Sce 3105

vi
ALLOCATION OF TOPICS
User Guide

The content of this module will replace one credit which is equivalent to fifteen
hours face-to-face interaction. The table below will clarify the allocation of topics
for face-to-face interaction or learning by module.

(Allocation of topics by face-to-face interaction and module based on the course
pro forma)

Bil.

Title/Topic

Face-to-
Face
Interaction
(hour)

Module
(hour)
Total
no.
of
Hour
1 Physics and Measurement in Everyday Life

4* 2 6
2 Motion in which direction?

- 2 2
3 Motion in one dimension 4* 2 6
4 Motion in two dimensions 1 1 2
5 Applying Newtons laws in everyday life - 2 2
6 Work and machines

2+2** - 4
7 Forces in fluids 2** 2 4
8 Planetary and satellite motion

2 - 2
9 The physics of music

2+4* - 6
10 Thermometry and thermometers

2** 2 4
11 Using Light 4* 2 6
12 Electrical circuits in the house

2+4* - 6
13 Electricity and magnetism at work

2 - 2
14 Generation and transmission of electricity

2+4* - 6
15 Use of electronics and semi-conductors

2 - 2
Total 45 15 60

* Amali **PCK

SCE3105 Physics in Context
1

TOPIC 1

PHYSICS AND MEASUREMENTS IN EVERY DAY LIFE

Synopsis

The physical science is based on principles and development of concepts. The
application of principles and concepts usually involve one or more physical quantities.
Almost the whole world is using the metric system in everyday life. One adaptation of the
metric system is used in science, business and communication. This system is known as
the SI system (System International).

In this topic, you will be exposed to the S.I. units, its conversions, scientific notation,
accuracy and precision of measurements, significant digits as well as techniques of good
measurements.

Learning Outcomes
1. Convert measurements from one unit to another.
2. Write very large or very small physical quantities in scientific notation
3. Write physical quantities to the proper significant figure.
4. State the techniques of good measurements.

Overview

Figure 1.1 Overview of content

Physics and
measurements
in everyday life
Conversion of
units
Scientific
notation
Accuracy and
precision
Significant
digits
Techniques of
good
measurements
2

CONTENT

1.1 Conversion of units

Similar to the number system, the metric system is based on the decimal system.
Prefixes are used to convert the SI unit into the power of ten. For example, one tenth of
a meter is a decimeter and one hundredth of a meter is a centimetre.

The metric unit uses the same prefixes for all quantities. For example, one over one
thousand gram is a milligram, and one thousand gram is a kilogram. To use the SI unit
effectively, it is important that you know the meaning of each prefixes as shown in Table
1.1.

Table 1.1

Tutorial 1 ( hour)

Surf the following web pages to gather information about the SI units and the
historical development of the SI units. Summarize your understanding in your
reflective notebook.
http://www.bipm.org/en/si/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SI

Prefixes Value Standard Unit Symbol
Tera 1 000 000 000 000 10
12
T
Giga 1 000 000 000 10
9
G
Mega 1 000 000 10
6
M
Kilo 1 000 10
3
k
Desi 0.1 10
-1
d
Centi 0.01 10
-2
c
Mili 0.001 10
-3
m
Mikro 0.000 001 10
-6

Nano 0.000 000 001 10
-9
n
Piko 0.000 000 000 001 10
-12
p
3
Example:
What is the equivalent value of 500 milimeters in meter?
Answer:
From Table 1.1, the conversion factor is
1 milimeter = 1 x 10
-3
meter
Therefore, 500mm is equivalent to
(500 mm)
mm
m
1
10 1
3
=500 x 10
-3
m =5 x 10
-1
m.

Exercises

1. Convert the length below to its equivalent value in meter

a. 1.1 cm b. 56.2 pm c. 2.1 km d. 0.123 Mm

2. Convert the mass below to its equivalent value in kilogram

a. 147 g b. 11 g c. 7.23 Mg d. 478 mg

1.2 Scientific Notations

The investigation in science sometimes involve quantities which are very small or very
big. For example, the mass of earth is about

6 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 kilogram

and the mass of electron is
0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 911 kilogram

The quantities written in this form take lots of space and are difficult to use in
calculations. To make it simpler to calculate using these values, we write them in a
shorter form by substituting the decimal places with numbers with the base ten.

Scientific notation is
M x 10
n

where 1 M 10 and n is an integer

4
Therefore the mass of earth can be written as 6.0 x 10
24
kg and the mass of electron as
9.11 x 10
31
kg. The magnitude of certain quantities are usually converted to the nearest
three of four significant places.

1.3 Significant digits

Due to the limited sensitivity of a measuring instrument, the valid number of digits are
limited. These valid digits are called significant digits.

The number of significant digits in a measurement can be determined by referring to the
following statements:

1. Non zero digits are always significant.
2. All final zeros after a decimal point are significant.
3. Zeros between two other significant digits are always significant.
4. Zeros used to give space to decimal point is not significant.

Thinking

1.4 Accuracy and precision

Precision is the degree of exactness of a measurement. For example, if a student has
conducted an experiment to measure the speed of light, he will repeat his
measurements a few times. A few attempts produced values between 3.000 x 10
8
m/s to
3.002 x 10
8
m/s where the average value is 3.001 x 10
8
m/s. He concluded that the
speed of light is 3.001 x 10
8
m/s. From these measurements the speed of llight has a
range of 3.000 x 10
8
m/s to 3.002 x 10
8
m/s. Therefore the accuracy of the measuring
instrument is 0.001 x 10
8
m/s.

Precision of a measuring instrument is limited to the smallest reading of the measuring
instrument.

Accuracy describes how well the results of an experiment agree with the standard value.
In an experiment to measure the speed of light, accuracy is the differences between the
measured values stated with the same precision. For example, students measurement
is 2.998 x 10
8
m/s as compared to the standard value of 3.002 x 10
8
m/s. Therefore the
accuracy is 0.003 x 10
8
m/s.

How do you add, subtract and multiply numbers with significant digits? Refer to
mathematical methods to do the operations. .
5

Figure 1.2 Instruments for the measurements of length

1.5 Technique of good measurements

In a physics experiment, measurements should be precise and accurate. The following
steps should be considered for good measurements

1. Choose a relevant measuring instrument for one measurement
(a) An error of 0.1 cm in a measurement 100.0 cm is not a too serious error
compared to an error of 0.1 cm in 10.0 cm.
(b) Measurements with large values like length of a wire do not need a sensitive

instrument, whereas measurement of a small values like the diameter of a
wire will require a sensitive instrument.

2. Accurate measurement using the measuring instrument
(a) Always follow the instructions given for operating the measuring instrument.
(b) Be careful while making measurements.
(c) Understand the different form of errors.

Discussion

Discuss the appropriate measuring instruments to measure the following
physical quantities:
length of rope, thickness of a piece of paper, thickness of a window
pane, thickness of a book and width of a table.

References

http://www.bipm.org/en/si/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SI
(System Internationale)

6

TOPIC 2

MOTION- IN WHICH DIRECTION?

Synopsis

The movement of objects could be represented by words used in our daily life such as
distance and speed. In physics, we use new words like displacement, velocity and
acceleration to represent movement. The difference between these two categories of
words is in term of their quantities, which are the vector and scalar quantity.

In this topic, you will be exposed to the addition and subtraction of vectors, relative
velocity and resolution of vectors.

Learning Outcomes

1. Describe how to represent vector quantities.
2. Add or subtract vectors using the graphical method.
3. Determine the relative velocity using addition and subtraction of vectors.
4. Resolving vectors into its components.
5. Add vector algebriacally.

Overview


Movement
Vector Scalar
Addition and
subtraction of
Graphically
Algebraically
Components of
vectors
Relative velocity
7

Content

2.1 Representing vector quantities

A vector quantity is represented by a line with an arrow at its end. The length of the line
is drawn according to scale to represent the magnitude of the quantity. The direction of
the arrow shows the direction of the quantity. Other than representing a vector
graphically, we can also add two vectors graphically. Vectors are represented by the
letters in the alphabet such as A or B.

2.2 Addition of vectors

Addition of vectors in one dimension

Figure 2.2

If a girl is moving 200 m east, and then another
400 m east, her total displacement is the sum of
the two vectors.

Vectors A and B are drawn as scaled as shown
in Figure 2.2(a). Therefore the magnitude
resultant vector, R =A +B or,
R =200m +400m =600 m, and the direction of
resultant vector A and B is 600m east.

Look at Figure 2.2(b) dan 2.2(c). Think how you
can find the resultant vector graphically for these
two cases.
8

Addition of vectors in two dimensions

To add two vectors, refer to Figure 2.3 and draw scaled diagrams.

Scale: 1 cm represent 20 N

Figure 2.3

What is the magnitude of the resultant vector, R ?

Reading Materials
Refer to this webpage to read further on addition of
vectors http://phet.colorado.edu/sims/vector-addition/vector-
addition_en.html

2.3 Subtraction of vectors in one dimension

To subtract two vectors, you have to find the addition of two vectors which are in
opposite directions (Figure 2.2c). The magnitude of resultant vector, R =A +(-B)

2.4 Relative velocity : a few applications

Sometimes, object moves in a medium which is moving relative to the observer. An
aeroplane moving in one direction will experience a change in velocity and direction due
to the movement of air (wind).

Step 1: draw
parallelogram
Step 2: draw
resultant vector
A
B
R
9

Velocity of aeroplane +wind velocity = Resultant velocity
Relative velocity =100 km/hr +25 km/hr =125 km/hr

Find the relative velocities of the aeroplane in the situations given below.

