Indian Journal of Psychological Science, July-2013

I
N
D
I
A
N
J
O
U
R
N
A
L OF PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE
Volume-4 (1)
NAPS
A PUBLICATION OF
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE (Regd.)
IJPS
IJPS
July - 2013
ISSN 0976 9218
Indexed & Listed at:
Ulrich's Periodicals Directory , ProQuest, U.S.A.,
NAPS
EDITOR
Prof. V.V. Upmanyu
Dept. of Psychology
Panjab University
CHANDIGARH
MANAGING EDITOR
RosHan Lal Dahiya
Dept. of Psychology
Panjab University
Chandigarh (INDIA)

EDITORIAL BOARD
Bonnie Nastasi (USA), D. Lester (USA), Md. Kamal Uddin (Bangladesh), S.P. Sinha
(Agra), R.S.Pirta (Shimla), S.S. Nathawat (Jaipur), Renu Rastogi (Roorkie), S.S.
Phulia (Ambala), Radhey Shyam (Rohtak), Manika Saxena (Jaipur), Mahmood S.
Khan (Aligarh), Mukta Rastogi (Lucknow), S.K. Srivastava (Haridwar), S.N. Ghosh
(Shimla)
ADVISORY BOARD
A.V.S.Madnavat (Jaipur), Rakesh Goyal (Panchkula), Roshan Lal Zinta (Shimla), Y. K.
Modgil (Jodhpur), Bhupendra Singh(Khurja), S.Panda (Gungtok), Himadri
Sao(Haridwar), Anjana Bhatacharjee (Tripura), Yogesh Jogsan (Gujrat), Rakesh
Bahamani (Hisar), Himadari Sao (Haridwar)
Rajesh Kumar
Head, Dept. of Psychology
P G, Govt. College,
Sector-46, Chandigarh (INDIA)
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
ISSN 0976 9218 July - 2013
Volume-4 (1)
INDIAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE
Yogesh Jogsan
Dept. of Psychology
Saurashatra Univercity
Rajkot, Gujrat (INDIA)
NAPS
Note:
1. All legal under taking related to the research journal are subjected to be
hearable at Chandigarh jurisdiction only.
2. Every author and co-author/s has to submit an undertaking that the
manuscript submitted is original and has not been published elsewhere till
date.
3. Send the hard and soft copies of your paper to the Managing Editor and soft
copy can be submitted online to managingeditorijps@gmail.com.
COMPULSORY INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS :-
Research paper must be typed preferably in MS Word in single space only using
TIMES NEW ROMAN font size-12
WORD LIMIT/ LENGTH OF RESEARCH PAPER:
Research paper should not be beyond 3500 words including graphs and tables but if
you want to publish the research paper beyond the said limit then author has to pay
Rs. 200/- per page as extra charges and that page will have 350 maximum words.
Your paper should be referred to any two subject experts/referees from author's
side. Each Subject expert/referee should have a minimum 08 years related
experience.
MAJOR STEPS TO BE FOLLOWED:
Title: Avoid abbreviations; title must be short, accurate along with short title, 3/4
words to be used as running head of the same.
Authors: Only name and institutional affiliation should be given by all the authors
at the end of the article/paper.
Guidelines for Authors
INDIAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE (IJPS) is a refereed, blind double
reviewed bi-annual research journal (ISSN 0976 9218) of psychology and allied
disciplines. All the papers are considered for publication on the basis of the final
recommendation/approval of the Referees. Every referee evaluate and review the
paper on different dimensions and if a paper found suitable for publication, only
then it published.
Volume-4 (1) July-2013 ISSN-0976 9218
Abstract: It should be short and limit it to the four or five most important concepts,
findings, or implications of the study. It should not exceed more than 150 words.
Introduction: The sole aim is: why it is important and how it is unique as compared
to other studies. It must include the general introduction, literature review and the
relation of the present study to the existing literature and the explicit statement of
purpose.
Method: This section comprises Design,Participants, Measurements/Tools and
Procedure.
Results: The obtained results should be tabulated or in the form of figure etc. but do
not repeat it beyond more than one format. Minimize the number of tables and
indicate in the paper about the location of the tables.
Discussion: It is one of the important sections of the whole paper so it should be
written carefully. Initiate about the attained answer and then in separate paragraph
correlate the findings with previous researches accordingly. Avoid clubbing Results
and Discussion.
References: Avoid citing the references of Abstracts and unpublished
paper/articles/theses. The name of the journal/source must be written in full and
not in abbreviation. We follow APA format
Specimen references:
Kumar, R. & Lal, R (2006). Role of Self e-fficacy and gender differences among
adolescents. Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology; 32 (3): 345-350.
Lal, R. & Kumar, R. (2007). Vigilance in children as a function of psyhcoticism and
intelligence. Indian Journal of Psychology and Mental Health,1, 77-85.
Permission for reproduction in any form should be addressed to :
The Managing Editor, Indian Journal of Psychological Science.
# 2265, Sector-19-C, Chandigarh-160019 (INDIA)
Email: managingeditorijps@gmail.com
Phone: 91-9417882789
Volume-4 (1) July-2013 ISSN-0976 9218
Contents
NAPS
01. Challenges of Positive Psychology: A Way to Sustainble 001-006
Happiness
*Kalpana Sahoo **Malaya Malla
02. A Study of the Impact of Modernization on Career and 007-017
Family Values of Women
*Sobita Kirtani **Vibha Algundgi ***Jancy Pereira
03. Achievement Motivation and Self Concept of Adolescents: 018-026
Significance of Parental Attitude
*Vidhu Mohan **Manpreet Kaur ***Baljit Kaur
04. Organizational Commitment and Work Values among the 027-039
Doctors of Government Hospitals of Jharkhand
*Zaki Akhtar **Chanchal Kumari
05. A Comparative Study of Depression among Indoor and 040-044
Outdoor Working Women
Namita Shah
06. Self Esteem and Life Satisfaction: A Comparative Study of 045-052
Career Women and Housewives
*Pragati Dixit ** Mahmood S. Khan
Volume-4 (1) July-2013 ISSN-0976 9218
Contents
NAPS
08. Impact of an Assertiveness Training on Self Concept among 053-063
Adolescents
*Rajesh Kumar **Roshan Lal *** Preeti Taneja
09. Academic Performance and Learning Approches of High 064-071
School Students
*S. Banumathi **Kalyani Kenneth
10. Prevention of HIV/AIDS among Youth- A Survey 072-075
*Pooja Sharma **C.P. Khokhar
11. Techno Stress in Relation to Coping Strategies among 076-081
Software Professionals
*Madhu Jain **Harshita Rathore
12. A Comparative Study of Ways of Coping Among HIV-Infected 082-087
Persons and General Population
*O.P. Sharma **Sajani
13. Parenting Influences on Manifestation of Needs 088-102
*Ranjana **Sonia Rani
14. Scientific Aptitude as a Correlate of Achievement in Biology 103-108
*Ritu Arora **Neerja Gautam
15. Efficacy of Guidance Services for College Students 109-118
*Parul Tripathi
The central theme of posi ti ve
psychology includes happiness, hope, creativity
and wisdom, emotional intelligence and
positive traits. It also includes self-esteem and
self-efficacy. Since a Positive psychology is the
study of the conditions and processes that
contribute to the flourishing or optimal
functioning of people, groups, and institutions.
Defined in this way, positive psychology has a
long history, dating back to William James's
writings on what he termed healthy
mindedness in 1902, to Allport's interest in
001
ABSTRACT
Challenges of Positive Psychology: A Way to Sustainble Happiness
*Kalpana Sahoo **Malaya Malla
Clinical psychology has traditionally focused psychological deficits and disability. However,
the shortcomings of this approach have begun laying the foundations for a positive psychology to
complement deficit-based approaches. A science of positive subjective experience, positive
individual traits, and positive institutions promises to improve quality of life and prevent the
pathologies that arise when life is barren and meaningless. This new branch of psychology is
primarily concerned with the scientific study of human strengths and happiness. The present paper
identifies the topics of central concern to positive psychology: emotional intelligence, optimism,
positive goals, positive traits, positive self, happiness, and flow experience. More specifically, the
alchemy of sustainable happiness is highlighted. Finally an empirically study is described to
document the construct of criteria saliency of signature strength (human virtues) in the context of
human happiness. Remediations of deficits and managing disabilities have been a central
preoccupation for clinical psychologists for much of the past 50 years. Positive psychology, in
contract, is concerned with the enhancement of happiness and well-being. It involves the study of
the role of personal strengths and positive social systems in the promotion of optimal well-being.
This paper brings the challenges of positive psychology and what are the parameters of positive
psychology that creates sustainable happiness.
Key Words: Challenges to Positive Psychology, Sustainable Happiness, Dimensions of Sustainable
Happiness & Conclusion
positive human characteristics in 1958, to
Maslow's advocacy for the study of healthy
people in lieu of sick people in 1968, and to
Cowan's research on resilience in children and
adolescents (Cowan, 2000). However, for
reasons discussed later, the past half century
has seen the study of the psychological aspects
of what makes life worth living recede to the
background, whereas studies on disorder and
damage have taken center stage. The recent
positive psychology movement grew out of
recognition of this imbalance and a desire to
Indian Journal of Psychological Science, ISSN-0976 9218
*Asst.Prof in OB & HRM, Sri Sri University, Bidyadharpur, Ward No.1, Godi Sahi, Cuttack,Odisha-754006
**Manager Marketing & Placement, Sri Sri University.
INTRODUCTION
July-2013
encourage research in neglected areas. The
field of positive psychology at the subjective
level is about valued subjective experiences:
well-being, contentment, and satisfaction (in
the past); hope and optimism (for the future);
and flow and happiness (in the present). At the
individual level, it is about positive individual
traits: the capacity for love and vocation,
courage, i nterpersonal ski l l , aestheti c
sensi bi l i ty, perseverance, forgi veness,
originality, future mindedness, spirituality, high
talent, and wisdom. At the group level, it is
about the civic virtues and the institutions that
move individuals toward better citizenship:
responsibility, nurturance, altruism, civility,
moderation, tolerance, and work ethic.
Challenges to Positive Psychology:
Positive psychology can and should
encourage people to adopt behaviors and
mental practices that are good for them.
However, in medicine, what is good is rather
straightforward: living longer, without illness. In
psychology, labeling something as positive or
good may not be as simple (Held, 2004). Diener
and Suh (1997) suggested three bases for what
is positive or what is valuable. First, the choices
people make are one indication of value. That is,
if something is chosen regularly, the chooser
probably believes in its value or goodness.
Second, people can judge whether or not
something is satisfying: whether an object,
event, process, or outcome is pleasant. Third,
judgments of what is positive or good can be
made with reference to some value system or
set of cultural norms. Our shared beliefs
regarding what is wrong or unacceptable and
what is right or acceptable can guide decisions
about what aims to pursue. These three criteria
002
sometimes agree and sometimes do not. For
example, sex outside the context of a
committed relationship may be pleasant and
enjoyable but may be unacceptable in terms of
one's religious value system, and one may not
choose to engage in it often. Filling up one's gas
tank may be chosen often, but it is neither
experientially enjoyable nor valued by an
environmentally conscious belief system.
Reporting for jury duty may be good as defined
by civic values, but it may not be pleasant and is
rarely chosen freely. Conversely, the three
criteria may also converge, for instance, in
playing with one's child. In short, the meaning
of what is positive or good is complex and
multidimensional, and the study of positive
psychological topics requires recognition of this
complexity in theories and empirical designs.
An excellent example of this complexity
unfolding in psychological research is Norem's
(2001) work on defensive pessimism. There is a
great deal of evidence that optimism is
associated with good outcomes (e.g., health
and well-being) and pessimism is associated
with bad outcomes (Taylor et al., 2000). This
may l ead to the prescri pti on. Thi nk
optimistically and you will do better. However,
as suggested by Norem and Chang (2002),
people are much more complex, and a one size
fits all model does not work. Specifically,
Norem's work shows that for a subgroup of
people with a defensive pessimism personality
style, there are real costs associated with
positive thinking, and to insist that optimism
would be good for them would be a disservice.
There are likely to be many other circumstances
in which the three criteria of goodness may not
converge, or may not converge for everyone. To
*Kalpana Sahoo **Malaya Malla Volume - 4(1)
meet the challenge of complexity, positive
psychology must move beyond the description
of main effects (optimism, humor, forgiveness,
and curiosity are good) and begin to look more
closely at the complex interactions that are the
hallmark of most of psychology, as well as of
medicine.
The positive psychology movement is
not without its challengers and critics. Many
criticisms seem to arise from the assumption
that if there is a positive psychology, then the
rest of psychology must be negative psychology,
and if we need a positive psychology it is
because this so-called negative psychology has
taught us little. This interpretation is
unfortunate and, more important, un true, as
we hope what we have written here already
demonstrates. In fact, it is because psychology
(which is mostly neutral, but with more negative
than positive topics) has been so extraordinarily
successful that the imbalance, the lack of
progress on positive topics, has become so
glaring. A second criticism is that people who
study positive psychology fail to recognize the
very real negative sides of life, preferring a
Pollyanna view of the world. However, here we
echo those who have come before us in
articulating the goals of positive psychology.
The aim is not to erase or supplant work on
pathology, distress, and dysfunction. Rather,
the aim is to build up what we know about
human resilience, strength, and growth to
integrate and complement the existing
knowledge base. Perhaps some of the most
daunting challenges to positive psychology
stem from defining what actually is positive and
the ambiguous line between describing
something as good and prescribing it as
003
good (Held, 2004). An appropriate analogy
can be drawn from medical research showing,
for example, that exercise and leafy green
vegetables are good for us. In the same way,
we believe that findings from
Sustainable Happiness:
Centuries have passed since the
pursuit of happiness was regarded as a
divinely ordained human right. It is finally now
time for the issue of sustainable happiness to be
given the scientific attention that it deserves.
Today, our obsession with how to be happy can
be observed in the row upon row of popular
psychology and self-help books in any major
bookstores and millions of copies of these
books that resold. Indeed , a number of
researchers and thinkers have argued that the
ability to be happy and contented with life is a
central criterion of adaptation and positive
mental health.
Despite such concern, researchers still know
surprisingly little about how to change well-
being, that is, about the possibility of
becoming happier. Doubtless part of this
reason for this neglect is difficulty of
conducting scientific studies. The problem is
further complicated by the tendency of applied
mental health researchers to focus a pathology
rather than on positive mental health. More
specifically, the principal reason for the neglect
of this question is the considerable scientific
pessimism over whether it is even possible to
effect sustainable increases in happiness.
Paradox of Pessimism Versus Optimism
Three considerations serve to illustrate
the depth of this pessimism. First is the idea of
genetically determined set point (or set range).
Previously it was posited that the heritability of
Indian Journal of Psychological Science, ISSN-0976 9218 July-2013
well-being is as high as 80%. It was believed that
for each person there is indeed a chronic or
characteristic level of happiness. It was believed
that people tend to keep returning to their own
baseline over time. Thus, although there may be
substantial variation around this baseline level
in the short term, in the long term people
perhaps cannot help return to their set point or
to the middle of their set range.
A second source of pessimism comes
from the literature on personality traits. It was
held that personality traits of extraversion and
neuroticism are significantly related to
happiness. People with high levels of
extraversion (sociability) are happy. Similarly
people with low level of neuroticism (worry,
rumination and guilt) are happy. Since
personality traits are generally not easily
changeable, happiness was thought to be an
unchangeable entity.
A third source of pessimism arises from
the concept of hedonic treadmill. It suggests
that any again in happiness is only temporary,
because humans so quickly adapt to change.
Although new circumstances may temporarily
cause people to become happier or sadder, they
rapidly adjust. The effect of these new
circumstances on happiness diminishes quickly
or even disappears entirely. For example,
lottery winners were not happier than controls
after one year. Furthermore, paralysis victims
were not as unhappy as one would expect.
Together, these concepts suggest that
trying to become happier may be as futile as
trying to become taller. However, there are also
compelling reasons for optimism. First, there
are some recent studies of happiness enhancing
interventions, For example, people practicing
004
certain virtues such as forgiveness were found
to be happier. Second, may different
motivational and attitudinal factors have been
lined to well-being; Examples of motivational
factors include the successful pursuit of life
goals that are intrinsic in content (consistent
with person's interest, motives and values). A
third reason for optimism is provided by recent
findings that older people tend to be somewhat
happier than younger people. Thus, present
empirical data suggest that happiness can be
increased.
Perceived Competence and Self-Efficacy:
Alarge body of research points clearly
to the fact that feeling competent and confident
with respect to valued goals is associated with
enhanced well-being (Carver & Scheier, 1999;
McGregor & Little ,1998). Furthermore, it is
clear that goal progress, on average, predicts
enhanced well-being, particularly goals that are
rated as important (e.g. Brunstein, 1993).
However, these general findings can be
unpacked i nto vari ous processes that
contribute to the relation. One issue concerns
the level of challenge posed by one's goals.
When l i fe goal s are non opt i mal l y
challengingtoo easy or too difficultpositive
af fect i s l ower ( Csi kszent mi hal yi &
Csikszentmihalyi, 1988). Low expectations of
success have also been associated with high
negative affect (Emmons, 1986). Another
concern is whether one's goal activities are
characterized by approach or avoidance
motivational systems. Pursuit of avoidance
goals was associated with both poorer goal
progress and with lower well-being. Elliot et al
(1997) similarly showed that people whose
personal goals contained a higher proportion of
avoidance had lower SWB. They also
demonstrated the association between
neuroticism and avoidance goals, but showed
that the impact of avoidance regulation was
evident even when controlling for neuroticism.
Carver & Scheier (1999) also presented
research linking approach goals (positively) and
avoidance goals (negatively) to well-being
outcomes. Other work points to the
importance of goals and motives being aligned
for wellbeing effects to accrue. For example,
Brunstein et al (1998) found that motive-goal
congruence accounted for the effects of goal
progress on SWB. Furthermore, they showed
that commitment to motive-incongruent goals
can even result in well-being declines. Such
evidence suggests that how goals are anchored
within the self bears on their influence on well-
being.
Autonomy and Integration of Goals:
Sheldon & Elliot (1999) developed a
self-concordance model of how autonomy
relates to well-being. Self-concordant goals are
those that fulfill basic needs and are aligned
with one's true self. These goals are well-
internalized and therefore autonomous, and
they emanate from intrinsic or identified
motivations. Goals that are not self-concordant
encompass external or introjected motivation,
and are either unrelated or indirectly related to
need fulfillment. Sheldon & Elliot found that,
although goal attainment in itself was
associated with greater well-being, this effect
was significantly weaker when the attained
goals were not self-concordant. People who
attained more self-concordant goals had more
need-satisfying experiences, and this greater
need satisfaction was predictive of greater
005
SWB. Similarly, Sheldon & Kasser (1998) studied
progress toward goals in a longitudinal design,
finding that goal progress was associated with
enhanced SWB and lower symptoms of
depression. However, the impact of goal
progress was again moderated by goal
concordance. Goals that were poorly integrated
to the self, whose focus was not related to basic
psychological needs, conveyed less SWB
benefits, even when achieved.
Finally, the previously mentioned Nix,
et. al. (1999) study showed that whereas
successful goal pursuits led to happiness, it was
only when the pursuits were autonomous that
success yielded vitality. McGregor & Little
(1998) suggested that the meaningfulness of
goals is a separate issue from that of goal
efficacy, and in a study of personal projects they
found that, whereas perceived efficacy was
linked to happiness, the relative integrity of
goals was linked to meaningfulness. From the
perspective of SDT, psychological well-being
results in large part from satisfaction of the
basic psychological needs for autonomy,
competence, and relatedness, so it makes sense
that autonomy as well as efficacy would be
important for eudaimonic well-being, just as
rel atedness or attachment contri bute
considerably to well-being (Reis et al 2000).
REFERENCES:
Allport, G. W. (1958). Becoming: Basic
considerations for a psychology of
personality. Oxford, England: Verlag.
Brunstein, J.C.; Schultheiss, O.C.; Grassman, R.
(1998). Personal goals and emotional
wellbeing: the moderating role of
motive dispositions. J. Pers. Soc.
Psychol. 75:494508.
Brunstein, J.C. (1993). Personal goals and
subjective well-being: a longitudinal
study. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 65:106170.
Carver, C.S.; Scheier, M.F. (1999). Themes and
issues in the self-regulation of
behavior. In Perspectives on Behavioral
Self-Regulation: Advances in Social
Cognition, ed. RS Wyer Jr, XII:1105.
Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Cowan, E. (2000). Psychological wellness: Some
hopes for the future. In D. Cicchetti, J.
Rappaport, I. Sandler, & R. P. Weissberg
(Eds.), The promotion of wellness in
a d o l e s c e nt s ( p p . 4 7 7 5 0 3 ) .
Washington, DC: Child Welfare League
of America Press.
Csikszentmihalyi, M.; Csikszentmihalyi, I.S.
( 1988) . Opt i mal Ex per i enc e:
Psychological Studies of Flow in
Consciousness.NewYork: Cambridge
Univ. Press.
Diener, E., and Suh, E. (1997). Measuring quality
of life: Economic, social, and subjective
indicators. Social Indicators Research,
40, 189216.
Elliot, A.J.; Sheldon, K.M.; Church, M.A. (1997).
Avoi dance personal goal s and
subjective well-being. Pers. Soc.
Psychol. Bull. 23:91527.
Emmons, R.A. (1986). Personal strivings: an
approach to personality and subjective
wellbeing. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol.
51:105868.
Held, B. S. (2004). The negative side of positive
psychology. Journal of Humanistic
Psychology, 44, 946.
Maslow, A. H. (1968). Toward a psychology of
being. New York: Van Nostrand.
006
McGregor, I.; Little BR. (1998). Personal
projects, happiness, and meaning: on
doing well and being yourself. J. Pers.
Soc. Psychol. 74:494512.
McGregor, I.; Little, B.R. (1998). Personal
projects, happiness, and meaning: on
doing well and being yourself. J. Pers.
Soc. Psychol. 74:494512.
Nix, G.; Ryan, R.M.; Manly, J.B.; Deci, E.L. (1999).
Revitalization through self-regulation:
the effects of autonomous versus
controlled motivation on happiness
and vitality. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol.
35:26684.
Norem, J. K. (2001). The positive power of
negative thinking. New York: Basic
Books.
Norem, J. K., and Chang, E. C. (2002). The
positive psychology of negative
thinking. Journal of Clinical Psychology,
58, 9931001.
Reis, H.T.; Sheldon, K.M.; Gable, S.L.; Roscoe, J.;
Ryan, R.M. (2000). Daily well-being: the
role of autonomy, competence, and
relatedness. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull.
26:41935.
Sheldon, K.M.; Elliot, A.J. (1999). Goal striving,
need satisfaction, and longitudinal
wellbeing: the self-concordance
model. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 76:48297.
Sheldon, K.M.; Kasser, T. (1998). Pursuing
personal goals: Skills enable progress,
but not all progress is beneficial. Pers.
Soc. Psychol. Bull. 24:131931.
Taylor, S. E.; Kemeny, M. E.; Reed, G. M.; Bower,
J.E.; and Gruenwald, T. L. (2000).
Psychological resources, positive
illusions, and health. American
Psychologist, 55, 99109.
INTRODUCTION :
st
As we progress in the 21 century, we
see more and more women entering the work
force. In India, women are an estimated 31.2%
of all economically active individuals. India has a
young workforce and population.
Primarily, an Indian woman has been a
homemaker, a caretaker and responsible for
th
raising children. Up till the early 20 century, in
India, women were refrained from education.
With industrialization, requirement to have
women as a part of work force grew thus
making women play a dual role, i.e. of a
homemaker and an earning member. With
education, women's involvement in work has
007
ABSTRACT
A Study of the Impact of Modernization on Career and Family
Values of Women
*Sobita Kirtani **Vibha Algundgi ***Jancy Pereira
Modernization has proved to be an extremely powerful but uncertain force in the
perspective of human affairs. Hence it is important to study its effect on various values of people.
Two of the most conflicting values today faced by women are career and family values. The current
research titled 'A Study of the Impact of Modernization on Career and Family Values of Women' aims
to study the impact of the levels of modernization on career and family values of married and
unmarried women. 'The Modernization Scale' developed by Singh, Tripathi and Lal (1987) 'Career
and Family Values Scale' developed by Tanwar and Singh (1997) were administered on a sample of
80 married and unmarried Goan women between the age ranges of 19 to 35 years. A survey design
was used to carry out the study. Statistical computations included Mean, t Tests and one way
ANOVA. The findings revealed A) All women whether married and unmarried, had high career
values B) Women across different levels of modernization had high career values, C) High
modernized women had low family values and low modernized women had high family values and
D) Marital status played an important role in the family values of women, i.e. married women had
higher family values than those who were unmarried. Thus the study concludes that modernization
has a greater impact on family values than the career values of both married and unmarried
women.
Key words: modernization, family values, career women.
increased such that many women today see
themselves as career makers. Yet, the strong
cultural hold on Indian women enforces
homemaking on them. As a result women are
pressurized to make a choice between their
career and family life. Today however, many
women look upon work as a key to financial
independence and personal achievement.
Rapid changes in the technology, ever
powering influence of media and globalization
has resulted into the modernization of society.
Haviland (2002) defines modernization as an
all-encompassing global process of cultural and
socio-economic changes, whereby the
developing societies seek to acquire some of
*, ** & ***Department of Psychology, Parvatibai Chowgule College, of Arts and Science,
Margao Goa.
July-2013
the characteristics common to industrial
societies. In the course of modernization,
traditional knowledge and techniques give way
to the application of scientific knowledge
borrowed mainly from the West. Due to
modern technology, modernization creates the
change in traditions and values.
An important impact of modernization
is the breakdown of traditional extended
families into nuclear families (Hezel, 1991).
Within the context of a family however, the role
of a woman has only widened. Besides being an
earning member, women continue with the
traditional role of a woman as a homemaker
and a caretaker. The modern Indian woman
constantly finds herself in need to choose
between her family and career.
Thus it is of importance to know the
effect of modernization on career and family
values of women.
Literature Review:
Women today prefer to be employed
rather than staying back at home (Sharma,
1990). Also some women work because being
employment results in better prospects of
marriage. Women, in India, are socialized from
an early age to be self-sacrificing, docile,
accommodating, nurturing, altruistic, adaptive,
tolerant, and religious, and to value family
above all (Kumar and Rohatgi, 1987). Most
women seek employment soon after they
complete their education but at an older age,
more and more women are unemployed
(Salem-Pickartz, Haddad, and Farkh 2002:26).
Fol l owi ng factors were i denti fi ed as
determinants of whether a woman will be able
to seek employment in Amman. They are:
husband's agreement for the wife to work, the
age of the oldest child, the woman's own
educational level, the husband's educational
level, and personal income satisfaction
008
(Kharouf and Ali, 2000). In India, the society has
had a long journey of its modernization. Unlike
Amman there are certainly less restrictions on a
women who wants to work and thus have a
career of her own. Also to be mentioned, it will
be interesting to know about the percentage of
married women in India who are economically
active, since in Amman, women who are never
married are the most economically active.
However, upon having children, a
woman is further disadvantaged, particularly if
she wants to have many children. Spierings et al
(2010) found that economic participation was
lower for women with young children, and
women in households with five or more
children faced particularly low employment
rates.
With all these considerations in mind,
women's participation in the labor force is a
multifaceted issue composed of social, cultural,
economic, psychological, and educational
influences. It remains a complex issue that
women who hope to pursue careers must
confront as they graduate and weigh the value
of their motivations to get married and start a
family with pursuing a job. The challenges
women face when trying to balance these goals
and demands mentally and realistically are
further compounded by the inextricable and
internalized motivations of society.
Baruch and Barnett (1987) found that
women who had multiple life roles (e.g.,
mother, wife, and employee) were less
depressed and had higher self-esteem than
women who were more satisfied in their
marriages and jobs compared to women and
men who were not married, unemployed, or
childless. However, authors argued quality of
role rather than the quantity of roles that
matters. That is, there is a positive association
*Sobita Kirtani **Vibha Algundgi ***Jancy Pereira Volume-4 (1)
between multiple roles and good mental health
when a woman likes her job and likes her home
life.
Nearly 70% of the women were
working to support their families, 20% of the
respondents were working because they were
career oriented, and 10% were working to fulfill
their personal financial needs (Reddy, Vranda,
Ahmed, Nirmala and Siddaramu, 2010).
The popular belief that child rearing
duties are becoming more equally shared is not
matched by the reality, according to research by
Lyn Craig (1992-2006). Craig studied how
parents are dividing their time between paid
work, child care and housework and found that
in 62% of households with children under the
age of 11 both parents were in paid work.
However in almost 70% of those households the
father worked full-time and the mother worked
part time, retaining the major responsibilities
for child rearing and domestic chores.
Scope of The Present Study
Women play a major role in family life.
Women play multiple roles that of a mother, a
caregiver as also bread winner. World over
today an increasing number of women have
joined the work force. This study holds
important as it helps us to understand the
impact of modernization on both Career values
as also Family values.
Objectives:
1. To study the impact of modernization
on career values of women.
2. To study the impact of modernization
on family values of women.
3. To study career and family values of
women
a. To study the difference in
career values of married and unmarried
women.
009
b. To study the difference in
family values of married and unmarried
women
4. To s t u d y t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n
modernization scores of married and
unmarried women.
Hypotheses:
1) There is a significant difference in the
impact of the levels of modernization
on career values of women.
2) There is a significant difference in the
impact of the levels of modernization
on family values of women.
3) There is a significant difference
between career values of married and
unmarried women.
4) There is a significant difference
between family values of married and
unmarried women.
5) There is a significant difference in
unmarried women.
Limitations of The Study
1) The study was conducted only on
women.
2) The study was conducted only in Goa.
3) The age range was limited, i.e. only 19
to 35 years of age.
4) This study has only focused on career
and family values of women and not
considered other aspects like personal
values, emotionality, spirituality,
environmental values, nationality,
culture and ethnicity.
METHOD
Research Design:
It is a between subject's design. Two
groups of women were studied married and
unmarried. Also the sample was divided into
three categories on the basis of level of
modernization i.e. high, average and low level
of modernization.
Sample:
The sample population consisted of 80 women
of which 40 were married and 40 were
unmarried. Random sampling was followed to
select the entire sample.
Table no: 3.1: Table Indicating sample of study.
Tools :
1) Career and Family Values Scale by
Tanwar and Singh (1997) was used to obtain the
scores of career and family values of women. In
the development of the scale both test - retest
and split half reliability coefficients were
worked out. A sample of 60 college females was
randomly selected from four different degree
colleges situated in three districts of Himachal
Pradesh in order to establish split half
reliability of the scale. The scale was re -
administered on the selected sample of 60
college females after a gap of three months to
establish test retest reliability of the scale. The
validity of the career and Family Values Scale
was worked out through known contrasted
group method taken as external criterion. For
this purpose the responses of 30 educated
housewives on Career and family Values Scale
as one group were compared with those of the
other identified group of 30 educated working
women. The t test was used for testing the
significance of the mean differences on career
010
and family values between two contrasted
groups. The mean career values score of the
educated housewives and educated working
women came out to be 70.70 and 84.60
respectively and the respective mean family
values score came out to be 89.76 and 62.07.
The significant mean differences between the
two contrasted groups of educated housewives
having higher family values and working women
having higher career values is suggestive of the
fact that Career and Family Values Scale is
valid in terms of being capable of distinguishing
careerist women in a significant manner from
the housewives in their career and family
values.
Scoring:
The scale is bidirectional constituting of
20 career oriented and 20 family oriented items.
The response pattern in the scale is Likert Type,
i.e. on a 5 point continuum from highly agree
to highly disagree. As all the items are socially
acceptable and positively stated, the scoring for
each statement in the scale is done in
descending order by giving a score of
(5) For highly agree
(4) For somewhat agree
(3) For Uncertain
(2) For somewhat disagree; and
(1) For highly disagree.
Women Sample
Married
Unmarried
40
40
2) The Modernization Scale (MS-STL)
by Singh, Tripathi and Lal (1987) was used to
obtain the scores of modernization of women.
The final version of the scale with the items
arranged in random order was administered to
100 college students. The mean age of the
sample was 19.4. Split Half Reliability (Odd
even method) was calculated and after
Spearman-Brown's Correction was found to be r
= 0.78 for the total scale, which is significant at
0.01 level of significance. Face or content
validity was demonstrated by 100% agreement
among the 5 judges (all psychologists) regarding
the relevance of the items content to the
attitudes being measured by the scale.
In order to ascertain concurrent validity
the scores from each sub scale were correlated
with the scores on the total scale. For socio-
religious subscale, the Pearson r correlation was
found to be .97, for marriage it was found to be
.61, for position of women it was found to be .86
and for education, it was found to be .64. These
higher correlations demonstrate that these
subscales have high validity.
Scoring:
Each test item on the test belongs to
one of the 4 subtypes discussed above. Some
items are positive statements and the rest are
negative. According to the scoring key given in
the manual of The Modernization Scale, the
responses were tabulated.
Data Analysis:
1) A one way ANOVA was computed to
compare the difference between the
levels of modernization and career and
family values of women.
2) Mean was calculated to obtain the
overall performance of the women on
the tests.
011
3) t Test was done to study significance
of the difference in modernization
scores of married and unmarried
women.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The aim of the research is to study the
impact of modernization on career and family
values of women in Goa. For this, a sample
population of 80 women was selected of which
40 were married and the other 40 were
unmarried. "The Modernization Scale" and
Career and Family Values Scale were
administered on women after establishing a
rapport. The responses were then tabulated on
the basis of the instructions given in the
respective manuals of both the tests. The scores
of modernization scale were converted into z
scores and based on the performances, the
scores were divided into three categories; i.e.
high modernized, average modernized and low
modernized. The raw scores of career and
family values scale were taken and
appropriate statistics were computed for the
testing of our hypotheses.
Our first objective was to study the
impact of modernization on career values of
women. The hypothesis stated that there is a
significant difference in the impact of the levels
of modernization on career values of women in
Goa.
To test this hypothesis, a one way
ANOVA was computed. The results are
tabulated in the following table indicating the
mean and standard deviation of the career
value scores and the scores of the three levels of
modernization.
Table No. 1.1 : Table indicating mean and SD of
the Career Value scores across different levels
of modernization.
Table No 1.2 : Summary table of ANOVA
representing Career Values of Women across
different levels of Modernization
The F score was found to be 0.368
which is not significant at 0.05 level of
significance [F (2, 77) = .368 (p > 0.05)]. This
means there is no significant difference in
career values of women having high, moderate
and low modernization. Therefore the
hypothesis stating that there is a significant
difference between career values of women
having high, average and low modernization
scores is disproved.
The total number of items in The
Career and Family Values Scale is 40, out of
which 20 items are based on career values and
the rest on family values. The lowest score on
career values is 20 and the highest score is 100.
012
Hence, the mean career value of 78.68
interprets quite a high score on career values of
women. In short, it means that women,
irrespective of the level of modernization, have
high career values.
Dual earning households are the norm
of the day. Women, too require having a career
to support their family financially. Even jobs
which are less pleasurable and less challenging
are taken up by women in order to support
themselves and their family financially (Anita
Sharma).
Thus having a career is independent of
the level of modernization in a woman.
However, reasons behind pursuing a career may
vary depending on the level of modernization.
Whilst, some may want to see themselves as
economically independent or equal to men,
others may simply require pursuing a career to
contribute to the family financially.
The second objective of our research
Groups Levels of
modernization
No. Mean Std.
Deviation
Career
Values
Low mod 9 78.33 6.92
Moderate mod 63 78.34 10.51
High mod 8 81.75 13.00
Total 80 78.68 10.43

