations

1.
a.
b.

{:.

Active-Transportations
PASSIVE-TRANSPORTATIONS:-> it has two types a. simple-diffusions b. fascilated-diffusions
SIMPLE-DIFFUSIONS:-> its the movement of molecules from higher concentrations gradient to
lower-concentration gradient across the biological-cell membrane.
FASCILATED-DIFFUSIONS:->
The Transmembrane-protein create a water-filled pore through which ions and some small
hydrophilic [un-soluble in water] molecules can passes through cell membrane by diffusions [its
called as Fascilated-diffusion].
The channels can be opened or closed according to the needs of the cell.

=change in free energy };

is positive = +

is negative = G = free energy.

Formula Of

:-> [

= Consumes energy by molecules.

= Releases energy by molecules.
];

Where;
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.

= the change in free-energy.

R = Gass-constant.
= Absolute-temperature in Kelvin= +273 .
= Natural-logarithm.
= Concentration inside the cell milli-molar[mM].
= Concentration outside the cell milli-molar[mM].

----------------Q) FACILATED-DIFFUSION-OF-GLUCOSE-MOLECULE (Numerical):Given:

Concentrations of glucose inside the cell-membrane is 0.5 milli-Molar[mM] ,->[X]in = 0.5 mM;
Concentrations of glucose outside the cell-membrane is 5 milli-Molar[mM] ,->[X]out = 5 mM;
Body temperature of human is 37 C , so absolute temperature in Kelvin is [ Absolutetemperature= Tc+273 =Tk =37 C+273 =310 K. its Absolute-temperature in Kelvin.
R=2=Gass-constant.

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Solutions:
For

Formula Of Change In Free-Energy [

]:-

];

By placing all above value in eq-T,

[

];

];

];
Divide by 1000 to converted in Kcal/mole

];

];

CONCLUSION:- The
is negative, it shows us that, during the fascilated diffusion of glucose molecules,
the glucose molecules released some energy about
of glucose molecules.
--------2. ACTIVE-TRANSPORTIONS OR SODIUM[Na+]-POTASSIUM[K+]-PUMP :STATEMENT:
The transmembrane-protein called Transporter , used the energy from ATP to force ions or small
hydrophilic[un-soluble in water] molecules through [ in or out ] side the cell-membrane against there
concentration gradient.
FUNCTIONS OF ACTIVE-TRANSPORTTIONS: The Active-transport is the movement of molecules across a membrane that is used by energy
from ATP.
This energy which stored in the concentrations of the transmembrane-protein-molecules [
these transmembrane-protein-molecules are located on the surface of cell membrane and
working as a gates on cell-membrane].
This type of transport [ Active-transport or Na+/K+ pump ] require hydrolysis of ATP, when ATP is
hydrolysis so it gives energy to specific Transmembrane-protein molecules.

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So, when the Transmembrane-protein gain energy, then Transmembrane-Protein get
Activated.
So, as the Transmembrane-Protein Activated, so then its mean Na+/K+ pump get also
activated, after that large molecules such as protein, harmones, e.t.c can exist or enter into or
out of the cell by through[via] Na+/K+ pump on cell membrane.
-------------finished-here-------Blood glucose-level=>
Fasting=80-to-90 mg/100md.
Randomely=120-to-140 mg/100md.
------------Blood-clestrol-level:
Normal- Blood-clestrol-level=160;
Ab- Normal-Blood-clestrol-level=200;
Risk-Blood-clestrol-level=160-to-200;
---------------------------

EAR: [ SENCE-OF-HEARING ]
Ear is a receptor organ for both hearing and Equilibrium functions.
We divide the ear into three different parts 1. Outer[external]-ear, 2. Middle-Ear, 3. Inner-Ear.
1. OUTER [EXTERNAL] EAR:
The outer ear consists of i. Auricale[or Pinna] and ii. External-Orditery-Canal.
i.

ii.