(a) Wind velocity 25 km/hr north
(b) Wind velocity 25 km/hr west

Reading Materials

2.5 Components of vectors

The components of vectors are the parts of a vector, in most situations there are the x-
component and the y-component.

Figure 2.4

The red arrow at Figure 2.4 shows the x-component of vector F and the blue arrow
shows the y-component of vector F. Using trigonometri, the x-component, F
x
is F cos
while the y-component, F
y
is F sin .

35
F =316N
F
y
F
x
Refer to this webpage to see the applications of vectors to find
relative velocity http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/java/RelV2.html
10
2.6 Algebraic addition of vectors

The addition of two could be done by using trigonometry by using the sides of a right
angle triangle.

Two mathematical formulae used are:

(1) Trigonometry

(2) Pythagoras Theorem

Example:
Find the addition of the two vectors below

Answer:

Step 1 : To complete a right angle triangle

Step 2: Use the Pythagoras theorem to find the magnitude of resultant vector.

11
Step 3: Use trigonometri to find the angle that represents the direction of resultant
vector

Tutorial 2 (1 hour)
Refer to Tutorial_Topic 2 pdf file to practice on
calculations for this topic. Modul SCE3105 Phy In
Context 22Oct'09\Tutorial_Topic 2.pdf

References:
http://physicslearningsite.com/vectors.html
http://phet.colorado.edu/sims/vector-addition/vector-addition_en.html
(addition and subtraction of vectors)
http://id.mind.net/~zona/mstm/physics/mechanics/vectors/findingComponents/findingCo
mponents.htm
(vector components)
http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/gbssci/Phys/Class/vectors/u3l1f.html
http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/java/RelV2.html
(relative velocity)

TOPIC 3

MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

Synopsis

Movement of an object will result in a change their position. The change in position of an
object is due to the application of a force. Movement is usually described in terms of
velocity, acceleration, displacement and time. The velocity of an object could not change
unless it is acted by a force.

In this topic, you will be exposed to the ways of describing motion, equations of motion
and types of forces.

Learning Outcomes

1. State the a few ways to describe motion which is in one dimension
2. Discuss the types of forces: friction, normal, tension, upthrust and weight.
3. Discuss the action of the forces in different context.

12

Overview


Content

Motion can be described by:

Description Example
Words

Distance: Distance between two points
Displacement: How far away from the original point
Speed: A scalar quantity to describe how fast is the object
moving
Velocity : A vector quantity to describe the rate at which an
object change its position
Acceleration: A vector quantity to state the rate an object change
its velocity

Graph

Motion in one dimension
Kinematic Dynamics
Forces
Description of motions Contact forces Long Range force
Friction Gravitational force
Normal
Tension
Upthrust
Words
Figures
Graph
Formula
13
(i) Ticker tape diagram

Figures
(ii) Vector diagram

Kinematic formula v =u +at
v
2
=u
2
+2as
s = ut +at
2

Kinematic graphs

Reading Materials

s displacement
u initial velocity
v final velocity
a acceleration
Refer to the following webpage to see a few ways motion can be
described: http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/1DKin/
14
F
friction
x F
normal
where = coefficient of friction
geseran
3.1 Types of force

Force is the pull or push of an object which causes it to interact with another object.
When this interaction decrease, the object will no longer experience a force. Force only
exist due to interaction.

Force is measured in the SI unit Newton. One Newton is equivalent to 1 kgms
-2
. Force is
a vector quantity. It has both magnitude and direction.

A few forces between object that will be discussed are:

Types of forces
Frictional force
Gravitational force
(weight)
Normal force
Tension
Upthrust

Frictional force

Frictional force is the force acting on the a surface when trying to move across it. It
usually act at a direction opposite to the direction of movement. There are two types of
frictional force which are the static friction and sliding friction.

Friction is caused by two surfaces pushed together, causing an attractive force between
molecules from different surfaces. It is dependent on the types of surfaces and how hard
is the object is pushed. The maximum friction can be calculated by the following formula:

Gravitational force (weight)

Gravity is the force that pulls objects downward toward the the earth. Objects falling to
the earth without the influence of external forces (like air resistant) is said to experience
free fall. These objects will have an acceleration called the gravitational acceleration.

Weight is the attractive force of the earth towards the object. If the object has a mass, m
and gravitational acceleration g, its Weight =mg.

Normal force

Normal force is the supportive force on an object when it touches a surface. For
example, if a book is placed on a table, the surface exert a force upwards to support the
weight of the book (Figure 3.2a). It can also exist horizontally when two objects are in
contact with one another. For example, a person leaning on a wall (Figure 3.2b) will
15
exert an horizontal force to the wall. Thus, the wall exert a normal horizontal force in the
opposite direction (Rajah 3.2b).

(a) (b)
Figure 3.2

Tension

Tension is the force which is transfered through ropes, strings, cables or wires when a
force is applied at both ends of the ropes, strings, cables or wires. Tension acts at both
ends of the rope and they are equal and opposite to the force applied at the ends of the
rope.

Upthrust

Upthrust is the force which pushes the object upwards and causing it lose weight in
fluids (liquid or gases). It can also cause an aeroplane to move through the air.

Reading Materials

References

http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/1DKin/
(Description of motion)
http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/GBSSCI/PHYS/Class/newtlaws/u2l2a.html
http://www.zephyrus.co.uk/forcetypes.html
(Types of forces and its application)
Refer to the webpage below to find out more about these forces and their
applications:
http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/GBSSCI/PHYS/Class/newtlaws/u2l2a.html
http://www.zephyrus.co.uk/forcetypes.html

16

TOPIC 4

MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS

Synopsis

Motion is an action which can be observed everywhere in daily life. When a force act on
something, it will cause it to move or stop it from moving. Force is a vector, the motion
produced by a force will be in the same direction as the force. To produce a motion in
two dimension, there must be at least two forces acting in two different direction.

In this topic, you will be exposed to the concept of equilibrium of forces in two
dimensions and motion of object on an inclined plane.

Learning Outcomes

1. State the conditions for an object acted on by three forces to remain in equilibrium.
2. Determine the force that produces equilibrium when three forces act on an object
3. Analyse the motion of an object on an inclined plane

Overview


Content

4.1 Equilibrium and the Equilibrant

An object is in equilibrium when the net force acting on it is zero. When in equilibrium, an
object is motionless or moves with constant velocity. Equilibrium also occurs when the
resultant force of three or more forces equals zero (net force equals zero).

Figure 4.2(a) shows three forces A, B and C exerted on a point object. What is the sum
of the three forces or what is the net force acting on the point object?

Motion in Two Dimensions
Condition for Equilibrium EqulibriumResultant Force

Motion on an Inclined Plane

17
Figure 4.2(b) shows the addition of the three forces A, B and C. Note that the three
vectors form a closed triangle. There is no net force so the sum is zero and the object is
in equilibrium.

(a) (b)

Figure 4.2 An object is in equilibrium when all the forces on it add up to zero .
(Source: Physics: Principles and Problem)

Suppose two forces L dan M,(Figure 4.3(a)) are exerted on an object and the sum is not
zero. How can you find a third force, when added to the other two, would add up to
zero? Such a force, one that produces equilibrium, is called the equilibrant.
To find the equilibrant, first you must find the sum of the two forces exerted on the
object. This sum is the resultant force, R (Figure 4.3(b)) the single force that would
produce the same effect as the two individual forces, L dan M added together. The
equilibrant is thus a force with a magnitude equal to the resultant force but in the
opposite direction(Figure 4.3(c)).

(a) (b)

(c)

Figure 4.3 The equilibrant is a force with the same magnitude as the resultant force but
in opposite direction.

18

Exercise

Surf the internet and try to answer the questions on the equilibrium of forces.
The website below is one of the sources where you can carry out interactive
exercises on equilibrium of forces.
http://glencoe.mcgraw-
hill.com/sites/0078807220/student_view0/chapter5/interactive_tutor.html

4.2 Motion Along an Inclined Plane

All objects on Earth will experience a gravitational force directed toward the centre
of the Earth. For an object located at the slope of a hill, what forces, besides the
gravitational force, act on the object? Figure 4.4 shows the forces acting on an
object placed on a slope of a hill, or on an inclined plane.

Figure 4.4 Forces acting on an object on an inclined plane.

In Figure 4.4, N is the normal force perpendicular to the inclined plane. F is the frictional
force which acts parallel or along the inclined plane. The direction of frictional force is
opposite to the direction of motion which is down the inclined plane. When the object is
at rest at the inclined plane, the forces acting on the object are as shown in Figure 4.5.

Figure 4.5

19
To facilitate the study of motion of object along an inclined plane, a suitable coordinate
system needs to be established. Since the direction of motion of the object is parallel to
the inclined plane, one axis (usually the x-axis) is be along the inclined plane.
The y-axis, as usual is perpendicular to the x-axis or to the inclined plane.

For such a coordinate system, the normal and frictional forces are both in the direction of
the coordinate axis, but the weight is not. In most problem, you will have to find the x and
y components of this force as shown in Figure 4.6.

Figure 4.6

Thinking

Access the website below to learn from the animation of a skier with
detail of the forces acting on it:
http://glencoe.com/sec/science/physics/ppp_09/animation/Chapter%
205/Motion%20Along%20an%20Inclined%20Plane.swf
Based on the information gathered from the website above,
construct a free-body diagram to show the forces acting on an
object moving down an inclined plane.

20

The free-body diagram shows the forces
acting upon a 100-kg crate which is
sliding down an inclined plane.
The plane is inclined at an angle of 30
0
.
The coefficient of friction between the
crate and the incline is 0.3.

Determine the net force and acceleration
of the crate.