ANOVA

Sum of
Squares
Df
Mean
Square
F Sig.
Career
values
Between
Groups
83.370 2 41.685 .376 .688
Within
Groups
8525.817 77 110.725
Total 8609.188 79

013
was to study the impact of modernization on
family values of women.
The hypothesis stated that there is a
significant difference in the impact of the levels
of modernization on family values of women. To
test this hypothesis, a one way ANOVA was
computed. The results are tabulated in the
following table indicating the mean and
standard deviation of the family value scores
and the scores of the three levels of
modernization.
Table No. 2.1 : Indicating mean and SD of the
Family Value scores across different levels of
modernization.
Table No 2.2 : Summary table of ANOVA
representing Family Value across different
levels of modernization
The F score was found to be 14.24
which is significant at 0.05 level of significance;
i.e. F (2, 77) = 14.24 (p < 0.05). This means that
there is a significant difference in family values
of women across the levels of modernization;
i . e. hi ghl y moderni zed women have
comparatively low family values and women
with low modernization scores have high family
values. Thus the hypothesis which states that
there is a significant difference in the impact of
the levels of modernization on family values of
women is proved.
One very strong reason for this
difference can be attributed to the culture. India
being a collectivistic society, gives more
importance to family and society at large. Thus
individualistic values of developing one's own
career is nurtured secondary to the primary role
of a woman as a homemaker. The low
modernized women who follow the traditional
Indian value system naturally give more
importance to family life. On the other hand,
many modern women today delay getting
married or having children thus spending more
Groups Levels of
modernization
N Mean Std.
Deviation
Family
values
Low mod 9 78.00 10.09
Moderate mod 63 60.09 10.90
High mod 8 50.50 13.89
Total 80 61.15 12.86

ANOVA

Sum of
Squares
df
Mean
Square
F Sig.
Family
Values
Between
Groups
3532.771 2 1766.386 14.246 .000
Within
Groups
9547.429 77 123.993
Total 13080.200 79

Independent Samples Test
t-test for Equality of Means
Levene's Test for
Equality of
Variances
Equal
variances
assumed
Career
Values
F Sig. t Df
Sig. (2-
tailed)
Mean
Difference
Std.
Error
Difference
95% Confidence
Interval of the
Difference
Lower Upper
1.238 .269 .309 78 .758 .725 2.347
-
3.9490
3
5.39903
014
time in developing their career.
Our third objective was to study the
difference in the career and family values of
married and unmarried women. We had two
hypotheses for this objective.
The first hypothesis was that there will
be a significant difference between career
values of married and unmarried women. To
test this hypothesis, a t test was done. The
results are tabulated in the following table
indicating the mean and Standard deviation of
the married and unmarried career value scores.
Table no. 3.1 : Indicating Mean and SD of career
values of married and unmarried women.
Table 3.2 : Summary table of t-test
representing career values of married and
unmarried women
The t score was found to be 0.309 which
is not significant at 0.05 level of significance; i.e.
(t (78) =0.309, p > 0.05). This means that
whether the women are married or unmarried,
their career value scores are the same. The
mean score of career values of women is
78.685. The lowest score on career values scale
is 20 and the maximum is 100. Hence the score
interprets that the career values of both the
groups are high.
Therefore we reject the hypothesis
which states that there is a significant difference
between career values of married and
unmarried women.
Our second hypothesis of the third
objective states that there is a significant
difference between family values of married
and unmarried women. To test this hypothesis,
a t test was done. The results are tabulated in
the following table indicating the mean and
standard deviation of the married and
unmarried family value scores.
Aspect
Group N Mean Std. Deviation
Career
Unmarried 40 79.05 11.35
Married 40 78.32 9.56

Levene's Test for
Equality of
Variances
Equal
variances
assumed
Family
Values
F Sig. t Df
Sig. (2-
tailed)
Mean
Difference
Std.
Error
Difference
95% Confidence
Interval of the
Difference
Lower Upper
.424 .517 2.075 78 .041 -5.850 2.818 -11.46 -.23807
015
Table no.4.1 : Indicating Mean and SD of family
values of married and unmarried women
Table No 4.2 : Summary table of t-test
representing family values of married and
unmarried women
The t score was found to be 2.075 which
is significant at 0.05 level of significance; i.e. (t
(78) =2.075, p < 0.05). This states that married
women have more family values than those
who are unmarried.
This finding can be attributed to the fact
that a woman who is married has an additional
responsibility to handle her own family.
Whereas a woman who is unmarried has less
responsibilities as compared to a woman who is
married. Also, while fathers have increased
their childrearing responsibilities somewhat,
the main responsibilities for children and
adolescents are shouldered by the mothers.
Therefore we accept the hypothesis which
states that there is a significant difference
between family values of married and
unmarried women.
Our fourth objective was to study the
difference in modernization scores of married
and unmarried women. The hypothesis stated
that there is a significant difference in
moderni zati on scores of marri ed and
unmarried women. To test this hypothesis, a t
Test was done. The results are tabulated in the
following table indicating the mean and
standard deviation of the married and
unmarried modernization scores.
Aspect
Group N Mean Std.
Deviation
Family
Unmarried 40 58.22 11.78
Married 40 64.07 13.37

Levene's Test for
Equality of
Variances
Equal
variances
assumed
Moderni
zation
F Sig. t Df
Sig. (2-
tailed)
Mean
Difference
Std.
Error
Difference
95% Confidence
Interval of the
Difference
Lower Upper
3.001 .087 1.305 78 .196 5.425 4.157 -2.85161 13.70161
016
Table no. 5.1 : Indicating Mean and SD of
unmarried women.
Table No 5.2 : Summary table of t-test
representing modernization scores of married
and unmarried women
The t score was found to be 1.30, which
is not significant at 0.05 level of significance.
This means that the modernization scores
across married and unmarried women is the
same. The lowest score on the modernization
scale is 32 and the maximum score is 192. Hence
the mean score of all women on modernization
is above average. Thus irrespective of marital
status it is seen that women are high
modernized. This is because in the present age,
women are educated and treated on par with
men. Women enjoy equal rights as men.
Hence, the hypothesis which states that
is a significant difference in the modernization
scores of married and unmarried women is
rejected.
CONCLUSION:
Three findings come very prominent in
this study, i.e. a) all women irrespective of level
of modernization have high scores on career
val ues and b) there i s an i mpact of
modernization on family values of women, i.e.
high modernized women have low family values
and low modernized women have high family
values and iii) Marital status also has an impact
on family values i.e. unmarried women have
low family values as compared to the married
women.
REFERENCES:
1. Baruch Grace, K.; Biener Lois; Barnett,
Rosalind C. (1987). Women and gender
in research on work and family stress,
American Psychologist, Vol 42(2), 130-
136.
2. El Kharouf, Amal Mohummad Ali.
(2000). Factors Infl uenci ng the
Employment of Women, from the View
of Employed and Non-Employed
Women and Managers in Amman City,
Aspects
Group N Mean Std. Deviation
Modernization
Unmarrie
d
40 145.65 16.64
Married 40 140.22 20.35

017
Jordan, UNIFEM and UNESCO.
3. Havi l and, A. ( 2002) . Cul t ural
Anthropology. 10th edition. Harcourt
Collage Publishers. USA. P. 423.
4. Hezel, F. X. (1991). the Dilemmas of
Development Effects of Modernization
on three Areas of Island. The University
of Chicago. P.3
5. Krishna Reddy, N.; Vranda, M.N.; Atiq
Ahmed, Nirmala, B.P.; and Siddaramu,
B. (2010 Jul-Dec) WorkLife Balance
among Married Women Employees,
Indian J Psychol Med.; 32(2): 112118.
6. Kumar, P. and Rohatgi, K. (1987). Value
Patterns as Related with High and Low
Adjustment in Marriage, Indian Journal
of Current Psychological Research
2:98102.
7. Mishra, A. D. (1994), Problems and
Prospects of Working Women in Urban
India, Mittal Publications, A-110,
Mohan Garden, New Delhi.
8. Salem-Pickartz, Josi, Yasmin Haddad,
and Ruba Farkh (2002). Women in
Jordan: Empowered or Handicapped,
Amman, Jordan: Al-Kutba Institute for
Human Devel opment & Konrad
Anenauer Foundation Jordan.
9. Sharma, A. (1990). Modernisation and
Status of Working Women in India: A
Soci o- Economi c Study, Mi ttal
Publications, New Delhi.
10. Spierings, Niels, Jereon Smits and
Mieke Verloo (2010). Micro- and
Macrolevel Determinants of Women's
Employment in Six Arab Countries,
Journal of Family and Marriage 72(5):
1391-1407.
Internet References:
1. Catalyst. Catalyst Quick Take: Women in
the Labour Force in India. New York:
C a t a l y s t , 2 0 1 2 .
http://www.catalyst.org/knowledge/w
omen-labour-force-india
2. Craig, L., Powell, A. and Smyth, C.
(forthcoming) 'Towards intensive
parenting? Changes in the composition
and determinants of mothers and
fathers' time with children 1992-2006'
British Journal of Sociology (accepted
4/9/12).
3. International journal of sociology Y.
2007, vol. 37, No. 3, pages 32-53 [22
pages] [bibl. : 1 p.1/4]
4. Mohammad Issa Barhoum (1983).
Attitudes of University Students toward
Women' Work: The Case of Jordan.
International Journal of Middle East
S t u d i e s , 1 5 , p p 3 6 9 - 3 7 6 .
doi:10.1017/S0020743800050984.
INTRODUCTION
Parenting is one of the complex tasks in
which every parent hopes to succeed. Parenting
is a relevant perspective in the study of
relationships between parents and children
(Prindle & Resinski, 1989; Van Meter, 1994).
Parental attitude is an index of parental
involvement. Parent-child relationship is a
matchless net of cognitive and emotional
dynamics and has a central place in socialization
research. As children mature into adolescence,
family involvement places major influence on
children's understanding, attitude and school
achievements. Adolescents and young adults
need trusting, supporting, and caring
relationships with their families, especially with
018
ABSTRACT
Achievement Motivation and Self Concept of Adolescents:
Significance of Parental Attitude
*Vidhu Mohan**Manpreet Kaur ***Baljit Kaur
Parental acceptance is characterized by a keen interest in and love for the child. The
accepting parent provides for the development of the child's abilities and takes into account the
child's interest. The accepted child is generally well socialized, co-operative, friendly, loyal,
emotionally stable and cheerful (Romer et al, 1999). In contrast to parental acceptance, parental
rejection is expressed by unconcern for the child's welfare or by active dominance; excessive
demands on the child and open hostility (Baldwin, 1949). Parental acceptance and parental
rejection may further lead to self-acceptance or self-rejection of the child. Children who are
accepted by parents find it easy to accept themselves. On contrary, children who are rejected by
parents are likely to develop negative self-evaluation and lack of self-worth. It was found by
Baumrind (1971) that antisocial behavior such as aggression, cruelty, lying, resentment and stealing
is very common among children who feel rejected. Several researchers have suggested that the
perception of parental support, acceptance and some control over the activities of children are
strong predictors of academic performance (Desimone, 1999; Fan & Chen, 2001; Grolnick &
Slowiaczek, 1994; Juang & Silbereisen, 2002). Keeping the importance of parental influence on a
child, this study was carried out with an aim to see the effect of parental attitude (acceptance or
rejection) on achievement motivation and self concept of adolescents.
Keywords: parental acceptance, rejection, achievement motivation, self concept, adolescents
their parents to attain success in all the domains
of their life and development (Bronfenbrenner,
1979). Many studies during adolescence have
examined the relations between parenting
characteristics (parenting style and parental
involvement) and adolescent outcomes
(Dornbusch et al., 1987; Steinberg et al., 1989).
Parents have been implicated as the
chief causal agents in their child's behavioral,
personal i ty, emoti onal , and cogni ti ve
development (Holden & Edwards, 1989).
Review of literature reveals that parenting style
greatly affects the children's understanding,
attitude and school achievements (Kordi &
Baharudin, 2010). Clearly, parental involvement
is effective in fostering achievement and
*Assistant Professor,Department of Psychology, Punjabi University, Patiala
** & ***Research Scholar (MANF-JRF),Department of Psychology, Punjabi University, Patiala
July-2013
affective gain at all levels (Chandler, 2006;
Fulton & Turner, 2008; Strage & Brandt, 1999;
Turner, Chandler, & Heffer, 2009; Turner &
Heffer, 2005; Becker, 1988). Various researchers
have suggested that the support from the
parents act as a safeguard throughout
adolescents' life (Hoffman & Weiss, 1987; Rice,
Cole & Lapsley, 1990). Thus this study was
carried out to assess the effect of Parental
atti tude (acceptance or rejecti on) on
achievement motivation and self concept of
adolescents. It was hypothesized that parental
acceptance would lead to more achievement
motivation and positive self concept of
adolescents than parental rejection.
The first variable for this study was
achievement motivation which refers to the
inner force, desire or need for excellence not so
much for the sake of social recognition as to
attai n an i nner feel i ng of personal
accomplishment (McClleland, 1976). It is an
important determinant of an individual's
aspiration, effort and persistence when he
expects that his performance will be evaluated
in relation to some standard of excellence
(Atkinson, 1974). Motivation is seen as a main
factor that plays a very important role in
determining students' achievement. Parental
attitudes are one of the significant factors in
achievement motivation of a child. When
parents are involved in schooling, children show
improved grades, test scores, academic
success, and positive attitude towards school,
high self-esteem and participation (Christenon,
Hurley, Sheridan & Fenstermacher, 2001).
There is evidence that parental behavior and
the parent's school involvement have a crucial
impact on a children's motivation (Erden &
Uredi, 2008; Fontaine, 1998; Gottfried, Fleming
& Gottfried, 1994; Grolnick & Slowiaczek, 1994;
Meece, 1994; Repinski & Shonk, 2002; Wentzel,
019
1998). It was, therefore, thought important to
find how parental attitude of acceptance or
rejection effect the child's achievement
motivation.
Another important variable taken up
for the study was self concept. Self concept is
the totality of an individual's thoughts and
feelings having reference to him or herself as an
object. It can be described as an image shaped
by the very person holding the image
(Hawkins, 1998). The child learns to think and
feel about himself as defined by others and
make an image about him. This image develops
primarily from the way parents; teachers and
other significant persons describe, punish,
praise or love him (Frank & Frank, 1996).
Potential cause for poor academic achievement
has been identified in previous research as low
social adjustment and adaptation (Tamire,
1997; Tsige, 2001; Yalew, 2003). Self concept
influences a number of things like perceiving,
thinking, learning, decision making and other
cognitive processes. Children who form positive
self concept are more confident, independent,
assertive, optimistic and sociable (Maccoby,
1980). Empirical studies have identified that
ability (Aboma, 2009; Adem, 2005; Fentaw,
1991; Habte, 1988; King & King, 1972; Mezgebo,
2008; Tamire, 1997; Tsige, 2006; Yalew, 2003),
self-confidence/self-efficacy (Aboma, 2009;
Mulugeta, 1998; Tamire, 1997; Tsige, 2001;
Yalew, 2003), motivation (Daniel, 1992;
Mulugeta, 1998; Tesfaye, 2007) work as
potential factors that contribute to positive self
concept. So it was thought as an important
variable to study.
METHOD
Participants:
A sample of 100 adolescents was drawn
randomly from three different schools of
*Vidhu Mohan**Manpreet Kaur ***Baljit Kaur Volume-4 (1)
Jalandhar city (Punjab).The age-range of the
participants was 14-17 years. Prior consent of
respective Principals and participants was
sought in advance.
Measures:
Parent-child relationship scale (PCRS)
by Rao (1978) was used to asses the attitudes of
parental acceptance and rejection. It consists of
100 items categorized into 10 dimensions. For
this study, only two dimensions were
incorporated. The reliability of the scale varies
between 0.77 and 0.87 and validity varies
between 0.28 and 0.57.
Achievement Motivation Scale (AMS)
by Shah (1986) was used to asses achievement
motivation. It is a multi-choice questionnaire
based on forced and closed choice techniques
and questions. It consists of 40 statements with
three alternatives each. The reliability varies
between 0.77 and 0.87 and validity varies
between 0.69 and 0.71.
020
Self concept Inventory by Mohsin
(1976) was used to assess self concept. It
consists of 48 items consisting of positively and
negatively phrased statements about abilities
and strengths pertaining to the cognitive,
affective and conative areas. The reliability is
0.73. The validity is 0.351.
Procedure:
For the administration of the tools, the
sessions were carried out in the class-rooms
during non-teaching periods. The purpose of
the investigation was briefly explained to the
participants. Rapport was built before starting
the administration. The scales were handed
over one by one with specific instructions for
each scale. The participants were instructed to
give honest responses and they were assured of
confidentiality of their responses.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:
Vari abl e Mean F-val e

PCRS
Acceptance Rej ecti on
61. 23** 27. 14 22. 58

**p<.01
Table 2: Summary of ANOVA for Achievement Motivation
Source of Variance Sum of Square df MS F
Between 519.84 1 519.84 61.23**
Within 832.2 98 8.49
**p<.01
Table 1: Showing the Mean score and F value of adolescents for Achievement Motivation.
021
Table 3: Showing the Mean score and F value of adolescents for Self Concept.
Vari abl e Mean F-val e

PCRS
Acceptance Rej ecti on
127. 93** 39. 52 30. 9

**p<.01
Table 4: Summary of ANOVA for self concept
Source of Vari ance Sum of Square df MS F
Between 1857. 61 1 1857. 61 127. 93**
Wi thi n 1422. 98 98 14. 52

**p<.01
The findings of the present study show
that adolescents in the Parental acceptance
group had better level of achievement
motivation (M=27.14) as compared to those in
the parental rejection group (M=22.58). This
difference was significant (F (1, 98) =61.23,
p<01). Similarly, self concept of adolescents
with parental acceptance was high (M=39.52)
as compared to their counterparts (M=30.9).
This difference was also found to be significant
(F (1, 98) =127.93, p<01).Thus, the two
hypotheses that had been framed in the study
are proved. The findings are in line with
previous researches that have been carried out
on parent-child relationship and children's
school achievements (Prindle & Resinski, 1989;
Van Meter, 1994; Christenon, et al, 2001).
Parental acceptance leads to formation of
positive emotions and attitudes in children.
Such children learn to associate positive
emotions with achievement (Dweck & Elliott,
1983; Xitao & Michael 2001). Various
researches show that parental attitudes are
associated with variables such as motivational
or i ent at i on, s el f - concept or s chool
achievement (Antunes & Fontaine, 2003;
Eccles, Wigfield, & Schiefele, 1998; Frome &
Eccles, 1998; Harter, 1999; Juang & Silbereisen,
2002; Lord, Eccles, & McCarthy, 1994;
Oosterwegel & Oppenheimer, 1993; Peixoto,
2004). When there is acceptance by the
parents, the home environment is congenial
and such parents are likely to be effective role
models. Thus, children learn more appropriate
behavior from such effective role models (Rim &
Scheictewr, 2002). Furthermore, such children
have social interaction characterized by pro
social behavior and better adjustment (Denham
& Grout, 1993) which further has positive effect
on their self concept. Parents who accept their
children, communicate their expectations
clearly, express concern for their children,
022
monitor their off spring and raise competent
children with less involvement in problem
behaviors (Strage, 1998) leading to motivation
to achieve more and adjust better. Parental
rejection, on the other hand, leads to
aggression in children and aggressive children
often show maladjusted behaviors and lack the
behavior control and motivation to experience
academic success (Moffitt, 1993). Thus,
parental acceptance enables children to be
better in emotional regulation and have a
better sense of self confidence, self esteem and
overall positive self concept. It is well
documented in research that parental
involvement and unconditional acceptance
(Bender, Wells, Peterson, 1989; Coopersmith,
1967) and parental coherence (Newman &
Newman, 1987) seem to be some of the
attitudes that influence the development of
children's global self concept.
Furthermore, parents who reject their
children communicate negative affect to them.
There is an environment of negativity and
insecurity in such homes which further results
in aggression, maladjustment and negative self
concept among children.
The findings have implications in the area of
child and adolescent counseling. It is the
positive and accepting attitude of parents that
inculcates in children an acceptance of self,
feeling of well-being and presence of positive
emotions. In a study with high school students,
Baio and Peixoto (2001) found that parental
pressure to get good grades was negatively
associated with academic self-concept, self-
esteem and academic performance. In the
same vein, Antunes and Fontaine (2003), found
in a study with secondary school students, the
evidence of a negative relationship between the
attitudes of parents emphasizing academic
performance and academic self-concept and
academic achievement of students. The more
active forms of parent involvement produce
greater achievement benefits than the more
passive ones. That is, if parents communicate
with the teacher regularly, greater achievement
benefits can be obtained than with no parent
involvement at all.
Thus, for a child's good overall development
and attainment of goals in various spheres of
life, parental role, involvement and positive
attitude is must.
REFERENCES
Aboma, O. (2009). Predicting first year
university students? academic success.
Electronic Journal of Research in
Educational Psychology, 7(3), 1053-
1072.
Adem, K. (2005). Factors affecting students?
performance in higher institutions: The
case of Alemaya University. Journal of
the Ethiopian Statistical Association, 14,
73-82.
Antunes, C., and Fontaine, A. M. (2003).
Adolescents' perceptions of their
parents' attitudes towards academic
performance: Their relation with
academic performance, academic self-
concept and global self-esteem. Paper
presented at the 10th Conference of
European Association for Research on
Learning and Instruction, Nicosia.
Atkinson, J.W. (1974). Achievement Motivation.
I n D. L. Si l l e (Ed. ), I nternati onal
Encyclopedia of the social science
(pp.27-33).New York: MacMillan & Free
Press.
Baio, G., and Peixoto, F. (2001, Novembro).
Autoconceito, auto-estima e presso
familiar para o sucesso acadmico em
adolescentes [Self-concept, self-
esteem and parental pressure to
023
academic achievement in adolescents].
Poster presented at the IIth Congress
Famlia, Sade Mental e Polticas
Sociais, Lisboa.
Baldwin (1949). Social Psychology. The
character structure of the rejected
child, Nern Child, 3, 74-89.
Baumrind, D. (1991). Effective parenting during
the early adolescent transition. In P.A.
Cowan & E. M. Hetherington (Eds.),
Advances in family research, Vol. 2.
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Becker. (1988). Boomer Blues. Psychology
today.
Bender, R., Wells, G., & Peterson, S. (1989). Self
esteem: paradoxes and innovations in
c l i ni cal t heor y and pr ac t i c e.
Wa s h i n g t o n , D C : A me r i c a n
Psychological Association.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of
human development. Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Chandler, M. (2006). The influence of parenting
style and ethnicity on academic
selfefficacy and academic performance.
Unpublished Senior Honors Thesis,
Texas A & M University. Retrieved from
http://hdl.handle.net/1969.1/3717 on
27/09/2008.
Christenson, S.L., Hurley, C.M., Sheridan, S.M. &
Fenstermacher, K.(2001). Parents and
school Psychologist's perspectives on
parent involvement activities. School
Psychology Review, 26, 111-130.
Coopersmith, S. (1967). The antecedents of self-
esteem. San Francisco: W-H. Freeman.
Daniel, T. (1992). Personaity types and
academic achievement motivation as
correl ates of col l ege academi c
performance. Unpublished Master?s
Thesis, Addis Ababa University, Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia.
Denham, S.A., and Grout, L. (1993).Socialization
of emotion: Pathway to preschoolers'
emotional and social competence.
Journal of non-verbal behavior, 17, 205-
227.
Desi mone, L. ( 1999) . Li nki ng parent
i n v o l v e me n t w i t h s t u d e n t
achievement: Do race and income
matter? Journal of Educati onal
Research, 93, 1-30.
Dornbusch, S., Ritter, p., Liederman, P., Roberts,
D., and Fraleigh, M. (1987). The relation
of parenting style to adolescent school
performance. Child Development, 58,
1244-1257.
Dweck, C.S. and Elliott, E.S. (1983).Achievement
Mot i vat i on. I n P. Mus s en and
E.M.Hetherington (Eds.),Handbook of
child Psychology (Vol.IV).New York:
Wiley(P.420).
Eccles, J. S., Wigfield, A., and Schiefele, U.
(1998). Motivation to succeed. In W.
Damon (Series Ed.) & N. Eisenberg (Vol.
Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: vol.
3. Social, emotional and personality
development (5 ed., pp. 1017-1095).
New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Erden, M., and Uredi, I. (2008). The effect of
perceived parenting styles on self-
regulated learning strategies and
motivational beliefs. International
Journal about Parents in Education, 2,
25-34.
Fan, X., and Chen, M. (2001). Parental
involvement and students' academic
achi evement: A meta- anal ysi s.
Educational Psychology Review, 13, 1-
22.
Fentaw, A. (1991). Factors affecting academic
performance of students at Addis
Ababa uni versi t y. Unpubl i shed
Master?s Thesi s, Addi s Ababa
University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
024
Fontaine, A. M. (1988). Prticas educativas
familiares e motivao para a realizao
dos adol escentes. Cadernos de
Consulta Psicolgica, 4, 13-30.
Frank, L.K., and Frank, M.H., (1996). Your
adolescent, at home and in school. New
York: Viking.
Frome, P. M., and Eccles, J. S. (1998). Parents'
influence on childrens' achievement-
rel ated percepti ons. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 74,
435-452.
Fulton, E.; and Turner, L. A. (2008). Students?
academic motivation: Relations with
parental warmth, autonomy granting,
and s uper vi s i on. Educat i onal
Psychology, 28(5), 521534.
Gottfried, A. E.; Fleming, J. S., and Gottfried, A.
W. (1994). Role of parental motivational
practices in children's academic
intrinsic motivation and achievement.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 86,
104-113.
Grolnick, W. S.; and Slowiaczek, M. L. (1994).
Parents' involvement in children's
school i ng: A mul t i di mensi onal
conceptualization and motivational
model. Child Development, 65, 237-
252.
Habte, T. B. (1988). An investigation into some
factors affecting academic performance
of first year regular science degree
students of 1987/88. Unpublished
Master?s Thesi s, Addi s Ababa
University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Harter, S. (1999). The construction of the self: A
developmental perspective. New York:
The Guilford Press.
Hawkins, Dell.; et. al. (1998). Consumer
Behavior: Building Marketting Strategy.
New York : Mc Graw Hill.
Hoffman, J. A., Weiss, B. (1987). Family
dynamics and presenting problems in
college students. Journal of Counselling
Psychology, 34, 157-163.
Holden, G.W. Edwards, L. A. (1989). Parental
atti tudes toward chi l d reari ng:
Instruments, issues and Implications.
Psychological Bulletin, Vol 106 (1), 29-
58.
Juang, L. P., Silbereisen, R. K. (2002). The
relationship between adolescent
academic capability beliefs, parenting
and school grades. Journal of
Adolescence, 25, 3-18.
King, M., King, J. (1972). Some correlates of
university performance in a developing
country: The case of Ethiopia. The
Ethiopian Journal of Education, 5(2), 20-
30.
Kordi, A. Baharudin, R. (2010). Parenting
Attitude and Style and Its Effect on
Children's School Achievements.
International Journal of Psychological
Studies Vol. 2, (2) 217-222.
Lord, S. E., Eccles, J. S., McCarthy, K. A. (1994).
Surviving the junior high school
transition, family processes, and self-
perceptions as protective and risk
factors. Journal of Early Adolescence,
14, 162- 199.
Maccoby, E. E. (1980). Social development:
Psychological Growth and the Parent
Child Relationship. New York: Harcourt,
Brace, Jovanovich.
McClelland, D.C. (1976).The Achieving Society.
New York: Irvington.
Meece, J. L. (1994). The role of motivation in
self-regulated learning. In D. H. Schunk
& B. J. Zimmerman (Eds.), Self-
regulation of learning and performance
(pp. 25-44). Hillsdale, NJ:Erlbaum.
025
Mezgebo, T. (2008). Determinants of university
level performance of students: Case
study of rural development course
covered in 2008 with in Mekelle
Un i v e r s i t y. R e t r i e v e d f r o m
h t t p : / / m p r a . u b . u n i -
muenchen.de/17923/ on 25/11/2010.
Moffitt, T.E. (1993). Adolescent-limited and life
course persistent antisocial behavior: A
d e v e l o p me n t a l t a x o n o my .
Psychological Review, 100, 674-701.
Mohsin, S.M.(1976).Reinterpretation of the
dynamics of attitude formation and
change. Indian Journal of Psychology,
51, 1-61.
Mulugeta, T. (1998). Locus of control, self-
efficacy, and academic achievement
motivation as predictors of academic
performance of college freshmen: The
case of Addis Ababa University.
Unpublished Master?s Thesis, Addis
Ababa Uni versi ty, Addi s Ababa,
Ethiopia.
Newman, B., Newman, P. (1987). Development
through life: A psychosocial approach
th
(4 edition).Chicago: Dorsey Press.
Oosterwegel, A.; Oppenheimer, L. (1993).
Developmental changes between and
within self-concepts. New Jersey:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Peixoto, F. (2004). Qualidade das relaes
familiares, auto-estima, autoconceito e
rendimento academic [Quality of family
relationships. self-esteem, self-concept
and academic achievement]. Anlise
Psicolgica, 22, 253-244.
Prindle, C.; Rasinski, K. A. (1989). The National
Education Longitudinal Study of 1988:
Data collection results and analysis
potential. Paper presented at the
Annual Meeting of the American
Educational Research Association. (ERIC
Document Reproduction Service No.:
ED 308-215).
Rao, N. ( 1978 ).Socio-psychological correlates
of social development of high school
children in grades VIII, IX and X in some
schools of Bangalore city. Doctoral
thesi s i n Educati on, Bangal ore;
Bangalore University.
Repinski, D. J.; Shonk, S. M. (2002). Mothers'
and fathers' behavior, adolescents' self-
representations and adolescents'
adjustment: A mediational model.
Journal of Early Adolescence, 22, 357-
383.
Rice, K. G.; Cole, D. A.; Lapsley, D. K. (1990).
Separati on-i ndi vi duati on, fami l y
cohesion, and adjustment to college:
Measurement validation and a test of a
t heoret i cal model . J our nal of
Counselling Psychology, 37, 195-202.
Rim and Scheictewr (2002). Relation among
achi evement, sel f - concept and
moti vati on i n mathemati cs and
language arts: A longitudinal study.
Journal of Experimental Education, 67
(2), 135-149.
Romer,D.,Stanton,B.; Galibraith,J.; Feigelman,S;
Black,M.M. Li,X (1999). Parental
i nfl uence on adol escent sexual
behavior in high poverty setting.
Archives of pediatrics & adolescent
Medicine, 153, 1055-1062.
Shah Beena (1986). Achievement motivation
scale. Agra: Agra Psychological Research
Cell.
Steinberg, L., Elment, J., and Mounts, N. (1989).
Authoritative parenting, psychosocial
maturity, and academic success among
adolescents. Child Development, 60,
1424-1436.
026
Strage (1988). Family context variables and the
development of self-regulation in
college students.Adolescence, 33, 17-
31.
Strage, A., and Brandt, T. (1999). Authoritative
parenting and college student's
academic badjustment and success.
Journal of Educational Psychology,
91(1), 146-156.
Tamire, A. (1997). Attributions and academic
achievement of education, medicine,
and polytechnic freshman students in
Bahir Dar. The Ethiopian Journal of
Education, 17(2), 59-77.
Tesfaye, S. (2007). Identification of factors
contributing to gender disparity in an
Ethiopian university. Eastern Africa
Social Science Research Review, 23(2),
71-93.
Tsige, G.M. (2001). Effect of accommodation in
academic achievement: The case of
Addis Ababa Commercial College
students who came from regions. The
Ethiopian Journal of Education, 21(2),
83-125.
Tsige, G.M. (2006). Some correlates of academic
performance among students of
College of Commerce, Addis Ababa
University. The Ethiopian Journal of
Education, 26(1), 67-98.
Turner, E. A., and Heffer, R. W. (2005). Parental
influences on academic performance
and attitudes toward achievement.
R e t r i e v e d f r o m
ht t p : / / ps y c h o l o g y. t a mu . e d u /
post ers/ear l t ur ner 2005. pdf on
03/09/2008.
Turner, E.A.; Chandler, M., and Heffer, R.W.
(2009). Influence of Parenting Styles,
Achievement Motivation, and Self-
Efficacy on Academic Performance in
College Students. Journal of College
Student Development, 50, 3,337-346.
Van Meter, E. J. (1994). Implementing school-
based decision making in Kentucky.
NASSP Bull., 78: 6170.
Wentzel, K. R. (1998). Social relationships and
motivation in middle school: The role of
parents, teachers and peers. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 90, 202-209.
Xitao, F.; Michael, C. (2001). Parental
Involvement and Students' Academic
Achi evement : A Meta- Anal ysi s
Educational Psychology Review, 13(1),
1-22.
Yalew, E. (2003). Causes of students attrition in
Bahir Dar University: Qualitative and
quantitative analyses. The Ethiopian
Journal of Education, 23(1), 31-66.
INTRODUCTION
Over the years, organi zati onal
commitment and work values have got
tremendous importance in organizational
research. These variables have brought the
attention of management and behavioral
scientists. Organizational commitment is
i mportant vari abl e i n organi zati onal
researches. It contributes a lot in fulfilling the
dreams of organization because a committed
employee would perform more efficiently as
compare to non committed employees.
Similarly work values too play vital role in the
development of organizational goal. Employees
in the organization possess high work values
towards the job May leads to high efficiency and
job satisfaction.
Organizational commitment is define
as the strength of an individual's identification
wi th an i nvol vement i n a parti cul ar
organization (Porter et al., 1974). Allen &
Meyer (1991) indicate that there mind sets
027
ABSTRACT
Organizational Commitment and Work Values among the Doctors of
Government Hospitals of Jharkhand
*Zaki Akhtar **Chanchal Kumari
The present study is an attempt to examine the organizational commitment and work
values among doctors of government hospitals. A total number of 60 doctors of government
hospital were included in the sample. Purposive sampling technique was used for sample selection.
Organizational commitment scale developed by Allen & Meyer (1991) was used to assess the level of
commitment of the doctors towards the organization. The Work values scale, a standard scale
developed by Manhardt (1972). The results were analyzed by means of t-test and correlation. The
result showed that doctors differed significantly in terms of experiences as far as organizational
commitment and work values are concerned. The findings further reveal that doctors did not differ
significantly on gender, marital status and age in terms of organizational commitment and work
values. Organizational commitment and work values are positively correlated. It was also reported
that the different dimensions of organizational commitment and work values are positively
correlated with each other.
characterizing an employee's commitment to
the organization: affective, normative and
continuance. Each of the three dimensions of
organizational commitment is likely to enhance
retention in an organization. Affective
commitment makes the employee 'want' to
stay on in the organization because of affective
bonds. Continuance commitment compels the
employee to stay on in the organization due to
various material or economic constraints.
Finally, normative commitment also binds the
individual to the organization through a moral
binding. Organizational commitment could be
defined as a psychological state that binds the
individual to the organization (Allen and
Meyer, 1991). Organizational commitment is
related to both the attitudes of employees
toward an organization and certain behaviours
exhibited by employees in that organization
(Jernigan et al., 2002). It may also influence an
employee's intention to continue to work in an
organization or not.
*Assistant Professor,Department Of Psychology,Karim City College, Jamshedpur
**Research Scholar,Kolhan University, Chaibasa
Work Values are concept or beliefs that
determine how we live in our life. At work, they
are a major influence on how individuals
approach their work. Values drive our actions
and decisions. As such, they can be principal
determinants of behaviour and will influence
our views about people, situations or events.
Work values are a subset of social values that
suggest general patterns of behaviour that
individuals ought to exhibit (Fallding, 1965).
Most of the research on organizational
commitment has been done by industrial
organizational and occupational psychologists
(Mueller, Wallace & Price, 1992). Over the years
commitment related studies have achieved
prominent status in psychological researches in
general and in the area of organizational
behaviour in particular. Over the past three
decades, an impressive amount of research
efforts have been devoted to understanding the
nature, antecedents, and consequences of
organi zati onal commi tment. Empl oyee
commitment is important because high levels
of commitment lead to several favourable
organizational outcomes (Chughati & Zafar,
2006).
Singhal and Sood (1981) found positive
relationship between tenure and commitment
in a sample of hospital nurses. Scandura and
Lankau (1997); Gaertner and Nollen (1989); Lau
and Ngo (1996) concluded that corporate
culture and human resource practices do have
i mportant beari ng on organi zati onal
commitment. Mowday et al (1979) summarized
positive findings from studies of two different
occupational groups (hospital and retail
employees) linking organizational commitment
to job performance. Mowday et al (1982) and
Mathieu and Zajac (1990) suggested that
woman are more effectively committed to the
organization than are men. On the other hand
028
Aranya et al (1986); Marsden et al (1993)
reported that men displayed a higher level of
commitment than woman.
Lei Wang et al. (2002) hypothesize
collectivist orientation can predict affective
organizational commitment. The study surveys
510 employees working in two organizations in
China. The premise is supported collectivist
orientation people tend to have a salient social
i dent i t y i n vari ous groups, such as
organizations. Thus, they are easier to
internalize themselves to the organization and
easier to link personal goals with organizations.
A collectivist orientation organization has
higher affective organizational commitment.
Rashid et al. (2003) examine 202
managers in public listed companies in Malaysia
regarding the influence of corporate culture and
organizational commitment on financial
performance of the firms. They adopt the
theories of Meyer & Allen on organizational
commitment and of Deshpande and Farley on
corporate cul ture and organi zati onal
commitment; meanwhile, corporate culture
and organizational commitment confirmed to
have impacts on financial performances in this
study.
With the advent of globalization and
advancement in science and technology,
researches on organizational commitment have
increased and are continuously gaining
importance among researchers all over the
world. This is because more and more
organizations realize that human resources are
their most valuable assets and having loyal and
committed employees can ensure that they
would stay competitive and survive. In fact,
some articles do mention that organizations
cannot perform efficiently and effectively
without committed employees. This kind of
employees will also enhance the organizational
competitiveness and guarantee the survival of
the organizations (Ongori, 2007). In short it is a
*Zaki Akhtar **Chanchal Kumari Volume-4 (1)
valuable bonus for the company to have
employees with a high level of organizational
commi tment. These hi ghl y-commi tted
employees would feel that they owe so much to
the organization and in return, they would be
less likely to leave. Results of some other studies
also showed that more committed employees
would be less likely to leave an organization
(Nogueras, 2006). This is also supported by
some other researchers (Ishak Ismail, 2006)
who found that the higher the degree of
commitment among employees, the less likely
they would express the intention to leave.
Values can influence how an individual
perceives and interprets a given situation and
the importance he or she gives it (Schwartz,
Sagiv, & Boehnke, 2000), as well as how he or
she reacts and behaves in given circumstances
(Schwartz et al., 2000). Further, values play a
central role in determining the fit between
individuals and the employment organization
(Berings, De Fruyt, & Bouwen, 2004). All of this
suggests that an understanding of individual-
level differences in values may offer insights
into better ways of guiding different employees
(Francesco & Chen, 2004). Work values appear
to be a resurgence of interest in the underlying
attitudinal structures of individuals (Dubin &
Goldman, 1972). The values of organizational
participants have been the historical focus of
several lines of investigation (Dubin, 1975).
Chung et al. (2008) suggested that work
values are a set of durable beliefs in work. They
reflect personal needs, job types or the
environmental preferences of individuals. They
also guide the work behaviour of individuals
and can dictate their goals and job choices.
Work values have an influence on hiring and
retention rates and can affect the willingness of
individuals to work diligently (Boyatzis and
Skelly, 1991). Chiu (2002) suggested that most
individuals consider whether the image and
values of an organization match their own in
029
their job selections. If they match, it is an
enhancer to the development of the individual
and the organization; if not, it becomes an
obstacle. It is imperative for companies to gain a
deep understanding of the work values of their
employees and ensure that the ownership of
desirable work values is factored into the
recruitment process (Chung et al., 2008).
Work values have been studied
amongst many other reasons, for their
influence over some key attitudes and
psychological states such as work satisfaction
and organizational commitment. A significant
positive correlation was found between work
values and organizational commitment; it was
further revealed that individuals who exhibit
higher work values also feel morally obligated to
remain with that organization and with the
teaching profession (Luxmi & Yadav, 2011).
The findings of this study suggest that
nursing work continues to be both emotionally
challenging and physically demanding and
therefore a source of workplace stress (Taylor et
al. 1999, Tummers et al. 2002). However, the
data also suggest that nurses' perceptions vary
according to job level, job designation and
employment sector. Work values are a source of
motivation, these values likely influence
workers' behaviours, perceptions, and attitudes
toward their work and work-related factors.
Previous research has also examined these
types of relationships (Hegney et al., 2006;
Hirschi, 2010; Vansteenkiste et al., 2007; Wang
et al. 2010).
Studies reveal that intrinsic and
extrinsic work values differentially influence
work outcomes. Wang et al. (2010) found that
intrinsic work values significantly influenced
pay satisfaction and decreased turnover
intention. Hirschi (2010) reported that intrinsic
work values had a positive impact on career
development. In contrast to the positive work
outcomes generally associated with intrinsic
work values, extrinsic work values were found
to produce negati ve work outcomes.
Vansteenkiste et al. (2007) confirmed that
extrinsic work values are associated with less
positive outcomes and more negative
outcomes. In fact, employees with high extrinsic
work values tend to place the emphasis on
external indicators of their worth, status and
success. According to Vansteenkiste and his
associates, adopting an 'outward' or 'having'
ori entati on i s l i kel y to detract from
psychological health because such an
orientation thwarts the satisfaction of the basic
psychological needs (Vansteenkiste et al.,
2007). Hirschi (2010) confirmed that extrinsic
work values had no significant effect on career
development and Wang et al. (2010) also
concluded that extrinsic work values were not
associated with pay satisfaction. A positive
effect of extrinsic work values on satisfaction,
but this study was limited to a specific job
category (nurses) and the results were
ambiguous.
Extracted the dimensions of work
values and confirmed that these dimensions
differ based on job category. Although we made
assumptions about the different characteristics
of each job that led to a unique pattern of work
values, it is also likely that people choose jobs
that match their specific mixture of work values.
In fact, some studies have addressed the
relationship between students' work values and
their career selections. For example, Busacca et
al. (2010) and Van Ness et al. (2010) found that
work value scores were significantly different
between practicing workers and trainees or
students. Therefore, work experience also has
some effect on work values.
Bae and Chung (1997) investigated the
relationship between work values and
organi zati onal commi tment of Korean
industrial workers in comparison to those in
United States and Japan. The results showed
030
that Korean workers were more committed and
had high expectations of their companies. Their
high commitment was derived from their
values, as they showed highest achievement
aspirations, work commitment and company
families.
An important category of person
variables studied in personorganization fit
research is work values (Locke 1976 cited in
Taris & Feij). These values are defined as
'enduring beliefs that a specific mode or
conduct or end-state is preferable to its
opposite, thereby guiding the individual's
attitudes, judgements and behaviours' (Taris &
Feij 2001). With regard to work values, a
commonly used differentiation in this domain is
intrinsic and extrinsic work values. Intrinsic
work values 'refer to the degree to which
employees value immaterial aspects of their
jobs that allow for self-expression as important,
for example, job variety and autonomy' (Taris &
Feij 2001). Extrinsic work values 'refer to the
degree to which employees value material or
instrumental work aspects, such as salary and
opportunity for promotion, as important' (Taris
& Feij 2001).
Work values (the satisfaction of nursing
work, being able to complete the tasks during
working hours) and extrinsic work values
(remuneration and career progression). The
importance of re-assessing the nursing job
satisfaction literature using these work values is
highlighted by the results of studies suggesting
that job satisfaction decreases when intrinsic
work values are not met (Taris & Feij 2001).
Further, these authors suggest that extrinsic
work aspects and social relations at work not
only affect job satisfaction, but also intention to
leave the current position. For example, Taris
and Feij (2001) suggest that an employee's
intention to leave decreased until the
employee's valued level for this extrinsic value
was reached. If the extrinsic supply was
increased over the valued level then an
employee was more likely to leave the company
rather than stay (Taris & Feij 2001). This finding
was not apparent for intrinsic work values.
Work Values are reflected in an
employee's enduring beliefs about work, which
guide actions, attitudes, and judgments in the
work situation. Nurses play a pivotal role in
caring for people. Since every person is unique,
providing holistic care is central to the nursing
profession. Rapidly advancing technology and
the ri se of cost- ori ented heal thcare
management have, nevertheless, changed the
nurse-patient dynamics and created new
challenges for the nursing profession (Chou,
et.al. 2007) studied work value pattern of Indian
medical student and found that an average
Indian Medical students had a work value
pattern dominated by independent, social,
creative and status value. Inter-institutional
variation was high with regard to certain work
value dimensions such as dents indicated that
personality plays an important role in choice of
a job. Chandra & Bhogle (1986) assessed the
work value of four professional groups namely
Doctors, Engineers, Administrators and
Teachers. Shipra & Griffith (1990) found that the
work values of managers and engineers were
strongly related to their performance ratings
and inversely related to their tardiness levels.
METHOD
Objectives:
To examine the level of organizational
commi tment and work val ues among
government doctors.
commi t ment among mal e & femal e
government doctors.
To examine the level of work values
among male & female government doctors.
031
commitment among high & low experience of
government doctors.
among high & low experience of government
doctors.
commitment among young and middle age of
government doctors.
among young and middle age of government
doctors.
commitment among married and unmarried
government doctors.
among married and unmarried government
doctors.
Hypotheses:
Ho1: Male and female govt. doctors would not
differ significantly on the level of
organizational commitment.
Ho2: Male and female govt. doctors would not
differ significantly on the level of work
values.
Ho3: High and low experience govt. doctors
would not differ significantly in the
term of organizational commitment.
Ho4: High and low experience govt. doctors
term of work values.
Ho5: Young and old age govt. doctors would not
differ significantly in the term of
Ho6: Young and old age govt. doctors would not
differ significantly in the term of work
values.
Ho7: Married and unmarried govt. doctors
term of organizational commitment.
Ho8: Married and unmarried govt. doctors
term of work values.
Participants:
Total numbers of 60 doctors have been
included in proposed study. The sample is based
on the two genders (male & female), work
experience (high & low), age (middle & young)
and marital status (married & unmarried). The
sample has been collected from government
hospitals of Jharkhand. The purposive sampling
technique was used.
Personal Data Questionnaire: Personal data
questionnaire developed by researcher. It
contains items related to respondent's personal
and professional identity name, age, gender,
032
work experience, marital status and service
tenure.
Procedure:
The researcher visited different
government hospitals of Jharkhand and
approached personally to each and every
doctor to get their responses regarding
experience of work values and organizational
commitment.
Results of the various analyses are presented in
the following tables.
Groups N Mean SD SED t value Level of
Sign.
Male 30 63.66 4.14 2.66 1.30 p>0.05
Female 30 60.20 9.10