Auricale[or Pinna]:-> the pinna is the outer projection, which function to collected sound
wave , Parts-Of-Pinna is Helix ; Helix:-> a. the outer border[or margin ] of pinna is called
helix, helix is consists of cartilages. b. in the lower end there is a down-ward fleshis
projection, which does not have cartilages is called lobules.
External-Orditery-Canal:-> it runs from the pinna to the tempanic membrane, the externalorditery canal contains modified sweats-glands, called ceruminous-gland which secrete
Cerumen which is also called ear-wax , External-Orditery-Canal is about 1 inch long and
inch wide , EAR-WAX [FUNCTION]:-> 1. It prevents[stop] the Incest from entering inside the

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ear, this wax can dissolved all the bacteria which comes from the outside and then its form
wax. 2. Ear-wax also protect from water.

TEMPANIC-MEMBRANE [ OR EAR-DRUM ]:
1. Tempanic-membrane [or ear-drum ] is a cone shaped membrane which lies in between[b/w] the
external ear and middle ear.
2. When ever a sound ringing in between 20 to 20,000 Hz [hertz ] then these sound wave travels
through [via] External-Orditery-Canal and strikes [or hit ] on the Tempanic-membrane then it
generates vibrations in Tempanic-membrane .
3. Then this vibrations transmitted to the Malleus which attach to the Tempanic-membrane [or
ear-drum ] .

2. MIDDLE-EAR:-> the middle-ear runs from Tempanic-membrane to Oval-window.

Contents of middle-ear:
There are three[3] Ossicles [Auditory- Ossicles ] 1. Malleus 2. Incus 3. Stapes
ATTACHMENT-OF-MUSCLE-ON-MALLEUS AND STAPES:
a. Tensertympany-muscle[attached at Malleus].
b. Stapedius-muscle[attached at Stapes].
BLOOD-VISSULES:
NURVES:
A. Corda-tympani .
B. Tempanic-Plaxus

3. INNER-EAR:-> Internal ear consists of 1. Bony-labyrinth; 2. Membranious Labyrinth;

1. Parts of bony-labyrinth : a. Cochlea, b. Vestibules, c. Semi-circular-canals;
2. Parts of Membranious Labyrinth : a. Spiral-duct of cochlea, b. Utricle and Saccule, c. Semicircular Ducts;
THE OSSICLES [AUDITORY- OSSICLES ]
1. The Middle-Ear consists of three Ossicles namely 1. Malleus[hammer] 2. Incus[Anvil] 3.
Stapes[stapes is the smallest bone in the human body] and a Vaccume [ space with no air ] .

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2. The handle of Malleus is attach to the center of Tempanic-membrane [or ear-drum ] , when ever a
vibration is generated in the tempanic-membrane , then it[vibration ] transmitted to Malleus , then the
Malleus also get vibration .
3. the Malleus is also joined to second Ossicle called as Incus by ligaments so the vibration is further
transmitted to Incus through Malleus.
4. the other hand of Incus is connected with Stapes by the ligaments, Stapes which is connected to ovalwindow of the membrane-Labyrinth { Oval-window is the part of Membrane-Labyrinth.
Function Of All Ossicles :-> All Ossicles act as an Amplifiers system by receiving singles from Tempanicmembrane [or ear-drum ] { which[Tempanic-membrane ] is larger in larger in cross section Area} and
transmitting this singles to the oval window which has small cross section Area, but oval window has
higher Impedances [or resistance ] due to fluid present in the membranes-Laby.
ATTENUATION [OR REJECTION ] -EFFECTS:The Stapedius-muscle[attached at Stapes] and The Tensertympany-muscle[attached at Malleus] both act
together in a reflexive manner, contracting to protects ear from the damage by higher frequencies of
sounds.
3. INNER-EAR :TRANSMISSION-OF-SOUND:COCHLEA:The cochlea is embedded [ covered] of temporal-bone , on a cavaity called bony-Labranth and it is filed
inside with a fluid so, that the vibration occur in skull so it produce vibration in fluid [ fluid= endolimph ]
.
ANATOMY-OF-COCHLEA:i.
ii.

iii.

