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Sensors and Transducers


Terminology and fundamental
concepts
Measurement in Mechatronic systems
N Measurement is at the heart of a mechatronic
system.
O Allow system to determine its physical state
O Take appropriate action
What are some examples?
N Need to choose best sensor for task at hand.
N Must reckon with performance, physical size,
input requirements, outputs, life, cost, etc.
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Functional Model for a Measurement
System
adapted from, Doeblin, E. O., Measurement Systems: Application and Design, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1975.
Measurand
Primary
Sensing
Element
Variable
Conversion
Element(s)
Variable
Manipulation
Element(s)
Data
Transmission
Element(s)
Data
Presentation
Element(s)
Observer/
Controller
Functional Model for a Measurement
System, cont.
N Strain gage scale
3
General Transducer Characteristics
N See the manufacturers data sheets
N Design characteristics
O Range: the __________ limits of measurand values
the transducer will respond to within specified
performance tolerances.
O Overrange: the __________ measurand value
beyond which the transducer will sustain permanent
change in performance.
N Electrical characteristics
O Excitation: what is required to __________ the
sensor.
O Output: output signal characteristics
General Transducer Characteristics, cont.
N Mechanical design characteristics:
O Size, weight, configuration, key dimensions, pin-outs,
etc.
N Static performance characteristics
O How output changes in response to a constant input
O Determined by (static) calibration
N Dynamic performance characteristics
O How quickly the output changes in response to
changes in the input
O Determined by step, ramp, and frequency response
tests
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Static performance characteristics
N Calibration
O The process of applying _____________ of the
measurand to the sensor and measuring the output.
Inputs must be known to be true - traceable to primary
standards
Why?
Measurand should be applied in an increasing manner
followed by a decreasing manner.
Why?
Calibration Example
Pressure sensor output
0
2
4
6
8
10
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Pressure, psi
O
u
t
p
u
t
,

v
o
l
t
s
Increasing
Decreasing
Best fit line
5
Static performance characteristics, cont.
N Error
O The ___________ between the measured and
actual value of a quantity.
There is always error in every measurement
Need to choose sensors that give an acceptable level of
error
O Systematic error - remains the same for each
measurement
ex. high Z vs. low Z on function generator
O Random error - varies from measurement to
measurement
Static performance characteristics, cont.
N Accuracy
O Specification on the _______________ to be
expected from a transducer or measurement
device
Typically expressed as a percent of full scale output
(% FS0)
Other expressions are used, so be aware!
% of reading
% of span
absolute (in terms of measurand units)
# can be determined from %FSO specification
In general, accuracy specification will include
contributions from several error sources (e.g., linearity,
repeatability, hysteresis, etc.)
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Accuracy Example (due to linearity only)
Pressure sensor output
0.000
2.000
4.000
6.000
8.000
10.000
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Pressure, psi
O
u
t
p
u
t
,

v
o
l
t
s
Press. Vout true Vout act. Error Accuracy Vout act. Error Accuracy
psi volts volts Volts % FSO volts Volts % FSO
0 0.000 0.200 -0.200 2.0 0.304 -0.304 3.0
5 0.417 0.420 -0.004 0.0 0.189 0.228 2.3
10 0.833 0.999 -0.165 1.7 0.223 0.611 6.1
15 1.250 2.366 -1.116 11.2 0.451 0.799 8.0
20 1.667 2.387 -0.721 7.2 0.743 0.923 9.2
25 2.083 3.627 -1.544 15.4 0.656 1.427 14.3
30 2.500 3.942 -1.442 14.4 1.164 1.336 13.4
35 2.917 3.896 -0.979 9.8 1.490 1.427 14.3
40 3.333 5.055 -1.721 17.2 1.531 1.802 18.0
45 3.750 5.577 -1.827 18.3 2.227 1.523 15.2
50 4.167 5.931 -1.765 17.6 2.698 1.468 14.7
55 4.583 6.360 -1.777 17.8 2.848 1.736 17.4
60 5.000 7.189 -2.189 21.9 2.853 2.147 21.5
65 5.417 8.073 -2.657 26.6 3.632 1.785 17.8
70 5.833 7.851 -2.017 20.2 4.404 1.429 14.3
75 6.250 7.964 -1.714 17.1 4.183 2.067 20.7
80 6.667 8.500 -1.834 18.3 4.875 1.792 17.9
85 7.083 8.401 -1.318 13.2 5.424 1.659 16.6
90 7.500 8.668 -1.168 11.7 5.756 1.744 17.4
95 7.917 9.115 -1.198 12.0 6.663 1.253 12.5
100 8.333 9.447 -1.113 11.1 7.285 1.048 10.5
105 8.750 9.620 -0.870 8.7 8.088 0.662 6.6
110 9.167 9.293 -0.126 1.3 8.638 0.529 5.3
115 9.583 9.732 -0.149 1.5 9.007 0.576 5.8
120 10.000 9.876 0.124 1.2 9.805 0.195 2.0
What is the accuracy of this sensor?
as %FSO
as an absolute accuracy
Static performance characteristics, cont.
N Repeatability (reproducibility, precision)
O The maximum difference between output readings
when the same measurand value is applied
consecutively under the same conditions and in the
same direction
Typically expressed as %FSO, either as:
(max value - min value)/full scale
(max deviation from avg. - avg.)/full scale
As determined by two calibration cycles unless stated
otherwise
Better statistical value obtainable with more cycles
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Repeatability Example
What is the repeatability of this sensor?
Pressure sensor output
-2.000
0.000
2.000
4.000
6.000
8.000
10.000
12.000
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Pressure, psi
O
u
t
p
u
t
,

