Concrete Nouns: Common & Proper Nouns: People Places Countries People Animals

Junior English Grammar Chart 1
Concrete Nouns: Common & Proper Nouns

1
Concrete Nouns can be Common Nouns or Proper Nouns. They are things that you can see, touch, hear or taste.
Common Nouns are general names of people, animals,
places or things
doctor student
worker jogger
elephant bear
snake cow
farm house
city bus stop
book computer
handphone clock
Proper Nouns are specific names of people, places,
countries, seasons, days of the week, books. They begin
with a capital letter.
People
Tunku Abdul
Rahman
Places
Eiffel Tower
Countries
Malaysia
Seasons
Summer
Days
Sunday
Books
Beauty And The
Beast
Bus
stop
B
e
a
u
t
y

A
n
d

T
h
e

B
e
a
s
t
People Animals
Places Things
Abstract Nouns: Qualities, States, Activities
2
Abstract Nouns are the names of qualities, states, and activities. They are things you cannot see or touch.
They cannot be counted.
strength beauty bravery speed
sleep sickness happiness sadness
laughter disappearance dream discovery
Other examples
Honesty
Smartness
Cleverness
Weakness
Other examples
Poverty
Wealth
Anger
Exhaustion
Other examples
Theft
Hatred
Judgement
Victory
People Qualities
People States
People Activities
Countable Nouns: Singular and Plural
3
Countable Nouns are names of people or things that can be counted. They have two forms - the Singular and the Plural Forms.
These refer to one person or thing. They always have
determiners such as a, another, every or the before them.
Singular Countable Nouns
These refer to people or more than one thing.
They can be used with or without a determiner.
Plural Countable Nouns
a teacher a bird an apple
the plumber an elephant a pineapple
GD
the players
workmen
farm animals cars
horses tools
Uncountable Nouns
4
Uncountable Nouns that end in -s are not the plural forms.
Uncountable Nouns are names of Things and Substances, Activities, Qualities, Feelings and Ideas.
They do not have the plural form.
Things and Substances Activities Qualities Feelings Ideas
Things Games Subjects Activities Illnesses
news
goods
cards
darts
Mathematics
Physics
Athletics
gymnastics
mumps
measles
water
sugar
study
sleep
bravery
politeness
happiness
anger
love
death
abc
P
h
y
s
ic
s
Number - Formation of the Plural Regular and
Irregular Nouns
5
The Plurals of Countable Nouns are formed from Regular
Singular Nouns in the following ways.
Irregular Plurals are indicated by a change of
vowel in their singular forms
4. Drop y and add ies to words ending in y if there is no
vowel before y.
lady ladies victory victories fry fries
party parties country countries curry curries
3. Add es to most words ending in o.
mango mangoes cargo cargoes
potato potatoes tomato tomatoes
5. Add s to words ending in a vowel followed by y.
boy boys buoy buoys day days
alloy alloys toy toys valley valleys
6. Nouns ending in f or fe, substitute ves for f or fe.
calf calves leaf leaves thief thieves
knife knives wolf wolves elf elves
2. Add es to words ending in s, sh, ch, x.
glass glasses box boxes
brush brushes church churches wish wishes
fox foxes branch branches plus pluses
1. Add s to most nouns.
bird birds computer computers
book books friend friends piano pianos
cow cows game games logo logos
child children mouse mice
man men tooth teeth ox oxen
foot feet goose geese louse lice
Concord : Subject - Verb Agreement
6
The boy i s here.
He wal ks three kilometres to
school everyday.
People1. A Singular Subject takes a Singular Verb
The furniture is expensive. The baggage is in the car.
People 2. An Uncountable Noun used as a Subject takes a
Singular Verb.
The news is good.
Mathematics is my favourite subject.
Measles is a painful disease.
People 3. Some Nouns ending in s take a Singular Subject.
The children are here. The children are in the field.
People 4. A Plural Subject takes a Plural Verb.