References

http://glencoe.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0078807220/student_view0/chapter5/
(forces in two dimension)
(equilibrium of forces)
http://glencoe.com/sec/science/physics/ppp_09/animation/Chapter%205/Motion%20Alon
g%20an%20Inclined%20Plane.swf
(Forces on an inclined plane)

Zitzewitz,P.W.(2002) Physics: Principles and Problems. Ohio: Glencoe/McGraw-Hill.

Tutorial 3 ( hour)
SCE3105 Physics In Context
21

TOPIC 5

APPLYING NEWTONS LAW IN EVERYDAY LIFE

Synopsis

Forces are so common and they can be seen or felt often in our daily life. A force can
make something move and it can also make something in motion to come to a stop. There
are many types of forces which can be classified into two main which are the contact force
and long-range force. Forces play a vital role in the study of motion. Isaac Newton build on
from Galileos work to formulate three simple laws governing motion.

In this topic, you will be exposed to Newtons three laws of motion and how these laws
help us to understand the phenomena of force and motion in our everyday life.

Learning Outcomes

1. Define force and differentiate between contact forces and long-range forces.
2. Explain the meaning of Newtons first law.
3. Recognise the significance of Newtons second law.
4. State Newtons third law and use it to explain forces come in pairs.
5. Apply Newtons laws to solve problem on forces and motion.

Overview


Content

5.1 Contact and Long Range Forces

A force is a push or pull upon an object resulting from the object's interaction with another
object. Whenever there is an interaction between two objects, there is a force upon each
of the objects. When the interaction ceases, the two objects no longer experience the
force. Forces only exist as a result of an interaction.
For simplicity sake, all forces (interactions) between objects can be placed into two broad
categories:
contact forces, and
forces resulting from action-at-a-distance(Long-range forces)
APPLICATION OF
NEWTONS LAWS
Contact & Long Range
Forces
Newtons laws Application of
Newtons laws
22
Contact forces are those types of forces which result when the two interacting objects are
perceived to be physically contacting each other. Examples of contact forces include
frictional forces, tensional forces, normal forces, air resistance forces, and applied forces.

Action-at-a-distance forces or long-range forces are forces which result when the two
interacting objects are not in physical contact with each other, but yet able to exert a push
or pull despite their physical separation. An example of action-at-a-distance forces is the
gravitational force. The sun and planets exert a gravitational pull on each other despite
their large spatial separation. Even when your feet leave the earth and you are no longer
in physical contact with the earth, there is still a gravitational pull between you and the
Earth. Electric force is another example of action-at-a-distance force. The protons in the
nucleus of an atom and the electrons outside the nucleus experience an electrical pull
towards each other despite their small spatial separation. Another example is the magnetic
force. Two magnets can still exert a magnetic pull on each other even when they are
separated by a distance of a few centimeters.

Examples of contact and action-at-distance forces are listed in Table 5.1.
Contact Forces Long Range Forces
Frictional Force Gravitational Force
Tension Force Electrical Force
Normal Force Magnetic Force
Air Resistance Force
Applied Force
Spring Force

Table 5.1

Force is a quantity which is measured using the standard metric unit Newton. A Newton is
abbreviated by a "N." To say "10.0 N" means 10.0 Newtons of force. One Newton is the
amount of force required to give a 1 kg mass an acceleration of 1 ms
-2
.
In addition to types of forces mentioned in Topic 3, there are other types of forces as listed
in Table 5.2.
23
Type of Force
(Symbol)
Description of Force
Applied Force
(F
app)

An applied force is a force applied to an object by a person or
another object. If a person is pushing a desk across the room, there
is applied force acting on the object. The applied force is the force
exerted on the desk by the person.

Air Resistance
(F
air
)
The air resistance is a special type of frictional force which acts on
objects as they travel through air. The air resistance is often
opposed the motion of the object. This force is frequently be
neglected due to its negligible magnitude (and the fact that it is
mathematically difficult to predict its value). It is most noticeable for
objects which travel at high speeds (e.g. a skydiver or a child going
down a slide in the playground) or for objects with large surface
areas.

Spring Force
(F
spring
)
The spring force is the force exerted by a compressed or stretched
spring on any object which is attached to it. An object which
compresses or stretches a spring is always acted by a force that
restores it back to its rest or equilibrium position. For most springs
(especially those that obey "Hooke's Law"), the magnitude of the
force is directly proportional to the amount of stretch or compression
of the spring.
Table 5.2

Reading Materials

Please press ctrl+click on the pdf file below
Modul SCE3105 Phy In Context 22Oct'09\Explaining Motion.pdf
(or refer Explaining Motion PDF file)
Read the notes on forces in Page 2, 3 and 4.

5.2 Newton s Laws of Motion

Newton First Law of Motion
Newton's first law of motion stated that

An object at rest tends to stay at rest and an object in motion
tends to stay in motion with the same speed and in the same
direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.

There are two parts to this statement - one part predicts the
behavior of stationary objects and the another predicts the
behavior of moving objects. The two parts are summarized in
Figure 5.2.
Figure 5.2
24
The behavior objects is such that objects tend to "keep on doing what they're doing"
unless acted upon by an unbalanced force. An object which is initially at rest will continue
to be in state of rest. If it is in motion with an eastward velocity of 5 m/s, it will continue in
this same state of motion (5 m/s, east). The state of motion of an object is maintained as
long as the object is not acted by an unbalanced force. All objects resist changes in their
state of motion - they tend to "keep on doing what they're doing."

Suppose that you filled a baking dish to the rim with water and carried it around in an oval
track, trying to complete a lap in the least amount of time. The water would have a
tendency to spill at specific locations on the track because:
the container was at rest and you attempted to move it
the container was in motion and you attempted to stop it at specific locations.
the container was moving in one direction and you attempted to change its
direction.

Everyday Applications of Newton's First Law

There are many applications of Newton's first law of motion. Have you ever observed the
behavior of coffee in a coffee cup filled to the rim while starting a car from rest, or while
bringing a car to rest from a state of motion? The coffee tends to "keep on doing what it is
doing." When you accelerate a car from rest, the road provides an unbalanced force on
the spinning wheels to push the car forward; yet the coffee (initially at rest) wants to stay at
rest. While the car accelerates forward, the coffee try to remain in the same position.
When the car accelerates, coffee spills on to your lap. On the other hand, when braking
from a state of motion the coffee continues forward with the same initial speed and in the
same direction, ultimately hitting the windshield or the dashboard. Coffee in motion tends
to stay in motion.

Have you ever experienced inertia (resisting
changes in your state of motion) in a car while
braking it to a stop? The force of the road onto
the wheels provides the unbalanced force to
change the car's state of motion. There is no
unbalanced force to change you, the passengers
state of motion. Thus, you continue to be in
motion and slides forward in your seat.

A person in motion tends to stay in motion with the same speed and direction ... unless
acted upon by the unbalanced force, like the seat belt. Yes..! Seat belts provide safety for
passengers whose motions are governed by Newton's laws. It provides the unbalanced
force which brings you from a state of motion to a state of rest. Perhaps you could
speculate what would happen when no seat belt is used.

25

Reading Materials

Read the notes on Newtons First Law of Motion in Page 15 and 16.

Newton s Second Law of Motion

Newton's second law of motion explains the behavior of objects, that all existing forces are
not balanced. The second law states that the acceleration of an object is dependent on
two variables; the net force acting upon the object and the mass of the object. The
acceleration of an object depends directly upon the net force acting on the object, and
inversely on the mass of the object. As the force acting on an object is increased, the
acceleration of the object is increased. As the mass of an object is increased, the
acceleration of the object is decreased.

Newton's second law of motion can be formally stated as
follows:

The acceleration of an object produced by a net force is
directly proportional to the magnitude of the net force, in
the same direction as the net force, and inversely
proportional to the mass of the object.

This verbal statement can be expressed in equation form as follows:

a = F
net
/ m

The above equation is often rearranged to a more familiar form as shown below. The net
force is equated to the product of the mass times the acceleration.

F
net
= m x a

In this entire discussion, the emphasis has been on the net force. The acceleration is
directly proportional to the net force; the net force equals mass times acceleration; the
acceleration in the same direction as the net force; an acceleration is produced by a net
force. It is the net force which is related to acceleration. The net force is the vector sum of
all the forces. If all the individual forces acting upon an object are known, then the net
force can be determined.

Consistent with the above equation, a unit of force is equal to a unit of mass times a unit of
acceleration. By substituting standard metric units for force, mass, and acceleration into
the above equation, the following unit equivalency can be written.
26

The definition of the standard metric unit of force is stated by the above equation. One
Newton is defined as the amount of force required to give a 1 kg mass an acceleration of 1
ms
-2
. This F
net
=m a equation is often used in algebraic problem-solving.

In conclusion, Newton's second law provides the explanation for the behavior of objects in
which the forces are not balanced. The law states that unbalanced forces cause objects
to accelerate with an acceleration which is directly proportional to the net force and
inversely proportional to the mass.

Exercise

A force of 1 Newton applied to a body with a mass of 1 kilogram produces an
acceleration of 1 m s
-1
.

How much acceleration do you get if you apply a force of 3 N to a 1 kg body?
How much acceleration do you get if you apply a force of 1 N to a 3 kg body?

Newton' s Third Law of Motion

A force is a push or a pull upon an object due to its interaction with another object. Forces
result from interactions! Some forces result from contact interactions (normal, frictional,
tensional, and applied forces are examples of contact forces) while other forces are the
result of action-at-a-distance interactions (gravitational, electrical, and magnetic forces).
According to Newton, whenever objects A and B interact with each other, they exert forces
on each other. When you sit on your chair, your body exerts a downward force on the
chair and the chair exerts an upward force on your body. There are two forces that result
from this interaction - the force on the chair and a force on your body. These two forces
are called action and reaction forces, are the subjects of Newton's third law of motion.
Formally stated, Newton's third law is:

For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

The statement above means that for every interaction, there is a pair of forces acting on
the two interacting objects. The magnitude of the force acting on the first object is equal to
the magnitude of force acting on the second object. The direction of the force on the first
object is opposite to the direction of the force on the second object. Forces always come in
pairs that are equal and opposite, also known as the action-reaction force pairs.