Table 2: shows Mean, SD, SED and t value on the basis of gender in Work values
Sign.
Male 30 84.46 7.61 2.96 0.02 p>0.05
Female 30 84.53 8.10

Table 1: shows Mean, SD, SED and t value on the basis of gender in Organizational
Commitment
033
Table 3: shows Mean, SD, SED and t value on the basis of experience in Organizational
Commitment
Sign.
High
experience
30 65.80 3.10 2.32 3.33 p<0.01
Low
experience
30 58.06 8.16

Table 4: shows Means, SD, SED and t value on the basis of experience in Work values
Sign.
High
experience
30 88.06 6.01 2.94 2.42 p<0.01
Low
experience
30 80.93 9.32

Table 5: shows Mean, SD, SED and t value on the basis of age in Organizational Commitment
Sign.
Middle age 31 65.50 3.22 2.47 0.95 p>0.05
Young age 29 57.85 8.40

Table 6: shows Means, SD, SED and t value on the basis of age in Work values
Sign.
Middle age 31 84.50 5.47 2.97 0.43 p>0.05
Young age 29 83.21 9.46

034
Table 7: shows Mean, SD, SED and t value on the basis of marital status in Organizational
Commitment
Sign.
Married 35 63.84 4.09 5.66 2.02 p>0.05
Unmarried 25 52.40 11.2

Table 8: shows Means, SD, SED and t value on the basis of marital status in Work values
Sign.
Married 35 83.16 6.23 5.38 1.49 p>0.05
Unmarried 25 91.20 10.47

Table 9: Correlation of Organizational commitment & Work values
Dimensions Organizational commitment Work values
Organizational commitment ----------------- 0.139
Work values 0.139 -----------------

Table 10: Correlation between sub- dimensions of organizational commitment and work values
Dimensions Organizational Commitment
Work Values Sub dimensions Affective
Commitment
Normative
commitment
Continuance
commitment
Comfort &
security
0.21 0.40 0.43
Competency &
growth
0.34 0.01 0.09
Status &
independence
0.19 0.09 0.14

Table-1 shows mean, SD and t-value of
organizational commitment of male and female
doctors. Both the groups did not differ
significantly in terms of organizational
commitment. However male doctors showed
high organizational commitment as compared
to female counter part which is indicated to
their mean score 63.66 and 60.20 respectively.
Same findings was confirmed by Aranya et al.
(1986), Marsden et al. (1993) that male doctors
displayed a higher level of commitment then
woman doctors. Contrary to this, there are
other findings in which female employees are
more committed to their job. Females tend to
have a higher degree of organizational
commitment. This hypothesis is based upon the
premise that women have to overcome more
barriers than men to gain acceptance.
Therefore once they gain acceptance, they tend
to be more committed to the organization
(Camilleri, 2002).
Table-2 reveals that male and female doctors
did not differ significantly in the experience of
work values. Both the gender received work
value equally. This may be attributed due to the
fact they both gender are high on work values.
They possess positive value towards their
profession. Since doctor are supposed to
interact large number of human beings
consequently they showed high value towards
their profession in dealing with the people
(Chandra & Bhogle, 1986).
Table-3 indicates the significance of difference
among high and low experience doctors. High
ex per i enc e doc t or s s howed bet t er
organizational commitment as compare to low
experience doctors. This may be attributed due
to long tenure in the organization and high level
of attachment towards the job. Hi gh
organizational commitment gives the feeling of
belonging and sense of attachment to the
organization. It was also repoted that work
035
experi ences i ncl ude factors such as
organizational support and fairness. Most of the
organizational commitment research effort has
been directed toward the discovery of
predictors for and outcomes of organizational
commitment (Becker, 1990).
Table-4 indicates that high and low experience
doctors differed significantly in the perception
of work value as indicated in t-value 2.42. High
experience may lead to greater work values as
compare to low experience doctors. Long
tenure in the organization may give a good
sense of work values to the job.
Table-5 shows that middle and young age group
differed significantly in the organizational
commitment. Older employees have a higher
degree of organizational commitment. This
hypothesis is based upon the premise that older
employees view their past years of service to
the organisation as an investment, and will have
the perception that it would be more difficult
for them to be job mobile. Therefore they would
tend to be more committed to the organization
(camilleri, 2002).
Table-6 indicates that the middle and young age
doctors did not differ significantly in the
experience of work values. Both the groups
equally perceived work values in their job. Since
the job profile of doctors irrespective of their
age are seems to be same for both the groups.
That is why both the group perceived high work
values as far as their job is concerned.
Table-7 reveals that married and unmarried
doctors differed significantly in terms of
organizational commitment. Married doctors
seem to be more committed towards their job
as compare to their counterpart, which are
evident from their mean scores 63.84 and 52.40
respectively. This may be attributed due to fact
that married people have more family
responsibilities and need more stability and
security in their jobs; and therefore, they are
likely to be more committed to their current
or gani zat i on t han t hei r unmar r i ed
counterparts. In the light of these findings and
explanation, it was hypothesized that marital
status would be positively related to
commitment (Chughati & Zafar, 2006). Married
employees tend to have a higher degree of
organizational commitmnt. This hypothesis is
based upon the premise that married
employees, as bread winners of the family unit,
tend to be more sociably stable than their single
counterparts. Thus they tend to be more
committed to the organisation.
Table-8 indicates the no significance of
difference reported among married and
unmarried doctors in terms of work values.
Although, work values seems to be more among
unmarried doctors as compare to their
counterpart. This may be attributed due to lack
of family responsibility and their extra time
given to job. The underlying assumption is that
people will be happier and more motivated,
satisfied, and committed when their values are
congruent with those emphasized in the group
or organization (Berings et al., 2004).
Table-9 reveals the relationship between
organizational commitment and work values
among doctors. It was reported that was found
to be positively correlated organizational
commitment and work values are positive
correlated to each other. It may be analyzed that
more committed doctors possess high level of
work values or vice-versa. Other study also
found significant positive correlation between
work values and organizational commitment; it
was further revealed that individuals who
exhibit higher work values also feel morally
obligated to remain with that organization and
with the teaching profession (Luxmi & Yadav,
2011).
Table-10 describes the correlation between
sub-dimensions of organizational commitment
and work values. Comfortsecurity and
affective commitment are positively correlated
036
to with each other. Comfort-security and
normative commitment are also found to be
more significantly and positively correlated
with each other. Comfort-security and
continuance commitment are also significantly
positively correlated. Competency-growth and
affective commitment are found to be positively
correlated, where as there no correlation was
found between competency-growth and
normative commitment. Similarly competency-
growth and continuance commitment has no
relationship. It is further reveals that status &
independence is moderately correlated with
each other, where as no relationship was found
with status & independence and normative
commitment. It was also revealed that status &
independence and continuance commitment
moderately correlated with each other.
Conclusion
The present research has brought many
important issues into limelight related to
organizational commitment and work values of
doctors. The doctors being an integral part of
society provide health services to the people.
Therefore, doctors who are serving government
sector should be more committed to their
assignment. They also must possess high level
of work values, so that they can serve a large
number of human being. The important
biographical variables such as age, gender,
marital status and job experience were studied
in relation to work values and organizational
commitment. The correlation studies also
conformed positive relationship between
different dimensions of work values and
Significance of study
Organizational commitment and work
values are important variables in organizational
researches. These variables have not been
studied extensively among government
doctors. The profession of doctors is
worthwhile and valuable in the society because
it is concerned with the well being of the human
being. Their job commitment is very essential in
this regards. It is also noted that the
commitment to the job comes from perception
of work values. Those doctors who possess high
work values, they tend to show high level of job
commitment in the organization.
Limitation of Study
The conclusion of a study like this would not be
complete without a mention of its limitations,
one of which is the fact that the study was
limited to doctors; other medical staff should be
included in sample. Other limitation is related to
the size of sample studied. A sample of 60
government doctors is not considered enough
to generalize the findings of the study and to
reach on some definite conclusion. A large
sample would be more appropriate which may
facilitate in validating the findings.
REFERENCES
Al l en, N. J. & Meyer, J. P. ( 1991) A
threecomponent conceptualization
of organizational commitment,
Human Resource Management Review,
1 (1): 61-89.
Aranya, N., Kushnir, T. and Valency, A. (1986)
Organization Commitment in a Male
Domi nated Professi on, Human
Relations, 39, 433-450.
Bae, K., and Chung, C. (1997) Cultural values
and work attitudes of Korean industrial
workers in comparison with those of
the United States and Japan Work and
Occupations, 24(1), 80-96.
Becker, T. E. (1990) Foci and bases of
c o mmi t me n t : A n e mp i r i c a l
examination of proposed distinctions
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The
Ohio State University, Columbus.
Berings, D.; De Fruyt, F., and Bouwen, R. (2004)
Work values and personality traits as
predictors of enterprising and social
037
vocational interests: Personality and
Individual Differences 36, 349364.
Boyatzis R.E.; Skelly F.R. (1991) The impact of
changing values on organizational life
In A. D. Kolb, I. M. Rubin, and J. S.
Osland (Eds.). The Organizational
Behaviour Reader. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice- Hall Press.
Busacca, L. A., Beebe, R. S. & Tornan, S. M.
(2010) Life and work values of
counsellor trainees: A national survey,
Career Development Quarterly, 59 (1):
2-18.
Camilleri, E. (2002) Some Antecedents of
Organisational Commitment: Results
from an Information Systems Public
Sector Organisation Bank of Valletta
Review, No. 25, Spring.
Chandra.P. and Bhogle,S (1986) Work values of
four professional groups, Indian
Journal of Applied Psychology, 23(2):
101-8.
Chiu, C.H. (2002) Relationship between
Employee Attitudes and Alignment of
Employees-Organizational Values,
Doctoral di ssertati on, Graduate
Institute of Healthcare Organization
Administration, National Taiwan
University.
Chou, C.C., Suen, L.J and Liny, Y.C. (2007)
Humanity education in nursing Hu Li
Za Zhi: 54(1); 29-34.
Chughati, A.A. and Zafar, S (2006). Antecedents
and Consequences of Organizational
Commi t ment Among Paki stani
University Teachers Applied H.R.M.
Research, 2006, Volume 11, Number 1,
pages 39-64.
Chung, Y.I.; Chi, N.W.; Chen, C.Y. (2008).
Development and Valuation of
Measurement on Work Values of
Sales, NTU Manage. Rev., 19(1): 51-82.
Dubin, R. & D.R. Goldman (1972) Central Life
I nterest s of Ameri can Mi ddl e
Managers and Specialists, Journal of
Vocational Behaviour, 2:133-141.
Dubin, R. (1975) Central life interests and
organizational commitment of blue
col l ar and c l er i cal wor ker s ,
Administrative Science Quarterly, 20:
411-421.
Fallding, H. (1965) A Proposal for the Empirical
Study of Values, American Sociological
Review, 30: 223-233.
Francesco, A. N.; Chen, Z. X. (2004) Collectivism
in action: Its moderating effects on the
relationship between organizational
c o mmi t me n t a n d e mp l o y e e
performance in China, Group &
Organi zati on Management, 29,
425441.
Gaertner, K.N. and Nollen, S.D. (1989) Career
E x per i enc es , Per c ept i ons of
E mpl oy me nt Pr a c t i c e s a nd
Psychological Commitment to the
Organization, Human Relations, 4: 97-
91.
Hegney, D.; Plank, A.; Parker, V. (2006) Extrinsic
and intrinsic work values: Their impact
on job satisfaction in nursing, Journal
of Nursing Management, 14(4): 272-
281.
Hirschi, A. (2010). Positive adolescent career
development: The role of intrinsic and
extri nsi c work val ues, Career
Development Quarterly, 58(1): 276-
287.
Ishak Ismail. (2006). Hubungan antara
kepuasan kerj a dan komi tmen
organisasi dan niat berhenti kerja,
Unpublished Master Thesis. Universiti
Utara Malaysia.
Jrenigan, I.E.; Beggs, J. M. Kohut, G. F. (2002).
Dimensions of work satisfaction as
038
predictors of commitment type,
Journal Management Psychology,
17(7): 564-579.
Lau, C.M. and Ngo, H.Y. (1996). One Country
Many Cultures: Organizational
Cultures of Firms of Different
Country Origins.
Lei Wang, James W Bishop, Xiangming Chen, K
Doul Soctt. (2002). Collectivist
orientation as predictor of affective
commitment : a study conducted in
china, International Journal of
Organizational Analysis. Bowling
Green, vol. 10, Iss. 3, 226-240.
Luxmi and Yadav, V. (2011). Impact of work
values on organizational commitment,
Management & Change, 15:1-21.
Manhardt, P.I. (1972). Job orientation among
male and female college graduate in
business, Personal Psychology, 25:
361-368.
Marsden, P. V., Kalleberg, A. L. and Cook, C. R.
(1993). Gender Di fferences i n
Organizational Commitment: Influence
of Work Positions and Family Roles
Work and Occupations, 20: 368-390.
Mathieu, John E. and Zajac, Dennis M. (1990) A
Review and Meta- Analysis of the
Ant ec edent s , Cor r el at es and
consequences of Organizational
Commitment, Psychological , 8 (2):
171-194.
Rashid, Z.A; Sambasivan, M. and Johari (2003)
The influence of corporate culture and
organi zati onal commi tment on
performance, The J ournal of
Management Development, Bradford:
Vol. 22, Issue 7/8 ; 708-729.
Mowday, R.T.; Porter, L.W. and Steers, R.M.
(1982). Employee Organization
L i nkages : The Psyc hol ogy of
Commi tment, Absenteei sm and
Turnover, San Diego, CA, Academic
Press.
Mowday, R.T., Steers, R. and Porter, L. (1979)
The Measurement of Organizational
Commitment Journal of Vocational
Behaviour, 14, 224-247.
Mueller, C. W.; Wallace, J. E.; Price, J. L. (1992)
Employee commitment: Resolving
some issues Work and Occupations,
19, 211-236.
Nogueras, D. J. (2006). Occupati onal
commi t ment , educat i on and
experience as a predictor of
intention to leave the nursing
profession, Nursing Economics,
Mar/April 2006, Vol.24, 2: 86-93.
Ongori, H. (2007). A review of the literature on
employee turnover, African Journal of
Business Management, June 2007, 49-
54.
Porter, L.W.; Steers, R. M.; Mowday, R.T. and
Boulian P.V. (1974). Organizational
Commitment, Job Satisfaction and
Tur nov er Among Ps y c hi at r i c
Technicians, Journal of Applied
Psychology, Vol. 59 (5): 603-609.
Scandura, T.A. and Lankau, M.J. (1997)
Relationship of Gender, Family
Responsibility and Flexible Work Hours
to Organizational Commitment and Job
S a t i s f a c t i o n , J o u r n a l o f
Organizational Behaviour, 18, 377-
391.
Schwartz, S. H.; Sagiv, L.; Boehnke, K. (2000)
Worries and values Journal of
Personality, 68, 309346.
Shapira and Griffith, T. (1990). Camparing the
work val ues of engi neers wi th
managers, production and clerical
workers, A multivariate analysis
Journal of organizational behaviour, 11:
281-92.
039
Singhel, S. and Sood, R. (1981). Control in
hospital & occupational commitment
of nurses, Managerial Psychology, 2:
51-59.
Taris, R. and Feij, F.A. (2001). Longitudinal
examination of the relationship
between supplies-values fit and work
outcomes Applied Psychology 50 (1),
5281.
Taylor, S.; White, B. and Muncer, S. (1999)
Nurses' cognitive structural models of
work-based stress Journal of
Advanced Nursing 29, 974983.
Tummers, G.E.R.; Landeweerd J.A.; van
Merode, G.G. (2002). Organization,
work and work reactions: a study of the
relationship between organizational
aspects of nursing and nurses' work
characteristics and work reactions,
Scandinavian Journal of Caring
Sciences, 16, 5258.
Van Ness, R. K.; Melinsky, K.; Buff, C. L. and
Seifert, C. F. (2010). Work ethic: Do
new employees mean new work
values, Journal of Managerial Issues,
22(1): 10-34.
Vansteenkiste, M.; Neyrinck, B.; Niemiec, C.P.;
Soenens, B.; De Witte, H.; and Van den
Broeck, A. (2007). On the relations
among work value orientations,
psychological need satisfaction and job
outcomes: A self-determination theory
approach, Journal of Occupational and
Organizational Psychology, 80(2): 251-
277.
Wang, C. Y., Chen, M. H., Hyde, B., and Hsieh, L.
(2010). Chinese employees' work
values and turnover intentions in
mul t i nat i onal compani es: The
mediation effect of pay satisfaction,
Social Behaviour and Personality, 38(7):
871-894.
Depression in women is very common.
In fact, women are twice as likely to develop
clinical depression as compared to men. Up to
one in four women are likely to have an episode
of major depression at some point in life for
which the ratio is alarmingly high.
What is depression? :
Depression is a serious and pervasive
mood disorder. It causes feelings of sadness,
hopelessness, helplessness and worthlessness.
Depression can be mild to moderate with
symptoms of apathy, little appetite, difficulty
sleeping low self esteem, and low grade
fatigue or it can be more severe.
040
ABSTRACT
A Comparative Study of Depression among Indoor and
Outdoor Working Women
Namita Shah
Depression is not One size fits all", particularly when it comes to the genders. Not only are
women more prone to depression then men, but the causes of female depression and even the
pattern of Symptoms are often different. Many factors contribute to the unique picture of
depression in women, from reproductive hormones to social pressures to stress. Depression is a
serious condition that can impact every area of life. It can affect our social lives, relationships,
careers and sense of self-worth and purposes. Depression is the most common of all mental dieses
with regard to women. According to the National Mental Health Association, about one in every
eight women are prone to depression at some point in time.
This difference persists across racial, ethnic and economic divides. Factually, this gender
difference in terms of depression is found in most countries around the world. There are a number of
theories that attempt to explain the higher incidence of depression in women. Many factors have
been implicated, including biological, psychological and social factors. The present Research is
based on the examination of the depression between Indoor and Outdoor working women. Beck
Depression Inventory (BDI) is used for the measurement of depression. The result indicates that
there is a significant difference between Indoor and Outdoor working women with regard to
depression.
What increases the chance of depression on
women ?
According to the National Institutes of
Health (2000) factors that increase the risk of
depression in women include reproductive,
genetic or other biological factors and
personality characteristics. In addition, women
juggling work with raising kids and women who
are single parents suffer more stress which may
trigger symptoms of depression.
Bonnie Rochman's (2011) research
finds that, working mothers who believe that
home and office can be seamlessly juggled are
at greater risk of depression than their more
Counselor, Shaishav, Child Rights Institute, Child Helpline Project (1098), Bhavnagar, Gujrat
INTRODUCTION
realistic maternal colleagues who accept they
can't do it all. Any women who's peeked
sobbing toddler from her things as she's running
at the door for work probably won't final this
news surprising.
Life is full of emotional 'UPS' and
'DOWNS'. But when the 'DOWN' times are long
lasting or interfere with your ability to function,
you may be suffering from a common serious
illness-depression. Clinical depression affects
mood, mind, body and behavior. Research has
shown that in the United States about 19 million
people one in ten adults experience
depression each year, and nearly two thirds do
not get the help they need. Other studies also
show that 'women have become such an
i ntegral part of the workforce that
investigations into the effect of employment on
depression have increased. Depression in
employed women may depend on the
occupational prestige. Women holding more
prestigious occupations are found to have lower
levels of depression than those in less
prestigious positions.
According to Yolanda A. Trevino, (2003)
Depression is an isuue which can be tackled
considerably by looking at their behavior and
the changes in the behavior in the context of
coping with problems, mood improvement,
changes in the thought process and finally
knowing themselves better and accepting
themselves. Yet another study by Joseph L.
Mailman(2001) highlights the fact that
Depression is evident in both Indoor as well as
outdoor working women but the fact that
women working outdoors can meet different
people and have a change in the monotonous
setting helps them to handle depression n a
041
better manner. As per Masako Seto, Morimoto
and Maruyama(2004) women workers with
young children, work-family conflict and various
work-related factors such as perceived bad
relationships at work, job insecurity, and
underutilization of skills had a significant
relationship with depressive symptoms.
I. Objective of the study :
To measure the depression between indoor and
outdoor working women.
II. Hypothesis of the Study :
There is no significant difference in depression
among indoor and outdoor working women.
III. Methods :
Sample:
According to the purpose of present
study 60 indoor and outdoor working women
has been selected. There were 30 indoor
working women and 30 outdoor working
women were taken as a sample from Bhavnagar
city. (Gujrat)
Tools:
In this research Back Depression
Inventory (BDI) has use to collect the needed
information of the research subjects. Scale was
made by Beck ward, Mendesion, Moch and
Drbauge (1961). It is comprised of twenty one
items. Although the inventory was designed as a
clinical instrument but in practice it is
frequently used to dichotomies subjects into
depression and non-depressed groups. This
inventory has test-retest reliability coefficient
ranging from 0.74 to 0.83 on different time
intervals and positively correlated with
Hamilton depression rating scale with a person r
of 0.71. Gujarati adoption by Sardar Patel
University in Gujarat (1990). This is 4 point scale.
Reliability and validity of Gujarati adoption was
0.86 and 0.65.
Namita Shah Volume-4 (1)
The aim of the present research was to
study the depression among indoor and
outdoor working women. Total 60 women were
taken as sample from Bhavnagar City. (Gujrat)
Out of 60 women 30 were indoor working
women and 30 were outdoor working women.
Here to measure depression. The depression
scale was used which was made by Beck (1961).
Here in this study 't' test statistical method was
used. The result and discussion as under :
I. Result and Discussion :
The main objective of the present study
was to do comparative study of depression
among indoor and outdoor working women. In
it statistical 't' method was measured. Result
and discussion of present study is as under :
Discussion :
The result or we can say the outcome of
this presentation reflects that there is a lots of
differences in the level of depression in both,
outdoor working as well as indoor working
042
Design :-
Total Sample Outdoor Female Indoor Female
60 30 30
Comparison between 30 indoor and 30 outdoor working women in depression.
Sr.
No.
Variable No. Mean Sed. T
Level of Signi.
1.
Indoor working
women
30 27.8
5.77 2.14 0.05
2.
Outdoor working
women
30 15.57