Fauzi and Nur are studying. Siti and Ning are singers.
abc
People5. Two or more Singular Nouns or Pronouns
joined by and take a Plural Verb.
The accused are found guilty.
The good die young.
The poor are not well treated.
People 6. An Adjective with the, used as a noun to refer to a
group of persons, takes a Plural Verb.
1.
This denotes the male sex. It is often marked by er, or.
Gender Masculine, Feminine, Common,
Neuter
7
Masculine Gender
2.
This denotes the female sex. It is often marked by -ess.
Feminine Gender
3.
This denotes either the male or female sex.
Common Gender
4.
This denotes things that are sexless.
Neuter Gender
The Gender of a noun or pronoun relates to the sex of the person or thing. There are four genders.
boy waiter actor
he his him himself
princess florist witch
she her hers herself
book computer handphone
it, anything, its, itself.
child,
friend,
parent,
servant
I,
they,
them,
ours,
yourself
you,
me,
mine,
theirs,
we
us,
yours,
myself.
Articles a, an 8
A, an are called indefinite articles. They are used with Singular Countable Nouns when you are talking about a person or
thing for the first time.
The article a
1. A is used before a word with a consonant sound
(b, c, d, f, g, etc).
3. Before words with initial u if it is pronounced like a
consonant (yu).
a foot a girl a sword
a university a unit a union
2. Before words with initial o if it is pronounced like a
consonant.
a one eyed man a one-sen coin
The article an
1. An is used before words with initial vowel sounds
(a, e, i, o, u).
3. Before words with initial silent h.
an emu an umbrella an apple
an honest man an honour an hour
2. Before words beginning with the vowel o.
an only child an old man
Articles - the, zero article
9
She put the
bag on
the table.
The books
were kept in
a shelf.
People The is called the definite article. It points out a particular person or thing.
People 1. The is used in front of (a) Singular Nouns
(b) Uncountable Nouns
(c) Plural Count Nouns.
3. The is used with the Superlatives
2. Zero Article.
This is the best
dictionary.
She is the smartest girl
in the class.
spelling test
Thursday
4. The is used for unique nouns or one that is the one and
only.
the earth the sun the sea
He lives along the same road as she.
Her hair is the same colour as her sisters.
5. The is used with same - as.
The is not used to talk about things in general.
(No article is used)
There are many entrances into the building.
(Zero Article)
The entrances are usually closed.
(The - Article)
I remember
the laughter and
the fun.
Adjectives - Colour, Size, Shape
10
Adjectives are words that describe people, animals, places, and things.
1. An adjective goes before a noun and not after it.
the dark sky a strong boy a round apple.
3. Adjectives can be placed after link verbs (is / are / am /
were, get, become, seem, look, feel).
4. Colour adjectives come after adjectives of size and
shape.
The flowers were red. The animal was big.
2. An adjective does not change for the Singular or the
Plural.
a red
tomato
red
tomatoes
a small
horse
small
horses
The flowers were big, round, and red.
We saw big, round, red flowers.
Adjectives That Show Qualities; Formation of
the Negatives.
11
Adjectives That Show Qualities. These are called Qualitative
Adjectives.
an honest mechanic a beautiful dress.
a kind by-stander a wise decision
The lion looked
fierce.
A kind bystander
helped me.
attractive small wild dangerous
Formation of the Negatives. Prefixes; un-, dis-, im-,
can be put in front of some adjectives to give them the
opposite meaning.
Prefixes Negative Adjectives
un-
dis-
im-
unkind, unable, unattractive,
unclear, uncut, undated
dishonest, disloyal, disliked,
disunited, dissatisfied, disobedient
impure, impolite, immobile,
impossible, immoral, immortal
Possessive Adjectives - my, your, his, her, our
12
Possessive adjectives are formed from pronouns. They do the work of adjectives.
1. Possessive Adjectives do not use the apostrophe.
2. Possessive adjectives are used with nouns. They do
not change for the singular or plural.