A variety of action-reaction force pairs are evident in nature. Consider the movement of a
fish through water. A fish uses its fins to push water backwards. But a push on the water
will only serve to accelerate the water. Since forces result from mutual interactions, the
27
water must also be pushing the fish forwards, propelling the fish through the water. The
size of the force on the water equals the size of the force on the fish; the direction of the
force on the water (backwards) is opposite the direction of the force on the fish (forward).
For every action, there is an equal (in size) and opposite (in direction) reaction. Action-
reaction force pairs make it possible for fish to swim.

Consider the flying motion of birds. A bird flies by using its wings. The wings of a bird push
air downwards. Since forces result from mutual interactions, the air must also be pushing
the bird upwards. The size of the force on the air equals the size of the force on the bird;
the direction of the force on the air (downwards) is opposite the direction of the force on
the bird (upwards). For every action, there is an equal (in size) and opposite (in direction)
reaction. Action-reaction force pairs make it possible for birds to fly.

Consider the motion of a car on the road. A car is
equipped with wheels which spin backwards as shown in
Figure 5.3. As the wheels spin backwards, they grip the
road and push the road backwards. Since forces result
from mutual interactions, the road must also be pushing
the wheels forward. The size of the force on the road
equals the size of the force on the wheels (or car); the
direction of the force on the road (backwards) is opposite
the direction of the force on the wheels (forwards). For
every action, there is an equal (in size) and opposite (in
direction) reaction. Action-reaction force pairs make it
possible for cars to move along a roadway surface.

Figure 5.3

Exercise

Read the notes on Newtons Third Law of Motion and try to find
the answer to the problem in Page 5 to 9.

5.3 Application of Newtons Law of Motion

Mass and Weight

A few further comments should be added about the single force which is a source of much
confusion to many students of physics - the force of gravity. The force of gravity acting
upon an object is sometimes referred to as the weight of the object. Many students of
physics confuse weight with mass. The mass of an object refers to the amount of matter
contained by the object; the weight of an object is the force of gravity acting upon that
object. Mass is related to how much matter is there and weight is related to the
gravitaional pull of the Earth (or any other planet) upon that matter.
28
The mass of an object (measured in kg) will be the same no matter where in the universe
the object is located. Mass is never altered by location, the pull of gravity, speed or even
the existence of other forces. For example, a 2-kg object will still have a mass of 2 kg
whether it is located on Earth, the moon, or J upiter; its mass will be 2 kg whether it is
moving or not (at least for purposes of our study); and its mass will be 2 kg whether it is
being pushed upon or not.

On the other hand, the weight of an object (measured in Newtons) will vary according to
where in the universe the object is. Weight depends upon which planet is exerting the
force and the distance the object is from the planet. Weight, being equivalent to the force
of gravity, is dependent upon the value of g. On the earth's surface, g is 9.8 m/s
2
(often
approximated as 10 m/s
2
). On the moon's surface, g is 1.7 m/s
2
. Go to another planet, and
there will be another g value. Furthermore, the g value is inversely proportional to the
distance from the center of the planet. So if we were to measure g at a distance of 400 km
above the earth's surface, then we would find the g value to be less than 9.8 m/s
2
.
Always be cautious of the distinction between mass and weight. It is the source of much
confusion for many physics students.

Apparent Weight

Consider someone travelling in a lift as shown in Figure 5.4.
The forces acting on the person are the weight of the person,
F
g
and the normal reaction. The weight acted downward due
to gravitational force on the person and the normal reaction on
the feet of the person from the floor of the lift, F
R
is

due to the
persons weight acting on the floor of the lift.

(1) When the lift is stationary or moving with a constant
velocity, these two forces F
R
and F
g
must be equal in
size and opposite in direction (Newtons second law of
motion). The force acting on the floor of the lift F
on floor

by the persons feet is the same as his weight F
g
. Figure 5.4

(2) When the lift accelerates upwards, the net force acting on the person must be non-
zero and act upwards. In order for this to be so, the condition F
R
>F
g
must apply.
Notice that, the persons weight F
g
is always the same, the reaction F
R
and F
on floor

will still oppose each other exactly. The person in the lift experience F
R
on the soles
of his feet, as the reaction F
R
is now greater than his weight, so to him it feels as
though he has suddenly got heavier, since we experience our weight as the upward
push of whatever we are standing on.

(3) When the lift accelerates downwards, the net force must be non-zero and act
downwards, so that F
R
<F
g
. Now the person feels lighter, as the push of the lift floor
on the soles of his feet F
R
, has decreased. Once more, the persons weight F
g
is
always the same and the reaction F
R
and F
on floor
will still oppose each other exactly.

The force F
R
is the reaction due to the action of the persons weight acting on the floor F
on
floor
and they always opposes each other exactly i.e. F
R
=F
on floor
.
F
R
is known as the apparent weight.
29
Supposing that the cable holding the lift breaks. The lift and the person in the lift would
experience the same acceleration downwards of g=9.8 ms
-2
. There will not be any force
acting on the floor of the lift as the person in the lift will have no contact with the floor of the
lift and the normal reaction F
R
=0, i.e his apparent weight would be zero. That is you
would be weightless. However, weightlessness does not mean that your weight is zero.
Weightlessness means that your apparent weight is zero. For example, astronauts in
space have weight but have zero apparent weight so are in a state of weightlessness.

Example:
Figure 5.5 (a),(b), (c) and (d) show the four different motion of a lift and the readings
recorded by the weighing machine indicating the normal reaction or the apparent weight of
the person in the lift.

Tutorial 4 (
2
1
hour)

A student stands on a bathroom scale in a lift at rest on the 64
th
floor of
a building. The scale reads 836N.
(a) As the lift moves up, the scale reading increases to 936N, then
decrease back to 836N. Find the acceleration of the lift.
(b) As the lift approaches the 74
th
floor, the scale reading drops to 782N.
What is the acceleration of the lift?

Frictional Force

Push your hand across the table top and feel the force called friction opposing the motion.
Friction is often minimised in force and motion problems, but in real world, friction is
everywhere. You need it to both start and stop a car. If you have ever walk on ice, you
30
know how important friction is. Friction lets a pencil make a mark on paper and an eraser
to clear the pencil mark.

Friction is the force that opposes motion between two surfaces that are touching each
other. The amount of friction between two surfaces depends on two factors the kinds of
surfaces and the force pressing the surfaces together.

What happen if we stand still on a slope? The friction between the soles of our shoes and
the ground will prevent us from slipping. If the surface is wet or muddy we will begin to
slide downwards but friction will still be acting against this movement and reducing its
speed.

You probably believe that the surface of a highly polished piece of metal is very smooth.
If you look under a microscope, you will see that the surface of any object is not smooth.
You may view the dips and bumps on the surface as in the Figure 5.6.

Figure 5.6
If two surfaces of solid materials are pressed tightly together, welding, or sticking, occurs
in those areas where the highest bumps come into contact with each other. These areas
where the bumps stick together are called micro welds and are the source of friction.

The larger the force pushing the two surfaces together is, the stronger the micro welds will
be, because more of the bumps will come into contact.
To break these micro welds and move one surface over the other, you have to apply a
force.

Friction and Surface Roughness

Figure 5.7 shows an illustration of the friction occurring between two surfaces which are
influenced by the roughness of the two surfaces.

31

Figure 5.7

Can you identify how many types of friction found in everyday life?

In everyday life, the effects of friction may be beneficial or harmful to us. To avoid slipping
on a slippery ground friction needs to be increased. Can you list the actions that increase
friction?

Friction can be increased by:
Having rougher surfaces more dips and bumps
Having a greater pressure between the surfaces this pushes the bumps into each
other
Changing the nature of the materials involved (e.g. by using rubber between the
surfaces)

To ensure, the work done is cost effective and efficient, in some cases friction has to be
overcome and reduced. Can you list ways that can reduce friction?

Friction can be reduced or overcome by:

Having smoother surfaces less bumps to catch;
Having less pressure between surfaces allows the dips and bumps to separate
and interact less;
Using lubricant such as grease, oil, water or graphite which stop two surfaces
coming into contact by coating each surface with a slippery film;
Reducing the area of contact such as by using ball bearing in a bicycle wheel this
reduces the number of bumps that be weld.

32

Reading Materials

Read the notes on friction and try to find the answer to the problem in
Page 28 to 32 .

Thinking

Access the website below which show an animation on apparent
weight of a person in a lift
http://glencoe.com/sec/science/physics/ppp_09/animation/Chapter%2
04/Apparent%20Weight.swf
Study the animation carefully and write short notes on the concept of
apparent weight based onNewtons Second Law of motion.

References:

(Chapter 6 Forces)
http://glencoe.com/sec/science/physics/ppp_09/animation/Chapter%204/Apparent%20Wei
ght.swf
(Concept of apparent weight)
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/newtlaws/index.cfm
(Newtons Laws of Motion notes and tutorial)

33

TOPIC 7

FORCES IN FLUIDS

Synopsis

Matter exists in three different states namely solid, liquid and gas. Gases and liquids are
called fluids. One of the characteristics of fluids is that it exerts pressure in all directions.
Fluid pressure is very important as it is able to keep a huge ship afloat or keep an
enormous aircraft flying.