Significant level 0.01 = 2.00
0.05 = 2.66
women. The men with regard to indoor working
women are 27.8 and for outdoor working
women are 15.57. It is evident therefore that,
the level of depression in indoor working
women is more as agains outdoor working
women. It is seen that, when the indoor
working women handle their domestic
responsibilities along with earning by being at
home. What happens is that, they have to
handle multiple pressures which than goes
beyond control and can prove to be depressions
in more ways than one. Evidence of research
findings given by Riaz H. & Dr. Fozia Hussian
2012 that the household average income of the
housewives was more than that of working
women but still the level of depression among
housewives because they have the burden of
handling more babies alone. The working
women were found a supporting hand for this
purpose. The housewives were less educated as
compare to working women which was another
reason for being depressed because education
gives vision and better understanding of life.
There was significant difference in the level of
depression of working women and housewives.
The level of depression among housewives has
twice as that of working women.
Looking at the level of difference is so
far as depression is concerned and the
comparison that we see with 't' which is 2.15. It
is seen that, at the level of significance it is 0.05.
Therefore, the built hypothesis that said that,
there is no individual difference in the level of
depression stands rejected.
The study was based only on the level of
depression with regard to their week status. On
the other hand wherein the level of there
problems are increasing rapidly. In that case,
this study sheds lights on the fact that,
depression is a mental disease which has
become a huge question in this modern world.
Margare L, Usdansky and Ractel A. Gordon
(2011). The impact of working for pay or staying
home on women risk of depression depends on
mother's on their job quality. Mother who stay
home because they prefer not to work outside
the home have as relatively low risk of
depression but stay-at-home mothers would
rather be working for pay do face higher risk of
depression. In fact this women had the same
risk of depression as mothers in their sample
who wanted to stay home but had to go work in
low-quality jobs.
Employment isn't always 'good' or 'bad'
for women's morals. Much depends on the
quality of the jobs and this can even trump
women's preference mothers employed in low-
quality jobs face heightened risk of depression.
Even when they do want to work for pay but
043
interestingly mothers employed in high quality
jobs face a low risk of depression even if they do
not want to work for pay.
In present time inflation and price rice
are to be dealt with by being together and
sharing responsibilities equally. The cut
through at competition that is evident in today's
time should make us more aware about the fact
that the biggest challenge in this difficult times
is to take care of ones sey against depression
which is spreading like to termite. This study
makes us thing and perhaps rethink on this
acute problem.
Conclusion :-
There is significant difference between
indoor and outdoor working women in
depression.
REFERENCES :-
Ferketick, A.K.; Sehwartibalm, J.A.; Frid, D.
Moeschberger, M. L. ( 2000) .
Depression as an antecedent to heart
disease among women and men in the
NHANES study. National Health and
examination survey. Archives of
internal medicine; 160(9):1261-8.
Hina Ahmed Hashmi, Khurshid, M. and
Hussain, I. (2007.). A study on marital
adjustment, stress and depression
among working and non-working
women. Internet Journal of Medical
Update, Vol. 2, No. 1.
Josleph, c. mailman. (2001). Dual work and
family roles and depressive symptoms
in two birth cohorts of woman
I n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f
epidemiology;30 : 163-170.
Masako SETO, kanehisa morimoto and Soichiro
MARUYAMA (2004). Effects of work -
Namita Shah Volume-4 (1)
releted factors and work - family
conflict on depression among Japanese
working women living with young
children Environmental Health and
preventive medicine vol.(9) No-5,
P.220.
Margaret, L., Usdansky & Ractel A.Gordon
(2011). 'Working mothers stay-at-
home : mothers and depression risk.
Council of contemporary families.
Revati, R. Dudhatra and Jogson, Y.A. (2012). '
Mental health and depression among
working and non working women'.
International journal of scientific and
research publication, Vol. 2, Issue 8,
Riaz, H., Fozia Hussain & Shahid Naved (2012).
'Comparative analysis of depression
among housewife and working women,
in Bilal colony of kornagi area of
Karachi'. Interdisciplinary Journal of
contemporary research in business,
vol. 3, No. 11,
Yolanda, A.; Trevino. (2003). Two levels of
intervention in low- income women
wi t h depr es s i ve s y mpt oms ;
Compliance and Program Assessment
I nternati onal j ournal of soci al
psychiatry, vol.49, No.1, 43-57.
044
INTRODUCTION
In recent years, with the increased pace
of urbanization and modernization a dramatic
change has come in Indian women's life as they
are coming out from the boundaries of homes
in search of economic independence as well as
for fulfilling their hopes and desires and getting
their long overdue share and job opportunities
in shouldering responsibilities with men in
diverse fields. Women were not supposed
to get higher education and do job in the past.
They were supposed to only take care of the
house and children. But with the rapid changes
in the attitudes, traditional values, life style,
competitiveness and industrialization have
brought out remarkable changes in the whole
environment. Today, the status of Indian
women has completely changed although
attitude towards working women is no way
different than that towards housewives. People
may agree with the idea of career women but
they are not willing to excuse them from their
duties as housewives. Yet it has been noted that
045
ABSTRACT
Self Esteem and Life Satisfaction: A Comparative Study of Career
Women and Housewives
*Pragati Dixit ** Mahmood S. Khan
Self esteem refers to self evaluation and the way an individual feels about himself. People
with positive self esteem generally feels
and this situation is known as Life Satisfaction. Present study was aimed to
examine the difference between life satisfaction and self esteem among career women and
housewives. Diener's Satisfaction With Life and Rosenberg Self Esteem Scale were used to fulfill the
objectives of this investigation. The sample consisted of 60 women (30 housewives & 30 career
women) with age range of 30- 55 years selected by means of purposive random technique of
sampling. Results indicated that career women were found to show higher life satisfaction as
compared to housewives but insignificant difference was found among career women and
housewives in terms of self esteem.
Keywords: Self Esteem, Life Satisfaction, Women
happiness, relatively free from tension, contentment and
interest in their life
career women perceived their life as
challenging and secure and feel more
comfortable with their life situations as
compared to the housewives (Kaur et al., 2012).
There has been a growing realization of
importance of self concept in recent years in
understandi ng and predi cti ng human
behaviour as it is an essential component of
human personality as the person's identity is
based on his/her self concept, the way he views
his own self and his own abilities. Self concept is
the accumulation of knowledge about the self
such as beliefs regarding personality traits,
physical traits, physical characteristics, abilities,
values, goals and roles. According to Blascovich
& Tomaka (1991) the self concept connotes a
broader representation of the self that includes
cognitive and behavioral aspects as well as
evaluative and effective ones. Self concept
includes self worth and self worth is the value
one has for himself that referred to as self
esteem.
* Research Scholar, Department of Psychology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh
**Professor, Department of Psychology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh
In the words of Burns (1982) Self
esteem is related to the value individuals attach
to the particular manner in which they see
themselves. This aspect represents the
affective or valuation components of self
concept.
It
encompasses beliefs (for example, "I am
competent", "I am worthy") and emotions such
as triumph, despair, pride and shame.
According to Rosenberg (1965) self-
esteem is the totality of the individual's
thoughts and feelings with reference to himself
as an object. Self Esteem has been defined as
the level of global regard one has for
self(Harter, 1993). Branden (1994) defined Self
Esteem as the confidence in our ability to
think, confidence in our ability to cope with the
basic challenges of life and confidence in our
right to be successful and happy, the feeling of
being worthy, deserving, entitled to assert our
needs and wants, achieve our values and enjoy
the fruits of our efforts. According to Branden,
self-esteem is the sum of self-confidence (a
feeling of personal capacity) and self-respect (a
feeling of personal worth).
Self Esteem is the amount of respect or
feeling of worthiness that an individual has for
himself. It is all about how much people value
their own inner qualities, the pride they feel in
themselves. Self esteem may be displayed
through the individual's confidence level,
satisfaction with life and motivation for new
experiences and challenges. Everyone has it in
Self esteem refers to the judgments
people make about their worth and the feelings
associated with those judgments. This
judgment of worthiness is experienced by the
attitudes a person holds towards the self.
Self
esteem provides a mental set that prepares the
person to respond according to expectations of
success, acceptance and personal strength.
046
different degrees. A person with positive self
generally feels good about him, and feels they
have a lot to offer whereas person with poor self
esteem generally feels worthless and they have
a disappointed outlook towards life. High self
esteem implies a realistic evaluation of the self's
characteristics and competencies, coupled with
an attitude of self acceptance and self respect.
Maslow (1970) described a person with high
self-esteem as psychologically happy and
healthy. A person with high self-esteem is
capable of dealing with anxiety, enhance
coping, and promote physical health (Taylor &
Brown, 1988; Greenberg, 1992; Baumeister,
1993). On the other hand, if a person has low
self-esteem, he or she will have psychological
frigidity (Maslow, 1970) in that he or she may be
experi enci ng depressi on, anxi ety and
maladjustment (Cutrona, 1982; Taylor & Brown,
1988; Greenberg, 1992; Baumeister, 1993).
Positive self esteem would discard many
problems as it has been reported that self-
esteem decrease trait and state anxiety levels
(Ortiz, 1982; Greenberg et al. 1992; Gursoy,
2006). Self Esteem is associated with
depression, anxiety, motivation and general
satisfaction with one's life (Harter,1986;
Rosenberg,1986).
Life satisfaction refers to person's
general happiness, freedom from tension,
interest in life, etc. It may define as the function
of real physical health perceived by an
individual. The extent to which the needs of
individuals are satisfied and their aspiration for
better life is fulfilled denotes the life satisfaction
of the individual. It is relatively sensitive to
changes in circumstances. Pavot & Diener
(1993) defined life satisfaction as a person's
cognitive judgment of life as a whole; one
component of human well-being. Life
satisfaction has been defined as general
cognitive evaluations of an individual as to
*Pragati Dixit ** Mahmood S. Khan Volume-4 (1)
whether he or she is content with his or her own
life as a whole, or whether he or she is content
with such specific areas of life as the family,
friends and living environment. Accordingly,
individuals with high levels of subjective well-
being, have higher life satisfaction and
experience positive emotions more than
negative ones (Suldo & Huebner, 2006). Life
Satisfaction is a wider term that comprises the
satisfaction of an individual with family life,
marriage life, social life, health etc. Life
satisfaction of an individual also depends upon
the quality of work that one does and the
feeling of worthiness he has for himself.
Previous research has indicated that
self-esteem is a crucial personal resource that is
central to individuals' sense of well-being
(Hsieh, 2004). Self-esteem is one of the most
examined variables as a predictor of life
s a t i s f a c t i o n b e s i d e s d e mo g r a p h i c
characteristics, social relationships, personality,
and coping (Zhang & Leung, 2002). It was
reported in some studies that high self-esteem
found to be one of the strongest predictors of
life satisfaction in both adults (Hong &
Giannakopoulos, 1994) and adolescents (e.g.,
Neto, 1993; Neto, 2001; Zhang & Leung, 2002).
Life satisfaction is also affected by age
as Aminabhavi & Dharnanendriah (1992) found
positive relationship between age and life
satisfaction whereas Jadhav (2013) found that
age, educational level and number of children
of women was not significantly associated with
their life satisfaction. Jan & Masood (2008)
attempted to evaluate life satisfaction among
women that were selected from Jammu and
Kashmir through multi-stage sampling method.
The study depicted that women have average
level of life satisfaction at all age levels. Though
it was found that there was a negative
047
relationship between age and life satisfaction as
it was observed that with an increase in age, the
overall life satisfaction decrease.
Hasnain et al. (2011) investigated the
difference between married and unmarried,
working and non-working woman on life
satisfaction and self esteem on a sample of 80
women (40 working, 40 non working). Among
each group there were 20 married and 20
unmarried women making a 2x2 factorial
design. Results showed that working women
had significantly greater life satisfaction and
lower self esteem than for non-working
women. But the difference between married
and unmarried women was found to be
insignificant on both life satisfaction and self-
esteem. On the contrary Jadhav (2013) found
that the working women and housewives were
not differed significantly from each other in
their life satisfaction.
METHOD
Objectives :
To assess and compare the self esteem
of housewives and career women.
To assess and compare life satisfaction
of housewives and career women.
Hypotheses:
The housewives and career women
woul d not di f fer si gni f i cant l y
concerning to self esteem,
There exists no significant difference
between life satisfaction of housewives
and career women,
There will be positive correlation
between sel f esteem and l i fe
satisfaction.
Participants:
The participants of the present study
consisted of 60 women (30 career women and
30 housewives) age ranges from 30 55 years.
The working women sample includes college
lecturers, doctors, lawyers and employees of
Life Insurance Corporation including banks. The
other sample consists of housewives. The
participants were selected through purposive
random sampling technique.
Tools:
Satisfaction with life scale of Diener
(1985) The SWLS is a short 5-item instrument
designed to measure global cognitive
judgments of satisfaction with one's life. The
scale usually requires only about one minute of
a respondent's time. It reveals individual's own
judgment of his or her quality of life. This
instrument is very short and unidimensional.
The scoring is based on the 7 point-Likert scale.
Each item has response category from 1 to 7 in
terms of strongly disagree to strongly agree.
Item scores are summed for a total score, which
ranges from 5 to 35, with higher scores
reflecting more satisfaction with life.
Rosenberg Self Esteem Scale (1965)
which is one of the most widely used inventory,
used to assess self esteem. It contains 10 items
and each item to be rated on 4 point Likert scale
048
ranging from strongly agree to strongly
disagree. The scores will range between 0-30.
The test retest correlation is in the range of .82
to .88 and internal consistency ranging from .85
to .88 .
Procedure:
The researcher contacted individually
to all the participants. The career women were
contacted at their work place and the
housewives were contacted at home. The
questionnaires were given to the respondents
after establishing good rapport with them and
requested to fill up the questionnaires. The
participants were asked to fill-up all the
statements by following the instructions given
in each of the questionnaire. The subjects took
15-20 minutes in giving their response. The
subjects were told to mention their age, income
and education. In the last the researcher
appreciated for their co-operation and help.
The purpose of this study was to
compare the self esteem and life satisfaction
among career women and housewives. The
mean and S.D. of the scores of life satisfaction
and self esteem were calculated for each group
and to find out the significance of difference
between these two groups of women, t- value
was computed and results obtained are shown
in table -1 and table-2.
Table -1 : Table showing comparison of self
esteem of between career women and
housewives
Groups Mean S.D. t-value
Career women 14.46 1.61
.966 ns
Housewives 13.93 2.55

049
It is clear from the above table that career women and housewives did not differ
significantly but the mean score of career women (14.46) is slightly higher as compared with the
housewives (13.93) that suggests that career women have a feeling of sense of self worth higher
than the housewives. While the obtained standard deviation scores of career women (1.61) and
housewives (2.55) are differing from each other to some extent. This reveals the fact that there is
more variation in self esteem of housewives as compared to the self esteem of career women.
Groups Mean S.D. t-value
Career women 25 4.43
2.45*
Housewives 22 5.11

Table -2 : Table showing the life satisfaction of career women and housewives
It may be observed from the above table that mean score of life satisfaction of career
women (M = 25) is comparatively higher than the mean score of the housewives (M= 22). The t-
value is found to be 2.45 which is significant. Thus it implies that career women are more satisfied
with their life than the housewives. Nathawat & Mathur (1993) also found career women higher on
life satisfaction and self esteem as compared to the housewives.
*P< .05 level
Table - 3 : Table showing the correlation between self esteem and life satisfaction
among housewives and career women
Variables N correlation
Self Esteem
Life Satisfaction
60
60

0.48

On the basis of results obtained it
may be discussed that higher self esteem
affect one's life satisfaction as it may be
observed from the above table that shows
that self esteem has a moderate positive
correlation with life satisfaction.
Career women have higher life
satisfaction as compared to housewives.
The observed difference between the two
group may be attributed to the fact that
career women is self dependent and the
housewives are depend on other family
members for fulfilling their needs. Due to
this reason both of them are having
different attitudes towards their self and
because of different attitude both of them
have different life experiences and
exposures that contribute to the life
satisfaction. The study conducted by Kaur et
al. (2012) also provides support to the
findings of the present investigation as it
was found that working married women
had higher level of life satisfaction in
comparison to the non- working married
women.
Thus, it can be said on the basis of
obtained results that there is a difference in
life satisfaction among career women and
housewives. Previous researches found
that gl obal l i fe sati sfacti on has a
relationship with global self-esteem (Civitci
& Civitci, 2009; Gilman & Huebner, 2006 ;
Zhang & Leung, 2002). The results of the
present study are in consonance with the
previous researches that there is a positive
relationship between life satisfaction and
self esteem (Rashid et al., 2011; Nathawat
& Mathur ,1993).
050
Conclusion:
The career women are more satisfied
with their life as compared to housewives and
employment also benefits their self esteem but
there is no significant difference was found
between the self esteem of career women and
housewives. There is also a positive relationship
between self esteem and life satisfaction.
REFERENCES:
Aminabhavi, V.A. and Dharnanendrian,
A.S.(1994). A Study of Quality of Life
and Expressed Job Satisfaction of
Middle Aged (Elderly) and Adults.
Organisational Management, 9 (4),
32 -35.
R.F. (Ed). (1993). Self-Esteem: The Puzzle of Low
Self-Regard. New York: Plenum.
Blascovich, J.; Tomaka J. (1991). Measures of
self-esteem. In J. P. Robinson & P. R.
Shaver(Eds.), Measures of personality
and social psychological attitudes (pp.
115160). San Diego, CA: Academic
Press.
Branden, N. (1994). Six Pillars of Self Esteem.
New Delhi : Bantam Books.
Civitci, N. and Civitci, A.(2009). Self Esteem as
mediator and moderator of the
relationship between loneliness and
l i fe sati sfacti on i n adol escents.
Personality and Individual Differences,
47 (8), 954- 958.
Cutrona, C.E. (1982). Transition to college:
Loneliness and the process of social
adjustment. In L.A. Peplau & D. Perlman
(Eds.), Loneliness: A sourcebook of
current theory, research, and therapy
(pp.291-309). New York: Wiley.
Gilman, R.; and Huebner, E. S. (2006).
Characteristics of adolescents who
report very high life satisfaction.
Journal of Youth and Adolescents, 35,
293-301.
Greenberg, J., Solomon, S., Psyszczynski, T.,
Rosenblatt, A., Burling, J., Lydon, D.,
Simon, L.; Pinel, E. (1992). Why do
people need self-esteem? Converging
evidence that self-esteem serves an
anxiety-buffering function. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 63,
913-922.
Gursoy, F. (2006). Farkli sosyo-ekonomik
duzeydeki ergenlerin benlik tasarimlari
ve kaygi duzeylerinin incelenmesi [The
investigating of the levels of anxiety and
self-construction on adolescents in
different socio-economic levels. C.U.
Sosyal BilimlerEnstitusu Dergisi, 15(2),
183-190.
Harter, S. (1986). Processes underlying the
constructi on, mai ntenance, and
enhancement of the self concept in
children. In J.Suls & A.G. Greenwald
(Eds.), Psychology Perspectives on the
Self (Vol.3, pp.136-182). Hillsdale, NJ:
Erlbaum.
Harter, S. (1993).Causes and consequences of
low self-esteem in children and
adolescents. In R.F.Baumeister (Ed),
Self- esteem: The puzzle of low self
regard. New York: Plenum.
Hasnain, N.; Ansari, S.A.; Sethi, S. (2011). Life
satisfaction and self esteem in married
and unmarried working women.
Journal of the Indian Academy of
Applied Psychology, 37 (2), 316-319.
Hong, S.M.; Giannakopoulos, E. (1994). The
relationship of satisfaction with life to
personality characteristics. The Journal
of Psychology, 128, 547558.
Hsieh, Yu-Chin. (2004). Lodging managers'
perceptions of work and personal life
balance. Purdue University. 203 pages.
AAT 3154649.
051
Jadhav, S.G.; Aminabhavi, V.A. (2013). A study of
Life Stisfaction of working women and
housewives. Indian Streams Research
Journal, 2(12), 1-4.
Jan, M.; Masood, T. (2008). An Assessment of
life satisfaction among women. Studies
on Home and Community Sciences.
2(1), 33-42.
Kaur, N.; Irfan, M.; Panwar, N.; Thind, H. S.
(2012). A comparative study of working
and non-working married women:
Effect of Anxi ety l evel on l i fe
sati sfacti on. I ndi an Journal of
Psychology & Mental Health, 6(2), 169-
178.
Masl ow, A. J. (1970). Moti vati on and
Personality. New York: Harper &
Brothers.
Nathawat, S.S.; Mathur, A. (1993). Marital
Adjustment and Subjective Well-Being
in Modern Housewives and Working
Women. Journal of Psychology, 12(3),
353 358.
. Journal of Youth
and Adolescence, 22 , 125134.
Neto, F. (2001). Satisfaction with life among
adolescents from immigrant families in
Portugal. Journal of Youth and
Adolescence, 30, 5367.
Ortiz, N.S.C. (1982). Self-concept and anxiety of
Puerto Rican and North American
college students: A cross cultural study.
Doctoral Thesis, Oklahoma State
University, AAT8300171, ProQuest.
Neto, F. (1993).The satisfaction with life scale:
Psychometri cs properti es i n an
adolescent sample
Pavot, W.; Diener, E. (1993). Review of the
s at i s f a c t i on wi t h l i f e s c a l e .
Psychological Assessment, 5 ,164172.
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the
adolescent self-image. Priceton, NJ:
PRiceton University Press.
Suldo, S.M.; Huebner, E.S. (2006). Is extremely
hi gh l i f e s at i s f ac t i on dur i ng
adolescence advantageous?. Social
Indicators Research, 78, 179203.
Taylor, S.E.; & Brown, J.D. (1988). Illusion and
well-being: A social psychological
perspecti ve on mental heal th.
Psychological Bulletin, 103, 193-210.
Zang, L.; Leung, J. (2002). Moderating effects of
gender and age on the relationship
between sel f esteem and l i fe
satisfaction in mainland Chinese.
International Journal of Psychology, 37,
83 91.
052
INTRODUCTION
Adolescence is a transitional phase of
physical and mental human development
generally happening between puberty years
and adulthood (age of maturity). According to
Erikson's stages of human development, a
young adult is generally a person between the
ages of 20 and 40, whereas an adolescent is a
person between the ages of 13 to 19.
Adolescence is a crucial period in the
development of healthy self concept.
Experiences are greatly expanded at this stage,
giving rise to too much self evaluation and
reconsideration. During this phase peer
relations and acceptance become very
important because peers share similar values
and thoughts. Due to this increased peer
pressure and challenges of teen life many
adolescents sometime experience numerous
assaults on their self concept. Therefore it
becomes necessary for them to learn dealing
053
Abstract
Impact of an Assertiveness Training on Self Concept among Adolescents
*Rajesh Kumar **Roshan Lal *** Preeti Taneja
This study aimed to examine the impact of an assertiveness training program on the self
concept among adolescents. An experimental and control group was used in this study. 200
adolescents from Panchkula, Chandigarh and Mohali schools were used as subjects. These
adolescents were randomly assigned to experimental group (100) and control group (100). Their
age range was 14-18 years. Before imparting assertiveness training to the experimental group self
concept inventory by R.K. Saraswat was administered on both groups. The pre intervention mean
score of total self concept score of experimental group was 140.06 while the mean score of control
group was 138.11 and the calculated t-ratio was found insignificant. After this, eight sessions of
assertiveness training were imparted to the experimental group. To analyze the impact of training
the self concept questionnaire was again administered with both the groups. The post intervention
mean score of total self concept score of experimental group was 185.94 whereas the mean score of
control group was 133.19 and the t-value was found significant at 0.01 level. The findings
acknowledged that assertiveness training had a positive impact on the self concept of adolescents.
with emotional consequences of situations that
inevitably occur in adolescence such as being
criticized or being forced to do some tasks
(Geldard & Geldard, 1999). At this stage, it is
also important for adolescents to be able to
communicate adaptively or they will not be able
to establish satisfying social relationships. To
cope up with such challenges of adolescent
period it is crucial for them to have complex
social skills like assertiveness. Assertiveness-
the ability to express one's feeling and asserts
one's rights while respecting the feelings and
rights of others- is the core of interpersonal
behaviour and a key to human relations (Imam
et al., 1994; Scott, 2006; Sully and Dallas, 2005;
Wolpe, 1982). It is the ability to represent to the
world what you really are, to express what you
feel, when you feel it necessary. It is the ability
to express your feelings and your rights,
respecting the feelings and rights of others.
Assertive behaviour demonstrates respect for
*Asst. Prof., Dept. of Psychology, P.G. Govt. College, Sector 46, Chandigarh
**Asst. Prof., Dept. of Psychology, Panjab University, Chandigarh
***M.A.(Final) Psychology, IGNOU
self and others, promotes healthy self concept,
self-control and positive appreciation of self-
wor t h. Adol escent s who have poor
assertiveness skills are usually uncertain to
have the capability to stand up for themselves
and to assert their rights. In situations involving
peers or adults, this lack of assertiveness can
result in feelings of powerlessness and
hopelessness. They may have a perception of
not being in control. Hence, it is apparent that
poor assertiveness skills lead to problems so it is
important for adolescents to take suitable
assertiveness training to develop these skills.
These skills add to healthy self concept because
an adolescent with compound social skills like
assertiveness is likely to make satisfying
relationships and get encouraging feedback
from others. Adolescents with healthy self
concept act confidently, are accountable, bear
disappointment well, capable of influencing
their environment and are proud of their deeds.
Whereas, adolescents with negative self
concept are easily led by others, easily
perturbed, often blame others for their
weaknesses and evade complicated situations.
Assertiveness is the ability to express
your ideas, beliefs and needs without violating
the rights of others. It is appropriately direct,
open, and honest communication which is self-
enhancing and expressive. It is an appropriate
expression of one's feelings, beliefs and
opinions (Morganett, 1990; Vernon, 1989).
Assertiveness Training:
Refers to the behaviour therapy
procedure in which people are instructed,
coached, trained and supported in taking
positive assertive action in situation. It is based
on the principle that we all have the right to
express our thoughts, feelings, and needs to
others, as long as we do so in a respectful way.
054
Self-Concept
The self-concept is the accumulation of
knowledge about the self, such as beliefs
regardi ng personal i ty trai ts, physi cal
characteristics, abilities, values, goals, and
roles. Beginning in infancy, children acquire and
organize information about themselves as a
way to enable them to understand the relation
between the self and their social world. During
middle childhood, the self-concept becomes
more integrated and differentiated as the child
engages in social comparison and more clearly
perceives the self as consisting of internal,
psychological characteristics. Throughout later
childhood and adolescence, the self-concept
becomes more abstract, complex, and
hierarchically organized into cognitive mental
representations, which direct the processing of
self-relevant information. Carl Rogers (1959)
Believes that the self-concept has three
different components:
The view you have of yourself (Self-
image)
How much value you place on
yourself (Self-esteem or self-worth)
What you wish you were really like
(Ideal self)
Assertiveness has a long history within
the field of behavior therapy, dating back to the
revolutionary work of Salter (1949) and Wolpe
(1958) who recognized that certain individuals
in society had specific problems in standing up
for their rights. As a result, the assertiveness
training was introduced during therapies, in an
attempt to help such individuals function more
effectively in their everyday lives. William
(2008) highlighted that high emotional
intelligence (assertiveness, self-awareness) has
a direct relation with better performance in the

*Rajesh Kumar **Roshan Lal ***Preeti Taneja Volume-4 (1)
field of self-regulation, assertiveness, empathy
independence with others, optimism control,
and self-concept. Zuker (1983) on the basis of
his findings concluded that assertiveness is a
series of skills that anyone can master with a
little practice. The exciting thing about
acquiring these skills is that you will suddenly
find yourself being able to say no without guilt,
to ask for what you want directly and in general
to communicate more clearly and openly in all
your relationships. Most important, your self-
confidence and self concept will improve
dramatically. Furthermore, Corey (2009)
explained that assertive training is based on the
principle of social learning theory and
incorporates many social skills training
methods. He explained further that the training
is often conducted in groups using modeling,
role-play, and rehearsal to practice a new
behaviour in the therapy room, and then
enacted in everyday life. Assertive adolescents
as assertive adults, become more happy,
honest, healthy and less manipulative.
Dwairy (2004) conducted a research on
assertiveness training and viewed assertiveness
training as a process of learning to stand up for
one's rights and cope assertively, not passively
or aggressively. He found out that whenever
people behave assertively they feel good about
themselves. They develop a sense of control
over the events happening in their life and their
self concept improves manifold. Korsgaard,
Roberson, and Rymph (1998) found that the
acquisition of assertiveness skills positively
impact personal relationships and interactions
between people. Rotheram, Armstrong and
Booraem (1980) designed an assertiveness
training program for 343 school children.
Results revealed that assertiveness was higher
among students who received assertion
055
training than others who did not. As per Alberti,
Robert E. and Emmons, Michael. L (2001),
assertive behaviour is a behaviour that allows
a person to express his inner feelings, to be
direct and straightforward, and to exercise
personal rights without denying the rights of
others and without experiencing undue anxiety
or guilt.
Adolescents are required to learn a
complex set of social skills to engage in
effective, confident, and mutually beneficial
interaction with other people. They need to
have healthy self concept as an adolescent
with healthy self-concept can easily achieve
personal success and happiness with his efforts
and social interactions. Since assertiveness is a
vital component in developing healthy self-
concept, it is useful to give such training to
adolescents. Assertive adolescents as assertive
adults, become more happy, honest, healthy
and less manipulative. They feel good about
themselves, and are confident to accomplish
what they plan to do in their adulthood.
Moreover adolescents are frequently involved
in situations which call for assertive behaviour.
They need to know how to respond effectively
when another peer attacks, intrudes, or bosses
and how appropriately ask others for help,
objects or a chance to participate in a social
activity. In addition it is very important and
useful social skill that has a power to enhance
the social relationships, academic success and
personal development. Assertiveness and self-
concept have a lot of commonalities. All of them
are necessary and important character traits to
live a satisfactory life and have healthy
relationships with other people. Thus, deeply
investigating the interaction between these two
variables can highlight the ways to raise next
generations who are fulfilled with necessary life
skills. Therefore, this study aimed to develop
and implement the assertiveness training
programme and explore its effects on the self-
concept of adolescents.
Hypothesis:
Based on the review of literature, following
hypothesis has been formulated.
Assertiveness training would positively
impact the self concept among
adolescents.
METHOD
Objectives:
For the present study, following objectives were
framed.
To study the impact of assertiveness
training on self concept among
adolescents.
Sample:
270 participants were randomly chosen
th th
from the 9 -12 grade of Panchkula, Mohali and
Chandigarh. However, after obtaining consent
from the randomly selected 270 participants to
be a part of study, it was observed that 70
students were not that much keen. Therefore, it
was decided to carry out the research on 200
adolescents. These adolescents were randomly
assigned to experimental group (100) and
control group (100). Their age range was 14-18.
Tools:
Self - Concept Inventory
In order to find out self-concept, the
self-concept inventory by Dr. R.K.Saraswat was
used. The inventory consists of 48 items and six
dimensions viz Physical, social, intellectual,
moral, educational and experimental self-
concept. The physical dimension assesses
individuals' view of their body, health, physical
appearance and strength. The social dimension
056
assesses individuals' sense of worth in social
interactions. The temperamental dimension
assesses individuals' view of their prevailing
emotional state or predominance of a
particular kind of emotional reaction. The
educational dimension assesses individuals'
view of themselves in relation to school,
teachers and extracurricular activities. The
moral di mensi on assesses i ndi vi dual s'
estimation of their moral worth; right and
wrong activities. The intellectual dimension
assesses individuals' awareness of their
intelligence and capacity of problem solving
and judgments. Each dimension contains eight
items. Each item is provided with five
alternatives. Responses are obtained on the
test booklet itself. There is no time limit but
usually the administration of the test takes 20 to
30 minutes. The maximum obtained score is
240 and minimum 48. A high score on this
inventory indicates a higher self-concept, while
a low score shows low self-concept. It is highly
reliable inventory. Test-retest reliability of the
inventory was found to be 0.91 for the total self-
concept measure. The reliability coefficient of
various dimensions varies from 0.67 to 0.88.
Volume-4 (1) *Rajesh Kumar **Roshan Lal ***Preeti Taneja
Procedure:
The study was conducted in three cities
i.e. Chandigarh, Panchkula & Mohali. The self
concept inventory was administered on
randomly chosen 200 adolescents (100-
experimental group & 100- control group)
before and after imparting assertiveness
training to the experimental group. The
students completed the inventories in
approximately 20 minutes. All subjects were
assured of the confidentiality of their
responses. The asserti veness trai ni ng
programme was carried out in eight sessions to
the experimental group only. The programme
was implemented in the school premises. The
duration of each session was 60 minutes.
Techniques such as group discussions, videos,
role plays, activity sheets, short lectures and
homework were used to ensure effectiveness of
the training programme. . First session was
considered as warm session and the last session
as the termination session of the training
programme. The brief description of all the
eight sessions are as follows:-
057
First Session: - The main aim of this session was
to make participants aware of the rules and
contents of the programme, giving opportunity
to the participants to know each other and to
impart some knowledge about the passive
behaviour
Second Session- The second session aimed at
imparting knowledge about all three forms of
behaviour i.e. passive, aggressive and assertive.
Group discussion and story telling were used as
means.
Third Session: - The third session aimed at
equipping the trainees with the techniques to
stand up for their own rights. Role play and
group discussion were used as means.
Fourth Session:-The fourth session was
consisted of a role play and active feedback
from the peers. The main aim of the session was
to make participants aware of one's rights and
making them understand the benefits of
behaving assertively while standing up for their
own rights as well. Participants were made to
understand that there are better ways to put
one's viewpoint across rather than aggressively
reacting to it.
Design:
Experimental Design (Experimental-Control Group Design)

Variables
Controlled
Groups Intervention Assessment Comparison
Screening
of the
Sample
Age
Gender
SES
Residence

Experimental
Group(n=100)
8 sessions of
Assertiveness
Training
Self
Concept
Inventory
to both
groups