Willie is our friend.
Our friends live in Kuching.
my book its tail her book
4. Its is used for animals or things.
The rabbit has
hurt its leg.
The tree drops its
leaves in June.
6. Possessive adjectives are often used for parts of the
body or clothes.
The player hurt his knees.
The money is in her pocket.
5. Their is used for more than a person, an animal or a
thing.
The children are reading their books.
Dogs like to wag their tails.
The trees shed their leaves once a year.
3. His is used for masculine nouns.
Her is used for feminine nouns
Ali spoke to his friend.
Aini and her friends are here.
Comparison Adjectives - Regular Forms 13
Comparative adjectives are used to say that something has more of a quality than something else.
1. There are three degrees of comparison.
green greener greenest
cheap cheaper cheapest
smart smarter smartest.
2. Add er or est to one syllable adjectives to form the
comparative and the superlative.
cold colder coldest
kind kinder kindest
small smaller smallest
4. Double the consonant and add er or est to adjectives
ending in a consonant after a vowel.
fat fatter fattest
big bigger biggest
red redder reddest
3. Add r or est to words ending in e.
6. You can compare things by using a comparative
adjective + than.
nice nicer nicest
late later latest
brave braver bravest
5. Drop the y and add ier or iest to two sullable adjectives
ending in y.
happy happier happiest
easy easier easiest
lazy lazier laziest
A bus is slower than a car.
This is easier than that.
The mango is sweeter than an orange.
Positive Comparative Superlative
Personal Pronouns 14
I live in Kuching. (1st Person, Plural)
You must try again. (2nd Person, Singular / Plural)
They caught a fish. (3rd Person, Plural)
He hit me. (1st Person - Singular)
No one saw you. (2nd Person - Singular / Plural)
We saw them. (3rd Person - Plural)
Personal pronouns are used to refer to someone or something that has already been mentioned. They can be subject
pronouns or object pronouns.
1. Subject Pronouns 2. Object Pronouns
These are I, you, he / she / it. They can be in the First
Person, Second Person or Third Person.
These are me, you, her, it, us, them. They are usually
used as objects of verbs.
Singular Plural
1st Person I we
2nd Person you you
3rd Person he / she / it they
Singular Plural
1st Person me us
2nd Person you you
3rd Person him / her /it them
Possessive and Demonstrative Pronouns 15
Possessive Pronouns Demonstrative Pronouns
1. These are mine, yours, his, ours, theirs. They are used
to show that something belongs to someone. They can
be in the 1st Person, 2nd Person or 3rd Person.
1. These are this, that, these, those. They refer to
particular things.
This, that refer to Singular Nouns.
This refers to things that are near at hand.
That refers to things over there.
This book is mine. (1st Person - Singular)
The book is yours. (2nd. Person - Singular / Plural)
The books are theirs. (3rd Person - Plural)
2. Its cannot be used as a possessive pronoun.
3. His is used as an adjective and a pronoun.
This is his car. (Adjective)
This car is his. (Pronoun)
1st. Person 2nd Person 3rd. Person
Singular mine yours his, her
Plural ours yours theirs
2. These and those are plural forms of this and that and
they refer to plural nouns.
How much do these cost? Those are my twin sisters.
This is a gift from my friend. That is the Eiffel Tower.
A U S T R A L I A
45c
Interrogative Pronouns; Some; Each. 16
Interrogative Pronouns. Some; Each
1. These are who, whose, which, what. They are used to
ask direct and indirect questions.
3. Some as adjective / pronoun
Some refers to people or things in a general way. It can
function as a pronoun or an adjective.
Some are born rich.
(Pronoun)
Lee bought some flowers.
(Adjective)
4. Each as an adjective.
Each is used to show things that are separate and
different.
She answered each question carefully.
(She answered the question one by one carefully).
2. Who, whom, or whose are used to ask questions about
people.
Which is used to ask questions about people and things.