In this topic you will explore a few principles which explain what happen to objects in fluid
such as Pascal principle, Archimedes principle and Bernoullis principle. In addition, you
will be exposed to some of the applications of these principles in our daily life.

Learning Outcomes

1. Explain the relationship between density of an object and its buoyancy.
2. Describe Pascal principle and its applications to solve problems relate to brake.
3. Describe Archimedes principle and its applications to solve problem on flotation.
4. Describe Bernoullis principle and its applications.
5. Relate all these principles to real life situations.

Overview


Content

7.1 Floating and Sinking

Buoyancy

How does a boat or ship carrying hundreds of
kilograms worth of stuff float when that same stuff
would sink to the bottom of the ocean if dumped
overboard?
What forces act on an object that is placed in fluid?

Forces In Fluids
Float and sink Pascal Principle and
its applications

Archimedes Principle
and its applications

Bernoulli Principle
and its applications

34
When a rigid object is submerged in a fluid (completely or partially), there exist an upward
force known as buoyant force acting on the object. This buoyant force is the result of

fluid pressure increases with depth
increased pressure is exerted in all directions (Pascal's principle)
an unbalanced upward force on the bottom of a submerged object.

Fluid Pressure
Consider that the container in Figure 7.2. The container and its fluid contents are
subjected to gravity as an additional force. Thus we must consider that the fluid pressure,
P at the bottom of the fluid column of h is:

where
- P is the pressure (in Pascal (Pa) in the SI system), or the
difference in pressure between the two points (top and bottom) within a fluid
column, due to the weight of the fluid;
- is the fluid density (in kilograms per cubic meter in the SI system);
- g is acceleration due to gravity (normally using the sea level acceleration due to
Earth's gravity in meters per second squared);
- h is the height of fluid above the point of measurement of fluid pressure(in meters in
SI).

Pascal Principle
According to Pascal's Principle, an external pressure applied to any part of an enclosed
fluid, is transmitted uniformly to all other parts of the fluid. Pascals principle can be
interpreted as any change in pressure applied at any given point of the fluid is transmitted
undiminished throughout the fluid. (for further detail refer to 7.2 Pascals Principle and Its
Applications).

Unbalanced Upward Force
By comparing this upward buoyant force, F
2
and its weight, mg you will know whether the
object will sink or float. If the buoyant force is greater than its weight, it will float.
Conversely, if its weight is greater, it will sink.

Consider an imaginery volume of fluid (a cube with each
face having an area of A) as shown in Figure 7.3. The sum
of all the forces acting on this volume must be zero as it is
in equilibrium.
There are three vertical forces i.e. the weight of the volume
of fluid (mg), the upward force due to pressure from the
bottom surface (F
2
) and the downward force due to
pressure on the top surface (F
1
).

Figure 7.2
Figure 7.3
35
F
1
= p
1
x A F
2
= p
2
x A (i.e. Force = pressure X area) and
mg = x (y
2
y
1
)A x g (i.e. Weight of volume of fluid = density of fluid X volume
of cube x acceleration due to gravity)
Since the pressure at the bottom of the object is greater than that at the top of the object,
the water exert a net upward force, the buoyant force F
B
, on the object.
The buoyant force F
B
is equal to the difference in the pressure p
2
p
1
times the area A.
F
B
=F
2
- F
1
=(p
2
p
1
) A
Since p
1
= x g x y
1
p
2
= x g x y
2
,
therefore F
B
= x g x (y
2
- y
1
) x A
= x g x V
Where V =volume of the imaginery volume of fluid
Buoyant Force F
b
is given

by the following equation.

Where is the density of the fluid, g is acceleration due to gravity and V is the volume of
the object.

Tutorial 5 (
2
1
hour)

From the above equation, what can you conclude about the buoyant forces
acting on object of equal volume?

Reading Materials

Modul SCE3105 Phy In Context 22Oct'09\Topic 7 Forces in fluids.pdf
(or refer Topic 7 Forces in fluids PDF file)
Read the notes on Page 1-3 and 6 9.
Then try to answer the exercises on floating and sinking.

7.2 Archimedes Principle and its Applications

Archimedes Principle

After completing section 7.1, you should have known that
objects of equal volume experienced equal buoyant
forces F
B
, as you have seen that F
B
depend on V i.e. the
volume of the object.
The figure shows a block with the same volume as the
imaginery volume of fluid in Figure 7.3, will experience
Figure 7.4
36
an upward force known as upthrust F
B
. Similar to the Unbalanced Upward Force
explained in 7.1, can you workout how F
B
is the same as the weight of the fluid displaced
by the block, W
liqiud
.

This is Archimedes Principle, which states that an object immersed either totally or
partially in a fluid, has an upward force (upthrust) acting on it equal to the weight of the
fluid displaced by the object.
The upthrust does not depend on the weight of the object, only on the weight of the
displaced fluid.

Applications of Archimedes Principle

.

Figure 7.5

Figure 7.5 shows a toy submarine floating in a bathtub. It's a really fancy sub, made out of
steel. The sub weighs one kilogram. When completely submerged, it displaces two
kilograms of water.

What would you to sink the sub to the bottom of the tub?
Add one kilogram of sand to the sub's interior.
Add one kilogram of sand to the sub's interior, plus a little more.
Nothing. Since the boat displaces more water than it weighs, it's already on
its way down.

After trying the questions above , carry out the following reading activity to find out whether
your answered the above questions correctly.

.
Reading Materials

(or refer Topic 7 Forces in fluids PDF file). Read the notes on pages 4- 5 and 9
10. Then try to answer the exercises on Archimedes Principle and its applications
37
7.3 Pascals Principle and its application

Applications of Pascal's Principle
According to Pascals principle, pressure is transmitted undiminished in an enclosed static
fluid. Figure below shows how an external pressure P
1
is transmitted from one point
(stopper of ajug) to another point (bottom of the jug).
Can you figure out how the pressure at the bottom of the jug, P
2
is calculated.

Figure 7.3

From the above application of Pascals Principle, you will notice how any externally
applied pressure is transmitted to all parts of the enclosed fluid, making possible a large
multiplication of force (hydraulic press principle). The pressure at the bottom of the jug is
equal to the externally applied pressure on the top of the fluid plus the static fluid
pressure from the weight of the liquid.

Reading Materials

Modul SCE3105 Phy In Context 22Oct'09\Topic7 Application Pressure and
Fluids.pdf (or refer Topic 7 Application Pressure and Fluids PDF file)
Read the notes on Pascals Principle and its real life applications in
hydraulic press.

38

Reading Materials

Access the following website which has an animation on Pascals
Principle and its applications
http://glencoe.com/sec/science/physics/ppp_09/animation/Chapter%2
013/Pascals%20Principle.swf
Study the animation carefully and write short notes on the applications
of Pascals Principle in the animation.

7.4 Bernoullis Principle and Its Applications

Bernoullis Principle
The thinker who first formulated the general principles that relate fluids with pressure was
a Swiss mathematician and physicist Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782). Bernoulli is considered
the father of fluid mechanics, which is the study of the behavior of gases and liquids at rest
and in motion.

Hence, he formulated Bernoulli's principle, which states that for all changes in movement,
the sum of static and dynamic pressure in a fluid remain the same. A fluid at rest exerts
static pressure, which is commonly meant by "pressure," as in "water pressure." As the
fluid begins to move, however, a portion of the static pressureproportional to the speed
of the fluidis converted to what is known as dynamic pressure, or the pressure of
movement. In a cylindrical pipe, static pressure is exerted perpendicular to the surface of
the container, whereas dynamic pressure is parallel to it.

According to Bernoulli's principle, the greater the velocity of flow in a fluid, the greater the
dynamic pressure and the lesser the static pressure: in other words, slower-moving fluid
exerts greater pressure than faster-moving fluid. The discovery of this principle ultimately
made possible the development of the airplane.

The figure below shows how did the wings of airplane experience an upthrust according to
Bernoullis Principle which state that as the speed of a moving fluid (liquid or gas)
increases, the pressure within the fluid decreases.

Figure 7.4
39
Bernoulli's principle works on the idea that as a wing passes through the air, its shape
make the air travel more over the top of the wing than beneath it (Figure 7.4). This creates
a higher pressure beneath the wing than above it. The pressure difference cause the wing
to experience an upwards push and lift is created.

Bernoulli's principle states that increased air velocity produces decreased pressure.

Lift is produced by an airfoil through a
combination of decreased pressure above
the airfoil and increased pressure beneath
it.

Reading Materials

(or refer Topic 7 Forces in fluids PDF file)
Read the notes on Page1116. Then try to answer the exercises
on Bernoullis Principle and its applications.

Thinking

Surf the internet and try to solve the crosswords puzzle on forces in fluids.
exercises on forces in fluids
http://glencoe.com/olc_games/game_engine/content/gln_sci/ppp_09/c
h13_w/index.html

References

http://glencoe.com/sec/science/physics/ppp_09/animation/Chapter%2013/Buoyancy.swf
(Buoyancy)
40
http://www.mhhe.com/physsci/physical/giambattista/buoyancy/buoyancy.html
(Interactive tutorial on buoyancy)
http://glencoe.com/sec/science/physics/ppp_09/animation/Chapter%2013/Pascals%20Prin
ciple.swf
http://www.answers.com/topic/pascal-x0027-s-principle
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hframe.html
(Pascal principle)
http://glencoe.com/olc_games/game_engine/content/gln_sci/ppp_09/ch13_w/index.html
(Cross word on terminology related to forces in fluids)

(Chapter 13 States of Matter)

TOPIC 10

THERMOMETRY AND THERMOMETERS

Synopsis

Heat is a form of energy which is vital for our survival. We need heat energy to keep our
body warm, to prepare and preserve food as well as to produce many useful things to
make our live more comfortable. Temperature is a measure of the amount of heat energy
in an object.

