Introduction

Silos w ith a substantial capacity in the cem ent industry

m ay cause large eccentricities during discharge due to
their individual bottom aeration sections. A large eccen-
tricity is classed as w hen a discharge flow channel is m ore
than half the radius of a silo from the silo m id-point. From
different investigations
1,2
it is know n that horizontal pres-
sures in a flow channel are sm aller than in the bulk m ate-
rial outside the flow channel. This results in a reduction in
horizontal pressures in the zone in w hich the flow chan-
nel contacts the w all, com pared to the horizontal pres-
sure on the rem aining w all circum ference that
corresponds w ith the fill pressures. In the transition from
flow zone to static zone, horizontal pressures even
higher than the fill pressure occur due to the load bal-
ance. The result is an alternating pressure distribution
w hen discharging large capacity silos, w hich could lead to
critical w all loads in certain cases.
Corresponding view s are included in the
current draft of European Silo
Standards prEN 1991-4 and the
revised Germ an Silo Standards DIN
1055-6, w hich fundam entally corre-
sponds to prEN 1991-4 and w ill pre-
sum ably be introduced by the end of
2004. Silos w ith bottom aeration are
generally view ed as slender silos.
Process engineering for
silo discharging
The largest silos in the cem ent industry
are built w ith diam eters up to
30 m . Typical silos for storage of
20 000 t cem ent are, for exam ple,
20 m in diam eter and 60 m high.
Although there are different design
variations by the leading suppliers,
large capacity silos w ith diam eters
above 12 m are m ainly executed as
central cone versions. The central cone
has a m aterial displacem ent function,
w hich allow s the m aterial in the silo to
com e into m otion during discharge.
All silos w ith a central cone
(Figure 1) are designed as quasi flat
bottom silos, w hereby the silo
bottom form s a ring space. This is divided into individual
aeration sections that are slightly declined tow ards the
outlet by approxim ately 10. The silo bottom is
equipped w ith so-called fluidslides that have an air-per-
m eable fabric on the upper side. The aeration air is
blow n under the fabric in order to fluidise the bulk
m aterial on the fabric. The percentage of coverage of
the silo bottom w ith fluidslides varies betw een 35 and
50% depending on system and requirem ents. In order
to ensure problem -free discharge of m aterial, air
am ounts and aeration pressure m ust be adjusted to
each other. The air am ounts increase roughly linearly
from a m inim um air am ount w ith the required dis-
charge throughputs. As a rule, blow ers w ith 500 m bar
pressure are sufficient for aeration.
The silo bottom is aerated section by section, so that
all sections are aerated in a com plete cycle. It is insignif-
icant w hether tw o or m ore sections are con-
nected for aeration. Correspondingly,
only the part of the bulk m aterial
above the actively aerated silo section
is in m otion, and a flow channel form s
increasing upw ards (Figure 2), w hich
can include alm ost the entire cross
section, depending on discharge
am ount, silo height and aeration
tim e. W ithin the flow channel there is
a convergent m aterial flow. The gra-
dient of flow is illustrated in the fig-
ure by the increasing w idth of the
blue and w hite m aterial elem ents. As
only the bulk m aterial above the aer-
ated section is in m otion, no m ass
flow w ill occur in the silo. W ith m ass
flow the entire m aterial in the silo
w ould be in m otion uniform ly. Due to
the cyclic aeration of the ring zone,
one section after another, the dis-
charge process in the silo m ust be
strongly eccentric.
W all loads during
discharge w ith large
eccentricities
Figure 3 show s the w all loads after
filling according to prEN 1991-4
Reprinted from W ORLD CEM ENT Novem ber 2004
D. Lippold, Peter und Lochner, Beratende
Ingenieure fur Bauwesen Gm bH,
Germ any, and J. Harder, OneStone
Consulting Group Gm bH, Germ any,
describe the silo aeration for the m aterial
discharge of large capacity silos in the
cem ent industry and its influence
on wall loads.
Figure 1. Silo with central cone for the
cem ent industry.
(2004 version) in a large capacity silo
w ithout displacem ent cone. The hor-
izontal pressure p
hf
increases w ith
the height according to the Janssen
form ula
3
based on an e-function
tow ards the silo bottom , and beside
the diam eter, it is dependent on the
specific w eight of the bulk m aterial,
the w all friction coefficient of bulk
m aterial and w all m aterial, as w ell as
the horizontal pressure ratio.