What is used to ask questions about things.
Direct Questions Who is he?
Whom did you speak to?
Which do you want?
Who invented the computer?
Whom did you ask?
Whose is this bag?
Which are your friends?
Which are your books?
What do you want?
Indirect Questions She asked who was speaking.
Tell us what you have done.
Say which is right.
Regular and Irregular Verbs.
17
A verb is a word that tells what a person or something does; what is done to a person or thing or something; and what a
person or something is. It can be regular, irregular or both.
1. Regular Verbs 2. Irregular Verbs
Regular verbs have their simple past tense ending in ed.
walk walked clean cleaned
use used plan planned
They do not have their simple past tense ending in ed.
sweep swept see saw
hit hit eat ate
Last year I helped
my father in the farm.
The boy hammered the
nails into the wall.
3. Regular or Irregular Verbs
Some verbs can either be regular or irregular.
burn burned burnt.
fit fitted fit.
dream dreamed dreamt.
knee kneed knelt.
The rabbit dreamed of carrots.
or The rabbit dreamt of carrots.
Additional example
She burned the rice.
or She burnt the rice.
He hurt his leg yesterday. The dog ate the bone.
or
Auxiliary Verbs
be, am, is
are was, were
has, have, had
will, would
shall, should
can, could
may, might
must
Negative Verbs
18
Negative Verbs can be formed by adding the word not after the verb.
1. Add not after auxiliary verbs.
Negative Verbs
am not, is not.
are not, was not, were not.
has not, have not, had not
will not, would not
shall not, should not
cannot, could not
may not, might not
must not
Negative Sentences
He is not here. I am not going.
They cannot miss sports practice.
I have not been there.
Short Forms
isnt
arent, wasnt, werent
hasnt, havent, hadnt
wont, wouldnt,
shant, shoudnt,
cant, couldnt,

musnt
2. The shortened form of not is nt.
Negative Sentences
He isnt here.
They cant miss sports practice.
I havent been there.
1
2
The Simple Present Tense 19
1. Habitual Actions
2. Instructions and Directions
The simple present tense is used to give instructions
and directions.
First mix the colours.
Go down the road.
Turn left at the bus station.
Ask him for his handphone number.
We use the simple present tense to express a habitual
or regular action.
We say our prayers everyday.
I get up early in the morning.
My sister goes to school by bus.
I speak English with my friends.
3
4
3. Describing Feelings and Senses
4. General Truths
We use the simple present tense to express general
truths.
There are 60 minutes in an hour.
The apple is a fruit.
The sun rises in the east.
Sabah is a state in Malaysia.
We use the simple present tense to express feelings,
senses, and thoughts.
I feel happy today.
We love birthday parties.
The man is very busy loading
the van.
He looks sad.
Negative
Statements
Questions
The Simple Past Tense Regular and Irregular
Verbs
20
We use the Simple Past Tense to show that an action was completed before the statement was made.
1. Action in Past Time
2. Simple Past Tense Forms of Regular Verbs
3. Simple Past Tense Forms of Irregular Verbs
He got up early yesterday.
They went to school on
Monday.
They end in ed and are formed in a number of ways.
(a) Most Verbs + ed act acted
open opened
(b) After -e + d close closed
dance danced
(c) Vowel + y : + ed play played
enjoy enjoyed
(d) Consonant + y: y + ied hurry hurried
marry married
(e) Vowel + Consonant :
double the consonant + ed stop stopped
plan planned
These do not end in -ed. You have to learn the different
forms one by one.
sit sat He sat near the fire.
go went We went to his birthday party.
write wrote He wrote an invitation.
shut shut They shut the gate.
4. Simple Past Tense Questions and Negative statements
We use did / didnt + subject + infinitive.
I studied.
She went.
They wrote.
you study?
Did she go?
they write?
I study.
She didnt go.
They write.
The Simple Past Tense - was, were;
Time and Place Expressions.