In this topic, you will be exposed to the concept of temperature and heat energy,
temperature scales and various types of thermometer as well as heat transfer and thermal
equilibrium.

Learning Outcomes

1. Explain the nature of thermal energy.
2. Define temperature and distinguish it from thermal energy.
3. Use the Celsius and Kelvin temperature scales and convert from one scale to
another.
4. Define specific heat and calculate heat transfer.

Overview


Thermometry dan
thermometers
Temperature dan
thermal energy

Thermal
Equilibrium

Types of
Thermometer

Heat Transfer

41
Content

10.1 Temperature dan thermal energy
According to kinetic molecular theory, matter is made up of many tiny particles that are
always in motion. The temperature of an object depends on the kinetic energy of these
particles. In a hot body, the particles move faster and thus have greater kinetic energy
than particles in a cooler body. The overall energy of motion of the particles that made up
an object is called the thermal energy of that object. Thermal energy depends on the
number of particles in the object.
Hotness is a property of an object called its temperature. Temperature of an object only
depends on the average kinetic energy of the particles in the object. The average kinetic
energy is the total kinetic energy of the all the particles in the object divided by the total
number of particles. Therefore unlike thermal energy, temperature is independent of the
number of particles in the object.
Thermal energy will always flow from a hotter object to a cooler object.

Making Notes

To foster better understanding of kinetic molecular theory and thermal
energy of particles, please read the following website:
http://www.saburchill.com/physics/chapters/0098.html
and Chapter 12 Thermal Energy of Principles and Problems
Glencoe/McGraw-Hill Publication. (Pg 274)

Make short notes related to the two topics.

10.2 Equilibrium and Thermometry
Thermal Equilibrium.
When two objects of different temperatures come in contact, the hotter object with higher
temperature (red coloured box) becomes cooler while a cooler object with a lower
temperature (blue coloured box) becomes warmer.

Figure 10.2
42
After some time, there is no more change in hotness, and to our touch, they feel the same.
When the heat flow or thermal changes between two objects in contact stopped, we say
that the two objects are in thermal equilibrium. We can then say that the hotness or
temperature of the objects in contact is the same when they are in thermal equilibrium.

To foster better understanding of thermal equilibrium, please read the
following website:
http://physics.about.com/od/thermodynamics/p/thermodynamics.htm
Glencoe/McGraw-Hill Publication.(Pg 275)

Make short notes related to the topics.

Figure 10.3 shows a thermometer
(object C) which is in thermal
equilibrium with two objects A and
B separately. The two objects A
and B which are not in contact are
also in thermal equilibrium and
have the same temperature.

Thermometry
Thermometry is the science of measuring the temperature of a system or the ability
of a system to transfer heat to another system.

Thermometers is a device that measures temperature. The operation of
thermometer depends on some property of materials that change in some way
when they are heated or cooled. For example, in a mercury or alcohol thermometer
the liquid expands as it is heated and contracts when it is cooled, so the length of
the liquid column is longer or shorter depending on the temperature.
Modern thermometers are calibrated in standard temperature units such as
Fahrenheit or Celsius.

Tutorial 6 (
2
1
hour)
43
10.3 Types of Thermometer
Physical property of materials that change in some way when they are heated or
cooled is known as thermometric property of the material. Besides mercury or
alcohol thermometer, there are other types of thermometer which operate based
on other thermometric property such as gas pressure, electromotive force(e.m.f.),
electric resistance etc.
Below is a list of thermometers. Try to find the thermometric property for each of
the thermometer.

Beckmann differential thermometer
Bi-metal mechanical thermometer
Electrical resistance thermometer
Galileo thermometer
Infrared thermometer
Liquid Crystal Thermometer
Medical thermometer (e.g. oral thermometer, rectal thermometer, basal
thermometer)
Reversing thermometer
Silicon bandgap temperature sensor
Six's thermometer- also known as a Maximum minimum thermometer
Thermistor
Thermocouple
Coulomb blockade thermometer
Temperature scales were developed by scientists to measure and compare
temperatures. A scale based on the property of water was devised in 1741 by a
Swedish astronomer and physicist Anders Celsius. On this scale is now known as
Celsius scale. The freezing point of pure water is 0 C and the boiling point of pure
water at sea level is 100 C.
Do you know what is the temperature scale used for S.I. unit? The temperature
scale for S.I. unit is based on ideal gas. Ideal gas when cooled will contract to only
its molecular size (i.e. volume of ideal gas is now zero) at -273.15 C. At this
temperature, all the gas molecules has zero thermal energy and the temperature of
the ideal gas cannot be reduced anymore. As such, -273.15 C is known as the
absolute zero. The S.I. unit for temperature, known as Kelvin temperature scale is
based on absolute zero. In Kelvin temperature scale, its zero point start from
absolute zero. Each division in Kelvin temperature scale is similar to that of Celsius
temperature scale.
Can you work out what is the equivalent temperature on the Kelvin scale for the
freezing point and boiling point of water?

44

Making Notes

To foster better understanding of thermometer, temperature scale and
measurement, please read the following website:
http://physics.about.com/od/glossary/g/temperature.htm
Glencoe/McGraw-Hill Publication.(Pg 276 & 277)
Make short notes related to the above topics.

Figure 10.4 shows three different temperature scales. Can you determine the freezing
point and boiling point for water on each scale?

Figure 10.4

Do the following exercises on temperature conversions:
a) A temperature of -35C is equal to F.
b) A temperature of 54F is equal to C.
c) A temperature of 300K is equal to C
d) A temperature of 200F is equal to K
e) A temperature of 64C is equal to K
f) A temperature of 100K is equal to F

Exercise
45
Thermal Energy Transfer
The specific heat of an object S is defined in the following way: Take an object of mass m ,
put in Q amount of heat and carefully note the temperature rise, then S is given by

In this definition mass is usually in either grams or kilograms and temperature is either in
Kelvin or degrees Celsius. Note that the specific heat is "per unit mass".
A related quantity is called the heat capacity (C). of an object. The relation between S and
C is C =(mass of object) x (specific heat of object).
Example 1: How much energy does it take to raise the temperature of 50 g of copper by
10
0
C? (Specific heat of copper =0.385 J g
-1 0
C
-1
)

Example 2: If we add 30 J of heat to 10 g of aluminium, by how much will its temperature
increase? (Specific heat of copper =0.902 J g
-1 0
C
-1
)

Thus, if the initial temperature of the aluminium was 20
0
C then after the heat is
added the temperature will be 23.3
0
C.
Heat transfers from one object to another by one of these three mechanisms
Conduction
Convention, and
Radiation

46
Conduction
Regions of greater molecular kinetic energy will pass their thermal energy to regions with
less molecular energy through direct molecular collisions. In the atmosphere, heating by
conduction occurs near the ground surface, where air molecules are warmed by directly
contacting the surface.
Energy is transferred through molecular interactions. They collide losing some of their
energy to less energetic molecules in a cooler part of the object.
Convection
Liquid and gases are poor thermal conductors but if they are free to circulate, they can
carry thermal energy from one place to another very quickly. For example, warm air rises
when it is replaced by cooler, denser air sinking around
it. Heat transfer as a result of mass transfer in liquids
and gases is known as convection.
Free convection happened when there is heat-induced
fluid motion in initially static fluids (liquid or gas). If the
static fluid is heated, it loses density and rises. If
cooled, it will become dense and sinks. It is a gravity
gradient that induces motion through buoyancy.
Forced convection happened when the fluid is already
in motion, heat conducted into the fluid will be
transported away mainly by fluid convection. Pressure gradient forces drive the fluid
motion. The fiqures below show convection in air and water.

Radiation

Radiation is the transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves. Thermal energy is radiated at
wavelengths determined by the temperature of
the surface. For example, short wavelengths for
the sun and long wavelengths for sun-warmed
materials such as brick.

Do you know why in hot, sunny countries,
houses are painted white?
Bright, shiny materials reflect radiation while
dull, black materials absorb it. So to keep the
47
houses cool inside, houses are painted white in hot countries such as Malaysia.
Good emitters of thermal radiation are also good radiators. White or silvery surfaces are
poor absorbers because they reflect most of the thermal radiation away.
All objects with a temperature greater than 0 K emit small amounts of electromagnetic
radiation (radiant energy).
Electromagnetic radiation is transmitted through empty space at 3 x 10
8
m s
1
.

Tutorial 7(
2
1
hour)

Study the figure below, can you tell A, B and C stand for which type of heat transfer?

48

Making Notes

To foster better understanding of heat transfer, please read the following
website:
http://physics.about.com/od/thermodynamics/f/heattransfer.htm
Make short notes related to the above topics.

Exercise

Surf the internet and try to answer questions on thermal energy.
exercises on thermal energy

References

(Celsius Temperature scale)
(Kinetic theory of matter)
(Thermal equilibrium and heat transfer)
http://physics.about.com/od/glossary/g/temperature.htm
(Thermometry, temperature and temperature scale)
http://physics.about.com/od/thermodynamics/f/heattransfer.htm
(Methods of heat transfer)
(Thermal energy)

(Chapter 12 Thermal Energy)

49

TOPIC 11

USING LIGHT

Synopsis:

We are able to see objects because light is reflected or emitted by it. Light is emitted by
various sources such as florescence light, television or LED, but the main source of light is
the sun. Light from the sun can be reflected by mirrors, white surfaces, moon, trees and
also by other coloured objects.

We are able to see an object because light travels from the object to our eyes. In the study
of light, light rays are represented by straight narrow rays. The study of light in this topic
investigates the reflection and refraction phenomenon.