In the cochlea there is a system of three side by side coiled tubes 1. Scala-Vestibuli 2. ScalaMedia [ Cochlea-Duck] 3. Scala-Tempany.
Scala-Vestibuli and . Scala-Media [ Cochlea-Duck] are separated by reissner membrane [ or
Vestibular-Membrane ] and Scala-tympani[or Scala-Tempany] and Scala-media are separated by
basilar-membrane.
ORGAN-OF-CORTIA [ANATOMY]: Organ-of-cortia are the electro-mechanical sensitive
organs presents on the surface of Basilar-Membrane and it contain specialized receptors called
hear cells , which vibrates and generated nerves electrical impulses in response to produced
sound vibrations , sound vibrations enter inside Scala-Vestibuli through Oval-window, when
stapes move inward then endo-limph[fluid] flow towards Scala-Vestibuli and Scala-Media [
Cochlea-Duck] in a forward direction only , and when stapes move outwards then the fluid

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iv.

move backward as the result the vibration will be generated in the Endolimph[fluid] in scalavestibules and scala-media only, the basilar-membrane contain 20 to 30 thousand basilar-fibre
which grooming from every side of the cochlea , even near to the basilar-membrane then it will
be increase in its length and reached to the apex, the diameter of basilar-fibers increase from
base to apex, it depend upon length increase in basilar-fibers , the length of basilar-fibers
minimum at the base [ oval and round window] and the length of basilar-fibers maximum at
the Apex [ center of Cochlea ] , the diameter of basilar-fibers maximum at the base and
minimum at the apex, the thickness of basilar-fibers minimum at the apex and maximum at the
base, high-frequency vibrations : the high frequency occurs near the base , low-frequency
vibrations : the low frequency occurs near the apex.
ORGAN-OF-CORTIA [or check it out -> cortai ] [PHYSIOLOGY=FUNCTIONS]: The organ of
cortai generates nerves impulses in response to the vibration produced by sound waves , in
endolimph [fluid] of the scala-media, its present on the surface of basilar-fibers and basilarmembrane, there are two types of hair-cells 1. Inner-hairs-cells, 2. Outer-hairs-cells INNERHAIRS-CELLS-> the hair-cells make the synapse with a network of cochlear-nerves, the nerve
fibers stimulated [ generated of action potential] which will lead to spiral-ganglion [or may be
gangilon ] of cortai . INNER-OUTER-HAIRS-CELLS-> Inner outer hairs cells nerve
fibersspiral-ganglions cochlear-nerves Auditory-cortex [ its a part of brain ].

------------------------------------HEARING-FINISHED-HERE----------

SENCE-OF-EQUILIBRIUM :VESTIBULAR- APPARATUS:-> the vestibular-apparatus has two parts 1. Bony-labyrinth, 2. Membraneslabyrinth , there are two types of equilibrium receptors 1. Macula [ Saccule and utricle ] , 2. Crista
Ampullaris [ In the end of semi-circular canal at Ampula ] .
MACULA : The Macula are present in saccule and utricle in the vestibules .
Macula is the smallest sensory area [ organ ] about size of 2mm present in saccule and utricle.
LINEAR-MOTION:STATICE-EQULIBRIUM [MACULA OF UTRICLE]:FUNCTION:->
Macula lies on the horizontal plane on the inferior surface of the utricle .
Macula determines position of head with respect to gravity when the person is in up-right [or
sitting straight or standing ] position.