21
1. Was, Were
2. Time Expressions 3. Place Expressions
Was is the simple past tense of be (is, am). Were is the simple past tense of be (are).
Contractions : was not wasnt; were not werent
These indicate a time in the past that is referred to.
These are adverbs or adverb phrases of past time.
These show where something took place in the past.
4. Words that Signal Past Time
These are yesterday, a long time ago, last week, a few days ago.
A long time ago Captain Cook
discovered Australia.
Positive I was You were He /She / It was We were They were
Was I? Were you? Was he / she / it? Were you? Were they?
I was not You were not He / She / It was not We were not They were not
Question
Negative
We visited him in January.
She climbed the
mountain two weeks ago.
We lived in Port Dickson
many years ago.
She put a letter into
the letter box.
Yesterday they went to the beach.
The Present Continuous Tense 22
1. You use the Present Continuous Tense for an action that is happening at or around the time of speaking.
2. The Present Continuous Tense is formed with the verb be (am, is, are etc) and the ing form of a verb.
3. We use the Present Continuous Tense only for actions
and happenings.
4. We use the Present Continuous Tense to express the
beginning, the progress and the end of an action.
The action lasts a short while. The action lasts a long time.
She is looking for a book. She is writing an essay.
He is eating. She is sweeping the leaves.
They are starting the race.
The hare is sleeping
by the road side.
He is sleeping. She is studying English.
I
You
We / They
He / She / It
am / not
are not
is / not
going.
Most verbs Verbs ending ie change to
+ ing in e, -e + ing y + ing
break breaking come coming lie lying
study studying hope hoping die dying
The -ing forms of verbs are formed in the following ways:
The Future Tense - will, shall, going to 23
The Future Tense expresses something that is likely to happen in the future. You use will / shall, going to.
2. We make negative statements and Questions with will.
4. Shall I ? or Ill is used to make a suggestion or an offer
to do something.
Shall I run away? Ill give you a glass of water.
3. Going to is used when we can see things starting,
coming or clearly on the way.
They are going to get
into trouble.
It is going to get hotter when
the sun rises.
I / He / She / It
will not (wont) eat.
Will I / He / she / It eat?
1. Will is used for the 1st Person (I / We), 2nd person (You),
3rd Person (He / She / It / They).
I / We will see you next week.
You will be interested.
He / she / I / They will return
next week.
I will return next week.
Goodbye! I will see you
next week. I am sure you will
be interested to meet some
friends of mine.
Try
some of
our
country
food.
No! No! I
wont eat it.
Its
hot in
here.
It is
going
to get
hotter
when
the sun
rises.
Special Finites or Modals - must, will, should 24
1. Modal Verbs or Modal Auxiliaries
can may shall will must
could must should would ought
3. Modals have only one form. They do not have ing, ed or
s forms.
5. Must is used to say that it is necessary for someone to
do something.
Must not / mustnt is used to say that it is important that
something does not take place.
Must Must not (mustnt)
You must come by 3pm. We mustnt be late.
Everyone must fill this form. You mustnt make any noise.
6. You use will to affirm that you will do something in future.
You use will to show that you are making a request.
Will you help me? I will do it tomorrow.
Will you show the way? I will go with you to the show.
7. You use should, shouldnt to advise someone what he
has to do or not to do.
You should exercise more often.
You shouldnt lose your temper.
You must run away.
The volcano will blow
up soon.
2. Modals are used before other verbs.
You must do it on time, (before do)
Will you help me? (before help)
4. Modal Questions and Negatives do not have do.
Must I run away now?
You shouldnt talk
so loudly.
Must
I run
away
now?
Adverbs of Manner Suffix (-ly) 25
1. An Adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, and another
adverb. It tells us the place, the time, the manner etc
in which an action took place.
Verb : ran quickly.
Adjective : very good food
Adverb : moved too slowly
4. Adverbs of Manner are frequently formed by adding -ly
to adjectives.