Learning Outcomes:

1. Discuss reflection and mirrors.
2. Discuss refraction and lenses.
3. Discuss the structure and working principle of a microscope and a telescope.

Overview

Figure 11.1

11.1 Reflection and mirrors

Law of reflection :

The reflected rays by a smooth surface are evenly distributed; where else the reflected
rays by a rough surface are uneven and diverge.

Light
Reflection Refraction
Mirrors Lenses
Microscope
Telescope
Concave mirror
Convex mirror
50
The basis for the law of reflection are (Figure 11.2):

- Incident ray, i is equal to the reflected ray, r.
- The incident, reflected ray and the normal line are on the same plane.

Figure 11.2

Plane mirrors

Mirrors are able to form image because light from the object reach the mirror and
being reflected to our eyes as shown in Figure 11.3.

Rajah 11.3

Exercise

mirror
i
r
normal line
Test your understanding by trying out the interactive tutorial at the
following webpage:
http://glencoe.com/olc_games/game_engine/content/gln_sci/ppp_09/ch1
7/ch17_1/index.html
51
Curved mirrors:

There are two types of curved mirrors; concave mirror and convex mirror. The centre of
curvature, C of a mirror is the centre of the sphere where the mirror is made up of. The
radius of curvature, r is the distance between the centre of the sphere and the surface of
the mirror.

When parallel light rays fall on the surface of a concave mirror, the rays will be focused to
a point (Figure 11.4a). Light rays from the object (AB) will reach the mirror and reflected
back and form image as follows:

(a) Parallel light from the object will be reflected to the focal point, F
(b) Light rays that pass through the focal point will be reflected parallel to the
parallel axis.
(c) Light rays that pass through the center of curvature, C will be reflected back to C.

The intersection of these light rays forms the image, A
1
B
1
which is real, inverted and
smaller.

(a) (b)
Figure 11.4

The same rules apply for the formation of image by a convex mirror. When parallel light
rays falls on a convex mirror, the rays will diverge as shown in Figure 11.4b. Thus the
image form is virtual, smaller and upright.

The characteristics of image formed by reflection by curved mirrors are dependent on
objects distance, u from the mirror. Try out the tutorial below to find out the
characteristics of images formed when object is placed at different positions from concave
and convex mirrors.

Tutorial 8 (
2
1
hour)

Find information on how to draw a ray diagram for various positions of the
object, u from concave and convex mirrors. State the characteristics of
images formed. Use the link below to help you in your search.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convex_mirror
Using Light.doc
52
11.2 Refraction and lenses

Refraction is the bending of a light ray as it passes obliquely from one medium to another.

Rajah 11.5

The refractive index, n can be defined as:

n = speed of light in vacuum or air, c
speed of light in medium, v

n = sin i
sin r (i =incident angle, r =reflective angle)

n = H
o

H
1
( H
o
=depth of object in water, H
I
=depth of image in water)

The value of refractive index changes with different materials as shown in Table 11.1.

Material Refractive index, n
Air 1.00
Water 1.33
Perspex 1.49
Glass 1.48-1.96
Diamond 2.42
Table 11.1
Convex and concave lenses

Parallel light entering a convex lens will be refracted to a point called the focal point as
shown in Figure 11.6
.

Figure 11.6

53
Parallel light entering the lens will be refracted and diverge away after passing through the
lens.

Figure 11.7

Reading Materials

Modul SCE3105 Phy In Context 22Oct'09\Topic 11 Using Light.pdf
(or refer Topic 11 Using Light PDF file)
Read the notes on Formula for mirror and lenses on page 11 to 14.

Tutorial 9 (
2
1
hour)

Find information on ray diagrams of convex and concave lenses for
various positions of object dan state the characteristics of image at these
positions.The following webpage could be of help:
http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/GBSSCI/PHYS/class/refrn/u14l5da.html

54
11.3 Microscope dan Telescope
Lenses could be used to produce optical instruments such as compound microscope and
astronomical telescope. These instruments require the arrangement of two lenses with
different powers.

Ray diagram of a compound microscope

Figure 11.8

Ray diagram of an astronomical telescope

Figure 11.9

Thinking

Think how the arrangement two convex lenses of different powers could
produce compound microscope and astronomical telescope. Get information
from the link below:
http://www.saburchill.com/physics/chapters3/0018.html
http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/PY106/Instruments.html

55

References:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convex_mirror
(Ray diagrams)

http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/GBSSCI/PHYS/class/refrn/u14l5da.html
(lenses)

http://www.saburchill.com/physics/chapters3/0018.html
http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/PY106/Instruments.html
(Mikroskope dan telescope)

http://www.phy.ntnu.edu.tw/ntnujava/index.php?topic=16.0
(Reflection and refraction light wave animation)