Experimental
and
Control
Group
Control Group
(n=100)
No training

Fifth Session:-The fifth session was aimed at equipping trainees with the skills to say NO to
unreasonable requests.
Sixth Session:-The sixth session was designed to make trainees understand criticism. Group
activities and group discussion were used as techniques to explain the concept.
Seventh Session: - The seventh session aimed at
equipping the participants with the skills to make optimal use of constructive criticism and not
getting affected by the useless criticism. Group discussion and group activity were used as tools to
carry out the session effectively.
Eighth Session:-Since the last session aimed at evaluating the effectiveness of the training
programme, the trainees were asked to share their future plan, feedback and gains and losses from
the programme. To conclude the training programme participants were shown an inspirational
video and were told to behave assertively to lead a happy and successful life
Data Analysis Methods
Again after conducting the assertiveness training sessions with the experimental group, the
Self Concept Inventory was administered with the same subjects (Experimental and Control groups)
in group form and the obtained scores were compared with the pre-scores and mean, SD and t-
ration was calculated.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION :
Results concerning the Impact of the Assertiveness Training on the Self-Concept of the
Experimental and the Control Groups' Subjects.
Independent samples t test was conducted to evaluate the effect of the assertiveness
training on the self -concept of adolescents. The following tables presents the means and the
standard deviations of the self-concept inventory for both the experimental and the control
groups.
058
Exp & Control Group Experimental Group (N=100) Control Group (N=100)
Self-Concept - Total
Physical Self Concept
Social Self Concept
Temperamental Self Concept
Educational Self Concept
Moral Self Concept
Intellectual Self Concept
M
140.0600
21.8300
23.9300
23.9500
23.6000
23.7800
22.9600
SD
12.4000
4.32000
3.63000
3.73000
3.73000
3.82000
3.64000
M
138.1100
23.74000
23.41000
21.97000
22.47000
23.34000
23.19000
SD
18.32000
3.670000
3.460000
3.950000
4.040000
5.410000
5.410000
t
0.88700
3.39000
1.05610
3.67340
2.07430
0.68120
0.35160
Table 1: Pre Intervention Self-Concept independent sample T-Test results of subjects in
the experimental and control group ( Pre- Intervention Scores)
059
Total Self Concept Control Group
Mean Scores 140.0600
Table -2- Pre Intervention Mean Scores of Self Concept of Experimental and the control Group
Experimental Group
138.1100
MEAN SCORES-SELF CONCEPT
Table 3. Post Intervention Self - Concept Independent Samples T Test results of the
Subjects in the Experimental and the Control Groups
Exp & Control Group Experimental Group (N=100) Control Group (N=100)
Self-Concept - Total
Physical Self Concept
Social Self Concept
Temperamental Self Concept
Educational Self Concept
Moral Self Concept
Intellectual Self Concept
M
185.9412
30.7647
30.9608
31.0882
32.9216
31.0490
31.1667
SD
18.23109
4.07401
4.26805
4.10289
4.34400
4.65520
4.23349
M
133.1980
23.1782
21.8416
21.8416
22.0396
22.8317
21.1386
SD
16.53724
3.53383
3.76758
3.26312
3.94695
5.46639
4.47444
t
21.58267
14.16700
16.13262
17.79823
24.86665
11.53472
16.40356
Total Self Concept Control Group
Mean Scores 185.9412
Table -4- Post Intervention Mean Scores of Self Concept of Experimental and the control Group
Experimental Group
133.1980
060
Impact of assertiveness training on self
concept of adolescents
As shown in Table-1 and 2 the pre
intervention mean of the total self-concept
scores of experimental group was 140.06 with a
standard deviation of 12.40 and the mean
scores and standard deviation of six dimensions
of self-concept i.e. Physical M=21.83, sd =
4. 32, Soci al M= 23. 93, s d= 3. 63,
Temperamental M= 23.95, sd = 3.73,
Educational- M = 23.6, sd= 3.73, Moral M=
23.78, sd= 3.82, Intellectual M= 22.96, sd=
3.64. Whereas the pre intervention mean of the
total self-concept scores of control group was
138.11 with a standard deviation of 18.32 and
the mean and standard deviation of six
dimensions of self-concept i.e. Physical M=
23.74 , sd = 3.67 , Social M= 23.41, sd= 3.46,
Temperamental M= 21.97, sd = 3.95,
Educational- M = 22.47, sd= 4.04, Moral M=
23.34,sd= 5.41, Intellectual M= 23.19, sd=
5.41.However as per table 3 and 4 the mean of
the total self-concept scores of experimental
group is 185.9412 with a standard deviation of
18.23109 and the mean scores and standard
deviation of six dimensions of self-concept i.e.
Physical M= 30.7647, sd = 4.07401, Social M=
30.9608, sd= 4.26805, Temperamental M=
31.0882, sd = 4.10289, Educational- M =
32.9216, sd= 24.86665, Moral M= 31.0490,
sd= 4.65520, Intellectual M= 31.1667, sd=
4.23349. The mean of the total self-concept
scores of control group is 133.1980 with a
standard deviation of 16.53724 and the mean
and standard deviation of six dimensions of six
dimensions of self-concept i.e. Physical M=
23.1782 , sd = 3.53383 , Social M= 21.8416, sd=
3.76758,, Temperamental M= 21.8416, sd =
3.26312, Educational- M = 22.0396, sd=
4.34400, Moral M= 22.8317,sd= 5.46639,
Intellectual M= 21.1386, sd= 4.47444. The
Difference between the mean scores of two
independent sample for total self-concept was
significant t (100) = 21.58267, p=0.0000. In
other words, the result indicated the
effectiveness of the assertiveness training in
developing a healthy self-concept among
adolescents.
On the basis of observations made by
the researcher it was found that trainees were
energetic and cheerful during the training
programme. They actively participated and
thoroughly enjoyed the group activities, story
reading and role plays as the purpose or aim
was made clear to them. In addition to this
teachers observations were also taken and they
termed training as effective and useful. All of
them stated that assertiveness training had a
SELF CONCEPT - TOTAL
200.00
180.00
160.00
140.00
120.00
100.00
80.00
60.00
40.00
20.00
0.00
Mean Experimental
Group
Mean Control Group
SELF CONCEPT - TOTAL
061
positive impact on the self conceptzz among
adolescents.
The results of the study are consistent
with related assertiveness training previous
findings. Bem (1967) quoted that an individual
self concept gets better as he begins to use a
new behavior. Various positive behavioral
changes including better self concept were
observed in the trainees after the assertiveness
training sessions. Many researchers (Alberti &
Emmons, 1975; Bower&Bower, 1967;
Lange&Jacubwski, 1976) observed that attitude
towards self is changed because of the
assertiveness training including increased self
concept. The individual starts believing in
himself more. Nicholas Nichols, T.R., Graber,
J.A.Brooks (2006) said that numerous refusal
skills which are being taught to the adolescents
in assertiveness training programmes positively
impact their self concept. The significant
positive changes in the self concept as observed
after the assertiveness training could be due to
the some of the following reasons:-
It is evident from the outcomes of our
research that the experiences and exposure
provided to the participants require great
intensity for developing better self concept
which was being provided to the participants
through assertiveness training. As a result the
assertiveness training programme turned out
to be a success in developing a better self
concept among adolescents.
To improve the self concept, ample
attention is required. The contents of the
training sessions were designed in such a way so
as to cover the major dimensions of training the
self concept such as physical self-concept, social
self-concept, intellectual self-concept, moral
self-concept, temperamental self-concept and
educational self-concept.
Environmental factors also affect the
attempts to enhance an individual's self
concept . In order to bring about some long
lasting change in the adolescents the
restructuring of the social environment is
necessary (Ogilvy, 1994). Keeping this
important factor in mind, significant people
around the adolescents such as teachers or
parents were given the information which was
rel ated to the asserti veness trai ni ng
programme. Moreover, it is always good to be
aware of some possible reactions to these
newly acquired changes in the behavior.
Hence, the eight session assertiveness
training programme proved to be highly
effective for adolescents to enhance their self
concept.
Conclusion
The results confirmed a considerable
positive impact on the self concept of
adolescents. This study has also discovered
some crucial recommendations for parents,
educators, school counselors and significant
others who are in some ways have some kind of
relationship with adolescents. More and more
assertiveness training programme should be
carried out in schools and colleges to help
young minds to have confidence within them
that they have the ability to make and achieve
goals and the control of their lives is in their
hands.
062
REFERENCES
Alberti, R. and Emmons, M. (1975). Stand up,
speak out, talk back: The key to
assertive behavior. California: Impact,
San Louis Obispo.
Albert, R. E. and Emmons, M. L. (2001). Your
Perfect Right: Assertiveness and
Equality in Your Life and Relationships.
Bem, D. J. (1967). Self-perception: An
alternative interpretation of cognitive
dissonance phenomena. Psychological
Review, 74, 183-200.
Bower, S. A.; Bower, G. H. (1967). Asserting
yourself: A practical guide for positive
change. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Carl Rogers. (1959) 'A Theory of Therapy,
Personal i ty, and I nterpersonal
Relationships, as Developed in the
Cl i ent-centered Framework' , i n
Koch.pp. 181-256.
Corey, G. (2009). Theory and Practice of
counselling and Psychotherapy.(8th
Edi ti on) Thomson Brooks/Col e
Publishing.
Dwairy, M. (2004). Culturally sensitive
education: Adapting self-oriented
assertiveness training to collective
minorities. Journal of Social Issues,
60(2), 423-436
Eskin, M. (2003).Self-reported assertiveness in
Swedish and Turkish adolescents: A
c r o s s - c u l t u r a l c o mp a r i s o n .
Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 44,
7-12.
Galassi, J. P.; Delo, J. S.; Galassi, M. D.; Bastien,
S. (1974). The college self-expression
scale: A measure of assertiveness.
Behavior Therapy, 5, 165-171.
Geldard, D.; Geldard, K. (1999). Counseling
Adolescents. New York: Sage
Hoffman, D. H. (1983). Assertion training: A tool
for teacher educators. Illinois: Harper
Imam, S.; Hamouda, S.; Zahran, S. (1994).
Factors affecting the assertiveness of
baccalaureate students at Tanta
University. Tanta Medical Journal, 22
(1), 19-22.
Jackson, C. L. (1979). The effect of assertiveness
t r a i n i n g on t h e p e r s on a l i t y
characteristics of high school girls
(Doctoral dissertation, Pennsylvania
State University. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 40, 1282A.
Korsgaard, M. A.; Roberson, L.; and Rymph, R. G.
(1998). What motivates fairness? The
role of subordinate assertive behaviour
on managers' interactional fairness.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 83(5),
731-744.
Lange, A. J.; Jacubowski, P. (1976). Responsible
assertive behavior. Illinois: Research
Press Champaign.
Morganett, R. S. (1990). Skills for Living. Group
Counselling Activities for Young
Adolescents, Research Press, Illinois,
USA.
Nichols, T. R.; Graber, J. A.; Brooks-Gunn, J., &
Botvin, G. J. (2006). Ways to say no:
Refusal skill and strategies among
urban adolescents. American Journal of
Health Behavior, 30(3), 227-236.
Ogilvy, C. M. (1994). Social skills training with
children and adolescents: A review of
the evi dence on effecti veness.
Educational Psychology, 14(1), 73-83.
Rotheram, M.J.; Armstrong, M. (1980).
Assertiveness training with high school
students.
Salter, A. (1949). Conditioned reflex therapy.
New York: Capricorn
063
Scott, E. (2006). Reduce stress with increased
assertiveness. Behavior Research and
Therapy, 34 (4), 455-470.
Stake, J. E.; DeVille, C. J.; and Pennell, C. L.
(1983). The effects of assertive training
on the performance self-esteem of
adolescent girls. Journal of Youth and
Adolescence, 12,435-440.
Sul l y, P. ; Dal l as J. ( 2005) . Essenti al
communication skills for nursing
practice. Philadelphia: Mosby.
Vernon, A. (1989) Thinking, feeling, behaving,
Research Press, USA.
Waksman, S. A. (1984). A controlled evaluation
of assertion training with adolescents.
Adolescence, 19(74), 277-282.
Wiliam, (2008). Sleep deprivation reduces
perceived emotional intelligence and
constructive thinking skills. Sleep
medicin, volume 9.issue 5. P 517-526.
Wise, K.; Bundy, A.K.; Bundy, A.E and Wise, A.L.
(1991). Social Skills Training for Young
Adolescents, 26, (101), 233-241.
Wolpe, J. (1958). Psychotherapy by reciprocal
inhibition. California: Stanford
University Press.
Wolpe, J. (1982). The practice of behaviour
therapy (3rd ed.). New York: Pergamon
Press.
Zuker, E. (1983). Mastering assertiveness skills.
New York: Amacom.
According to Sigmund Freud Any
Child's later years is determined by its own
experiences during its childhood''. Scoff'- a
famous child psychologist stated that children
from good family atmosphere are of good
behaviors and they can adjust with anyone
and children from bad family background
won't try to adjust with people. Hence, child
has a character of imitation. It tries to do what it
sees in its social environment. The social
environment involves all the person the child
meets in its life. It includes family, school and
064
ABSTRACT
Academic Performance and Learning Approches of
High School Students
*S. Banumathi **Kalyani Kenneth
Teaching children with the overall goals of education in mind is essential to each child's
development. Somewhere along the line, there are some children whose instructional needs are
not adequately met through regular classroom practices. These children work very hard but do not
always quite "get it". In this study researcher aims to know about the academic performance and
learning approaches adopted by high school students. Individualistic learning questionnaire & Co-
operative learning questionnaire developed by (Johnson and Johnson, 1999) is administered to the
106 girl students selected by using cluster sampling method. Data collected was subjected to
statistical analysis. The obtained results are comparing the academic performance and learning
approaches the cooperative learning help to attain good performance than the individualistic
learning approach. If the parent educational qualification is high the pupils prefer to learn through
individualistic learning process.
The current research on Academic performance and Learning approaches of high school
students aims to know about the academic performance and learning approaches adopted by high
school students. To analyze whether individualistic learning approaches help students get better
grades or cooperative learning approaches. To explore if there is a need for enhancing the learning
approaches of the students who get lower grades to help them improve their grades.
Key Words: Academic Performance, Co-operative Learning, Individualistic Learning, Slow learner
and Underachiever.
peer group. Likewise proper socialization is
must for a child's proper development. The
primary socializing agent is the family. This is
where the child character formation takes
place. The Secondary socializing agent is the
school environment. This is where children
spend their first part of life. Therefore school
acts as a new society for them. Meeting the
instructional needs of students is the primary
responsibility of every school today.
Teaching children with the overall goals
of education in mind is essential to each child's
*Ph.D Research Scholar, Mother Teresa University for Women, Kodaikannal.
**Reader, School of Career Counselling, Rajiv Gandhi National Institute of Youth Development,
Sriperumbudur (Tamilnadu) 602105.
INTRODUCTION :
July-2013
development. Somewhere along the line, there
are some children whose instructional needs
are not adequately met through regular
classroom practices. These children work very
hard but do not always quite "get it". They
continually meet with frustration and often end
up being referred along the way. The problem
compounds when testing results come back
and these children, who have stumbled for the
first five months of the school year, do not
qual i fy for any servi ces to stop any
encumbrances to learning. Learning is often
defined as a change in behavior (Birkenholz,
1999), which is demonstrated by people
implementing knowledge, skills, or practices
derived from education.
Individualistic Learning
This type of learning exists when the
learning or achievement of one student is
i ndependent and separate f rom the
achievements of the other students in the class
(Johnson & Johnson, 1991). Individual learning
implies that knowledge and cognitive skill are
assets that teacher can transfer to the learner
(Saloman & Perkins, 1998). This learning can
be described as teacher-centered; that is, the
teacher provides the major source of
information, assistance, criticism and feedback.
Students work alone and are not expected to be
interrupted by other students. In this regard,
students may be seated as far from each other
as space permits. Learning resources and
materials need to be organized so that each
student has immediate access to the
appropriate materials. This type of learning
aims to be individually beneficial and
assessment is commonly judged against a set
criteria.
Co-operative Learning
Co-operative learning occurs when
students work collaboratively towards a
065
common goal (Panitz, 1996). Achievements are
posi ti vel y correl ated wi th the other
cooperating students. Students work together
in small clusters or groups. Effective co-
operative learning promotes, positive
interdependence - a feeling of connection with
other members of the group as they accomplish
a common goal, individual accountability -
every member of the group is held accountable
for the group's achievements , face to face
interaction - group members engage at close
range and are influenced by each other's verbal
communication , social skills - students become
aware of the human interaction skills involved
in effective group cooperation , group
processing - groups may reflect and discuss how
well they are functioning as a unit and how
effective their working relationships are. (PLSB,
1999)Effective cooperative learning relies on
group management techniques, social skills
training and student-centered teaching
methods.
Slow learner - any student who
continually encounters frustration with daily
classroom activities but whose scores are not
low enough to qualify for any type of child study
team assistance. An underachiever is a person
and especially a student who fails to achieve his
or her potential or does not do as well as
expected.
METHOD
Objective of The Study:
1. To study the academic performance of
the students of high school.
2. To study the learning approaches
adopted by the students of high school.
3. To study the significant relationship
between academic performance and
learning approaches of the high school
students.
*S. Banumathi **Kalyani Kenneth Volume-4 (1)
4. To study the relationship between
learning approaches and slow learners
and underachievers.
Hypotheses:
1. There will be no variation in the
academic performance of high school
students.
2. Students will not adapt to any
particular learning approach.
3. There will be no significant relationship
between academic performance and
learning approaches of the high school
students.
4. There will be no significant relationship
between learning approaches and slow
learners and underachievers.
Tools Description:
Individualistic learning questionnaire
and Co-operative learning questionnaire
consists of 15 items each with three alternative
responses. The respondents to the learning
approaches were graded on a three point scale
as follows: agree (1), undecided - (0), disagree
- (-1). The scoring is done by adding all the
points on the 15 items.
Sample Description:
The cluster sampling method was
adopted for the selection of 106 girl students
studying in high school level. They were
selected from various high schools in Madurai
city. The age group of the sample ranged
between 12-15 years.
Procedure:
The researcher adopted exploratory
research design. The cluster sampling method
was adopted for the selection of 106 girl
student's age range between 12 15 years
studying in high school level. They were
selected from various high schools in Madurai
city.
066
1. Individualistic learning questionnaire.
2. Co-operative learning questionnaire.
In each questionnaire 30 items were
formulated and it was reviewed by experts.
Taking the expert's opinion in to consideration
the questionnaire was revised, which consisted
of 15 items in each questionnaire. In each
questionnaire the type of learning adopted by
the students were asked. The responses to the
learning approaches were graded on a three
point scale as follows: agree (1), undecided -
(0), disagree - (-1). The tool used is a
standardized tool with high reliability and
validity.
For col l ecti on of data proper
permission was obtained from higher
authorities. Before data collection group
interview was arranged. Ask the students
ans wer t he quest i onnai r e t r ul y.
Questionnaire was briefly explained to the
students. Answer sheets were given to the
students and how to answer the questions was
instructed. Data's were collected personally by
the interviewer.
Statistical Analysis:
In the current research the researcher
made use of mean, standard deviation and 'P'
Value as statistical tool to analyze the data
collected, test the hypotheses and derive at the
inferences.
067
Table 1 Shows Mean and Standard Deviation values of students on Individual Learning and
Co-operative Learning Approach along with other independent variables.
Items Classifications
Individual Learning
response score
Co-operative
Learning
response score
Mean S.D. Mean S.D.
Class VI
VIII
IX
83.8
50.9
56.3
24.8
28.6
22.7
91.4
68.7
72.5
14.1
24.4
23.8
Medium Tamil
English
59.3
49.8
25.6
30.3
71.8
65.6
25.2
27
Residence Rural
Semi urban
70
67.1
40.7
37.4
86.7
72.9
18.9
27.1
Father's
education
10
th
and less
+2
PG/UG
57.2
65.5
80
26.6
23.3
-
69.9
72.6
86.7
26.5
19.3
Learning place School
Home
59.1
60.4
25.8
19.6
70.5
74.1
27
20.2
Who helps Teacher
Friends
59.1
32.2
26.1
37.3
73.4
75.6
26.8
15.6
Reading Habits Yes 58.2 25.9 71 25.1

From the table: 1 given below it is observed that
the class IX student's cooperative learning
mean i.e. (72.5) is higher than their
Individualistic learning mean (56.3). Tamil
medium student's has higher cooperative
learning mean (71.8) than their individualistic
learning mean (59.3). The area in which the
students lives, the rural area students
cooperative learning mean value is (86.7)
higher than their individualistic learning mean
value (70.0) which is also higher than the semi
urban area students. According to the
education of the parents the father is less
educated the cooperative learning mean (69.9)
is higher than their individualistic learning
mean value of (57.2). Student's learning
place is home, the mean value of cooperative
l earni ng i s ( 74. 1) hi gher than thei r
individualistic learning mean (60.4). While the
support for learning from teacher the
cooperative learning mean (73.4) is higher than
their individualistic mean (59.1). If the students
having the reading habits the cooperative
learning mean (71.0) is higher than their
individualistic learning mean (58.2).
Table 2 shows the comparison between
Individual learning & Co-operative learning
approaches along with Academic Performance
of the students
068
From the table: 2, the total marks obtained in
previous examination for out of 500 are graded
in to three grades, below 250, 251-400, and
above 400. The individualistic learning mean for
below 250 marks is (73.3) which is higher than
their cooperative learning mean (68.8). For the
mar ks bet ween 251- 400, st udent ' s
individualistic learning mean (65.9) is lower
than the cooperative learning mean of (74.5).
The individualistic learning mean for students
getting marks above 400 is (64.2) lower than
their cooperative learning mean (88.3). The P
value for individualistic learning 0.0465 which is
statistically significant. The P value for
cooperative learning 0.038 is also statistically
significant. The low achiever to the learning
approach is individualistic learning. The
medium achiever and high achiever follow the
cooperative learning approach. This shows
cooperative learning study leads to higher
academic achievement. So, we enhance the
cooperative learning approach of the students,
for better academic performance.
Comparing the standards, in which the
students were studying, higher classes i.e. IX Std
student's prefer to learn in cooperative learning
process than the other standard students. Like
that the Tamil medium students like to learn in
cooperative learning process than the English
Academic Grading as per
previous examination marks
No. of
students
Individual learning
response %
Co-operative
learning response %
Mean S.D. Mean S.D.
Poor learners ( 0 250 marks ) 16 73.3 4.5 68.8 11.9
Medium learners (251-400
marks)
81 65.9 5.9 74.5 4.1
Good learners ( > 400 marks ) 8 64.2 8.6 88.3 9.2
'p' 0.0465 0.0386

medium students. If the living place is rural
area they prefer to learn in cooperative learning
process than in semi urban area students. If the
parent educational qualification is high the
pupils prefer to learn through individualistic
learning process than the students having
parents in low educational qualification. If the
students learning habits is in the home the
learning process followed is cooperative
learning.
Comparing the academic performance
and learning approaches the cooperative
learning approach help student's to attain good
academic performance than the individualistic
learning approach. This shows high achievers
prefer to learn in cooperative learning approach
and low achiever prefer individualistic learning
approach. Schools can use some strategies both
for students and teachers which can help to
improve the performance of students. They can
develop and use critical thinking skills and
teamwork, which can promote positive
relations among different ethnic groups. The
teacher can also improve peer coaching.
Cooperative approaches involve small group.
This group contains high achiever and low
achiever. High achiever will guide the lower
achiever in all learning activities.
Research on co-operative learning in
mathematics has found strong impacts on
mathemati cs l earni ng i f the methods
incorporate two key elements: group goals and
individual accountability. For example, co-
operative learning improves mathematics
learning when pupils work in small groups and
may earn recognition based on the individual
learning of all group members (see Davidson &
Kroll, 1991; Slavin, 1995; 2009; Rohrbeck,
Ginsburg-Block, Fantuzzo, & Miller, 2003;
O'Donnell, 2000; Slavin & Karweit, 1984;
069
Topping, Kearney, McGee, & Pugh, 2004; Howe,
Tolmie, Greer, & Mackenzie, 1995; Johnson &
Johnson, 1989).
Cooperative learning is an approach to group
work that minimizes the occurrence of those
unpleasant situations and maximizes the
learning and satisfaction that result from
working on a high-performance team. A large
and rapidly growing body of research confirms
the effectiveness of cooperative learning in
higher education. Relative to students taught
traditionallyi.e., with instructor-centered
l ectures, i ndi vi dual assi gnments, and
competitive gradingcooperatively taught
students tend to exhibit higher academic
achievement, greater persistence through
graduation, better high-level reasoning and
critical thinking skills, deeper understanding of
learned material, greater time on task and less
disruptive behavior in class, lower levels of
anxiety and stress, greater intrinsic motivation
to learn and achieve, greater ability to view
situations from others' perspectives, more
positive and supportive relationships with
peers, more positive attitudes toward subject
areas, and higher self-esteem.
Res earch demonst rat es t hat
cooperative learning is much more effective
learning method than competitive and
individualistic learning (Cohen, 1994; Johnson
& Johnson, 1999b). Research indicates that
cooperative learning produces higher academic
achievement among a wide range of students
(Armstrong-Messler, 1999; Calderon, Hertz-
Lazarowitz, & Salvin, 1998; Stevens & Slavin,
1995; Vaughan 2002).
Hence, the researcher felt that in order
to enhance the academic performance of low
achiever's co-operative learning approach is
appropriate. Authors David and Roger Johnson
(1999a, 1999b) have written extensively about
cooperative learning. They believe there are 5
Elements of Cooperative Learning which is to be
taught to the students. It helps to promote their
grades.
1. Positive Interdependence (sink or swim
together)
2. Face-to-Face Interaction (promote
each other's success)
3. Individual &Group Accountability (no
hitchhiking! no social loafing)
4. Interpersonal &Small-Group Skills
5. Group Processing
Social skills like Leadership, Decision-
making, Trust-building, Communication,
Conflict-management skills are also to be
taught. Cooperative learning helps them to
improve their understanding of a subject and
also for helping teammates to learn, thus
creating an atmosphere of achievement.
Through the cooperative learning enhance the
student satisfaction with their learning
experience and promote self-esteem.
REFERENCES
Angelo, T. A. and Cross, K. P. (1993). Classroom
Assessment Techniques, A Handbook
for College Teachers, 2nd ed., Jossey-
Bass Publishers, San Francisco.
Antil, L.; Jenkins, J. and Wayne, S. (2003). How
cooperative learning works for special
education and remedial students.
(Electronic version) Exceptional
Children, 69, (3), 279-292.
Baloche, L. A. (1998). The cooperative
classroom: Empowering learning.
Upper River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Bonwell, C.C. and J. A. Eison. (1991). Active
Learning: Creating Excitement in the
Cl assroom. ( ASHE- ERI C Hi gher
070
Education Report No. 1, 1991) Washington,
D.C.: George Washington University
Clearinghouse on Higher Education.
Bowen, C.W.A. (2000). Quantitative Literature
Review of Cooperative Learning Effects
on High School and College Chemistry
Achievement. J. Chem. Ed. 77,
116119.
Calweti. G. (Ed.). (2004). Handbook of research
on improving student achievement.
Arlington, VA: Educational Research
Service.
Felder, R. M.; Brent, R. (2001). Effective
Strategies for Cooperative Learning. J.
Cooperation & Collaboration in College
Teaching 10(2), 6975, (JCCCT).pdf
(accessed October 6, 2006).
Fisher, D., Frey, N.; Williams, D. (2002). seven
l i teracy st rategi es t hat work.
Educational Leadership, 60 (3), 70-73.
Gunning, T. G. (2008). Creating literacy
Instruction for all students. New York,
NY: Pearson.
Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T. and Holubec, J. E.
( 1 9 9 0 ) Ci r c l e s of L e a r n i n g :
Cooperation in the classroom. Edina,
MN: Interaction Book Company.
Johnson, D. W. and Johnson, R. T. (1999a).
Making cooperative learning work.
(Electronic version) Theory In Practice,
38 (2), 67-73
Johnson, D.W. and Johnson, R. T. (1999b).
Learni ng toget her and al one:
Cooperati ve, competi ti ve, and
i ndi v i dual i s t i c l ear ni ng ( 5t h
ed.).Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T. and Smith, K.A.
(1998). Cooperative learning returns to
college: What evidence is there that it
works? (Electronic Version) Change,
30(4), 26-35.
Johnson, D. W.; Johnson, R. T. (2000); Stanne,
M. E. Cooperative Learning Methods: A
me t a - a n a l y s i s . Un i v e r s i t y o f
Minnesota, Minneapolis: Cooperative
Learning Center;
http://www.cooperation.org/pages/cl
-methods.html (accessed October 5,
2006).
Meichenbaum, D.; Biemiller, A. (1998)
Nurturing independent learners:
Helping Students take charge of their
learning. Newton, MA: Brookline
Books.
Merkley, D. M.; Jefferies, D. (2001) Guidelines
for implementing a graphic organizer.
The Reading Teacher, 54, 350-357.
Morton, T. (1998). Cooperative learning and
social studies towards excellence and
equity. San Clemente, CA: Kagan
Cooperative Learning.
Putnam, J. (1997). Cooperative learning in
diverse classrooms. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Merrill.
Smith, K. A.; Sheppard, S. D.; Johnson, D. W.;
Johnson, R. T(2005) Pedagogies of
engagement: Cl assroom -based
practices. J. Engr. Education, 94, 87-
101.
071
Springer, L.; Stanne, M. E.; Donovan, S. (1997)
Effects of small-group learning on
u n d e r g r a d u a t e s i n s c i e n c e ,
mathemati cs, engi neeri ng, and
technology: A meta-analysis.National
Institute for Science Education:
Madison, WI.
http://www.wcer.wisc.edu/nise/CL1/C
L/resource/R2.htm (accessed October
5, 2006).
Stevens, R. and Slavin, R. (1995).The
cooperative elementary school: Effects
on student's achievement, attitudes,
and social relations. (Electronic
versi on) Ameri can Educati onal
Research Journal, 32, (2), 321-351.
Sinitsa, K. (2000). Learning Individually: a Life-
Long Perspective. Introduction to the
Specialissue:http://ifets.massey.ac.nz/
periodical/vol_1_2000/sinitsa.html
Terenzini, P. T.; Cabrera, A. F.; Colbeck, C. L.;
Parente, J. M.; Bjorklund, S. A. (2001)
C o l l a b o r a t i v e l e a r n i n g v s .
lecture/discussion: Students' reported
learning gains. J. Engr. Education, 90,
123-130.
INTRODUCTION
AIDS Epidemic update (2007) stated
that an estimated 2.5 million people were
newly infected with the disease AIDS worldwide
in the past year. An estimated 40.3 million
people around the world were living with
HIV/AIDS. About 3.1 million people have died
from AIDS related disease in the year 2006.
Survey showed that HIV infection rates among
pregnant women were rising (WHO, 2008).
Ministry of Health and Family Welfare of India
released data that in 2006 about 2.45 million
Indians were living with HIV with an adult
prevalence rate of 0.41% (Dhar, 2006).
Therefore, The Indian government acted
decisively and set up AIDS societies with the
help of state's government, which worked
closely with NGO's to initiate AIDS prevention
campaigns. Main purpose of these campaigns is
spreading awareness and educates the youth
on HIV/AIDS as much as possible.
Objectives of the Study
The objective of the survey is to
measure the prevention of HIV/AIDS among
youth.
Study Area
The survey was conducted in three
major tourist cities (Haridwar, Rishikesh,
Dehradun) of Uttarakhand state. A total of 1000
072
Abstract
Prevention of HIV/AIDS among Youth- A Survey
*Pooja Sharma **C.P. Khokhar
The present study seeks to assess the risky sexual behavior and awareness on HIV/AIDS
among the youth. The youth are susceptible to various health hazards due to their unhealthy
lifestyle and undesirable habit patterns. Based on survey conducted among various categories of
youth, the study presents empirical details on risky sexual behavior among youth and their
knowledge on HIV/AIDS.
Keywords: HIV/AIDS, risky sexual behavior, Youth, survey.
respondents were interviewed in terms of
knowledge about HIV, sexual behavior, condom
usage, risk perception, different drug usage,
and preventive messages.
Sample for study
The sample consists of Housewives,
(HW), Factory Workers - Male and female
(FMW), College girls and boys (CGB), Truck and
Taxi dri vers- Mal e ( DM) , and Youth
(uneducated) of 15-25 years (YMF).
The data collection was completed within two
months. The sample details are presented in
Table-1, it can be seen that the sample for the
study consists of 35% (350) from Dehradun
(urban), Rishikesh (urban and semi-urban) 20
per cent (200), and Haridwar (urban and semi-
urban) 45 per cent (450) respondents. In this
survey investigator included more number of
youths in educated and uneducated category.
Because all three cities are renowned for
tourism so taxi drivers had been found easily,
whereas, more number of truck drivers (n=50)
has been selected from Haridwar city. As
regards age was concerned HW (House wives)
had the mean age of 27.5 years and the DM
(truck & Taxi drivers) were 30 years. The mean
age of FMW (Factory Male and Female Workers)
was 18 to 30 years only. The Mean age of CGB
(college students) was 18.5 years and the mean
age of YMF (uneducated youth) was 18 years.
*Guest Faculty, K.G.M., Dehradun, Uttrakhand
**Professor, Dept. of Psychology, G.K. University, Haridwar
July-2013
073
Table - 1. Sample for the Study
Code Category Study Area Total Precent
Dehradun Rishikesh Haridwar
(Urban) (Urban & Semi Urban area) (Urban & Semi Urban area)
HW
DM
FMW
CGB
YMF
Total
Percent
House Wives
Taxi & Truck Drivers (Male)
Factory Male & Female Worker
Callege Girls & Boys
Youth uneducated
50
20
80
120
80
350
35%
40
30
20
60
50
200
20%
80
50
90
150
80
450
45%
170
100
190
330
210
1000
100%
17%
105
19%
33%
21%
During data collection, data entry and analysis, investigator adhered to strict quality control
measures to ensure the quality of data and findings. A Self made questionnaire consisting questions
regarding knowledge about HIV/AIDS, and other risky sexual behavior was pre-tested among the
interviewees. With reference to marital status, 75 per cent Taxi and Truck drivers were married but
only 25 percent were not married, also Taxi & truck drivers had involved in non-regular sex in
different cities with females. They had approached Mr. X parties also (person with both Male and
Female external characteristics). As for female factory workers were concerned, condom usage was
very low as compared to the men. Condoms are also easily available in most places where the
truckers halt. Knowledge about homosexual behavior was high among both male and female
students at school and college level. Youth reported that drug abusing like alcoholism is another
factor which motivates them to seek sex.
Table 2. Statistical analysis:
S.No. Survey based on following area Percentage of responses
HW DM FMW CGB YMF
01 Knowledge about HIV/AIDS 97% 90% 95% 100% 92%
02 Knowledge about HIV/AIDS
prevention
90% 90% 80% 90% 85%
03 Voluntary testing for HIV/AIDS 65% 50% 60% 80% 40%
04 Knowledge about Risky sexual
behavior
40-45% 70% 75% 93% 60%
05 Use of condoms 25% 85-90% 85% 100% 65%