v
o
l
t
s
Press. First run Second run 1 - 2 1 - 2
psi volts volts volts % FSO
0 0.042 -0.181 0.223 2.23
5 0.542 0.039 0.503 5.03
10 1.293 1.408 -0.115 1.15
15 1.817 2.511 -0.694 6.94
20 2.660 2.381 0.279 2.79
25 2.923 3.397 -0.474 4.74
30 3.850 3.961 -0.111 1.11
35 4.543 4.464 0.078 0.78
40 5.046 5.141 -0.095 0.95
45 5.468 5.803 -0.335 3.35
50 6.327 6.364 -0.038 0.38
55 6.880 6.694 0.186 1.86
60 6.700 7.190 -0.490 4.90
65 7.291 7.009 0.282 2.82
70 7.532 7.891 -0.359 3.59
75 8.081 8.211 -0.130 1.30
80 8.582 8.544 0.038 0.38
85 9.112 8.734 0.378 3.78
90 9.095 8.452 0.643 6.43
95 9.394 8.615 0.779 7.79
100 9.102 9.116 -0.015 0.15
105 9.386 9.284 0.102 1.02
110 9.916 9.931 -0.016 0.16
115 9.772 9.564 0.208 2.08
120 9.849 10.016 -0.167 1.67
Static performance characteristics, cont.
N Linearity
O The measure of closeness of a calibration curve to a
specified straight line
Most sensors attempt to give nominally linear outputs
Typically expressed as within X%FSO
There are many ways to specify linearity:
Theoretical slope
Terminal linearity
End-point linearity
Independent linearity
Least-squares linearity (Be careful! There are two possible least-
squares lines. The method of absolute differences is a good compromise.)
The general idea, fit a straight line through the data, report
the maximum deviation as the linearity
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Static performance characteristics, cont.
N Linearity, cont.
O The method of absolute differences (MAD)
MAD gives the equation of a line approximately midway
between the two possible least squares lines
Plot the equation, y = mx + b, where,
m =


=
=
y y
x x
i cg
i
N
i cg
i
N
1
1
b y mx
cg cg
=
x
N
cg
i 1
N
=
=
1
x
i
y
N
cg
i 1
N
=
=
1
y
i
Static performance characteristics, cont.
N Sensitivity
O The slope of the calibration curve
O Typical units are output qty./measurand unit, e.g.,
mV/C
ex. pressure sensor sensitivity
O Change in sensitivity error is expressed as a % of
FSO (sensitivity drift)
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Static performance characteristics, cont.
N Hysteresis
O The maximum difference in output at any measurand
value when the value is approached first with
increasing measurand and then with decreasing
measurand.
ex. pressure sensor
Internal damping of sensing element produces a lag in
action
ex. piezoelectric actuators
Expressed as a % FSO
Friction error (stick-slip) is distinct, but sometimes called
hysteresis
Can be alleviated by dithering (tapping, vibrating)
Hysteresis, (cont.)
Pressure sensor output
0.000
2.000
4.000
6.000
8.000
10.000
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Pressure, psi
O
u
t
p
u
t
,

v
o
l
t
s
10
Static performance characteristics, cont.
N Resolution
O The smallest measurable input change
ex. potentiometer
Will often depend on what the sensor is being read by
ex. A/D converter
Other Comments About Errors
N Zero (null) shift or drift
N Changes due to temperature
O Mfg. calibration at a given temperature, e.g. 25 C
N How to combine error sources to determine
overall accuracy
O If error sources are independent, use root-
sum-of-squares method
e
tot n 1
2
2
2 2
Where e
i
are the independent errors expressed in %FS
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Summary
N Data sheets contain key information on
mechanical, electrical, and performance
characteristics of sensors
N Static performance characteristics:
O Accuracy
O Repeatability
O Linearity
O Hysteresis
O Sensitivity
O Resolution
Sensor and Transducers
Part 2
Dynamic Performance
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Dynamic Performance of Sensors
N Response to inputs that change as a function of
time (time response)
O Ideal response vs. actual response
O What is the error in measurement?
N Characterization of dynamic performance
through:
O Step response
O Sinusoidal response
O Ramp response
O Impulse response
System Models
N Model the input/output relationship of a
transducer using differential equations.
N First order model
O Time response can be described with a first order
differential equation
O ex. temperature response of all sensors
a Q a Q b Q
1 0 0
+ =
o o i
=
Q
dQ
o
o
b
K
o
static sensitivity
= =
13
System Models, cont.
N Second order model
O Time response can be described with a second order
differential equation:
a Q a Q a Q b Q
2 o 1 o o i
+ + =
0 0
O Mechanical systems with both potential and kinetic
energy storage elements (springs and masses)
O Electrical systems that store energy in both magnetic
and electric fields (inductive and capacitive
elements)
System Models, cont.
N Second order model, cont.
O Output (solution) has two parts:
Transient (complementary)
Steady state (particular)
O Transient solution will take on one of three forms
depending on roots of characteristic polynomial:
Overdamped: >1, sum of two decaying exponentials
Critically damped: =1, exponentially decaying ramp
Underdamped: <1, exponentially decaying sinusoid
Many transducers have =0.7 0.1
O Steady-state part will take on the same form as the
input.

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