3. Adverbs of Manner can be placed in the initial, mid, or
final position of a sentence.
Quickly, he took cover. (initial)
He quickly took cover. (mid)
He took cover quickly. (final)
2. An Adverb of Manner shows how an action was done.
The hare slept soundly. The hare ran quickly.
Adjectives
accurate
bad
honest
silent
Adverbs
accurately
badly
honestly
silently
Adverbs of Time 26
3. Recently, later, always can be placed at
the initial, mid, or final position of a sentence.
Later, he was rewarded. (initial)
He was later rewarded. (initial)
He was rewarded later. (final)
4. Late, immediately come at the end of a
sentence.
The show started late.
They went immediately.
1. Adverbs of Time show the time when something
happens.
today, early, yesterday, tomorrow.
Ill see her today. They came yesterday.
Lets start early. Ill do it tomorrow.
2. Some Adverbs of Time are placed at the beginning
or the end of a sentence.
then, recently, now, soon.
Then, we had a rest.
Recently, the city was flood.
Raju is studying now.
Willie is going soon.
Prepositions of Place 27
1. Prepositions show the relationship between two things.
They go before nouns or pronouns.
a fish in a bowl a painting on a wall
a rat under a tree in front of the door
near a road sign by the road side
A cockroach is in
the box.
The cupboard is
near the bed.
The racket is next
to the cupboard.
2. Prepositions of Place indicate where people or things
are.
3. The Preposition of Place in, is used with countries,
states, towns, rooms, boxes, containers, rivers, seas.
in Malaysia in Brunei in the fridge in the river
in Sumatra in the class in the box in the seas
4. The Preposition of Place, on is used with floors, tables,
walls, ceilings, fingers, clothes.
on the floor on the wall on the finger
on the table on the ceiling on her dress.
Prepositions of Time 28
We use Prepositions of Time -at, in, on, by, before, after, to indicate when.
1. At is used with the following.
clock times meal times
religious festivals. specific times.
We met at 8 p.m.
What are you doing
at Christmas?
Lets meet at lunch time.
The room is dark at night.
2. On is used with dates, special days, time expressions.
The exam is on 12 th December.
The shop is closed on Thursday.
She came on Friday morning.
3. By is used with events that occur at some time before
a specific time.
Please finish your
work by noon.
Can you complete your
work by 12.00 noon?
4. Before and after relate events to an unknown time.
The boy woke up before
8.00 oclock in the morning.
The boy finished his work
after three oclock.
Prepositions of Direction to, from;
Measure of Phrasal Verbs
29
1. Prepositions of Direction
To indicates the place someone or something is going to.
From indicates the starting point of a movement.
3. Phrasal Verbs are simple Verbs that combine with
prepositions to give meanings that are more than the
combined words.
2. Prepositions of Measure of. A glass filled with water is
referred to as a glass of water.
I went to the station
to meet her.
I am going to climb
the mountain.
The train is from Singapore.
I flew from Penang
to Kuala Lumpur.
a packet of potato chips a can of cola a bowl of sweets
a box of milk a bowl of soup a chest of gold coins
QANTAS QANTAS
His car broke down yesterday.
Someone broke into his house last night.
You must look after your health.
The referee called off the match.
break down break-in call off
look after take off take away.
You must
look after
your
health.
Connectors Conjunctions, Sequence Connectors
30
1. Conjunctions and, but, or, are joinning words.They join
sentences.
Im learning and I hope to do well.
We saw her but she did not see me.
He must be treated or hell die.
2. Sequence Connectors show the sequence that events
take place. They are usually placed at the beginning of
sentences.
Peter and John are good footballers.
Helen and Kit are IT experts.
Peter is a good footballer. John is a good footballer.
First, fill a container with water.
Next, place the container inside a larger, empty container.
Then, place the fruit in the container full of water.
Finally, measure the volume of water that has overflowed.