Accordingly, calculation guidelines
exist for the w all friction p
w f
and the
vertical load p
vft
in the depth z. For
the discharge of silos w ith large
eccentricities, design loads are given
in the prEN 1991-4 for the case that
the discharge eccentricity e
o
exceeds
the critical value of e
o,cr
= 0.25 d
c
,
w ith d
c
as the silo diam eter. Tw o
cases w ere differentiated depending
on silo size (Figure 4):
l Assessm ent class 3 (general
process for silos w ith a fill capaci-
ty greater than 1000 t): if the size
of a flow channel cannot be pre-
dicted from the discharge system ,
calculations m ust be im plem ent-
ed w ith different approaches for
the diam eter of the flow channel.
This allow s the horizontal pres-
sure w ithin and outside of the
flow channel and the associated
circum ferential angle
c
for the
contact zone of the flow channel
at the w all for any case to be
determ ined.
l Assessm ent class 2 (general
process only for silos w ith a fill
capacity of less than 1000 t): The
flow channel contacts the w all
w ith a circum ferential angle
c
of
35and the horizontal discharge
pressure in the flow zone can be
set w ith p
hce
= 0 and outside the flow
zone w ith p
hse
= p
hf
as w ell as p
hae
= 2
p
hf
. This view is sim plified and the
results are on the safe side; the appli-
cation of general processes for
assessm ent class 3 rem ains optional.
To allow a better prediction of the
size of a flow channel for large
capacity silos in the cem ent industry,
in the follow ing, an attem pt is m ade
to give a qualitative estim ation upon
the form ation of flow channels.
Form ation of flow
channels
Figure 5 show s the flow channel for-
m ation w ith large eccentricities in a
cem ent silo, w here a low er and
upper flow channel part have to be
separated. W hile the upper part is
only form ed by the gradient of the
slope at the surface of the m aterial
w ith practically no influence on the
horizontal pressures, the low er part
is form ed by the flow w ithin the
m aterial, because of the bottom aer-
ation. The m om entary aerated silo
section can be located at the right
hand side. The flow channel can be
differentiated by a slightly darker
colour than the rest of the m aterial.
As the m om entary flow channel has
no contact w ith the silo w all, the cir-
cum ferential angle
c
= 0. Since
c
is
dependent on the silo height, for silo
dim ensions it w ould be useful to
determ ine
c
approxim ately at the
height of the cone tip and not at the
m aterial surface.
Figure 6 schem atically show s the
flow channel form ation for three dif-
ferent tim es. At the initial aeration,
only the m aterial close to the outlet
becom es fluidised and a flow channel
Reprinted from W ORLD CEM ENT Novem ber 2004
Figure 2. Flow channel during eccentric
discharge.
Figure 3. Filling loads in a silo.
Figures 4a and b. Influencing variables during eccentric discharge. Left:Flow channel geom etry and right: pressures.
Reprinted from W ORLD CEM ENT Novem ber 2004
is form ed w here
c
= 0 (t
1
). W ith ongoing aeration the
flow length for the bulk m aterial along the fluidslides
increases, and also the size of the flow chan-
nel increases until the first m aterial at the
silo w all becom es fluidised. This m eans
that the m aterial at the silo w all
com es into m otion.
c
becom es > 0
(t
2
). W hen all the m aterial above
the aeration section is in m otion
(t
3
), w ith longer aeration tim e
the flow channel size and
c
w ill
further increase until a m axim um

c,lim it
is reached. The circum feren-
tial angle
c
and m axim um
c,lim it
are proportional to the size of the
aeration section and the area on
w hich the bulk m aterial is in m otion.
Correspondingly, for a section num ber of
16, for exam ple, the circum ferential
angle
c
is at least > 22.5(360/16)
w hen the bulk m aterial above it is
com pletely in m otion.
It can be assum ed, that not only the size of an aera-
tion section, but also the arrangem ent of the fluidslide
system and the flow control have an influence on the
flow channel form ation, as there are radial and tangen-
tial fluidslide arrangem ents. Thus, in practice, the cir-
cum ferential angle
c
is influenced by a num ber of
param eters, including the aeration system , the num ber
of aeration sections, the aeration tim e, the discharge
capacity per tim e, the storing tim e w ithout m ovem ent
and the specific bulk m aterials characteristics such as
bulk density, internal angle of friction and w all friction
angle.
For an actual com parison of different discharge sys-
tem s w ith regard to the w all load, the size of the active
aeration section is m ost significant. Generally, the num -
ber of aeration sections increases w ith increasing silo
diam eter in order to keep the active aeration surfaces
from becom ing too large. Correspondingly, the circum -
ferential angle
c
decreases in silos w ith a larger diam e-
ter and a higher num ber of aeration sections. The
circum ferential length l
c
of the flow channel at the w all
that has an effect on bending m om ents, how ever,
increases w ith a constant num ber of aeration sections
and increasing silo diam eter.