*Pooja Sharma **C.P. Khokhar Volume-4 (1)
074
From the stati sti cal data, the
knowledge level of the prevention of the
HIV/AIDS, without misconceptions, has
increased. In all three cities, the voluntary
testing for HIV/AIDS among youth has increased
steadily. 90 per cent of girls and boys in college
have got individual education on HIV/AIDS
prevention.
As regards of condoms, the practice has
increased by 85 to 90 per cent with Taxi and
Truck drivers. From the point of view of
behavior modifications, the uneducated youth
in semi-urban areas have involved in non-
regular sex, habitually (60 per cent), and also
the sexual relationship with Sex workers has
increased among the DM group (70 per cent),
but condom usage with non-regular partner has
increased among DM group.
Conclusion
Due to the different campaigns and
advertisement of government organizations,
condom usage increased and adults in schools
Graph-1, Presenting percentage value of prevention of HIV/AIDS among youth.
and colleges do not feel shy to discuss
sex education and its importance. Many parents
know only the colloquial terms for sexual organs
and sexual processes. They do not know the
terms for disease and their prevention. Sex
education can be imparted in a better way if
teachers, parents, teachers and social workers
work hard, hand in hand instead of shifting the
responsibility from one to another. To begin
with, it is necessary to motivate a small group of
students in each institution so that the student
groups can in turn act as communicators or
educators for the new group. Medical students
at the end of their pre clinical training are ideal
peer group communicators. By this time these
students are well informed about the nature of
the HIV virus and the mode of transmission.
Prevention activity should include designing
posters and pamphlets and distributing and
displaying them in clinics and other public
places. College and school activities should
include drawing competition, debate, drama
and awareness-street play about sex education.
075
Media activity should include radio talks and
the use of performing arts such as storytelling,
drama shows and role-play relating to sex
education. Community and other groups can be
reached by using existing organizations such as
women' s group, youth organi zati ons,
communi ty and rel i gi ous l eaders and
educational institutions. AIDS Education in
Schools A Training Package, Red Ribbon Club,
and other HIV/AIDS related campaigns are the
joint efforts of the National Council of
Educational Research and Training and the
National AIDS Control Organization. This
collaboration is an indication of the realization
that education has an important role to play in
stemming the spread of HIV/AIDS.
Abbreviation:
HW House Wife
DM- Taxi & Truck male driver
FMW- Factory Male & female
Workers
CGB- College girls & boys
YMF- Youth (uneducated)
REFERENCES:
Dhar, A. (2006). Decline HIV prevalence in south
India, a report. The Hindu pp.4.
Population Reports about AIDS and its Control
(2006). Information and knowledge
for Optimal Health (INFO) Report,
Baltimore, USA, USAID.
Prakash, S et al. (1994) On the Horizon of
Adulthood... New Delhi, UNICEF
Publications.
UNAIDS (December, 2007) AIDS Epidemic
Update: Dec. 2007. UNAIDS Joint
Uni ted Nati on Programmed on
HIV/AIDS.
http:/www.unaids.org/publication/do
cuments/epidemiology/surveillance/
Retrieved on 7 Aaugust 2008.
WHO (2008). AIDS-Epidemic-Status brochure.
December 2008. WHO Library.
*Pooja Sharma **C.P. Khokhar Volume-4 (1)
We can consider the computer as most
th
important invention of 20 century. Computer
has become necessity in modern times in every
field and across for all age group people.
Computer technology has a mixed blessing as
well as the dramatic and liberating benefits
coupled with new pressing demands & skill
deficiency, resulting in psychological pressure
for the users. One of such psychological
pressures is techno stress.
The term techno stress was coined in
1984 by Craig Brod. He defined techno stress as
a modern disease of adaptation in a healthy
manner. Weil and Rosen (1997)further refined
techno stress as any negative impact on
attitudes, thoughts, behaviors, or body
physiology that is caused either directly or
indirectly by technology. Techno stress is
negative psychological link between people and
the introduction of new technologies. Techno
076
ABSTRACT
Techno Stress in Relation to Coping Strategies among
Software Professionals
*Madhu Jain **Harshita Rathore
The present study was designed to examine the relationship between technostress and
coping strategies among software professionals. 200 software professionals (152 males and 48
females) from jaipur city, with mean age 30.2 years were participated in the study. Computer hassle
scale by Hudiberg (1995) and coping strategies scale by Folkman and Lazarus (1987) were
administered .The findings revealed that technostress is significantly positively correlated with
confronting coping , escape avoidance coping and total coping strategies and negatively correlated
with accepting responsibilities in the group of total samples and male professionals.Further
technostress found significantly positively correlated with seeking social support in the group of
feamale professionals.
Keywords: Technostress, coping strategies, software professionals.
stress is in many ways, the resistance to change
that accompanies newly introduced machines
to work at home and leisure situations.
Techno stress manifests itself in two
distinct and related ways. One is in struggle to
accept computer technology and second is in
the more specialized form of over identification
with computer technology. Several studies
reported that those who were highly positive
about and involved with computers also faced
techno stress and the reasons attributed to; 1)
too much information process, 2) speed of
computer has made life too fast, 3) computer
exerts physical and mental pressure, 4) humans
have limitations, and 5) computer can replace
people in work place (Ganzel & Rebecca 1998).
Further, large number of studies also
support the above reasons that milder
symptoms of techno stress are fairly common in
computer user like; feeling of isolation and
* Associate Professor, Department of Psychology, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur
** Lecturer, Department of Psychology, Stani Memorial P.G. College Jaipur
INTRODUCTION :
July-2013
frustration (Arnetz 1993), negative attitude
towards computer based sources and systems
(Asakura & Fujigaki 1993), self depreciating
thoughts ( Lacovides , Fauntoulakis & Kaprins
2003 ), anxiety. It can appear as irritability
headaches, mental fatigues, depression, night
mares, panic etc. (Thorpe & Broshan 2006).
Techno stress includes the pressure of
mastering the computer revolution, the daily
frustration and sudden interruption of software
bugs or system crashes resulting in work
intensification and workplace stress.
IT jobs are most coveted in modern era
and the most brilliant section of youth are
working for it but these jobs are mostly
contractual with less job security but high pay
and entail strong competitiveness, along with a
globalize life style ( Lim & Teo 1990). The
working environment exposes the software
professionals to high strain, uncertainty, lack of
proper personal development opportunities as
well as a greater imbalance of work activities
(Computer World, 2006).
Whenever people feel any kind of stress
they use many type of coping strategies to come
out of that stress. Coping consists of the
cognition and behavior that people use to
access and reduce stress and moderate the
tension that accompanies it (Caplan et.al 1984).
According to Moos and Schaefer (1993), there
are three primary sphere of activity in coping
responses-1) Appraisal focused coping
attempts to define the meaning of a situation.
2) Problem focused coping - tries to modify or
eliminate the source of stress.3) Emotion
focused coping govern the emotion aroused
by stressor and maintains affective equilibrium.
People use all above three primary sphere of
activity in coping responses in managing techno
stress under different situations.
077
Hence, in the present study, an attempt
was made to find out the relationship between
techno stress and coping strategies among the
software professionals.
METHOD
Participants
200 junior software professional with
mean age 30.2 years, having at least one year
work experience and more than eight
hours/day spent time on computers were
participated in the study. The participants were
selected from different organization viz-a viz
Compucom, Qrbit system, Pratham software,
VGL Software, Dwarkas, PS Consultants of
Jaipur city (state of Rajasthan) by adopting
purposive sampling method on the availability
basis as well as on the willingness to participate
in this study.
Measures
The following tools were used in the present
study :
1. The computer hassles scale by
Hudiburg (1995)
It is self administrated inventory which
consist of 37 items in which a person can feel
hassled by computer. This scale includes two
sub scales one is computer run time problems,
it include 24 items which are related to the
hardware problems like computer hardware
failure or slow computer speed etc. The second
sub scale is computer information problems, it
includes 13 items which are related to the
computer user like need to update skills or too
little computer information etc. The total scale
and both subscales showed high internal
consistency as measured by the Cronbach
coefficient alpha. [greater than] .90. Based on
the data, the Computer Hassles Scale shows
promise as a measure of computer stress.
*Madhu Jain **Harshita Rathore Volume-4 (1)
2. Coping strategies scale by Folkman
and Lazarus (1987)
Coping strategies was assessed with a
revi sed versi on of ' Ways of Copi ng'
questionnaire by Folkman and Lazarus, (1987).
It consists of 50 items. It is a four point scale and
measures eight different dimensions of coping
strategies. Confronting coping, Distancing, Self
control, Seeking Social Support, Accepting
responsibility, Escape avoidance, plan full
problem solving and positive reappraisal.
Internal consistency of the scale was 0.75. Eight
coping scales were derived covering 46.2%
variance. The intercorelation were arranged
over five occasions from 0.01-0.39.
Procedure
After getting permission for data
collection from responsible authorities of
078
Table 1: Correlation between techno stress and different dimensions of coping
strategies of total sample of software professionals (N=200)
variable Confronting
coping
distancing Self
controlling
Seeking
social
support
Accepting
responsibility
Escape
avoidanc
e
Planful
problem
solving
Positive
reappraisal
Total
coping
Techno
stress
.188* 0.072 0.103 0.036 -.146* .287** -.076 0.091 .156*

Table2: Correlation between techno stress and different dimensions of coping
strategies of Male software professionals (N=148)
coping
distancing Self
controlling
Seeking
social
support
Accepting
responsibility
Escape
avoidance
Planful
problem
solving
Positive
reappraisal
Total
coping
Techno
stress
.237* .316** .195* 0.075 -.184* .319** -.068 .117 .229*

different software companies, employees were
approached with purpose of study. Before
administering questionnaires, rapport was
established with participants, and they were
assured of the confidentiality of the responses.
The questionnaires got completed during their
working hours as per their convenience. As all
questionnaires had standard set of instructions,
no special procedure followed. Special care
was taken in administering the test properly
minimizing effect of fatigue by administering
the test in two sessions.
After getting back the questionnaire
responses were coded and scored. Product
moment correlation was applied to find out
relation between techno stress and dimension
of coping strategies with the help of SPSS.
Table1 Shows that in total sample of software
Professionals ,techno stress found significantly
positively correlated with confronting coping
(r = .188, p < .05), escape avoidance coping (r =
.287, p < .01) ,total coping strategies (r = .156, p<
.05) and significantly negatively correlated with
accepting responsibilities (r = - .146, p < .05
).The overview of table-2 reveals that in group
of male software Professionals, techno stress
found significantly positively correlated with
confronting coping (r = .237, p < .05), escape
avoidance coping (r = .319, p < .01) ,distancing
copi ng ( r =. 316 p<. 01) , sel f cont rol
coping(r=.195 p<.05) and total coping strategies
(r = .229 p< .05) and significantly negatively
correlated with accepting responsibilities (r = -
.184, p < .05 ).Further, in the group of female
software Professionals(Table-3) techno stress
was found significantly positively correlated
with only seeking social support coping(r=.362
p<.05).
DISCUSSION:
The present study hypothesized that
techno stress will be significantly correlated
with the dimensions of coping strategies. The
results of the study partially support this
hypothesis. Results indicated that software
professi onal s used more confronti ng,
distancing, escape avoidance and accepting
responsibility, coping strategies to manage the
techno stress.
079
Conf ront i ng copi ng des cr i bes
aggressive efforts to alter the stressful
situations, although stress responses also do
help the persons to confront the situation. And
in this order coping up with techno stress,
people tend to use more technology and spend
more time on computer at office as well as at
home. They are known as technococaine as
stated by Rosen and Weil (2003). Richards
(2004) gave a term for this type of persons
'technical personality'. Technical personality
peopl e al ways ready to confront the
technostress .They possess a faade of
extroverted cheerfulness to conceal and
compensate for an inner core of loneliness and
fear of other. Distancing coping describe efforts
to detach oneself. It's a fact that in the stressfull
condition persons try to detach himself from
that situation. In order to detach oneself from
technostress,sometimes people left their jobs
or change another field for job. While using
escape avoidance coping strategies, person
tries to avoid stressfull situation by making
excuses or by escape from stressfull condition.
During technostress people feel fear from
computer; they expressed resistance and
anxiety to learn about the computer.) .
Accepting responsibility acknowledges one's
own role in the problem with a concomitant
there of trying of put things right. It is a proved
fact that when stress level gets higher in a
Table 3 : Correlation between techno stress and different dimensions of coping
strategies of Female software professionals(N=52)
coping
distancing Self
controlling
Seeking
social
support
Accepting
responsibility
Escape
avoidance
Planful
problem
solving
Positive
reappraisal
Total
coping
Techno
stress
.019 .064 -.160 .362* -.003 .368 -.089 0.428 .082

**significant at .01 level
* = Significant at .05 level
person, the sense of accepting responsibility is
reduced. Because in a stressed condition a
person's mental and physical stage is not in a
position to accept any kind of responsibility. He
almost lost his confidence and belief on his skills
and capabilities (Brillhart, 2004). Computer
anxiety comprises several problems ranging
from temporary confusion over how to use a
system, to feelings of being rushed or
dehumanized and due to all these feelings a
person get afraid to accept responsibilities
(Chang 2005). The results are in line with
observation that females appear to have at
their disposal better alternatives than males in
terms of seeking support and finding
professional assistance(Giguette Lopez and
Schulter,2006).Females utilize both behavioral
and cognitive type of strategies while males
p r e d o mi n a n t l y e mp l o y c o g n i t i v e
strategies(Astor-Dubin and Hammen(1994).
On the basis of results it can be
concluded that coping with technostress is a
highly individual matter, different people react
to technostress in different ways and therefore
the techniques to reduce the technostress will
be individualized. Successful management of
technostress depends on; 1)how one perceives
techno change and how one interprets it.2) how
one feels about technochange. 3)how one cope
with technochange.Positive attitude and
involvement in job work may help software
professionals to cope up with technostress.
080
REFERENCES:
Arnetz, B.B. (1993). Technostress: Psycho
physiological Consequences of Poor
Man-Machi ne i nterface. I n J. S.
Michael, & G. Salvendy (Ed.), Human-
Computer Interaction: Applications
and Case Studies (pp.891-896).
Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Asakura, R.; and Fujigaki, Y. (1993). The Impact
of Computer Technology on Job
Characteristics and Worker Health.
New York: Elsevier.
Astor-Dubin and Hammen(1994).Cognitive
versus behavioural coping responses of
me n a n d wo me n ; A b r i e f
report.Cognitive therapy and research,
8, 85-90.
Brillhart, P.E. (2004). Technostress in the
Workplace: Managing Stress in the
Electronic Workplace. Journal of
American Academyu of Business, 5.
302-307.
Brod, C. (1984). How to Deal with Technostress.
Office Administration and Automation,
28. 46-47.
Caplan, R. D.; Naidu; Tripathi,R.C. (1984).
Coping and defense: Constellation Vs
Components. Journal of Health and
Social Behavior,25. 303-320.
Chang, S.E. (2005). Computer Anxiety and
Perception of Task Complexity in
Learning Programming - Ralated Skills.
Computes in Human Behavior, 21. 713-
728.
Computer world. (2006). Hot Skills, Cold Skills.
Retri eved Jul y 17, 2008, from
w w w . c o m p u t e r w o r l d .
com/action/article.
Ganzel,A. and Rebecca, L. (1998). Feeling
Squeezed by Technology? Training.
Computer World,.10, 33-46.
Giguette,M.S.; Lopez, Jr.A. M. and Schulter,L.J .
(2006). Perceived social support:
ethnic and gender differences in the
computing .Retrieved July 10,2013,
From http: f i e engmg. pi tt. edu/
fie2006/papers/116.pdf#search.
Hudiburg, R. A. (1995). Psychology of computer
Use:XXIV. The Computer Hassles Scale:
Subscales, Norms and Reliability.
Psychological Reports, 77, 779-782.
Lacovides, A.; Fountoulakis, K.N.; Kaprins, G.K.
(2003). The Relationship Between Job
St r es s , Bur nout and Cl i ni cal
Depression. Journal of Affective
Disorders, 75, 209-221.
Lacovides, A.; Fountoulakis, K.N.; Kaprins, G.K.
(2003). The Relationship Between Job
St r es s , Bur nout and Cl i ni cal
Depression. Journal of Affective
Disorders, 75, 209-221.
Lazarus, R.S. and Folkman, S. (1987).
Psychological stress and Coping
process. New York: McGraw hill.
Lim, K.G.V. and Teo, T.S. (1999). Occupational
stress and IT Personnel in Singapore:
Factorial Dimensions and Differential
Effects. International Journal of
Information management,19, 227-291.
Moos, R.H. and Schaefer, J.A. (1993). Coping
Resources and Processes: Current
Concepts and Measures. In Goldberger,
L. & Breznitz, S. (Ed.), Hand Book of
Stress: Theoretical and Clinical Aspects,
234-257. New York: Free Press.
081
Rosen, L.D. and Weil, M.M. (2004). Computer
availability, computer experience and
technophobia among public school
teachers. Computers i n Human
Behavior, 11, 9-31.
Thorpe, S.K. Broshan, M.J. (2006). An Evaluation
of Two Clinically-Derived Treatments
For Techno-Phobia. Computers in
Human Behavior, 22, 1080-1095.
Weil, M.M. Rosen, L.R. (1997). Technostress:
Coping with Technology @ Work @
Home @ Play. New York: John wiley &
Sons.
INTRODUCTION
Coping was initially conceptualized by
Lazarus (1980) as an essentially cognitive
process consisting of threat and resource
appraisal and the active selection of coping
responses. McEwen's concept of Allostasis
(process of achieving stability, or homeostasis,
through physiological or behavioral change)
expands this definition of coping to include the
ability to achieve stability through change by
engaging the autonomic nervous system (ANS),
the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis,
and the cardiovascular, metabolic, and immune
systems to respond to internal and external
stressors (McEwen , & Stellar, 1993) The
t h e o r e t i c a l p o s s i b i l i t y o f
psychoneuroimmunologic (PNI) influences on
the course of disease in HIV/AIDS was suggested
082
ABSTRACT
A Comparative Study of Ways of Coping Among HIV-Infected
Persons and General Population
*O.P. Sharma **Sajani
The present study aims to examine the ways coping amongst HIV-infected male and female.
For the above research a purposive sample of 200 HIV-infected patients (age range 18-45 years) was
selected. Out of these 200 HIV-infected patients, 100 were male and 100 were female. These
Patients were HIV-infected since last 3 years and were not suffering from any known pathology.
These Patients were sampled from various Medical Colleges, Hospitals and Sero-surveillance
Centers in Haryana State. A Control Group of 100 Male and 100 Female (age range 18-45 years) was
randomly selected from the general population for comparative purpose. For assessing the coping
ways The Coping Response Inventory (CRI-A) (Moos.1992) was administered on both experimental
and control group. The scores revealed that the HIV- infected males and female group and the
normal group differ significantly on Seeking Guidance and Acceptance or Resignation. But there was
no significant difference found in both the groups in terms of Logical Analysis, Positive Appraisal,
Support Problem Solving, Cognitive Coping, Seeking Alternative Rewards, and Emotional Discharge.
Key Words: Coping, HIV-Infection, General population.
* Associate Professor, Dept. of Psychology, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur
** Assistant Professor, Dept. of Psychology, Govt. College, Dujana (Haryana)
early in the history of the epidemic (Solomon ,
et al., 1987).
Subsequently, a number of studies have
demonstrated relationships between various
psychosocial variables and outcome-related
+
immunological parameters, typically CD4 cell
counts (Hulgan,. et. al., 2007), or HIV disease
progression .The most common independent
variables in the HIV PNI literature have included
stressors, coping, and depression. The primary
effects of stress, depression, and its theoretical
opposite - positive psychosocial factors are also
reviewed.
Faster progression to AIDS has been
linked to the use of passive coping strategies,
such as denial or disengagement (Goodkin, , et..
al., 1992; Ironson, et.. al., 2005; Leserman et.
al . , 2000; ) . Pessi mi sm and negati ve
July-2013
expectancies or self-attributions have been
linked to deleterious immune function in
patients with HIV, the influence of the
presumed opposite construct of optimism on
HIV outcomes is less clear. An optimistic outlook
has been associated with lower mortality
(Blomkvist , et. al., 1994) and slower HIV disease
progression (Ironson , et. al., 2005), whereas
other studies have found no effect (Reed , et. al.,
1994) or even negative health effects (25).
Some other predominantly cognitive coping
strategies have been found to be related to HIV
outcomes. Successful efforts to find meaning in
response to HIV-related stressors were
associated with lower mortality during 2- to 3-
year follow-up (n=40 gay men) (Bower, et. al.,
1998). Proacti ve probl em-sol vi ng was
associated with slower disease progression in
104 men and women (Vassend, et. al., 1997)
and 65 gay men (Vassend & Eskild , 1998) with
HIV.
Objective: The proposed study was conducted
with the following objective:
To study the ways of coping among HIV
infected persons and general population.
Hypothesis: The study aspired to test the
following hypothesis:
It is expected that there will be a
significant mean difference in the ways of
coping among HIV-infected persons and
general population.
083
Sample:
A purposive sample pertaining to
experimental group of 200 (100 male and 100
female) HIV-infected Persons of the age range
from 18-45 years were purposively selected
from Medical Colleges, Hospitals and Sero-
surveillance Centers located in different parts of
Haryana. The control group consisting of 200
(100 male and 100 female) of the age range of
18-45 years were randomly selected for
comparison from various parts of Haryana.
Tools:
The Coping Responses Inventory
Adult Form (Moos, 1992), administered on
experimental group, individually and all the
participants were assured that the results so
obtained would be kept confidential. The (CRI-
Adult) is consisting of eight sub-scales-Logical
Analysis (LA), Positive Reappraisal (PR), Seeking
Guidance and Support (SGS), Problem Solving
(PS), Cognitive Avoidance (CA), Acceptance or
Resignation (AR), Seeking Alternative Rewards
(SR) and Emotional Discharge (ED). The internal
consistency reliabilities (alphas) of 0.55-0.79
and a test retest reliabilities of 0.29-0.45.
Forms et.al . (2005) report alphas of 0.40-0.63,
the author reported evidence of discriminative
validity and convergent validity.
Statistical Analysis:
In order to attain the objective of the
proposed investigation, the retrieved data were
analyzed for getting the mean, SD and t-values
of all dimensions in a separate way.
Male Female
HIV infected 100 100
General population 100 100