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STATICE-EQULIBRIUM [MACULA OF SACCULE ]: macula lies on the posterior wall of the saccule and macula is lies on vertical plane of saccule.
Macula determines the position of head with respect to gravity, when the person is lying
horizontally .
DYNAMIC-EQULIBRIUM[LINEAR] [COMBINE FUNCTION OF BOTH MACULA OF SACCULE AND MACULA OF
UTRICLE ]:When the body accelerated in only one direction [ linearly] then the fluid inside saccule and utricle
exerting pressure simultaneously in both macula , then the macula gives the impulses of forward and
backward movements to the brain .
ANGULAR MOTION [ SEMI-CIRCULAR-DUCTS ]
SEMI-CIRCULAR-CANALS: There are three[3] semi-circular-canals which are lying [ lie ] in all three axis [ x,y,z- axis ] 1.
Anterior [ Vertical front-plane] , 2. Posterior [ sagital-Plane ] 3. Lateral [horizontal ] .
Each duct [or canal ] has a swelling at its ends called Ampula , with in the Ampula there is a
receptor organ called CristaAmpullaris which cause to detect the motion of Endolimph [
fluid ] due to the angular motion [ or rotation motion ] of the head.
FUNCTION OF SEMICIRCULAR CANALS: These three semicircular Canals are arranged at 90 angle with each others.
So, they represented three different plains that is x-axis, y-axis and z-axis .
ANGULAR-EQULIBRIUM: When the head begins to rotate in any one direction [ clock-wise or anti-clock wise ] then fluid
inside semicircular canals tends to remains stationary .
And begins to rotating fluid after few seconds of movements of our head , then come at rest
after a few seconds by stopping [ or stoping or stop ] the movement of our head.
---------------Ear finished here----------

SENCE-OF-TASTE:Taste is a function of Specilized organs presents on the upper surface of tongs [ Dorsal-surface ] called
as Taste-buds
PRIMARY-SUNSATIONS[FEELING] OF TASTE :1. Sour-taste;

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2. Salty-taste;
3. Sweet-taste;
4. Bitter-taste;
RECEPTORS-FOR-TASTE-SUNSATIONS:There are approximately 13 types of chemical receptors present on our tongs [ human tongs ].
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

2 number of sodium receptors .

2 number of potassium receptors.
1 number of chloride receptors.
1 number of Adenosine receptors.
1 number of inosine receptors.
2 number of sweets receptors.
2 number of bitter receptors .
1 number of glutamate receptor.
1 number of hydrogen ions receptors.

SOUR-TASTE : The sour taste is caused by acid [H+ ions concentrations ] the feeling is directly proportional to
the H+ ions concentration, the lower the pH means that higher H+ ions concentration .
And tongs used H+ ions receptors which cause to detect the H+ ions concentrations on tongs
by lower pH;
The sour test is detected by hydrogen ions receptors , when the concentrations is high of H+ ions
so pH will decrease in tongs then these receptors indicated that this sour taste occur in tongs.
SALTY-TASTE:
This taste cause mainly by Na+ ions concentrations on our tongs , the receptor of sodium binds
with sodium ions so it give the salty feeling of taste to our brain.
SWEET-TASTE: Its caused by verity of chemicals and involve two types sweet receptors.
THE VERITY OF CHEMICALS CAUSED TO PRODUCED SWEETS TASTE IN TONG :
1. Sugars
2. Glycols
3. Alcholes
4. Aldehides
5. Ketones
6. Amides
7. Esters

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8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

Amino-Acids
Poly-peptide
Sulfonic-acid
Halogenated Acid
Inorganic salts of lead and beryllium,

BITTER-TASTE:Bitter taste as like a sweets taste , its caused by verities of chemicals but most important are
1. Long chain organic substances that contain nitrogen,
2. Alkaloids
The bitter taste is senses [ feel ] by two types of bitter receptors ,

THRESHOLD FOR TASTE:

The minimum concentrations at which a chemical substance excites its receptors is
1. Concentrations of [ HCL[ aq ]]=[HCL[ aq ] ] =0.0009 M ; HCL cause to excited or activated Sour
receptors .
2. Concentrations of [ NaCL[aq] ] = 0.01M ;
3. Sucrose = 0.01 M ;
4. Bitter taste = concentrations of Quinine [ chemical ] = 0.000008 M ;
TASTE BLINDNESS :-

1.
2.
3.
4.