(Chapter 18 Mirrors and Lenses)
Pressure and Fluids
In terms of physics, both gases and liquids are referred to as fluidsthat is, substances
that conform to the shape of their container. Air pressure and water pressure are thus
specific subjects under the larger heading of "fluid pressure." A fluid responds to pressure
quite differently than a solid does. The density of a solid makes it resistant to small
applications of pressure, but if the pressure increases, it experiences tension and,
ultimately, deformation. In the case of a fluid, however, stress causes it to flow rather
than to deform.
There are three significant characteristics of the pressure exerted on fluids by a container.
First of all, a fluid in a container experiencing no external motion exerts a force
perpendicular to the walls of the container. Likewise, the container walls exert a force on
the fluid, and in both cases, the force is always perpendicular to the walls.
In each of these three characteristics, it is assumed that the container is finite: in other
words, the fluid has nowhere else to go. Hence, the second statement: the external
pressure exerted on the fluid is transmitted uniformly. Note that the preceding statement
was qualified by the term "external": the fluid itself exerts pressure whose force
component is equal to its weight. Therefore, the fluid on the bottom has much greater
pressure than the fluid on the top, due to the weight of the fluid above it.
Third, the pressure on any small surface of the fluid is the same, regardless of that
surface's orientation. In other words, an area of fluid perpendicular to the container walls
experiences the same pressure as one parallel or at an angle to the walls. This may seem
to contradict the first principle, that the force is perpendicular to the walls of the
container. In fact, force is a vector quantity, meaning that it has both magnitude and
direction, whereas pressure is a scalar, meaning that it has magnitude but no specific
direction.
Real-Life Applications
Pascal's Principle and the Hydraulic Press
The three characteristics of fluid pressure described above have a number of implications
and applications, among them, what is known as Pascal's principle. Like the SI unit of
pressure, Pascal's principle is named after Blaise Pascal (1623-1662), a French
mathematician and physicist who formulated the second of the three statements: that the
external pressure applied on a fluid is transmitted uniformly throughout the entire body of
that fluid. Pascal's principle became the basis for one of the important machines ever
developed, the hydraulic press.
A simple hydraulic press of the variety used to raise a car in an auto shop typically
consists of two large cylinders side by side. Each cylinder contains a piston, and the
cylinders are connected at the bottom by a channel containing fluid. Valves control flow
between the two cylinders. When one applies force by pressing down the piston in one
cylinder (the input cylinder), this yields a uniform pressure that causes output in the
second cylinder, pushing up a piston that raises the car.
In accordance with Pascal's principle, the pressure throughout the hydraulic press is the
same, and will always be equal to the ratio between force and pressure. As long as that
ratio is the same, the values of F and A may vary. In the case of an auto-shop car jack, the
input cylinder has a relatively small surface area, and thus, the amount of force that must
be applied is relatively small as well. The output cylinder has a relatively large surface
area, and therefore, exerts a relatively large force to lift the car. This, combined with the
height differential between the two cylinders (discussed in the context of mechanical
advantage elsewhere in this book), makes it possible to lift a heavy automobile with a
relatively small amount of effort.
The Hydraulic Ram
The car jack is a simple model of the hydraulic press in operation, but in fact, Pascal's
principle has many more applications. Among these is the hydraulic ram, used in
machines ranging from bulldozers to the hydraulic lifts used by firefighters and utility
workers to reach heights. In a hydraulic ram, however, the characteristics of the input and
output cylinders are reversed from those of a car jack.
The input cylinder, called the master cylinder, has a large surface area, whereas the
output cylinder (called the slave cylinder) has a small surface area. In additionthough
again, this is a factor related to mechanical advantage rather than pressure, per sethe
master cylinder is short, whereas the slave cylinder is tall. Owing to the larger surface
area of the master cylinder compared to that of the slave cylinder, the hydraulic ram is
not considered efficient in terms of mechanical advantage: in other words, the force input
is much greater than the force output.
Nonetheless, the hydraulic ram is as well-suited to its purpose as a car jack. Whereas the
jack is made for lifting a heavy automobile through a short vertical distance, the
hydraulic ram carries a much lighter cargo (usually just one person) through a much
greater vertical rangeto the top of a tree or building, for instance.
Exploiting Pressure Differences
Pumps
A pump utilizes Pascal's principle, but instead of holding fluid in a single container, a
pump allows the fluid to escape. Specifically, the pump utilizes a pressure difference,
causing the fluid to move from an area of higher pressure to one of lower pressure. A
very simple example of this is a siphon hose, used to draw petroleum from a car's gas
tank. Sucking on one end of the hose creates an area of low pressure compared to the
relatively high-pressure area of the gas tank. Eventually, the gasoline will come out of the
low-pressure end of the hose. (And with luck, the person siphoning will be able to
anticipate this, so that he does not get a mouthful of gasoline!)
The piston pump, more complex, but still fairly basic, consists of a vertical cylinder along
which a piston rises and falls. Near the bottom of the cylinder are two valves, an inlet
valve through which fluid flows into the cylinder, and an outlet valve through which fluid
flows out of it. On the suction stroke, as the piston moves upward, the inlet valve opens
and allows fluid to enter the cylinder. On the downstroke, the inlet valve closes while the
outlet valve opens, and the pressure provided by the piston on the fluid forces it through
the outlet valve.
One of the most obvious applications of the piston pump is in the engine of an
automobile. In this case, of course, the fluid being pumped is gasoline, which pushes the
pistons by providing a series of controlled explosions created by the spark plug's ignition
of the gas. In another variety of piston pumpthe kind used to inflate a basketball or a
bicycle tireair is the fluid being pumped. Then there is a pump for water, which pumps
drinking water from the ground It may also be used to remove desirable water from an
area where it is a hindrance, for instance, in the bottom of a boat.
Bernoulli's Principle
Though Pascal provided valuable understanding with regard to the use of pressure for
performing work, the thinker who first formulated general principles regarding the
relationship between fluids and pressure was the Swiss mathematician and physicist
Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782). Bernoulli is considered the father of fluid mechanics, the
study of the behavior of gases and liquids at rest and in motion.
While conducting experiments with liquids, Bernoulli observed that when the diameter of
a pipe is reduced, the water flows faster. This suggested to him that some force must be
acting upon the water, a force that he reasoned must arise from differences in pressure.
Specifically, the slower-moving fluid in the wider area of pipe had a greater pressure than
the portion of the fluid moving through the narrower part of the pipe. As a result, he
concluded that pressure and velocity are inversely relatedin other words, as one
increases, the other decreases.
Hence, he formulated Bernoulli's principle, which states that for all changes in
movement, the sum of static and dynamic pressure in a fluid remain the same. A fluid at
rest exerts static pressure, which is commonly meant by "pressure," as in "water
pressure." As the fluid begins to move, however, a portion of the static pressure
proportional to the speed of the fluidis converted to what is known as dynamic
pressure, or the pressure of movement. In a cylindrical pipe, static pressure is exerted
perpendicular to the surface of the container, whereas dynamic pressure is parallel to it.
According to Bernoulli's principle, the greater the velocity of flow in a fluid, the greater
the dynamic pressure and the less the static pressure: in other words, slower-moving fluid
exerts greater pressure than faster-moving fluid. The discovery of this principle
ultimately made possible the development of the airplane.
As fluid moves from a wider pipe to a narrower one, the volume of that fluid that moves
a given distance in a given time period does not change. But since the width of the
narrower pipe is smaller, the fluid must move faster (that is, with greater dynamic
pressure) in order to move the same amount of fluid the same distance in the same
amount of time. One way to illustrate this is to observe the behavior of a river: in a wide,
unconstricted region, it flows slowly, but if its flow is narrowed by canyon walls, then it
speeds up dramatically.
Bernoulli's principle ultimately became the basis for the airfoil, the design of an airplane's
wing when seen from the end. An airfoil is shaped like an asymmetrical teardrop laid on
its side, with the "fat" end toward the airflow. As air hits the front of the airfoil, the
airstream divides, part of it passing over the wing and part passing under. The upper
surface of the airfoil is curved, however, whereas the lower surface is much straighter.
As a result, the air flowing over the top has a greater distance to cover than the air
flowing under the wing. Since fluids have a tendency to compensate for all objects with
which they come into contact, the air at the top will flow faster to meet with air at the
bottom at the rear end of the wing. Faster airflow, as demonstrated by Bernoulli, indicates
lower pressure, meaning that the pressure on the bottom of the wing keeps the airplane
aloft.
Buoyancy and Pressure
One hundred and twenty years before the first successful airplane flight by the Wright
brothers in 1903, another pair of brothersthe Mont-golfiers of Francedeveloped
another means of flight. This was the balloon, which relied on an entirely different
principle to get off the ground: buoyancy, or the tendency of an object immersed in a
fluid to float. As with Bernoulli's principle, however, the concept of buoyancy is related
to pressure.
In the third century B.C., the Greek mathematician, physicist, and inventor Archimedes (c.
287-212 B.C.) discovered what came to be known as Archimedes's principle, which holds
that the buoyant force of an object immersed in fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced by the object. This is the reason why ships float: because the buoyant, or lifting,
force of them is less than equal to the weight of the water they displace.
The hull of a ship is designed to displace or move a quantity of water whose weight is
greater than that of the vessel itself. The weight of the displaced waterthat is, its mass
multiplied by the downward acceleration caused by gravityis equal to the buoyant
force that the ocean exerts on the ship. If the ship weighs less than the water it displaces,
it will float; but if it weighs more, it will sink.
The factors involved in Archimedes's principle depend on density, gravity, and depth
rather than pressure. However, the greater the depth within a fluid, the greater the
pressure that pushes against an object immersed in the fluid. Moreover, the overall
pressure at a given depth in a fluid is related in part to both density and gravity,
components of buoyant force.
Pressure and Depth
The pressure that a fluid exerts on the bottom of its container is equal to dgh, where d is
density, g the acceleration due to gravity, and h the depth of the container. For any
portion of the fluid, h is equal to its depth within the container, meaning that the deeper
one goes, the greater the pressure. Furthermore, the total pressure within the fluid is equal
to dgh +p
external,
where p
external
is the pressure exerted on the surface of the fluid. In a
piston-and-cylinder assembly, this pressure comes from the piston, but in water, the
pressure comes from the atmosphere.
In this context, the ocean may be viewed as a type of "container." At its surface, the air
exerts downward pressure equal to 1 atm. The density of the water itself is uniform, as is
the downward acceleration due to gravity; the only variable, then, is h, or the distance
below the surface. At the deepest reaches of the ocean, the pressure is incredibly great
far more than any human being could endure. This vast amount of pressure pushes
upward, resisting the downward pressure of objects on its surface. At the same time, if a
boat's weight is dispersed properly along its hull, the ship maximizes area and minimizes
force, thus exerting a downward pressure on the surface of the water that is less than the
upward pressure of the water itself. Hence, it floats.
Pressure and the Human Body
Air Pressure
The Montgolfiers used the principle of buoyancy not to float on the water, but to float in
the sky with a craft lighter than air. The particulars of this achievement are discussed
elsewhere, in the context of buoyancy; but the topic of lighter-than-air flight suggests
another concept that has been alluded to several times throughout this essay: air pressure.
Just as water pressure is greatest at the bottom of the ocean, air pressure is greatest at the
surface of the Earthwhich, in fact, is at the bottom of an "ocean" of air. Both air and
water pressure are examples of hydrostatic pressurethe pressure that exists at any place
in a body of fluid due to the weight of the fluid above. In the case of air pressure, air is
pulled downward by the force of Earth's gravitation, and air along the surface has greater
pressure due to the weight (a function of gravity) of the air above it. At great heights
above Earth's surface, however, the gravitational force is diminished, and, thus, the air
pressure is much smaller.
In ordinary experience, a person's body is subjected to an impressive amount of pressure.
Given the value of atmospheric pressure discussed earlier, if one holds out one's hand
assuming that the surface is about 20 in
2
(0.129 m
2
)the force of the air resting on it is
nearly 300 lb (136 kg)! How is it, then, that one's hand is not crushed by all this weight?
The reason is that the human body itself is under pressure, and that the interior of the
body exerts a pressure equal to that of the air.
The Response to Changes in Air Pressure
The human body is, in fact, suited to the normal air pressure of 1 atm, and if that external
pressure is altered, the body undergoes changes that may be harmful or even fatal. A
minor example of this is the "popping" in the ears that occurs when one drives through
the mountains or rides in an airplane. With changes in altitude come changes in pressure,
and thus, the pressure in the ears changes as well.
As noted earlier, at higher altitudes, the air pressure is diminished, which makes it harder
to breathe. Because air is a gas, its molecules have a tendency to be non-attractive: in
other words, when the pressure is low, they tend to move away from one another, and the
result is that a person at a high altitude has difficulty getting enough air into his or her
lungs. Runners competing in the 1968 Olympics at Mexico City, a town in the mountains,
had to train in high-altitude environments so that they would be able to breathe during
competition. For baseball teams competing in Denver, Colorado (known as "the Mile-
High City"), this disadvantage in breathing is compensated by the fact that lowered
pressure and resistance allows a baseball to move more easily through the air.
If a person is raised in such a high-altitude environment, of course, he or she becomes
used to breathing under low air pressure conditions. In the Peruvian Andes, for instance,
people spend their whole lives at a height more than twice as great as that of Denver, but
a person from a low-altitude area should visit such a locale only after taking precautions.
At extremely great heights, of course, no human can breathe: hence airplane cabins are
pressurized. Most planes are equipped with oxygen masks, which fall from the ceiling if
the interior of the cabin experiences a pressure drop. Without these masks, everyone in
the cabin would die.
Blood Pressure
Another aspect of pressure and the human body is blood pressure. Just as 20/20 vision is
ideal, doctors recommend a target blood pressure of "120 over 80"but what does that
mean? When a person's blood pressure is measured, an inflatable cuff is wrapped around
the upper arm at the same level as the heart. At the same time, a stethoscope is placed
along an artery in the lower arm to monitor the sound of the blood flow. The cuff is
inflated to stop the blood flow, then the pressure is released until the blood just begins
flowing again, producing a gurgling sound in the stethoscope.
The pressure required to stop the blood flow is known as the systolic pressure, which is
equal to the maximum pressure produced by the heart. After the pressure on the cuff is
reduced until the blood begins flowing normallywhich is reflected by the cessation of
the gurgling sound in the stethoscopethe pressure of the artery is measured again. This
is the diastolic pressure, or the pressure that exists within the artery between strokes of
the heart. For a healthy person, systolic pressure should be 120 torr, and diastolic
pressure 80 torr.

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