Generally it should be noted that at a
defined silo size the resulting w all stresses
due to discharging becom e sm aller as the
circum ferential angle of flow channels
at the silo w all becom es sm aller.
Accordingly the w all stresses
becom e sm aller as the pressure dif-
ferences in the silo becom e
sm aller:these depend on the size
and eccentricity of the flow chan-
nels. One possible m eans of reduc-
ing the form ation of flow channels
is, for exam ple, using sm aller aera-
tion sections and not connecting
neighbouring aeration sections toge-
ther for silo discharging.
Practical calculation
exam ples
A practical exam ple of a cem ent silo
w ith 17.2 m inner diam eter and a fill-
ing height of 40 m show s w hat effects the horizontal
pressure distribution from the described flow channels
has on the stress resultants and dim ensions of the silo
w all. The silo w all is stiffened at the upper and low er
edge by adjoining com ponents; the assum ed w all thick-
ness is 30 cm . The design loads and relevant stress resul-
tants for tw o flow channels w ith the radii r
c
= 0.35 r and
0.5 r are show n. Since loads and stress resultants change
w ith the height, the section is view ed at half filled
height (z = 20 m ) for sim plification, w hich can be seen as
representative for the ratio on the entire w all height. In
addition, a direct com parison w ith the design based on
the DIN 1055 part 6 standard (M ay 1987, currently still
valid) is possible for this height section.
Figure 7 show s the horizontal pressure distribution
along the w all circum ference. A larger contact zone at
the w all circum ference results for the larger flow chan-
nels w ith 0.5 r com pared to the sm aller flow channel
w ith 0.35 r, w hile the pressure differences along the cir-
cum ference are low er w ith the larger flow channel
diam eter. This can be seen in the view of the flow chan-
nel as silo in the silo. Thus, w ith increasing flow chan-
nel diam eter, the pressures also increase and approach
the pressures in the surrounding static bulk m aterial (as
can be com pared in Figure 8).
Figure 9 show s the bending m om ent at half height of
the silo w all in circum ferential direction. Characteristics
for the established pressure distribution are the bending
m om ents that create considerably higher tensile stresses
on the inner side than the outer side of the w all. The
larger flow channel diam eter produces the appropriately
larger bending m om ent. Sim ultaneously, these bending
m om ents are considerably larger w ith tension on the
w all inner side than those in the design w ith patch loads
tow ards the outside. This use of patch loads w as the rel-
evant load case based on DIN 1055 part 6 (M ay 1987) to
date for the load from the bulk m aterial pressures, and
should now as before be view ed as an additional load
case. The ring tensile forces are alm ost constant over the
silo circum ferenceand practically the sam e for both flow
channel diam eters, w hich is w hy no presentation is
Figure 5. Form ation of flow channels in a
cem ent silo.
Figure 6. Form ation of flow channels for different aeration tim es
t
3
>t
2
>t
1
.
Reprinted from W ORLD CEM ENT Novem ber 2004
m ade here. They can be sufficiently accurately deter-
m ined from the fill pressure of the resting m aterial via
the so-called container form ula at n
x
= p
hf
x r = 106 x 8.6
= 912 kN/m . Com pared to load approaches w ith patch
load, they are considerably less, since larger discharge
loads are anticipated.
The shear forces in circum ferential direction are
show n in Figure 10 as additional internal forces. W ith
the silo design typical up until now, corresponding shear
forces also resulted from the patch loads in principle;
how ever, these w ere previously not seen as relevant for
w all design, and therefore they w ere not considered
(this is com pared below ). Please note that the design
loads show n according to the drafts of standards are
only sim plifications of w hat in reality are very
com plicated conditions in the silos show n, and in prac-
tice, their conversion for each application m ust be
appropriately critically scrutinised.
Results of the w all design
For the ring reinforcem ent at the outer side of the w all
there are practically no changes com pared to previous
designs, since here, as before, the approach w ith patch
loads is significant. How ever, deviations can result as
m athem atical effects through negligibly changed
param eters and m odified form ulas; nevertheless they
should not exceed 10 - 15% in norm al cases. The ring
reinforcem ent at the w all inner side is clearly increased
due to the high bending m om ent com pared to previous
designs, a significant result of the design load w ith flow
channel. This indicates that the decisive load on a cylin-
drical silo w all in addition to the absolute size of the
m axim um pressure is very strongly influenced by the
pressure distribution, and that not only localised pres-
sure increases, but also a pressure decrease, brings prob-
lem s. Table 1 show s a com parison of the required ring
reinforcem ent based on old and new standards.