This tells you the volume of the fruit.
first next then finally
1 2
3 4
Sentences - Simple, Compound, Positive,
Negative Sentences
31
1. The Simple Sentence is a group of words that makes
complete sense. It has a subject and a predicate.
2. The Compound Sentence is made up of two Simple
Sentences joined by a conjunction (and, or but, or or).
3. The Positive Statement is a sentence which makes an
assertion.
4. The Negative Statement uses not or nt with auxiliary
verbs (be, have, / has / had, etc) to say that something
is not the case.
Simple Sentences Compound Sentence
They woke up early. They woke up early.
They went jogging. and went jogging.
Subject My sister The boy
Predicate slept at 9.00 oclock. put the rubbish
in the bin.
They are not / nt real.
I have not / nt spoken to him.
She cannot / cant come tonight.
He has not / nt done his work.
My name
is Jane.
Monkeys eat
banana.
She was born
in 2004.
Yes / No Questions
32
1. The Yes / No Questions can be answered with a Yes or
No answer. They begin with an auxiliary verb, followed
by the subject, and then the main verb.
3. Use the be verbs (am, is, are, was, were) for questions
without do, does, did.
2. Use do, does, did for questions without auxialiary verbs.
4. Use do, does, did at the beginning of questions in front
of the subject with have.
Does she
understand
English?
Do you
like cakes?
Did he do it?
Yes / No Yes / No Yes / No
Am I excused?
Is he your brother?
Are you all right?
Do monkeys have
intelligence?
Does anyone have
the answer?
Did you have a
good breakfast.
Can a
chicken
swim?
No
Can a
duck
swim?
Yes
Am I
excused?
Using Question Words : wh Questions
33
1. A wh- question begins with a wh- word. It asks for an answer that specifies a person, thing, place, reason, method, or
amount.
List of wh- words
who when whose what why whom which where how
2. When the wh- word is the subject of the question you put it in front of the question followed by the verb.
Who told you What happened Which is
the news? last night? the answer?
3. When the wh- word is the object of the question, you also put it in front of the question.
Who are you What am I going When will you go
going to see? to say to her? to the gym?
3. Why Questions are used to ask questions about the reasons for something.
Why did the Why are Why is
food turn bad? you late? she crying?
W
oof!
W
o
o
f!
Punctuation - Capital Letters, Commas
34
Punctuation marks are used in writing to make meaning clear. They divide words into sentences, clauses and phrases.
1 The Capital Letter (I )
You use the Capital Letter to begin Proper Nouns
and Sentences. It is used for the pronoun ( I ) and the
exclamation ( O! ).
2 The Comma (,)
The Comma indicates a short pause. It is used to
separate nouns, adjectives, or verbs, in a series. It is
used in direct quotations.
Capital Letter ( I ) Full Stop (. ) Quotation Marks ( )
Comma (, ) Apostrophe ( ) Colon (: )
Exclamation Mark ( ! ) Question Mark (?) Semi - colon (; )
Helen John Eiffel Tower Australia
We live in
the city.
Dogs bark
at night.
English is an
easy subject.
The bus, the train and the aeroplane are forms
of public transportation.
Please, dont go away,
he said.
He said, Im late.
Im late.
Please, dont
go away.
Punctuation Exclamation Marks, Full Stops,
Apostrophes, Question marks.
35
1. The Exclamation Mark (!) is used after interjections and
greetings to show strong emotions.
3. The Apostrophe () is used to show possession,
contraction and to form the plural of letters and numbers.
4. The Question Mark (?) is used after a question.
Why are you late? Whats her name?
How old are you? Are you happy?
2. The Full Stop (.) is used at the end of sentences and in
abbreviations.
Oh! God! Hi! Hello!
You must exercise regularly. Welcome to my house.
B.A. (Hons)
Bachelor of Arts
(Honours)
Y.B.
Yang Berbahagia
K.L.
Kuala Lumpur
Dont walk on the grass.
She had 3As and 3Bs.
Snowy is
Helens dog.