*O.P. Sharma **Sajani Volume-4 (1)
x
_
The Table 1 reflects that there is no significant mean difference ('t' = 4.74; p > .01) between
HIV-infected Male & Female and Control Group Male & Female with respect to Ways of Coping
dimension Logistic Analysis at 0.01 level of confidence. The Mean value of HIV-infected Male and
Female ( =14.65, SD=7.18) depicted significance mean difference between the participants of
control and experimental group with respect to Ways of Coping stands rejected specifically with
respect to the dimension Logistic Analysis and rival/ alternative hypothesis is tenable.
084
Table-1
Mean, SD and 't' ratio of HIV-infected Male & Female and Control Group Male &
Female with respect to Ways of Coping
Way of
Coping
Logical
Analysis
Positive
Reappraisal
Seeking
Guidence
and
Support
Problem
Solving
Cognitive
Coping
Acceptance
or
Resignation
Seeking
Alternative
Rewards
Emotional
Discharge
Groups N Mean S.D. 't' ratio
Level of
Significance
HIV-infected
Conrol Group
HIV-infected
Conrol Group
HIV-infected
Conrol Group
HIV-infected
Conrol Group
HIV-infected
Conrol Group
HIV-infected
Conrol Group
HIV-infected
Conrol Group
HIV-infected
Conrol Group
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
14.65
11.85
12.04
12.08
13.42
13.11
13.39
13.29
13.91
11.50
13.78
11.46
13.95
12.09
13.57
10.70
7.18
4.30
3.61
4.01
7.16
5.10
4.73
4.30
4.29
4.14
3.95
5.15
4.22
4.07
8.32
4.08
4.74
.105
.507
.221
5.72
5.06
4.49
4.37
NS
NS
S(0.01)*
NS
NS
S(0.01)*
NS
NS
The tabled figure shows that there is
no significant mean difference (t = .105; p >
.01) between HIV-infected Male & Female and
Control Group Male & Female with respect to
Ways of Coping dimension Problem Reappraisal
at 0.01 level of confidence. The Mean value of
HIV-infected Male and Female ( = 12.04, SD =
3.61) is not significantly more in comparison to
the Mean value of Control Group Male and
Female ( = 12.08, SD = 4.01Thus the hypothesis
that there will be significant mean difference
between HIV-infected Male & Female and
Ways of Coping stands rejected specifically with
respect to the dimension Problem Reappraisal
and rival/alternative hypothesis is tenable.
There is a significant mean difference
(t = .507; p < .01) between HIV-infected Male &
Female and Control Group Male & Female with
respect to Ways of Coping dimension Seeking
Guidance and Support at 0.01 level of
confidence. The Mean value of HIV-infected
Male and Female ( = 13.42, SD = 7.16) is
significantly more in comparison to the Mean
value of Control Group Male and Female ( =
13.11, SD = 5.10). Thus the hypothesis that
there will be significant mean difference
Ways of Coping stands accepted specifically
with respect to the dimension Seeking
Guidance and Support and rival/alternative
hypothesis is not tenable. The aforesaid results
are as per theoretical expectations and can be
vindicated by the empirical researches (Vassend
& Eskild, 1998).
The Table depicts that there is no
significant mean difference (t = .221; p > .01)
085
Ways of Coping dimension Problem Solving at
0.01 level of confidence. The Mean value of HIV
infected Male and Female ( = 13.39, SD = 4.73)
is not significantly more in comparison to the
Mean value of Control Group Male and Female
( = 13.29, SD = 4.30). Thus the hypothesis that
respect to the dimension Problem Solving and
rival/alternative hypothesis is tenable.
There is also no significant mean
difference (t = 5.72; p > .01) between HIV-
infected Male & Female and Control Group
Male & Female with respect to Ways of Coping
dimension Cognitive Coping at 0.01 level of
confidence. The Mean value of HIV-infected
Male and Female ( = 13.91, SD = 4.29) is not
significantly more in comparison to the Mean
value of Control Group Male and Female ( =
11.50, SD = 4.14). Thus the hypothesis that
respect to the dimension Cognitive Coping and
rival/alternative hypothesis.
The Table reflects that there is a
significant mean difference (t = 5.06 p < .01)
Ways of Coping dimension Acceptance or
Resignation at 0.01 level of confidence. The
Mean value of HIV-infected Male and Female
( = 13.78, SD = 3.95) is significantly more in
comparison to the Mean value of Control Group
Male and Female ( = 11.46, SD = 5.15). Thus the
hypothesis that there will be significant mean
difference between HIV-infected Male &
respect to Ways of Coping stands accepted
specifically with respect to the dimension
Acceptance or Resignation and rival/alternative
hypothesis is not tenable. The aforesaid results
are as per theoretical expectations and can be
vindicated by the empirical researches.
There is no significant mean difference
(t = 4.49 p > .01) between HIV-infected Male &
respect to Ways of Coping dimension Seeking
Alternative Rewards at 0.01 level of confidence.
The Mean value of HIV-infected Male and
Female ( = 13.95, SD = 4.22) is not significantly
more in comparison to the Mean value of
Control Group Male and Female ( = 12.09, SD =
4.07).
The Table reflects that there is no
significant mean difference (t = 4.37 p > .01)
Ways of Coping dimension Emotional Discharge
at 0.01 level of confidence. The Mean value of
HIV-infected Male and Female ( = 13.57, SD =
8.32) is not significantly more in comparison to
the Mean value of Control Group Male and
Female ( = 10.70, SD = 4.08. Thus the
hypothesis that there will be significant mean
difference between HIV-infected Male &
respect to Ways of Coping stands rejected
specifically with respect to the dimension
Emotional Discharge and rival/alternative
hypothesis is tenable.
086
REFRENCES:
Blomkvist, V.; Theorell, T.; Jonsson ,H . ,
Schulman ,S . , Berntorp ,E .; Stiegendal,
L. (1994). Psychosocial self-prognosis in
relation to mortality and morbidity in
h e m o p h i l i a c s w i t h H I V
infection.PsychotherPsychosom; 39:
957 65.
Goodkin, K. , Fuchs, I.; Feaster, D.; Leeka, J. ,
Rishel, D, (1992). Life stressors and
coping style are associated with
i mmu n e me a s u r e s i n HI V- 1
infectiona preliminary report. Int J
Psychiatry Med;22:15572.
Hulgan ,T.; Shepherd ,B.E.; Raffanti, S.P.; Fusco,
J. S.; Beckerman , R.; Barkanic, G. ,
Sterling, T.R. (2007). Absolute count
+
and percentage of CD4 lymphocytes
are independent predictors of disease
progression in HIV-infected persons
initiating highly active antiretroviral
therapy. J Infect Dis;195: 42531.
Ironson ,G.; Balbin, E.; Stuetzle, R.; Fletcher
,M.A.; O'Cleirigh, C.; Laurenceau, J.P. ,
Schneiderman ,N. , Solomon ,G. (2005).
Dispositional optimism and the
mechanisms by which it predicts slower
disease progression in HIV: proactive
behavi or, avoi dant copi ng, and
depression. Int J Behav Med; 2: 86 97.
Lazarus, R.S. (1980). The stress and coping
paradigm. In: Bond LA, Rosen JC,
editors. Competence and Coping
During Adulthood. Hanover, NH:
University of New England Press.
Leserman ,J.; Pettito, J.M.; Golden, R.N.;
Gaynes, B.N.; Gu, H.; Perkins, D.O.;
Silva, S.G.; Folds, J.D.; Evans, D.L.;
(2000). Impact of stressful life events,
depression, social support, coping, and
cortisol on progression to AIDS. Am J
Psychiatry, 157:1221 8.
McEwen, B.S.; Stellar, E. (1993). Stress and the
individual: mechanisms leading to
disease. Arch Intern Med;153:93101.
Moos, R.H., and Schaefer, J.A. (1992). Coping
resources and processes: Current
concepts and measures. In S. Breznits&
L. Goldberger (Eds.), Handbook of
stress.Theoretical and clinical aspects.
New York: Free Press.
Reed, G.; Kemeny, M.; Taylor, S.; Wang, H.;
Vi s s cher, B. ( 1994) . Real i st i c
acceptance as a predictor of decreased
survival time in gay men with
AIDS.Health Psychol; 13:299 30.
Solomon, G.F.; Temoshok, L. (1987). A
psychoneuroimmunologic perspective
on AI DS research: quest i ons,
preliminary findings, and suggestions. J
ApplSoc Psychol;17:286 308.
Vassend, O.; Eskild, A. (1998). Psychological
distress, coping, and disease pro-
gression in HIV-positive homosexual
men. J Health Psychol;3: 24357.
Vassend, P.; Eskild, A.; Halvorsen, R. (1997).
Negative affectivity, coping, immune
status, and disease progression in HIV-
infected individuals.Psychol Health;
12:375 88.
087
Parents play a highly influential role in
their child's development. Parenting styles are
the behaviours and attitudes that set the
emotional climate of parent-child interactions
(Sielger et al., 2006). Parenting style is one of
the variables that have been studied
extensively in human development (Baldwin,
Mclntyre, & Hardaway, 2007). Schaefer (1965)
was one of the first contributors in organizing
and classifying parental behaviours. The ideas
of strict and lax behaviour control, approving
and rejection behaviour, and psychological
control and autonomy were addressed by
Schaefer (1965). Building on Schaefer's (1965)
ideas, Baumrind (1968; 1971) furthered the
organization of parenting behaviours by
conceptual i zi ng them as, permi ssi ve,
authoritarian and authoritative parenting
088
ABSTRACT
Parenting Influences on Manifestation of Needs
*Ranjana **Sonia Rani
The present study explores the relationship between parenting styles and need. Sample
comprised of 400 students (226 females +174 males) between the age group of 17 to 22 years (mean
age-19.5 years) studying at various colleges of Haryana. Tools used for data collection were the (1)
Parental authority questionnaire,(2) Tripathi Personal Preference Schedule, chosen after a
comprehensive review of related literature. Subjects were contacted in groups and data was
collected. The responses were scored and statistically analyzed. Pearson's correlation was
calculated. Results indicated that Permissiveness dimension of Mother's parenting style correlated
negatively with Change need and Succorance need whereas Permissiveness dimension of Father's
parenting style correlated positively with Achievement need and Heterosexuality need but
correlated negatively with Change need. Authoritarian dimension of Father's parenting style
correlated negatively with Order need. On the other hand Authoritative dimension of Father's
parenting style correlated positively with Abasement need and correlated negatively with
Achievement need and Heterosexuality need.
Keywords: Parenting styles, needs.
styles. There are four main types of parenting
style, authoritarian, authoritative, and
permissive, which was later split into
permi ssi ve-i ndul gent and permi ssi ve-
indifferent or neglectful (Darling & Steinberg,
1993). The permissive parent attempts to
behave in a non-punitive, accepting, and
affirmative manner toward the child's impulses,
desires, and actions (Baumrind, (1966).The
permissive parent consults with the child
regardi ng pol i cy deci si ons and gi ves
explanations regarding family rules.This type
ofparenting does not require the parent to act
as an active agent responsible for shaping or
altering the child's ongoing future (Baumrind,
1966).The child is allowed to regulate his or her
own activities. The parent does not control the
child nor encourage the child to obey external
*Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra
**Research Scholar, Department of Psychology, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra
INTRODUCTION
July-2013
standards. Reasoning is used over power to
accomplish things. According to this type of
parenting, self-regulation means the right of a
chi l d to l i ve f reel y wi thout outsi de
authority.Those supporting this type of parental
style (Baumrind, 1968) feel that punishment
has inevitable negative side effects and is an
ineffective means of controlling behavior. They
also feel that close supervision, high demands,
and other manifestations of parental authority
provoke rebelliousness in children. According
to those who espouse this parenting type, firm
parental control generates passivity and
dependence in the child (Baumrind, 1968).
Permissiveness frees the child from the
presence and authority of the parent. The
authoritarian parent tries to shape, control, and
evaluate the behavior and attitudes of the child
in accordance with a set standard of conduct
(Baumrind, 1966).Obedience is a virtue and
punitive measures are used to curb self-will.
When the child expresses actions or beliefs that
are different from what the parent wants, these
actions or beliefs go against what the
authoritarian parent sees as good conduct. This
type of parenting tries to institute respect of
authority, respect for work and preservation of
order and traditional structure. Verbal give and
take is not encouraged and the parent's word
should be accepted as right. Maintenance of
structure and order are high priorities for these
parents. The authoritative parent tries to direct
the child, but in a rational manner (Baumrind,
1966). Such a parent encourages give and take
but shares the reasoning behind his or her rules.
These parents value both autonomous self-will
and disciplined conformity. They exercise firm
control with certain points but the child is not
tied up with restrictions (Baumrind, 1966).
They value the rights of being a parent and an
089
adult but also value the child's individual
interests and qualities. Standards for future
conduct are set. Reasoning with power is
typical and decisions are not based decisions on
group consensus or the desires of the child but
the parent is also not seen as the final authority.
The assumption is that authoritative control can
achieve responsible conformity with group
standards without loss of individual autonomy
or self-assertiveness. By using reason, the
authoritative parent teaches the child to seek
the reasons behind directives and eventually to
exercise his option either to conform, or to
deviate and to cope with the consequences.
(Baumrind, 1968, p. 264). Children raised by
authoritative parents score higher on measures
of competence, achi evement , soci al
development, self-perceptions, and mental
health than do children reared by the other
three parenting types (Steinberg, Lamborn,
Darling, Mounts, & Dornbusch, 1994).
Researchers typically have identified these
three parenting styles based on the levels of
control and warmth displayed by parents on a
regular basis and in a variety of situations.
Maccoby and Martin (1983) call this parenting
style Indifferent-Uninvolved. Baumrind's (1978)
three parenting styles of authoritarian,
permissive, authoritative are often used in
studies investigating parenting styles in relation
to diverse child outcome variables, such as
academic achievement, self confidence,
aggressi on, del i nquent behavi our and
substance abuse (Dornbusch et al., 1987; Hart,
Nelson, Robinson, Olsen, & McNeilly-Chouque,
1998; Hill, 1995; Lamborn, Mounts, Steinberg,
& Dornbusch, 1991; Shumow, Vandell, &
Posner, 1998).
Murray (1938) developed a theory of
personality that was organized in terms of
*Ranjana **Sonia Rani Volume-4 (1)
motives, presses, and needs. Murray (1938)
described a need as a, "potentiality or readiness
to respond in a certain way under certain given
circumstances". Murray (1938) identified needs
as one of two types: Primary Needs: that are
based upon biological demands, such as the
need for oxygen, food, and water. Secondary
Needs: these are generally psychological, such
as the need for nurturance, independence, and
achievement. According to Murray (1938), all
people have these needs, but each individual
tends to have a certain level of each need.
Murray categorized needs in five categories: 1.
Ambition Needs, Materialistic Needs, Power
Needs, Affection Needs and Information
Needs.Almost all studies conducted in the West
have found that authoritative parenting style is
posi t i vel y associ ated wi t h st udent s'
performance especi al l y i n academi c
achievement compared to authoritarian and
permissive parenting styles (Steinberg,
Lamborn, Darling, Mounts, & Dornbusch, 1994;
Jackson, 2002). However, studies conducted in
non-western countries found mixed findings in
which one study reported that authoritarian
parenting style was positively associated with
students' academic achievement (Leung, Lau, &
Lam, 1998) while in another study authoritarian
parenting style was negatively associated with
students' academic achievement (Chen, Dong,
Zhou, 1997).Student achievement involves all
aspects of learning including cognition,
decision-making, and adjustment and has
mediating factors that are confounding to
students, parents, and educators alike (Brown
& Iyengar, 2008, p. 15). Parenting is considered
to be an important determinant of several
aspects of children's outcome (Gadeyne,
Ghesquiere, & Onghena, 2004). Parenting
styles has been shown to be related to children
090
and adolescents' academic achievement
(Lamborn, Mounts, Steinberg, & Dornbusch,
1991), optimism (Baldwin, Mclntyre, &
Hardaway, 2007), confidence (Strage & Brandt,
1999), motivation (Gonzalez & Wolters, 2006),
externalizing problem behaviour and attention
problems (Gadeyne, Ghesquiere, & Onghena,
2004). Past studies (Chao, 2001; Querido et al.,
2002) have shown that parents, through their
parenting styles built critical foundations for
various aspects of children's development and
achievement. Student achievement is the result
of learning, instruction, school environment,
and family conditions, and the impact of
student achievement on society can be
staggering when considering the ramifications
for the next generation (Brown & Iyengar,
2008). More recent work on academic
achievement and academic self-concept has
also shown the strong relationships between
parenting style and child outcomes. In a study
conducted by Steinberg, Lamborn, Darling,
Mounts, and Dornbusch (1994), which followed
adolescents over the course of one year, the
effects of parenting style on academic
competence were analyzed. Academic self-
concept became more positive over time in all
four groups of parenting styles, but the increase
was significantly greater among authoritatively
and permissively/indulgently reared children.
Using a sample of high school students,
Dornbusch, Ritter, Leiderman, Roberts, and
Fraleigh (1987) found that authoritarian and
permissive parenting styles were negatively
associated with grades and authoritative
parenting was positively associated with
grades. The effects of parenting style on
potential mediating factors of the child's
academic achievement have also been studied.
One such mediating factor is the child's own
sense of autonomy with regard to learning.
Autonomy refers to being self-initiating and
self-regulating of one's own actions (Deci,
Vallerand, Pelletier, & Ryan, 1991, p. 326).
Autonomy is an essential part of learning. The
learner needs to feel a sense of choice and self-
determination, rather than control. Learning is
most optimal when the learner is intrinsically
motivated to engage and assimilate the
information (Thomas, as cited in Grolnick &
Ryan, 1987). Self-determination theory posits
that there are three inherent psychological
needs. These needs are the need for
competence, the need for relatedness, and the
need for autonomy. Intrinsic motivation is an
attempt to fulfill these needs. Intrinsically
motivated behaviors are those that are engaged
in for pleasure or satisfaction (Deci, et al., 1991).
Once these needs are fulfilled, optimal well-
being and development are attained in the
individual (Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004). In
exploring how self-regulation or autonomy
relate to achievement, research has shown that
one of the most significant affective goals of
education is the capacity to be self-regulating or
autonomous with respect to the learning
process and to one's own behavior (Deci &
Ryan, 1985). Baumrind (as cited in Grolnick &
Ryan, 1989) found that children of authoritative
parent s were more sel f - rel i ant and
independent and children of authoritarian
parents were more withdrawn and discontent.
Jacobs and Harvey (2005) indicated that
parenting style is one of the significant
cont r i but ors t o st udent ' s academi c
achievement in school. Authoritarian parenting
is related to low academic achievement
(Attaway & Bry, 2004) and higher levels of
school problem behaviour (Roche, Ensminger,
& Cherlin, 2007). Permissive parenting was also
091
found to significantly correlate with academic
achievement (Lee et al., 2006; Roche,
Ensminger, & Cherlin, 2007). The parents with
too high or too low demanding ness and
responsiveness have children with low
academic achievement. Past studies have
established a positive correlation between
authoritative parenting style and academic
achievement (Park and Bauer (2002), Slaten,
2006; Roche et al., 2007; Simons & Conger,
2007; Pong, Johnston & Chen, 2010). Students
with better academic achievement have
parents who are more authoritative. The family
plays a significant role in the educational
outcomes of its younger generation (Gottfried,
Fleming & Gottfried, 1994; Grolnick, Ryan, and
Deci, 1991; Grolnick and slowiaczek, 1994;
Steinberg, Elmen, and Mounts, 1989; Steinberg
et al. 1992). Milevsky, Schlechter, Netter, and
Keehn (2006) pointed out that the existing
literature on parenting style and student's
academic achievement is lacking in two areas.
First, majority of studies on parenting styles
examined children without considering
adolescence although it has been found that
parent s do i nf l uence t he academi c
performance of adolescence (Milevsky,
Schlechter, Netter, & Keehn, 2006). Second,
parenting studies investigating the relationship
on students' outcomes seldom included
separate analyses for mother and father
(Milevsky, Schlechter, Netter, & Keehn, 2006)
Leung, Lau, and Lam (1998) found that
academic achievement was negatively related
t o aut hor i tar i ani sm i n adol escent s.
Authoritative parenting is associated with
academic achievement, high self-esteem and
confidence, task persistence, social maturity,
self-confidence in completing new tasks, self
controlled in their ability to resist engaging in
disruptive behaviour and less gendered type
(Berk, 1996). Authori tati ve parenti ng
encourages intrinsic motivation, Autonomy-
Supporting families' styles would be positively
associated with intrinsic motivation and
academic performance while over-or-under
controlling family styles would be negatively
associated with them (Ginsburg & Bronstein,
1993). Children of permissive parents tend to be
immature, under achievers, impulsive,
rebel l i ous, have l ow sel f-esteem, are
dependent on adults, and show less persistence
on school tasks. Authoritative parenting is
associated with better social adjustment
among high school students (Cole and Cole,
1993). Adolescents who have authoritarian
parents achieved less in school, engaged in
antisocial behaviour, and had more family
conflict (Cole & Cole, 1993). Steinberg et.al
(1994) found that authoritarian parenting,
involving high demands, was conducive to
fewer achievement traits, lower self-perceived
c ompet enc e, a nd a c a demi c under
achievement, whereas, authoritative parenting
involving autonomy support and involvement,
led to opposite characteristic performance
(Dornbusch, Ritter, Leiderman, Roberts, and
Fraleigh, 1987; Ginsburg and Bronstein, 1993;
Grolnick and Ryan, 1989; Lamborn, Mounts,
Steinberg, and Dornbusch, 1991). The benefits
associated with authoritative parenting were
found to persist in longitudinal studies
(Steinberg, Lamborn, Darling, Mounts and
Dornbusch, 1994; Steinberg, Lamborn,
Dornbusch, and Darling, 1992). According to
Joshi, Ferris, Otto, and Regan (2003) paternal
and maternal parenting style were unrelated
with students' academic achievement, could be
explained by the different influence of
parenting style as the children grow older.
092
Yahaya and Nordin (2006) studied the
relationship between self concepts, motivation
and parenting styles effecting students'
achievement. They found that authoritative
parenting style seems very suitable to be
practiced because it is proven to have very good
impact on the achievement. Turner, Chandler
and Heffer (2009) analyzed that authoritative
parenting continues to influence the academic
performance of college students. Pong &
Johnston (2010) found that authoritarian
parenting is negatively associated with
chi l dren' s school achi evement, whi l e
authoritative parenting is positively associated.
Akinsola (2011) found significant and positive
correlations between parenting styles and
personality variables of self esteem, need for
achievement, locus of control, sense of
competence and academic achievement
scores. Starr (2011) found positive and negative
correlations between many of the variables in
the study.Research has indicated that a lack of
parental support, parental supervision, and
parental involvement strongly correlate with
behavioural problems and delinquency (Barber,
1992; Frick, 1993; Parker & Benson, 2004).
Moreover, past research has found a negative
correlation between parental involvement and
behavioural problems such as aggression and
violence (Corvo & Kimberly, 2000). Greenberg
et al. (1993) argue that research focused on
aggression and parenting practices such as
discipline, socialization, and communication
between the child and the parent have been
clearly linked to child's behaviour problems and
low levels of self-esteem. Many researchers
agree that parenting is one of the most direct
influences on child's behaviour, and has a large
impact on the development of aggressive
behaviour (Dodge, 2002).Hawkins et al. (1998)
found a strong correlation between juvenile
aggression and child maltreatment, poor family
management, family conflict, separation from
home, and residential mobility. According to
Siegler, Deloache, and Eisenberg (2006),
biological factors and parenting styles also
influence the development of aggressive
behaviours. Parental physical punishment is
one hotly debated potential causal mechanism
of child aggression. Studies have shown that
children who have been spanked at home use
more reactive aggression in school (Dodge,
1994) and exhibit more antisocial behaviour
two years after punishment (Straus, 1997).The
strong and consistent relations between certain
parenting styles and problematic child
outcomes have been shown in many studies
(e.g., Azar & Wolfe, 1989; Franz, McClelland, &
Weinberger, 1991; Olson, Bates, & Bayles, 1990;
Power & Chapieski, 1986).These three
parenting styles, authoritarian, authoritative,
and permissive, tend to be associated with
di fferent behavi oural and cl assroom
competence outcomes in preschool children
(Baumrind, 2010). In family research,
authoritarian parenting has been found to be
positively related to negative child behavioural
outcomes.Compared to elementary-aged
children of authoritative parents, children of
authoritarian parents are more likely to engage
in negative behaviours (Caron et al., 2006;
Gadeyne et al., 2004), and develop higher
aggression and anger levels and behaviour
disorders (Hollenstein, Granic, Stoolmiller, &
Snyder, 2004; Robinson, Mandleco, Olsen, &
Hart, 1995). Van Aken, Junger, Verhoeven, Van
Aken, and Dekovic (2007) supported these
conclusions by finding that maternal high
control was related to child's low impulse
control, high hyperactive characteristics, and
093
greater frustration. Children of authoritative
parents have been found to be affected by this
parenting style in a number of positive ways.
They are reported to be more independent,
friendly, self-assertive, cooperative with
parents, motivated to achieve, more successful
in accomplishing their goals (Baumrind, 1971),
and less aggressive (Robinson et al., 1995).
Although much of family research is focused on
authoritarian and authoritative styles, there are
a few studies that specifically address
permissive parenting. Baumrind (1968) was
the first to argue against the qualities of
permissive parents. Others had stated that
permissive parents are not characterized as
having authority, which frees children of control
and should produce positive outcomes. Rather
than having no effect or a positive effect, when
a parent does not demonstrate authority during
a child's misbehaviour, the child internalizes
their parent's behaviour as approval of the act.
As a result, the misbehaviour increases; for
exampl e, when aut hor i t y was not
demonstrated, aggressiveness of preschoolers
increased amongst the group (Baumrind, 1968).
Hart et al. (1998) found that among a sample of
Russian preschoolers more responsive
parenting was linked to lower levels of
relational aggression among boys and higher
levels of relational aggression among girls.
Additionally, the use of psychological control by
mothers and fathers (which is a brand of
discipline involving the withdrawal of parental
love and attention as an expression of
displeasure with a child's behaviour to
manipulate behaviour of children) was
positively linked to relational aggression in girls
(Casas et al., 2006; Nelson et al., 2006).
Maternal use of authoritarian strategies was
correlated both with relational and overt
aggression in Sandstorm's study conducted
with fourth grade students. The effects of
permissive parenting were moderated by
gender; resulting in a positive relationship with
relational aggression in girls and no significant
association for boys (Sandstrom, 2007).
Permissive parenting is linked to female
relational aggression, empathy and emotional
warmth, a facet of this parenting style serves as
an inhibitor to relational aggression. Research
with several groups has indicated that high
levels of maternal anger and low parentchild
involvement is directly related to increased
bullying behaviour (e.g., Curtner-Smith, 2000;
Flouri and Buchanan, 2003; Curtner-Smith et
al., 2006). Harsh parenting and child aggression
depends on whether parental disciplinary
actions are carried out in an emotionally
controlled or an emotionally charged manner.
(Deater-Deckard and Dodge (1997).
METHOD
Sample:
F o u r h u n d r e d c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s
(224Females+176Males) aged 17-22 years from
various private and government colleges in
Haryana in the year of 2010-11 participated in
the study. Purposive sampling was chosen to
carry out this co relational study.
Measures :
Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAQ) Buri
(1991) developed a self report measure asking
an adult to respond to how their parents acted
toward them, when the adult was a child. The
Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAQ; Buri,
1991) is a 30- item questionnaire designed to
measure Baumrind's (1971) permissive,
authoritarian, and authoritative parenting
styles. Two versions of PAQ were separately
used to measure the parenting style of father
and mother. The responses to the questions are
rated on a Likert Scale, ranging from
094
"strongly agree" to "strongly disagree." Time
required for completion of this measure is
approximately 35-40 minutes. The reliability of
the PAQ is .77 to .92 (Buri, 1991). Validity of the
PAQ is.74 to .87.
Tripathi Personal Preference Schedule (TPPS)
Tripathi personal preference schedule is a multi-
trait scale of 15 normal personality variables
which uses the forced choice format of items.
This scale consists of 225 items and measures
the 15 personality variables: - Achievement,
Deference, Order, Exhibition, Autonomy,
Aff i l i ati on, I ntercepti on, Succorance,
Dominance, Abasement, Nurturance, Change,
Endurance, Heterosexuality, and Aggression.
The above said variable names and the
statements used in this scale representing those
variables seek their origin in the list of manifest
needs as described by Murray et. al (1938). The
subject is asked to choose that statement 'Ka' or
'Kha' of the pair which characterized him better.
By using a scoring template with three narrow
slots along the diagonal and the three wider
slots the responses were scored. All the 'Kas' in
the succeeding rows and all the 'Khas' in their
respect i ve col umns represent t hei r
corresponding need variables. Reliability:
Internal Consistency of TPPS of 15 subscales is
from .82 to .99, Stability Coefficient is from .64
to .76. Validity: Convergent Validity of 15
subscales are very high from .50 to .93,
Discriminant Validity is from (.00 to -+.24).
Procedure :
First of all the purpose of the study was
explained to subjects which also helped to
establish a proper rapport with them. The
measures were distributed to students inside
classroom during the year of 2010-2011, and
were asked to fill the questionnaires according
to instructions. They were assured that their
responses would be kept confidential. The
students required about 80-85 minutes to
complete the measures.
The objective of the study is to explore
the relationship of parenting styles with
different needs. For this purpose Pearson's
Product Moment Correlation was calculated, 6
negative and 3 positive significant correlations
wer e f ound bet ween aut hor i t at i ve,
authoritarian and permissive parenting style
with needs. Results are given in the Table
(correlation coefficients).
The f i ndi ng s i ndi c at ed t hat
Permissiveness dimension of Mother's
parenting style was negatively and significantly
correlated with Succorance need (-.100p<.05)
and Change need (-.125p<.05) which suggests
that the needs like to do new and different
things, to travel, to meet new people, to
095
TABLE 1: Correlations between parenting styles and needs
Variables Achievement Succorance Abasement Order Change Heterosexuality
Permissive
(Mother)
-.100* -.125*
Permissive
(Father)
.144** -116* .128*
Authoritarian
(Father)
-.129**
Authoritative
(Father)
-.130** .100* -.205**
** = (p<.01), * = (p<.05)
experience novelty and change in daily routine,
To seek help when in trouble, to seek
encouragement from others, to expect
kindness, sympathy and understanding
behaviour from others about personal
problems, to receive affection and favour
cheerfully, to expect help by others when
depressed, to have others feel sorry when one is
sick, to have a fuss made when hurt decreases
with non-controlling and non-demanding
mother.
Permissiveness dimension of Father's
parenting style was found positively and
significantly correlated with Achievement need
(.144<.01) and Heterosexuality need (.128<.05)
and negatively and significantly correlated with
Change need (-.116<.05) which implies that
needs like To do one's best, to be successful, to
accomplish tasks requiring skill and effort, to be
a recognized authority, to accomplish
something of great significance, to do a difficult
job well, to solve difficult problems and puzzles,
to be able to do things better than others, to
write a great novel or play, to engage in social
activities with the opposite sex, to make friends
with the opposite sex, to be regarded physically
attractive by those of the opposite sex, to
participate in discussions about sex, to read
book and place involving sex, to listen to or to
tell jokes involving sex, to engage oneself in
conversation with those of opposite sex
increases with non- controlling and non-
demanding father. To experiment and try new
things, to eat in new and different places, to try
new and different jobs, to move about the
country and live in different places, to
participate in new fads and fashions, to do new
and different things, to meet new people, to
travel and to experience novelty and change in
daily routine decreases with non- controlling
and non-demanding father.
Authoritarian dimension of Father's
parenting style was found negatively and
significantly correlated with Order need (-
.129<.01). which implies that to write neat and
organized work, to make plans before starting
on a difficult task, to have things organized, to
organize details of work, to keep letters and files
according to some system, to have meals
organized and a definite time for eating, to have
things arranged so that they run smoothly
without change decreases with control and
strictness of parents.
Authoritative dimension of Father's
parenting style was found negatively and
significantly correlated with Achievement need
(-.130<.01), and Heterosexuality need (-
.205<.01) and positively correlated with
Abasement need (.100<.05), which implies that
To do one's best, to be successful, to accomplish
tasks requiring skill and effort, to be a
recognized authority, to accomplish something
of great significance, to do a difficult job well, to
solve difficult problems and puzzles, to be able
to do things better than others, to write a great
novel or play, to go out with members of the
opposite sex, to engage in social activities with
the opposite sex, to mix with the attractive
persons of the opposite sex, to make friends
with the opposite sex, to be regarded physically
attractive by those of the opposite sex, to
participate in discussions about sex, to read
096
book and place involving sex, to listen to
or to tell jokes involving sex decreases with the
guidance and direction of parents. On the other
hand needs like feeling guilty when one does
something wrong, accepting blame when
things do not go right, feeling that personal
pains and misery suffered does more good than
harm, feeling the need for punishment for
wrong doing, feeling better when giving in and
avoiding a fight than when having one's own
way, feeling the need of confession of errors,
feeling depressed by inability to handle
situations, feeling timid in the presence of
superiors increases with the guidance and
direction of parents.
According to Kim and Wong (2002),
when examining the parents' style of parenting,
many studies often used the concepts and
measures from the Western cul tures.
Dornbusch, Ritter, Liederman, Roberts, and
Fraleigh (1987) noted that the ethnic group in
which the parenting style typologies developed
by Baumrind (1971) apply least well is among
the non-western group. The Western
developed parenting style typologies may not
be comparable in other cultures (Garg, Levin,
Urajnik, & Kauppi, 2005).
Conclusion
The findings of the present study
implied that parents play significant role in
determining the different needs among
adolescents. Future researches need to be
conducted in order to verify the present
findings. The findings of the present study
should be seen as a guideline for future
research rather than as definite answers to the
research questions.
REFERENCES:
Akinsola, e. F. (2011). Relationship between
parent i ng st yl e, fami l y t ype,
personality dispositions and academic
achievement of young people in
nigeria. An international journal,
volume 19, 227-246.
Assarian, F.; Biqam, H. and Asqarnejad, A.
(2006). An epidemiological study of
obsessive compulsive disorder among
hi gh school st udent s and i t s
relationship with religious attitudes.
Archives of Iranian Medicine, 9 (2),
104107.
Attaway, N. M. and Bry, H. B. (2004). Parenting
style and black adolescents' academic
achi evement. Journal of Bl ack
Ps yc hol og y, 2( 30) , 229- 247.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/00957984
03260720
Azar, S. T. and Wolfe, D. A. (1989). Child abuse
and neglect. In E.J. Mash, R. A. Barkley,
& et al. (Eds.), Treatment of childhood
disorders (pp. 451-489). New York, NY:
Guilford Press.
Baldwin, D. R.; Mclntyre, A. and Hardaway, E.
(2007). Perceived parenting styles on
college students' optimism. Journal of
College Student, 41, 550-557.
Barber, B. K. (1992). Family, personality, and
adolescent behaviour problems.
Journal of Marriage and the Family, 54,
69-79.
Baumrind, D. (1966). Effects of authoritative
parental control on child behavior.
Child Development, 37(4), 887-907.
Baumrind, D. (1968). Authoritarian vs.
authori tati ve parental control .
Baumrind, D. (1971). Current patterns of
parental authority. Developmental
Psychology Monographs, 4, 1-103.
097
Baumrind, D. (1978). Parental Disciplinary
Patterns and Social Competence in
Children. Youth and Society, 9, 239-
276.
Baumrind, D. (1991). The influence of parenting
styles on adolescent competence and
substance abuse. Journal of Early
Baumrind, D. (1996). A blanket injunction
against disciplinary use of spanking is
not warranted by the data. Pediatrics,
98, 828831.
Baumrind, D. (2010, May). The authoritative
construct and its effects revisited. New
directions in authoritative parenting:
Building on the legacy of Diana
Baumrind. Symposium Oklahoma
State University-Tulsa, Chautauqua on
Parenting, Tulsa, OK.
Berk, L. E . (1996). Infants, children, and
adolescents. Needham Heights,
Massachusetts : Allyn & Bacon.
Brown, L and Iyengar, S. (2008). Parenting
styles: The impact on student
achievement. Marriage & Family
Review, 43(1), 14-38.
Buri , J. R. (1991). Parental Authori ty
Questionnaire. Journal of Personality
Assessment, 57, 110-119.
Caron, A.; Weiss, B.; Harris, V. and Catron, T.
( 2006) . Parent i ng behavi our
dimensions and child
psychopathology: Specificity, task
dependency, and i nteract i ve
relations. Journal of Clinical Child and
Adolescent Psychology, 35, 34-45.
doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3501
Casas, J.; Weigel, S.; Crick, N.; Ostrov, J.; Woods,
K.; Jansen-Yeh, E. and Huddleston-
Casas, C. A. (2006). Early parenting
and children's relational and physical
aggression in the preschool and
home contexts. Journal of Applied
Developmental Psychology, 27, 209
227.
doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2006.02.003
Chao, R.K. (2001). Extending research on the
consequences of parenting style for
Chinese Americans and European
Americans. Child Development, 72,
1832-1843.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-
8624.00381
Chen, X.; Dong, Q.; Zhou, H. (1997).
Authoritative and authoritarian
parenting practices and social and
school performance in Chinese
children. International Journal of
Behavioural Development, 21, 855-
873.
Cole, M. and Cole, S.R. (1993). The development
of children. New York: Scientific
American Books.
Corvo, K. and Williams K. (2000). Substance
abuse, parenti ng styl es, and
aggression: an exploratory study of
weapon carrying students. Journal of
Alcohol & Drug Education, 46, 1-13.
Curtner-Smith, M. E. (2000). Mechanisms by
which family processes contribute to
school-age boys' bullying. Child
Study J. 30, 169186.
Curtner-Smith, M. E.; Culp A. M.; Culp R.; Scheib
C.; Owen K.; Tilley A.; Murphy, M.;
Parkman L.; Coleman P. W. (2006).
Mothers' parenti ng and young
economically disadvantaged children's
relational and overt bullying. J. Child.
Fam. St ud. 15, 181193. doi :
10.1007/s10826-005-9016-7.
Darling, N. and Steinberg, L. (1993). Parenting
style as context: An integrative model.
Child Development, 113, 487-496.
Deater-Deckard, K.; Dodge, K.A. (1997).
Externalizing behaviour problems and
discipline revisited: Nonlinear effects
098
and variation by culture, context, and
gender. Psychol ogi cal I nqui r y.
8:161175.
Deci, E. L. and Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic
motivation and self-determination in
human behavior. New York: Plenum.
Deci, E. L.; Vallerand, R. J.; Pelletier, L. G. and
Ryan, R. M. (1991). Motivation and
education: The self-determination
perspective. Educational Psychologist,
26(3 & 4), 325-346.
Deci, E. L. and Vansteenkiste, M. (2004). Self-
determination theory and basic need
satisfaction: Understanding human
development in positive psychology.
Ricerche di Psicologia, 27(1), 23-40.
Dodge, K.A.; Pettit, G.S.; McClaskey, C.L. and
Brown, M. (2002). Social Competence
in Children. Monographs of the Society
for Research in Child Development
(Serial No. 213, Vol. 51, 2).
Dornbusch, S.M.; Ritter, P. L.; Leiderman, P.,
Roberts, D. F. and Fraleigh, M. J. (1987).
The relation of parenting style to
adolescent school performance. Child
Development, 58, 1244- 1257.
Flouri E., Buchanan A. (2003). The role of
mother involvement and father
involvement in adolescent bullying
behaviour. J. Interpers. Violence 18,
6 3 4 6 4 4 . d o i :
10.1177/0886260503251129.
Franz, C.E.; McClelland, D.C. and Weinberger, J.
(1991). Childhood antecedents of
conventional social accomplishment in
midlife adults: A 36-year prospective
study, Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 60, 586595.
Frick, P. J. (1993). Childhood conduct problems
in a family context. School Psychology
Review, 22, 376-385.
Gadeyne, E.; Ghesquiere, P.; Onghena, P.
(2004). Longitudinal relations between
parenting and child adjustment in
young children. Journal of Clinical Child
and Adolescent Psychology, 22, 347-
358.
Garg, R.; Levin, E.; Urajnik, D.; Kauppi, C. (2005).
Parent i ng st yl e and academi c
achievement for East Indian and
Canadian adolescents. Journal of
Comparative Family Studies, 36, 653-
661.
Ginsberg, G. S. and Bronstein, P. (1993). Family
f ac t or s r el at ed t o c hi l dr en' s
i ntri nsi c/extri nsi c moti vati onal
o r i e n t a t i o n a n d a c a d e mi c
performance. Child Development, 64,
1461-1474.
Gonzalez, A-L. and Wolters, C. A. (2006). The
relation between perceived parenting
practices achievement motivation in
mathematics. Journal of Research in
Childhood Education, 21, 203- 217.
Gottfried , A. E.; Fleming , J. and Gottfried, A .W.
(1994). Role of parental motivational
practices in children' s academic
intrinsic motivation and achievement .
104-113.
Greenberg, M. T.; Speltz, M. L. and DeKlyen, M.
(1993). The role of attachment in the
early development of disruptive
behaviour problems. Development and
Psychopathology, 5, 191-213.
Grolnick, W. S. and Ryan, R. M. (1987) Autonomy
in children's learning: An experimental
and individual difference investigation.
Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 52(5), 890-898.
Grolnick, W. S. and Ryan, R. M. &Deci, E.L.
(1991). The inner resources for school
achievement : Motivational mediators
of children 's perceptions of their
099
parents. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 83, 508-517.
Grolnick, W. S. and Ryan, R. M. (1989). Parent
styles associated with children's self-
regulation and competence in school.
Journal of Educational Psychology,
81(2), 143-154.
Grolnick,W.S.; Slowiaczek,M.(1994). Parents
involvement in children schooling: A
multimensional conceptualization and
mo t i v a t i o n a l mo d e l . C h i l d
Development,64,237-252.
Hart C. H.; Nelson D. A.; Robinson C. C.; Olsen S.
F.; McNeilly-Choque, M. K. (1998).
Overt and relational aggression in
Russian nursery-school-age children:
parenting style and marital linkages.
Dev. Psychol. 34, 687697. doi:
10.1037/0012-1649.34.4.687.
Hawkins, J. D.; Herrenkohl, T.; Farrington, D. P.;
Brewer, D.; Catalano, R. F. and Harachi,
T. (1998). A review of predictors of
youth vi ol ence. I n Loeber and
Farrington (Eds.). Serious and violent
juvenile offenders: Risk factors and
successful interventions (pp. 106-146).
California: Sage Publications.
Hill, N.E. (1995). The relationship between
family environment and parenting
Style: A preliminary study of African
American families. J. Black Psychol. 21,
408- 423.
Hollenstein, T., Granic, I., Stoolmiller, M., and
Snyder, J. (2004). Rigidity in parent-
child interactions and the development
of externalizing and internalizing
behaviour in early childhood. Journal
of Abnormal Child Psychology, 32, 595-
607. doi:10.1023/B:JACP. 0000047209.
37650.41
Jackson, E. B. (2002). The impact of parenting
styl es on adol escent academi c
achievement and classroom behaviour.
Capella University. (UMI No. 3064154).
Jacobs, N. and Harvey, D. (2005). Do parents
make a difference to children's
academic achievement? Differences
between fparents of higher and lower
achi evi ng students. Journal of
Educational Studies, 31(4), 431-448.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/030556905
00415746
Joshi, A.; Ferris, J. C.; Otto, A. L. and Regan, P. C.
(2003). Parenting styles and academic
achievement in college students.
Psychological Reports, 93, 823-828
Kim, S. Y. and Wong, V. Y. (2002). Assessing asian
and asian American parenting: A
review of the literature. In Kurasaki, K.,
Okazaki, S., & Sue, S. (Eds.). Asian
american mental health: Assessment
methods and theories, 185-219.
Lamborn, S. D.; Mounts, N. S.; Steinberg, L.;
Dornbusch, S. M. (1991). Patterns of
competence and adjustment among
adolescents from authoritative,
aut hor i t ar i an, i ndul gent , and
n e g l e c t f u l f a mi l i e s . C h i l d
Development, 62, 1049-1065.
Lee, S.M.; Daniels, M. H. and Kissinger, D. B.
(2006). Parental I nfl uences on
Adol escent Adj ustment. Fami l y
J o u r n a l , 1 4 ( 3 ) , 2 5 3 - 2 5 9 .
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/106648070
6287654
Leung, K.; Lau, S. and Lam, W. (1998). Parenting
styles and academic achievement: A
cross- cultural study. Merrill-Palmer
Quarterly, 44, 157-167.
Maccoby, E. E. and Martin, J. A. (1983).
Socialization in the context of the
family: Parenting-child interaction.
In P.H. Mussen & E. M. Hetherington
100
(Eds.), Handbook of child psychology. Vol.
4, Socialization, personality, and social
development (pp. 1-101). New York:
Wiley.
Mehrafrooz, H. (2004). Relationship between
parent i ng st yl e and academi c
achievement in children's Iranian.
(Unpublished master's theses, Azad
University of Iran).
Milevsky, A.; Schlechter, M.; Netter, S. and
Keehn, D. (2006). Maternal and
pat er nal par ent i ng s t y l es i n
adolescents: Associations with self-
est eem, depr es s i on, and l i f e
satisfaction. Journal of Child and Family
Studies, 16, 39-47.
Miller-Lewis, L.; Baghurst, P.; Sawyer, M.; Prior,
M., Clark, J.; Arney, F.; et al. (2006).Early
childhood externalizing behaviour
problems: Child, parenting, and family-
related predictors over time. Journal of
Abnormal Child Psychology, 34, 891-
906. doi:10.1007/s10802-006-9071-6
Mozaffari, M. R. (2001). Rate of affective-family
and educational problems between
Shaheds'high school students and none
Shaheds'high school students in Iran.
Organization Education of Kerman.
Murray, H. A. (1938). Explorations in
personal i ty. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Nelson D. A.; Hart C. H.; Yang C.; Olsen J. A.; Jin S.
(2006). Aversive parenting in china:
associations with child physical and
relational aggression. Child Dev. 77,
554572. doi : 10. 1111/j . 1467-
8624.2006.00890.x.
Olson, S. L.; Bates, J. E. and Bayles, K. (1990).
Earl y antecedents of chi l dhood
impulsivity: The role of parent-child
interaction, cognitive competence, and
temperament. Journal of Abnormal
Child Psychology, 18, 317-334.
Park. H. and Bauer, S. (2002). Achievement in
adolescents parenting practices,
ethnicity, socioeconomic status and
academi c . Sc hool Psyc hol ogy
I nter nat i onal , 23( 4) , 386- 396.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/014303430
2234002
Parker, J. S. and Benson, M. J. (2004). Parent-
adolescent relations and adolescent
functioning: self-esteem, substance
abuse, and delinquency. Adolescence,
39, 519-531. [27] Rosenberg, M.
(1965). Rosenberg self-esteem survey.
Society and adolescent self-image,
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University
Press.
Pong, S.; Johnston, J. and Chen, V. (2010).
Authoritarian parenting and Asian
adolescent school performance:
Insights from the US and Taiwan.
International Journal of Behaviour
De v e l o p me nt , 3 4 ( 1 ) , 6 2 - 7 2 .
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/016502540
9345073
Power, T.G.; and Chapieski, M.L. (1986).
Childrearing and impulse control in
toddlers: A naturalistic investigation.
Developmental Psychology, 22, 271-
275.
Querido, J. G.; Warner, T. D. and Eyberg, S. M.
(2002). Parenting styles and child
behaviour in African American families
of preschool children. Journal of Clinical
Child and Adolescent psychology, 31,
272-277.
Robinson, C.; Mandleco, B.; Olsen, S., and Hart,
C. (1995). Authoritative, authoritarian,
and permissive parenting practices:
D e v e l o p m e n t o f a n e w
measure.Psychological Reports, 77(3,
Pt 1), 819-830.
101
Roche, K. M.; Ensminger, M. E. and Cherlin, A. J.
(2007). Parenting style and adolescent
outcomes among African and Latino
families living in low income. Journal of
Fami l y I ssue, 11(23), 882-909.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0192513X0
7299617
Sabouri, P. (2008). Relationship between
parent i ng st yl e and academi c
achievement. (Unpublished doctoral
dissertation, Azad University of Iran).
Sandstrom, M. J. (2007). A link between
mothers' disciplinary strategies and
children's relational aggression. Br. J.
Dev. Psychol. 25, 399407. doi:
10.1348/026151006X158753.
Schaefer, E. S. (1965). A configurational analysis
of children' s reports or parent
behaviour. Journal of Consulting
P s y c h o l o g y , 2 9 , 5 5 2 - 5 5 7 .
doi:10.1037/h0022702
Shumow, L.; Vandell, D. L. and Posner, J. K.
(1998). Harsh, firm, and permissive
parenting in low-income families.
Journal of Family Issues, 19, 438-507.
Siegler, R., Deloache, J. and Eisenberg, N.
(2006). An introduction to child
development. New York, NY: Worth
Publishers.
Simons, G. L. and Conger, R. D. (2007). Linking
father-mother differences in parenting
to a typology of parenting style and
adolescent outcomes. Journal of Family
I s s u e , 2 8 ( 2 ) , 2 1 2 - 2 4 1 .
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0192513X0
6294593
Slaten, C. D. (2006). The effect of parenting style
and family structure on academic
achievement in rural setting. (Doctoral
dissertation, Truman State University).
http://proquest.umi.com
Starr Meghan, L. (2011). The relationship
between parenting styles, learning
autonomy, and scholastic achievement
in undergraduate college students.
http:digitalcommons.bucknell.edu/ma
sters theses/8.
Steinberg Elmen, J. and Mounts, N. (1989).
Authoritative parenting , psychosocial
maturity, and academic success among
adolescents.Child Development,60,
1424-1436.
Steinberg, L.; Lamborn S.; Darling, N.; Mounts,
N.S. and Dornbusch, S.M. (1994). Over-
time changes in adjustment and
competence among adolescents from
authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent,
and uninvolved Families. Child Develop.
65, 754-770.
Steinberg, L.; Dornbusch, S.M.; Brown, B. B.
(1992). Ethnic differences in adolescent
a c h i e v e me n t : a n e c o l o g i c a l
perspective. American Psychologist, 47,
723-729.
Steinberg, L.; Lamborn, S.; Dornbusch, S.;
Darling, N.; (1992). Impact of parenting
practices on adolescent achievement
:Authoritative parenting , school
involvement ,and encouragement to
succeed. Child Development, 65, 754-
770.
Strage, A. and Brandt, T. S. (1999). Authoritative
parenting and college students'
academic adjustment and success.
146-156.
Straus, M. A.; Sugarman, D. B. and Giles-Sims, J.
(1997). Spanking by parents and
subsequent antisocial behavior of
children. Archives of Pediatrics and
Adolescent Medicine, 151, 761767.
102
Turner, E. A.; Chandler, M. and Heffer, R. W.
(2009). The Influence of Parenting
Styles, Achievement Motivation, and
Self-Efficacy on Academic Performance
in College Students. Journal of College
Student Development, 50(3), 337-346.
Van Aken, C.; Junger, M.; Verhoeven, M.; van
Aken, M. and Dekovi, M. (2007). The
interactive effects of temperament and
maternal parenting on toddlers'
externalizing behaviours. Infant and
Child Development, 16, 553-572.
doi:10.1002/icd.529
Yahaya, A. and Nordin, K. (2006). Relationship
Between Self Concept, Motivation and
Parenting Styles Effected Students
Achievements. Unpublished Article,
University Technology Malaysia.
Retrieved on 6th September, 2011,
from www.google.com.pk.
INTRODUCTION
Never before in the history of mankind
has a society been as dependent upon scientific
knowledge as it is today. Science has now
become synonymous with survival. It would not
be an exaggeration if we say that we live in the
age of science, engineering and technology. The
reason is that, there is hardly a village of
significance over the globe where the fruits or
products of science in one form or another have
not yet entered. Distance and time stand fully
annihilated.
The word Science is derived from Latin
word 'Scientia 'or 'Scire' which means learning
or knowledge but the science means more than
that. It is defined as systematized body of
knowledge which has been secured in a unique
manner and used to predict future events. It is
that human endeavour that seeks to describe
103
ABSTRACT
Scientific Aptitude as a Correlate of Achievement in Biology
*Ritu Arora **Neerja Gautam
Secondary education plays a vital role in every student's life, since after it certain very
important career related decisions are to be made for the future. Aptitude is the major predictor of
success in any field. It is observed that even a good student in all other subjects, may face problems in
understanding and achievement in science. One of the predominant reasons for it can be low
scientific aptitude. The general purpose of the present study was to measure scientific aptitude
among boys and girls; students of government and private institutions and students of CBSE and
PSEB boards. The sample of 500 students was randomly selected from medical stream of +2 class.
Age group of the sample was approximately 16-18years. Achievement test in biology by Gakhar &
Himadri and Scientific aptitude test by Chatterji and Mukherjee was used for data collection. Mean,
Standard deviation, t-value and correlation analysis was used to analyze data. The study concluded
a positive correlation between achievement in biology and scientific aptitude. No significant
difference in scientific aptitude between boys and girls; a significant difference in scientific aptitude
difference between students of government and private institutions and a significant difference in
scientific aptitude between students of CBSE and PSEB boards were revealed.
Key words: Achievement in Biology and Scientific Aptitude
with ever increasing accuracy the events and
circumstances which occur or exist within our
natural environment. The prosperity and
strength of a country these days are directly
dependent on the level of science and technical
knowledge cultivated in the country and on its
capacity to make use of that knowledge to serve
practical ends.
The desire to achieve something of
excellence is inherent in all human beings. It
refers to the ability of an individual who strives
to accomplish something, to do his best, to
excel over each other in performance.
Academic achievement refers to the degree or
level of success or proficiency attained in some
specific area concerning the scholastic and
academic work. Academic achievement is of
paramount importance particularly in the
present socio-economic and cultural contexts
*Research scholar, Deptt. oF Education, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar
**Asstt.Professor, D.A.V. College of Education for Women, Amritsar
July-2013
obviously in the school, great emphasis is
placed on achievement right from the
begi nni ng of t he school educat i on.
Achievement is regarded as the end product of
a l l t h e e d u c a t i o n a l e n d e a v o u r s .
(Balasubramanyan, 1997).
Scientific aptitude is the potentiality for
future accomplishment in science without
regard to past training and achievement.
(Dressel, 1993).Scientific aptitude has an
impact on the achievement in science subjects.
Only that person would be able to climb the
ladder of success in the field of science who is
having scientific aptitude. Scientific aptitude is
a complex of interacting heredity and
environmental determinants producing
predispositions or abilities in science.
Biology is the basic subject for choosing
medical profession. It paves way to further
career deciding courses. Moreover, the pupils
should develop a proper attitude towards the
study of biology and an active interest in the
subject, besides appreciating the importance of
biology in human life and civilization.
Considering their role in determining
scientific aptitude and achievement in biology,
variables such as boys vs. girls, government vs.
private institutions and CBSE vs. PSEB boards
we r e t a ke n u p f o r i nv e s t i g a t i o n .
Gulati(2003)found in his study that boys of
private schools do not possess more scientific
aptitude than the girls of private schools.
Rao,D.B.(2004) found in his study that scientific
aptitude, scientific attitude and achievement in
bi ol og y a r e pos i t i vel y c or r el at ed.
Surekha(2007)found in her study that the
students of private school are better than the
students of government schools. Robertson
(2002)found in his study that there exists a
relationship betweenscientific aptitude and
science achievement.
104
Objectives:
1. To find out the relationship of
achievement in biology with scientific
aptitude.
2. To find out the difference in scientific
aptitude of boys and girls.
apt i t ude among s t udent s of
government and private institutions.
aptitude among students of CBSE and
PSEB boards.
Hypotheses:
1. There exists no significant relationship
between achievement in biology and
scientific aptitude.
2. There exists no significant difference in
scientific aptitude of boys and girls.
scientific aptitude among students of
CBSE and PSEB boards.
Research design:
This study comes under the domain of
descriptive research. Investigation was done to
find out the achievement in biology of students
of +2 class and its relation with their scientific
aptitude, study habits and socio-economic
status. Data collection was done by stratified
random sampling technique from the various
secondary schools of both government and
private bodies.
METHOD
Sample:
Stratified random sampling technique
was followed to select the sample. The sample
comprised of 500 secondary school students of
medical stream of four districts of Punjab i.e.
Amritsar, Tarn Taran, Ferozepur and Bhatinda
*Ritu Arora **Neerja Gautam Volume-4 (1)
which included 250 male students and 250
female students. The schools selected were
both from private and government institutions
as well as PSEB and CBSE. Age range of the
sample was 16-18 years.
Tools:
1. Achievement test in biology (Gakhar
and Himadri, 2004): this test has been
used for assessing the achievement in
biology at secondary school stage. The
test has 53 items, which are of multiple
choice types with four options. Out of
these respondent has to choose the
most appropriate option.
Reliability of the test as reported by the
authors is 0.79 and the validity of the
test established was 0.92. One mark
was there for each correct answer.
There was no negative marking for
wrong answers.
2. Scientific knowledge and Aptitude
(Chatterjee and Mukherjee, 1999) : This
scale was intended to measure the
subjects' knowledge in the field of
science and his/her potential abilities
to pursue training course in the field.
The test was designed to be used at
secondary level for selection of
students into science education. The
test covers 72 multiple choice items
from different fields of science.
Reliability of the test reported by
authors is 0.85 whereas validity of the
105
test is 0.68. Each right response carries
one mark and there is no negative
marking for the wrong answers.
Scores obtained from the scientific
aptitude scale were tabulated and analyzed.
Statistical techniques of mean, standard
deviation and t-test were used to analyze the
data. The conclusions of the study have been
presented as the basis for accepting/rejecting
each hypothesis. The results have been
summarized systematically. It is clear from the
following description that:
1. There is a significant correlation of
achievement in biology with scientific
aptitude.
2. No significant difference was found in
scientific aptitude of boys and girls.
3. A significant difference was found in
4. A significant difference was found in
CBSE and PSEB.
Variables N 'r'
Scientific aptitude, Achievement in biology
500 .253**
** Significant at 0.01 level
Table I- correlation value between achievement in biology and scientific aptitude
106
Variable Sample Mean Standard deviation S.E mean t-statistic
Boys 250 41.57 10.130 0.584 0.987
Girls 250 40.71 9.241 0.725