The shear forces are another very significant aspect
in the circum ferential direction w hich result from the
design loads described above. W hen using the previ-
ously valid standard, DIN 1045 (July 1988), relatively
sm all shear stresses occur, w hich cannot lead to conclu-
sions about any problem s. In the future, the proof of
the established shear resistance w ithout shear rein-
Table 1. Comparison of t he required ring reinf orcement at mid-height (z=20 m)
Out side silo wall Inside silo wall Silo wall t ot al
cm
2
/ m cm
2
/ m cm
2
/ m
Internal forces and bending m om ents
35.8 23.6 59.4
due to DIN 1055 part 6 (M ay 1987)
Internal forces and bending m om ents
37.1 24.7 61.8
-m ethod, due to DIN 1055 part 6
(M ay 1987) distribution outside/inside 60/40%
Internal forces and bending m om ents
23.8 33.7*
according to flow channel m ethod due to
draft prEN 1991-4 respectively DIN 1055-6
r=0.5r
c
70.8
Due to standard design 37.1* 24.7
* Relevant f or t he design
Figure 8. Horizontal pressures depending on height. Figure 7. Horizontal pressure distribution in a silo due to a flow
channel.
forcem ent m ust be show n based on DIN 1045-1,
w hereby the axial forces in the section m ust be consid-
ered. The ring tensile force in the silo w all drastically
reduces the incorporated shear resistance. In the
exam ple described, this leads to an inadequate shear
resistance of the silo w all for the calculated shear
forces of a reinforced w all w ithout post-tensioning
w ith typical dim ensions based on DIN 1045-1. Sim ply
stated: no adequate shear forces can be transm itted
via open cracks in silo w alls.
The fact that the design form ula listed in 1045-1 is
not applicable to the typically large tensile forces in silo
w alls, and the lack of inform ation about the lim it of the
scope of validity also presents a problem at present.
Based on current know ledge, it cannot be expected that
proof can be given in a different m anner. The applica-
tion of shear reinforcem ent fails due to the sam e
obstacle. The insufficiently researched influence of cycli-
cally alternating loads from the circulating aeration of
the discharge sections is also of significance. Previously
im plem ented m odel design calculations clearly indicate
that the inadequate shear resistance of the silo w all
under tension could be the m ain cause for severe
dam ages.
Reducing a too high ring tensile stress in the silo w all
is a useful solution for critical cases. This leads to the use
of post-tensioning in the circum ferential direction as
already successfully used for m any years for silos and
stores w ith a diam eter of 20 m and m ore. Although this
is a m ore technologically dem anding solution, it does
not need to be m ore expensive than a w all w ithout
post-tensioning. In addition, the post-tensioning brings
w ell-know n advantages for lim iting the w idth of cracks,
w hich is an im portant aspect for the durability of the
w all. Post-tensioning could already be used w ith
considerably sm aller diam eters than previously typical,
in order to avoid long-term dam age.
Conclusions and recom m endations
It has been show n that the silo discharge system has a
considerable influence on the size and eccentricity of
the flow channel form ation and the resulting w all loads
in silos w ith a central cone. Depending on the discharge
system , the num ber of aeration sections and discharge
quantities, critical cases can occur w ith regard to w all
loads. Generally, such critical cases should undergo an
extensive analysis that includes the ideas presented. If it
is decided that the case m ust be considered critical,
post-tensioning in circum ferential direction m ay be a
solution.________________________________________u
Literature
1. JOHNSTON, T., Pressure M easurem ent During Flow in a 23.4 m
Diam eter x 66.7 m High Raw M eal Blending Silo at a Cem ent
Plant, Bulk Solids Handling, Vol. 21, No. 2 M arch/April 2001,
pp. 149-152.
2. SADLER, J. E. et al, Designing Silo W alls for Flow Patterns, ACI
St ruct ural Journal, M arch/April 1995, pp. 219-228.
3. ROTTER, J. M ., Guide f or t he economic design of circular met al
silos, SPON PRESS, London and New York.
4. JANSSEN, H., Versuche uber Getreidedruck in Silozellen, [Tests
regarding grain pressure in silo cells], VDI Zeit schrif t , Vol. 39,
August 1985, pp. 1045-1049.
Figure 9. Bending m om ents depending on circum ference.
Figure 10. Shear forces depending on circum ference.