Helens dog
is smart.
The princess dress
was beautiful.
Conditional Clauses If Clauses
36
The Conditional Clause is introduced by if.
3
The if clause is also used to talk about
something that is generally true or takes
place often.
If you lose weight during an
illness, you regain it afterwards.
If he is shouting, he is probably
angry.
1
If is used to talk about a situation which
may take place in the future.
If you help me, Ill help you.
Give this to Rani, if you see
her.
4
The ifnotor exceptif clause can be
replaced by an unlessclause.
You cant go out, if you havent done your
work. (Unless you have done your work you
cannot go out.)
Unless Im busy, I go home at about 5pm.
(Except if Im busy, I go home at about
5pm.)
2
The if clause is also used to talk about a
situation which you know does not exist.
If I could see her now,
I would apologise to her.
If Malaysia has winter,
the buildings would be different.
Prefixes : dis-, im-, in-, un-; Suffixes : -er, -or, -ess.
37
Prefixes: dis-, in-, im-, un- are added to words to give them negative meanings.
dis-
like dislike
approved disapproved
satisfied dissatisfied
honest dishonest
in-
visible invisible
efficiency inefficiency
definitely indefinitely
secure insecure
im-
possible impossible
balance imbalance
polite impolitely
moral immoral
un-
successful unsuccessful
truthfully untruthfully
pack unpack
able unable
-er can refer to the Masculine
and the Feminine Gender.
teach teacher
drive driver
bake baker
do doer
write writer
think thinker
-or can refer to the Masculine
and the Feminine Gender.
collect collector
select selector
sail sailor
contract contractor
-ess refers to the
Feminine Gender.
prince princess
act actress
manager manageress
host hostess
Suffixes: -er, -or, are added to the ends of verbs to change them to nouns. -ess refers to the Feminine Gender.
Homonyms; Homophones; Homographs
38
1. Homonyms
2. Homographs
3. Homophones
4. Comparing Homonyms, Homographs and Homophones
Homonyms are any two or more words with the
same spelling and pronunciation but different
meanings and origins.
bear (verb) bear (noun)
hit (verb) hit (noun)
Homphones are any two or more words with the
same sound but different in meanings, spellings
and origins.
bear, bare
to, too, two
rite, write, right, wright
all, awl
Homographs are any two or more words with the
some spelling but different meanings,
pronunciations and origins.
refse (verb) - rfuse (noun)
condct (verb) - cnduct (noun)
gallnt (adjective) - gllant (noun)
projct (verb) - prject (noun)
Items Homonyms Homographs Homophones
Spelling same same different
Pronunciation same different same
Meaning different different different
Origin different different different
Phrasal Quantifiers
39
1. A Phrasal Quantifier is a group of words
followed by of which refers to a quantity of
something.
2. For uncountable nouns, we use count nouns
such as piece, drop, pinch, in the Phrasal
Quantifiers.
a tray of eggs a slice of melon
a loaf of bread a bowl of soup
3. The word pair is used for things that consist of
two parts or things made in twos.
a pair of scissors a pair of spectacles
a pair of eyes a pair of shoes
a bit of sugar a bowl of rice
a pinch of salt a drop of water
4. Some quantifiers consist of nouns that refer to
groups. These are used before plural nouns.
a box of
matches
a bunch of
grapes
a bouquet of
flowers
Collective Nouns
40
1. A Collective Noun is a name of people, animals
or things taken as a whole. It has a singular
form.
2. Some collective nouns can be used with
singular or plural verbs
a) The football team is playing badly.
(The team as a whole is playing badly).
b) The football team are playing badly.
(Members of the team are playing badly.
3. Certain collective nouns are singular in form
but they are always used as plurals.
a team of players a swarm of bees a forest of trees
an army of ants a litter of cubs a string of beads
abc
a class of students a gaggle of geese a sheaf of papers
people poultry
cattle vermin

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Concrete Nouns: Common & Proper Nouns

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