Table II- Comparison of Scientific aptitude among boys and girls
Table III- Comparison of Scientific aptitude among students of government and private
institutions
Government 250 38.48 10.722 0.678 6.384*
Private 250 43.80 9.763 0.617
*Significant at 0.01 level
Table IV- Comparison of Scientific aptitude among students of P.S.E.B and C.B.S.E boards
P.S.E.B 250 39.17 7.717 0.488 4.641*
C.B.S.E 250 43.11 11.001 0.696
*Significant at 0.01 level
Descriptive statistics such as mean,
standard deviation was used to study the
achievement in biology and scientific aptitude.
Differential analysis t-test was used to compare
the achievement in biology of secondary school
students, both boys and girls studying in
government and private institutions under
CBSE and PSEB.
Correlation was used to study the
extent of relationship between achievement in
biology and scientific aptitude.
Table I shows that calculated 'r' value is .253
which is significant at 0.01 level. It reveals a
significant positive relationship between
Table II shows that obtained t statistic value in
comparison of scientific aptitude among boys
and girls is lesser than tabulated value. It reveals
that there is no significant difference in
scientific aptitude among boys and girls.
Table III shows that obtained t statistic value in
comparison of scientific aptitude among
students of government and private institutions
is greater than tabulated value. It reveals that
there exists a significant difference in scientific
aptitude among students of government and
private institutions.
Table IV shows that obtained t statistic value in
comparison of scientific aptitude among
students of CBSE and PSEB boards is greater
than tabulated value. It reveals that there exists
a significant difference in scientific aptitude
among students of CBSE and PSEB boards.
There was a posi ti ve rel ati onshi p i n
st
Hence 1 hypothesis was rejected. There exists
no significant difference in scientific aptitude
among boys and girls. It may safely be stated
that gender does not affect scientific aptitude of
s ec ondar y s c hool s t udent s . Henc e
107
nd
2 Hypothesis was accepted. There exists a
significant difference in scientific aptitude
among students of government and private
institutions, which is in favour of private
institutions. it may safely be stated that the
nature of administration does affect the
scientific aptitude of secondary school
rd
students. Hence 3 hypothesis was rejected.
There exists a significant difference in scientific
aptitude among students of CBSE and PSEB
boards, which is in favour of CBSE .it may safely
be stated that the nature of education board
does affect the scientific aptitude of secondary
th
school students. Hence 4 hypothesis was
rejected.
The findings of the study are expected
to be useful for the teachers so that they can try
to promote scientific aptitude among their
students. The findings of the study are expected
to be useful in eliminating the biased attitude of
the teachers in terms of studied variables. The
findings of the study are expected to help
managements of government institutions in
identifying lapses/shortcomings and identify
and provide facilities conducive to promotion of
scientific aptitude. It will help teachers to utilize
the available resources in best possible manner
to promote scientific aptitude among pupils.
Functioning of government schools need to be
improved. Efforts should be made so that the
performance of students studyi ng i n
government schools can be improved and these
schools come up at least to the level of private
schools. Efforts should be made by the
educational institutions to improve healthy
environment and facilities which promote
scientific aptitude and can get better results.
REFERENCES
Chatterjee, S. and Mukherjee, M. (1999).
Scientific knowledge and aptitude test.:
Agra. Rakhi Parkashan.
Gakhar, S.C. and Himadri. (2004). Achievement
Test In Biology. Agra:Rakhi Parkashan.
Good, Carter V. (1973). Dictionary of Education.
New York: Mcgraw Hill Book Company.
Balasubramanyan, P.S.(1997).Correlates of
achi evement . Fi f t h s ur vey of
educational research, 532, NCERT.
Rao, D.B. (2004). Scientific attitude, scientific
aptitude and achievement. New Delhi :
Discovery Publishing House.
Suneetha, B. and Mayuri, K.(2001). A study of
age and gender differences on the
factors affecting high academic
achievers. Journal of community
guidance and research, 18(2), 197-208.
Gupta, Arun Kumar. (1985). Differential
scientific aptitude, abilities and
schol asti c achi evement. I ndi an
Educational Review, 20, 151-157.
Sidhu, K.S. (2007). Statistics in Education and
Psychology. New Delhi: Sterling
Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
108
INTRODUCTION
Guidance is a natural everyday process
in the life of an individual with the advancement
on the economic and scientific front. India is
going through a process of change social
changes are already quite visible and it is bound
to bring about a change in the value system too.
A new value system is catching up, that is, a
system with appreciates a strong usage to
acquire more wealth, a strong sense of
competition, a quick nice upwards, a system
which does generate a lot more stress. In a
democratic society there is no goal conflict
between the welfare of the individual and the
society from a long range point of view.
Counseling and guidance services help the
individual to know and understand himself,
109
ABSTRACT
Efficacy of Guidance Services for College Students
*Parul Tripathi
University guidance services have vital role in higher education. Activities like advising could
increase students' involvement in their college experiences. This research focuses on outcomes of
advising in the context of research on contact between faculty and students, students' involvement,
and persistence. Colleges and universities could use strategic planning to design advising programs
based on relationships of shared responsibility and focused on students' success. The information is
appropriate for advising administrators, faculty advisers, professional advisers, peer advisers, and
others who work to increase the positive outcomes of college through academic advising. Ideally,
advising is first a means of exploring careers and majors and then a method for selecting courses and
arranging schedules. Program planning centred on the institution's mission and all students' needs
can result in a dynamic advising system having the capacity to adapt to internal and external
change. This study examines a sample of post graduate students to determine their views regarding
the services which are going on in their college. Four hundred students of Rajasthan state were
selected for this purpose and twenty statements were prepared for assessing their views regarding
college services, teachers, counselor and administrative committee.
Key Words: - Guidance services, Academic advising, Exploring careers, Program planning
accept his superior and limited features and
develop himself, trust himself, develop effective
i nterpersonal rel ati onshi ps, become a
personal l y and soci al l y bal anced and
harmonious individual (Yesilyaprak, 2001).
Guidance services are meant to help
students make proper adjustment with the
environment in which they are living and also
make the best possible. Everyday individual, at
some time or other, needs help to become
happier, more creative and better adjusted in
family and social milieu. There are several areas
where students require assistance. There areas
can be classified into Educational, Vocational,
Personal Social, Health etc.
Educational Guidance - The department
provides guidance and information to enable
Assistant Professor, Human Development, Home Science Department,
Banasthali University, Banasthali (Rajasthan)
July-2013
students to make choi ces about the
subjects/courses of study suitable to their
aptitudes and interests. Students with special
educational problems, such as poor learning
habi t s , under ac hi evement , l ac k of
concentration, etc., will be encouraged to make
use of the counseling services.
Vocational/Career Guidance- The guidance
offered in this area is aimed at giving students a
c l e a r i d e a a b o u t t h e d i f f e r e n t
careers/vocations, the nature of jobs,
opportunities available, and the requirements
for these jobs; and to help them to make a
realistic assessment of themselves and their
suitability for the career/profession of their
own choice.
Personal Guidance- This aims to help individual
students to understand them better, to
understand the process of development so as to
make themselves better adjusted persons in
life.
Social guidance to students to enable
them to make substantial contribution to the
society, assume leadership, conform to the
social norms, work as team members, develop
healthy and positive attitudes, appreciate the
problems of society, respect the opinions and
sentiments of fellow beings, acquire traits of
patience, perseverance, fraternity, friendship.
The Center provides opportunities for
students to volunteer their services in assisting
their peers in developing themselves fully by
acting as implementing partners of the
guidance staff. Educational Guidance refers to
the Guidance students in all aspects of
education. The emphasis is on providing
assistance to students to perform satisfactorily
in their academic work, choose the appropriate
course of study, overcome learning difficulties,
foster creativity, improve levels of motivation,
utilizes institutional resources optimally such as
110
library, laboratory, workshop etc. Assistance
provided for selection of vocation and
preparation for the same is vocational
guidance. It is concerned with enabling
students of acquire information about career
opportunities, career growth and training
facilities. Adolescent behavior, to a great extent
depends upon the models and attitudes,
emotional instability is a characteristic of
adolescents and this is often the cause of many
of their personal. Personal Guidance refers to
the guidance to students to enable them to
adjust themselves to their environment so that
they become efficient citizens (Turner, 2000).
A structure never guarantees the
success of an operation, but there is no doubt
that a poor structure can be a major obstacle to
success. it is desirable that the upcoming
universities and colleges build this provision in
to their organizational structure at the planning
stage itself and the old universities and colleges
suitably add this provision in to their
educational programme so that the students
may avail of this service easily with the
following objectives
- To study reactions of college students
to their guidance programme.
- To evaluate guidance programmes with
reference to organizational setup, types
of services obtainable, personnel, tools
and techniques used, record keeping
methods.
- To e n l i s t s u g g e s t i o n s a n d
recommendations for improving
guidance program's in college and
universities.
Structured interview format was
followed to collect information thorough
students. There were four sections regarding
used to collect information different aspects of
Guidance Service
*Parul Tripathi Volume-4 (1)
111
Table: - 1 Attitudes of counselor and teachers towards students
Statement Jaipur Jodhpur Udaipur Ajmer
Counselor and teachers
understand your difficulties
72 64 68 66
Teachers and counselor treat
you friendly
64 58 47 32
Praise you when you do well in
your work.
58 82* 79 73
Fair and impartial with you 61 81 73 52
Talk freely about your problems 81 79 80 68
Ever humiliated by teacher or
counselor
- - - -
They do not bother for your
personal problems
- - - -

Analysis of section (a) in four Universities has been showed that most of the students of Jodhpur
University favor for III statement. Third and fifth statements were related to teacher student
relationship which was quite good they were having good relationship with each other. Ignorance of
th th
six and seven statement again supported that students had good relationship with their teacher
and counselors.
The teaching staff is the official first-in-line guidance provider, who is most immediately accessible
to students. The students have been mentioned in their discussion that Teaching staff in the
student's home department were the most frequently consulted guidance providers for them. This
could indicate that in some extent teachers play a role of first-in-line facilitator for students. Beside
this In all phases of study fellow students, friends, non teaching staff, Administrators, Deans,
Family members and others from surrounding had been play important role in giving support,
advice and help.
112
Table: - 2 Role of Counseling centre for solving different problems of students
Section B included five statement
related to contribution of counseling cell for
educational and vocational planning-
After evaluating this section it has been
clear that no body accept that there is
no need of educational vocational guidance
services in the college every student
supports the need of guidance centre in college
and university.
The students spending considerable
time thinking about their future career and the
transition from university to the world of work,
especially towards the final phases of their
study. Many of them felt uncertain about the
Statement Jaipur Jodhpur Udaipur Ajmer
Counseling cell solve different
problems related to
examination and subjects
52 70 67 72
Counselor help in educational
and personal work
82 57 62 65
Help in educational and
vocational plan
70 69 77 75
Help in careful planning of
educational and vocational
choices
58 60 55 65
Every college should provide
educational and vocational
guidance services
96 97 98 98

future and were not confident that they have
knowledge and skills needs for a successful
transition to working life.
Student's responses suggest a need for
guidance in issues related to their future careers
and the transition from university to working
life. For the most part, however, they sought
help from their friends or from teachers, rather
than from the careers service unit at the
different place of city.
C- Student's attitude for college and
counseling centre.
Three statement of section C covers
attitude of students towards there
113
college, counseling centre and their
career planning.
Maximum student want to associate
with their college and very few said 'no'
because they felt that rules, regulation
and attitude of teachers not favors
them and sometime they realized that
teachers and counselor not support
and also not enough knowledge to
guide them, trained counselor must
provided in each university.
D -Different Services/facilities regarding
student encouragement
Last part of interview has been covered variety
of questions like
I-Training for life obligations,
Students of four universities showed
approximately similar reactions for question
Very little efforts have been done in this
direction because indirectly in the study process
a person learns so many concepts related to
cope up from life hurdles but there should be
some more efforts required from the side of
authority like planning for inviting resource
persons to provide scientific information
regarding different subjects.
II- Awareness for job opportunities,
For awar enes s r egar di ng j ob
opportunities their self efforts works more as
compare to authority only 10-20% students
react that information notice board provide
very little information regarding placement and
other training programmes. Through library
they have been collected different resources
and personal internet facility help them in this
concern.
III - Workshop/symposium for developing
professional attitude
Third aspect related to workshop and
symposium student's response for this aspect
was quite satisfactory only 23% students were
not satisfied with this facility.
IV- Placement, and over all development of
students
Placement and overall all development
aspect was not very much satisfactory most of
the students (72%) complained that authority
of the college and university not spend enough
time and money to maintain different facilities
regarding their development like in college
canteen students had not variety and hygiene in
food.
vProfessors have lots of work and very
busy schedule unable to spend quality
time with the students.
vStudents were uncertain about which
profession their degree programme
was preparing them to enter; these
answers suggest uncertainty about the
relationship between academic work
and the world of work.
vAnswers displayed uncertainty about
whether they had chosen a field of
study that suited them in terms of their
interest and abilities, for example
humanities student reported : I have
lost my professional identity; I don't
know any more if I chose the right field,
I don't know either what filed might be
the more right one. Such questions
were more prominent in some
faculties, suggesting that some
disciplines offer a clearer professional
identity then others.
114
vHowever, the absence of well defined
professional identities surfaced even in
the answers of students in final
semester of their studies.
vAfter colleting all the responses
investigator conclude that there were
three of different problem like almost
half the respondents 48% reported
feelings of uncertainty and anxiety and
also anticipated that the job hunting
process would be a hard one. Female
student frequently mentioned about
how short term jobs would affect their
confidence.
vThirty two percent students had a
positive attitude towards the future.
They characterized the transition to
working life as exciting and challenging.
They were eager to enter working life
and were optimistic about the future.
They were keen to test the working life
skills they had acquired during their
education and were confident about
their own competence about finding
employment.
vTwenty percent of the students
characterized the transition to work as
a nat ural and unpr obl emat i c
continuation of their collage years.
These st udent s descri bed t he
university to work transition as an
obvious aspect of life after studies. Two
three respondents reported that they
were already working while
vCompleting their studies. They had
been combining work and studies for
several years.
vProfessors have lots of work and very
busy schedule unable to spend quality
time with the students.
In interviewing the effectiveness of
counseling interventions there are some
pertinent trends. First there is a trend toward
implementing comprehensive counseling
programme for students with the knowledge
and skills appropriate for their developmental
level.
Guidance Curriculum interventions are
designed to assist all students and promote
the areas of academic, career and personal,
social development. Concluded the classroom
guidance activities were effective (Saini 2005).
Research on positive outcomes of college and
on the diverse needs of students making up
today's student population suggests that a
new look at advising is needed.
-- Results derived from the interview data were
presented the demands of students and
weakness of the services, suggestions, of the
staff members.
vStaff members stated that students
seek different types of help from them.
Specifically, students require assistance
for adjustment issues including,
heterosexual relationships, social skills,
future anxiety, study skills, career and
underachievement.
vWeaknesses of the services included :
lack of enough personnel's and
organizational structure, lack of
coordination between guidance centre
a n d c o u n s e l i n g u n i t s wi t h
administrative authority, lack of job
115
descriptions (descriptions of who will
perform what), work overload and lack
of research involvement for these
services.
vMajority of staff were agreed that the
main strength of any university
guidance - S e r v i c e s h a s a
motivated counseling staff their
commitment to work, their Willingness
to contribute to the university and
openness to new information, and
atmosphere of cooperation and
creativity.
vThe physical facilities of counseling
units were also strengthen the
programme.
vSome staff members were also
suggested that the organizational
structure of the counseling services
must be changed according the
demand of students they were believed
that direction for counseling units must
be counselor or clinical psychologist
and have coordination with different
kinds of services which have been
required for the wealth of the students.
vVery few staff members stated that
there must be a consul tati on
committee from the departments of
psychol ogy and gui dance and
counseling.
vGui dance i s an al l i ncl usi ve
programme, intended to help the
students achieve their optimum
potential it is both a generalized and
speci al i zed ser vi ce. I n such a
programme, the total needs of the
students need to be met by the total
staff one cannot assign the teaching
learning relationship to the teacher, the
counsel i ng rel ati onshi p to the
counseling officer and the smooth
functi oni ng rel ati onshi p to the
administrator.
vEverybody who comes in to contact
with the students, contributes in one
way or the other in his growth and
development. Hence the importance of
maki ng gui dance a cooperati ve
responsibility of all the members of the
staff professionally and technically
qual i f i ed but ver y i mpor t ant
administrators, teachers, advisors,
war den, phys i cal educat i onal
instructors, doctors, librarians, parents
in fact all those who come into contact
with the student in some from or the
other.
vFindings link academic advising directly
and indirectly to contact between
faculty and students and persistence in
college. For example, involvement
influences learning and defines
effective institutions as those having
the capacity to involve students.
vResearch also indicates that frequent
and meaningful contact with members,
especi al l y contact focusi ng on
intellectual or career-related issues,
s eems t o i nc r eas e s t udent s '
involvement and motivation.
vThese results can be important to
advisers, for they have the capacity to
increase meaningful contact with
students and to encourage them to
persist in college.
vOne essential way to engage students in
advising is to design programs that
acknowledge their individual needs.
Diversity not only characterizes today's
116
st udent popul at i on, but al s o
contributes to a pluralistic society that
benefits all members of the college
community. Because advisers can
encourage students to explore their
differences as positive factors, the
advising relationship can be particularly
responsive to pluralism.
vDevel opmental advi sers i nvol ve
students in the advising relationship
and demonstrate that circumstances
surrounding individual differences, not
stereotypical differences, define
students' needs.
vAdvisers can also respond to students
who are in stages of transition.
Regardless of age or personal situation,
some students do not "fit" easily into
college life-freshmen, students with
undecided majors, transfer students,
and adult students, for example.
Advi si ng freshmen i s especi al l y
important.
vAcademi c i ntegrati on seems to
influence freshmen's development of
academic skills. Advisers who facilitate
assimilation to college understand
factors affecting freshmen's fit and
persistence. They share responsibility
for advising with students and begin
educational and career planning.
Perceptive advisers encourage all
students in transition to focus first on
exploring life, career, and educational
goals.
vThen students in transition seem better
equi pped to sel ect educati onal
programs, choose courses, and
schedule classes.
The amount of guidance given by the
teaching staff is connected partly to the fact
that higher education guidance services have
traditionally focused primarily on study skills
and other forms of academic guidance. Much
less attention has been paid to career guidance
on the career implications of course choices.
However it is important to pay
attention to the student's life situation and
future plans as a whole. These considerations
are foreground at certain points of the study
programme, such as in the early stage stages
after admission and in the final stage before the
university to work transition.
Students mainly consult the guidance
services available in their subject departments
and make less use of specialized career
guidance services career services attract
students chiefly in the final phase of their
studies, when it is often too late for the
systematic development of professional
compliance. Guidance services have the
potential to be providers of proactive supports
in the student's educational, career and
personal development rather than remedial
services for addressing problem situations (Uz-
Bas, 2007).
This has implications both for a
redefinition of the university teacher's role to
include a more solidly supported guidance
component and also for the incorporation of
guidance elements into the higher education
curriculum. There is an urgent need to provide
them with the necessary guidance to enable
them to exploit their energy and resources to
achieve all that is within their reach. Guidance
and counseling refer to the professional help
offered by qualified personal to a student or a
group of students to help them to take decisions
by themselves on matters affecting their future
life.
117
RELEVANCE OF GUIDANCE SERVICES
- Too many individuals are misfits in their
present job. People working in position
that don' match their ability. They have
very little interest in what are they
doing for living.
- There is an improper balance available
between jobs and the labor force,
under normal conditions there has
always been an over supply or unskilled
labor, on the other hand, there never
been enough skilled and technical
workers. Many capable students are
not aware of the possibilities in field
where they might have much potential
for the success and development no
they being encouraged to prepare for
these opportunities.
- Great emphasis has been placed on the
technological developnment of the
country; the problems that relate the
welfare of the mankind have been
neglected.
Educators from developed countries
have oriented some of their counterparts in
the developing countries to the need and
importance of student personal services in
colleges and universities. Many surveys have
been conducted of the problems and needs of
college students, which have highlighted the
need for guidance and counseling. Despite this
growing awareness, however, the service is
inadequate in most places and non-existent in
others. Even where they exist, they are after
manned by persons who have not had
professional education in counseling and the
scope and quality of the services rendered is
quite inadequate, (Mehta, 1992).
In order to strengthen guidance
services for career development in institutions
of higher learning, the administrators and
faculty must be helped to see that career
development is a continuous process which
extends through the college years; that many
young people have not made a choice or made
only a very tentative choice when they enter a
college, and quite often these choices are not
very realistic; that choice of courses of study has
to be related to career planning; and that the
college or university has responsibility for the
vocational development of its students. During
the college years young persons are often still
seeking a vocational identity and are confuse
about their values. Counseling and other
programmes for values clarification are,
therefore, important for career development
during this stage.
Thus, they enable the continuously
devel opi ng i ndi vi dual to manage the
developmental tasks at various developmental
stages. Counseling and guidance services also
aim to present, adjust and better the
adaptation, development and other personal
problems of the individual in educational or
other environments . Counseling and guidance
s er vi ces of f ers s er vi ces concer ni ng
developmental needs of the individual in
personal and social areas such as developing
awareness about interpersonal relationship
beginning from the early ages; working on
communication skills, life social skills, problem-
solving skills, decision making skills; working an
anger management, dealing with peer pressure
and developing healthy relationships with the
opposite sex (Canal, 2007).
Understanding students and perceiving
them correctly is the basic text of education and
counseling. No educational institution, be it
school, college or university, can justify its
existence and aspire to progress without proper
118
understanding of students. Evaluating/assess
the impact of university based counseling
services has long been acknowledged to be
complex endeavor. As we move into the next
decade, greater student demands for
counseling services increased severity of
presenting problems and long waiting lists are
becoming a reality at university and colleges
counseling centers. These trends, coupled with
limited financial resources, suggest that new
models of case management and treatment are
needed to maintain quality services (Wilson,
et.al; 2007).
REFERENCES
Canal, A.N. (2007). Egitimde Rehberlik
Hizmet of Guidance Service, The Place
and Importance Trans, Rehberlik, pp.
117-151. Ankara : Pegem
Mehta P.R. (1992). Strengthening
Guidance Services and Programmes for
Career Development, NCERT, New
Delhi-Journal of Indian Education, July
Vol.I pp.12-17
Saini, S. (2005). Indian Educational
review Vol. 41, No.2 July 2005, Family
E nv i r o n me n t a n d a c a d e mi c
achievement of adolescent children.
Turner, A.L. and Berry, T.R. (2000).
Counseling Center Contributions to
students retention and gradation A
longitudinal assessment. Journal of
College students development 41, 627-
636.
Uz-Bas, (2007). Rehberlikte Hizmet
Turleri, Service Variety in Guidance, B.
Aydam, Trana, Rehberlik, pp.82-116,
Ankara Pegem Yakincilik.
Wilson, S.B.; Terry, W. Masan and
Michael, J.M.; Euuing-Iowa state
University of science and Technology
(2007) Evaluating the impact of
Receiving university- Based counseling
services on student Retention Journal
of Counseling Psychology Vol.44, No.3,
316-320
Yesi l yapark, B. (2001). Egi ti mde
Rehberl i k Hi zmetl i eri , Gui dance
Services in Eeucation, Ankara : Nobale
Vyam.
MEMBERSHIP FORM
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL
SCIENCE (Regd.)
NAPS
Signature
For IJPS
Name :............................................................................
Gender :............................................................................
Designation :............................................................................
Postal Address :.............................
Phone: (R)........(O).......... Mobile.......
Email:.......... Highest Qualification:............
Kindly enroll me as a Life/Student Member of National Association of Psychological
Sci ence. The requi si te membershi p fee pai d through Cash/DD/Cheque
No.BankDated......Rs......................
(In words)in favor of National Association of
Psychological Science, Payable at Chandigarh. (Note: Membership Fees = Life member-
1500/-; student member- 1000/- and kindly add Rs. 50/- for out station Cheque).
NOTE: Send another passport size photograph with the application form to be pasted on
certificate.
Paste your recent
passport size
photograph here with
cross sign
Enrolled for Life / Institutional / Student membership: Rs.............In
words....................Membership No...................................
Receipt No.Date
FOR OFFICE USE
Place: ...........................
Date: ...........................
Signature of applicant
Particulars about the Indian Journal of Psychological Science
1. Title of The Journal
2. Place of Publication
3. Language in which it is published
4. Periodicity
5. Publisher's Name
Nationality
Address

6. Printer's Name
Address

7. Editors Name
Address
8. Owner's Name
Dr. RosHan Lal Dahiya Dated : 28 July, 2013
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
I, RosHan Lal Dahiya, hereby declare that the particulars given above are true to the
best of my knowledge and belief.
Indian Journal of Psychological Science
Chandigarh
English
Biannual
National Association Psychological Science
Indian
Dept. of Psychology, Punjab University,
Chandigarh-160014, (INDIA)
SAAR Printers
SCO 579, Kesho Ram Complex,
Sector 45-C, Chandigarh
Dr. Roshan Lal Dahiya
Dept. of Psychology, Punjab University,
Chandigarh-160014, (INDIA)
National Association of Psychological Science
National Association of Psychological Science (Regd.)
Editorial Address : #2265, Sector-19-C,
Chandigarh160019,INDIA
Website : www.napsindia.org.
Email : mynaps@gmail.com
MEMBERSHIP:
Life Membership: Any person possessing major academic qualifications in
psychology and allied discipline may get the life Membership by paying Rs. 1500/-
(valid for 12years).
Student Membership: Any student/research scholar in psychology and allied
discipline can get the membership by paying Rs. 1000/-. Validity up to student life
only.

SPECIAL INCENTIVES:
NAPS Newsletter will be provided free of cost as and when started.
All the Members will get special concession for registration at the NAPS
conferences.
The NAPS publishes a bi-annual research journal Indian Journal of
Psychological Science. The original empirical research papers pertaining to
Psychology and allied sciences considered for publication.
Life members will be nominated as a Coordinator of the respective States/Union
Territories and the list will be available on the NAPS website as and when
launched.
Life members will be recommended (on request) to participate in the International
Conference/Symposia etc.
The NAPS will honour the best psychological scientific award annually to
encourage/popularized the field among the mass. Any member can
apply/nominate/recommend the name of suitable person and the decision of the
Governing Body will be final in this regard.
NAPS
Theme
PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL BEING : THE LOOMING CRISIS IN HUMANITY
Venue:
P.G. Government College, Sector-46, Chandigarh - INDIA
Organizers :
National Association of Psychological Science INDIA
MERICAN
SYCHOLOGICAL
SSOCIATION
A
P
A
Publication Partner :
NAPS
*Scheduled on
24-25 October, 2013
1st International & 3rd
INDIAN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE CONGRESS
Contact : ipsc13@rediffmail.com, +91-94178-82789, +91-94177-23474
*Subject to the approval of Govt. of India.

Indian Journal of Psychological Science, July-2013

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Indian Journal of Psychological Science, July-2013

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

I

Вам также может понравиться