Its a disorder in which the taste sensations [ feeling ] is absent.

The chemical compound which used to check this disorder is Phenylthiocarbamide [ verify
it by your teacher ] .
TASTE BUDE AND ITS PHYSIOLOGY OR FUNCTIONS:->
Its the organ [ receptor ] which perceives [ receive ] the sensations of taste .
Its composed of about 50 modified epithelial-cells which are of two types.
Taste cell [ Gustatory] [ for receptor of taste ] .
Sustentacular cell [supporting cell which divide and replace the damage cells ].

ANATOMY OF TASTE BUDS:The taste buds are founds on special structures called Papilla which are the projections of tongs
epithelium.
1. Circumvallate papilla [ on posterior tongs ];
2. Fungi from papilla [ anterior tongs ].

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3. Foliate papilla [ both lateral tongs] .
------------------Taste finished here -----------

---------------------

ANATOMY-OF-EYE:

ANATOMY OF EYE:

FEATURE OF EYE:
-->1).Flexible; -->2).formed of Protein; ->3).strong Accomedation Power; -->4).lens must be
spherical; -->5).20-Diopter's Required for the
normal Vission;
-->the eye is divided into 2-part's;
(i-e)=>a).external part; & =>b).internal part;
DIAGRAM OF EYE:

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A).EXTERNAL-PART:
-->The 1/6 portion of the external part of eye can
be Observed externally (about 1-inch & 2.5cm);

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1).GLAND ASSOCIATED WITH EYE'S:

-->a).Siliary Gland; -->b).Sebecceous Gland; ->c).Meibomian gland; -->d).The defienciency of any
Gland which are describe above by which causes
serious murfunction & most common syndeomes is
called STI;
2).CONJUNCTIVA:
-->a).The Conjunctiva is the thin transparent
tissue that cover's the outer surface of eye; ->b).Its begains at the outer edge's of the
Cornea,covering the vissible part of the sclera,&
lining inside the eyelid's; -->c).Its nourished by
tiny blood vessel's that are nearly invisible to naked
eye; -->d).Its also contain the secreates oil &
mucous that moisten & lubricate the eye;
3).EYE-LIDS:
-->a).The eyelids protect the eye from the

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environments , Injury & light; -->b).they also

maintain a smooth corneal surface by spreading
tears over the eye; -->c).the eye-lids are
composed of 3-parts (i-e)=>-->1).an outer layer of
skin; -->2).a middle layer of muscle & tissue that
give them form; -->3).an inner layer of moist
conjunctival tissue;
4).EYE-LASHES & EYE-BROW'S:
-->a).These specialized hair protect eye from
particles that may causes to injured eye; -->b).If
any thing cause to contact with it then it trigger's
the eye lids to blink;
5).CANTHUS:
-->a).Its the junction which joint the edges of
upper & lower eye-lids; -->b).In our eye there are
2-canthus;
1).the lateral Canthus ; 2).the medial canthus;
B).THE INTERNAL PART OF EYE:
The inner portion of eye is
composed of 3-layer's;
(i-e)
-->a).Sclera; -->b).Choroid; -->c).Retina;
a).SCLERA:
-->1).The sclera is Commonly known as "the WHITE
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of the eye". the sclera is composed of Tough opaque

tissue that serves as the eye's protective outer
coat; -->2).the 6-tiny muscle's are connect to
sclera around the eye & control the eye movements;
-->3).The Optic nerve is attached to sclera at
posterior(back) location of eye;
b).CHOROID:
-->1).The Choroid is the second-layers of eye, the
choroid lies in b/w the retina & sclera; -->2).The
Choroid is composed of layer's of blood Vessels
that nourish the back of eye; -->3).In the front
location of eye, the choroid connects with the
Ciliary body;
-->4).In the back location of the eye, the Choroid
is attached to edges of the optic nerve;
c).RETINA:

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a).The Retina is a multi-layered sensory tissue that

located deep with respected to both sclera &
choroid; -->b).the retina contain millions of photoreceptors that capture light rays & convert them
into electrical impules , then these electrical impules
travel to brain through optic-nerve,where they
converted into images;
-->c).there are 2 types of photo-receptors in
retina ;
(i-e)=>-->i).Rod's ; & -->ii).Cones;
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i).ROD'S-CELL:
-->a).There are approximately 125-millions of
rods-cell are present in retina; -->b).the Rods cell
are spread through out the retina & its function
best in dim-lighting Vision; -->c).The Rods-cell
are responsible for night-vission;
ii).CONES-CELL:
-->a).The retina contain approximately 6-million's
of cone-cell's; -->b).The Cone's are contain in
macula(the part of retina responsible for central
vision); -->c).The Cones are most densely packed
with in the fovea,(fovea is the most center part of
macula);
-->d).Cones function best in Bright-light-vission;
1).IRIS OF EYE:
-->a).The coloured part of eye is called IRIS; ->b).The Iris controled the light intensity which
entering inside the eye;
-->c).The round opening in the center of Iris is
called "Pupil";
-->d).the iris is embedded with tiny muscle's that
controlled the size of "Pupil" by dilate & Constrict
the pupil size;
(i-e)
-->i).Sphincter-muscle; & -->ii).dilator-muscle;
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i).SPHINCTER-MUSCLE:
-->a).The Sphincter-muscle lie around the very
edge of the Pupil; -->b).In the prience's of
Bright-light the Sphincter-muscle would be contract
causing to reducing the size of pupil;
ii).DILATOR-MUSCLE:
-->a).The dilator-muscle runs radiolly through the
Iris,dilator-muscle cause to dilates the eye in Dimlighting; -->b).the colour of iris comes from
microscopic pigment cell called "Melanin-cell";
2).PUPIL:
-->a).the Pupil is the hole,which present at the
center of Iris;
-->b).The radius (or diameter) of pupil is controlled
by the iris muscle's during when the certain amount
of light passing through the pupil; -->c).the size of
Pupil determine that amount of light which entering
in the eye;
3).FLUID IN EYE'S:
-->i).In our eye there are 2-chamber's (ie)=>(a).anterior-chamber; & (b).posterior-chamber;
-->ii).In our eye there are 2-types of fluid (i-e)->(a).Aqueous-humar (In anterior-chamber); & ->(b).Viterous-humar(In posterior-chamber);
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chamber;
-->Viterous-humar is fills in the space of
posterior-chamber;
---------------------(contineously)--------------------a).AQUEOUS-HUMAR:
-->(i).The aqueous humar is the thin,wattery fluid
that fill's the space between the cornea & Iris(In
anterior-chamber);
-->(ii).The aqueous humar is Contineously produced
by the Ciliary-body; -->(iii).The ciliary-body is the
part of inner eye that lie's just behind the Iris;
b).VITEROUS-HUMAR:
-->(i).The Viterous-humar is the
thick,transparient,jelly like liquid substance that
fill's the
center of the eye,(In posterior-chamber); ->(ii).The Viterous-humar is Composed of mainly
of water;
-->(iii).The Viterous-humar give's the eye a form &
Shape by its Comprises about 2/3 of the
eye's Volume; -->(iv).The "Viscous-properties" of
the Viterous-humar allow the eye to return to its
Normal-shape if eye is Compressed;
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4).CILIARY-BODY:
-->(i).The Ciliary-body lies just behind the Iris; ->(ii).Tiny fiber "Guywires" known as the "Zonules"
is attached to Ciliary-body ; -->(iii).The Zonulesfiber's is attached with Ciliary-body & Crystallinelen's; -->(iv).The Crystalline-len's is Suspended
in-side the eye by the help of "Zonular-fiber";
a).FUNCTION OF CILIARY-BODY:
-->(i).Its function is the production of Aqueoushumar,the Aqueous-humar is the clear-fluid that
fills the Anterior-Chamber of eye;
-->(ii).Its also Control's "Accommodation" by
Changing the shape of crystalline len's;
-->(iii).when ciliary-body contracts,then Zonulesrelax,this allow's the len's to become thicken,which
cause to increase the eye's ability to focus up on
close Objects; -->(iv).When looking at a distant
objects the ciliary-body relaxes,causing the zonules
to contract,then the len's becomes thinner, which
cause to adjusting the eye's focus on distance
vission;
=>key-point=>with age,every 1 develop's a condition
known as "Presbyopia",this disease occur's when
ciliary-body muscle & len's gradually lose elasticity
causing difficulty in readying;
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5).FOVEA:
-->(i).In the Middle of retina there is a small
dimple called as "fovea";
-->(ii).the middle part of fovea is called as "foveacenterallis";
6).BLIND-SPOT OR OPTIC-DISK:
-->(i).The blind-spot is the point on retinasurface,where the optic-nerve goes towards the
brain;
-->(ii).the blind-spot does not have any rode's &
cone's;
7).TEAR-PRODUCTION-SYSTEM:

-->The eye's tear's are Composed of salt & antibacteria enzyme called as "lyzozome";
-->the tear production system,consisting of 4-part

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are as followed;
(i-e)=>-->(i).Lacrimal-gland; -->(ii).Lacrimalcanal; -->(iii).Lacrimal-sac; -->(iv).Lacrimal-duct;
=>(i).Lacrimal-gland:
-->the watery part of tear film is produced by
lacrimal-gland,this gland is located underneath of
outer orbital rim bone & the upper latteral portion
of eye;
-->then,now this watery part of tear film comes
down in eye,then the tear-film travel from the
superior & inferior lacrimal-canal through lacrimalsac to the lacrimal-duct,
the lacrimal-sac drain into lacrimal-duct which
connect's to nasal passage;
=>key-point=>this passage b/w the tear production
system & nose is the reasion in which when our nose
is running out during when we crying;
8).THE MUSCLE'S THAT CONTROLED THE
MOVEMENTS OF OUR EYE BALL:

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Our both eye's are held on that place where the 3pairs of stiff-elastic muscle's are presents,these
3-pairs of stiff-elastic muscle's are constantly
balance the pull of each other,
-->these 3-pairs of stiff-elastic muscle's are as
following;
-->(a).The superior & inferior rectus muscles; ->(b).The lateral & medial rectus muscles; ->(c).The superior & inferior oblique rectus muscle's;
FUNCTION:
The function of these 3-pairs of stiff-elastic
muscle's are given below;
(a).The Function Of superior & inferior rectus
muscles:
-->(i).The "superior-rectus-muscles" cause to roll
the eye ball back & vertically up-wards, --

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>(ii).The action of "superior-rectus-muscles" is

always counter(opposed) the action of "inferior
rectus muscles"; -->(iii).both muscle's are counter
acting each other;
(b).The Function Of lateral & medial rectus muscles:
-->(i).The "lateral-rectus-muscles" pull the eye ball
towards lateral side away from the
nose(horizontally); -->(ii).The medial-rectus
muscle's pull the eye ball towards the medial-side
its mean that towards the nose (horizontally); ->(iii).Both muscle's are counter-acting each other;
(c).The Function Of superior & inferior oblique
rectus muscle's:
the both superior & inferior oblique rectus muscle's
cause to roll the eye ball clock Or anti-clock wise
direction;
___________(ANATOMY OF EYE: finishedhere)_________________________

LIST OF FIGURES :-

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