Terminology and fundamental concepts Measurement in Mechatronic systems N Measurement is at the heart of a mechatronic system. O Allow system to determine its physical state O Take appropriate action What are some examples? N Need to choose best sensor for task at hand. N Must reckon with performance, physical size, input requirements, outputs, life, cost, etc. 2 Functional Model for a Measurement System adapted from, Doeblin, E. O., Measurement Systems: Application and Design, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1975. Measurand Primary Sensing Element Variable Conversion Element(s) Variable Manipulation Element(s) Data Transmission Element(s) Data Presentation Element(s) Observer/ Controller Functional Model for a Measurement System, cont. N Strain gage scale 3 General Transducer Characteristics N See the manufacturers data sheets N Design characteristics O Range: the __________ limits of measurand values the transducer will respond to within specified performance tolerances. O Overrange: the __________ measurand value beyond which the transducer will sustain permanent change in performance. N Electrical characteristics O Excitation: what is required to __________ the sensor. O Output: output signal characteristics General Transducer Characteristics, cont. N Mechanical design characteristics: O Size, weight, configuration, key dimensions, pin-outs, etc. N Static performance characteristics O How output changes in response to a constant input O Determined by (static) calibration N Dynamic performance characteristics O How quickly the output changes in response to changes in the input O Determined by step, ramp, and frequency response tests 4 Static performance characteristics N Calibration O The process of applying _____________ of the measurand to the sensor and measuring the output. Inputs must be known to be true - traceable to primary standards Why? Measurand should be applied in an increasing manner followed by a decreasing manner. Why? Calibration Example Pressure sensor output 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Pressure, psi O u t p u t ,
v o l t s Increasing Decreasing Best fit line 5 Static performance characteristics, cont. N Error O The ___________ between the measured and actual value of a quantity. There is always error in every measurement Need to choose sensors that give an acceptable level of error O Systematic error - remains the same for each measurement ex. high Z vs. low Z on function generator O Random error - varies from measurement to measurement Static performance characteristics, cont. N Accuracy O Specification on the _______________ to be expected from a transducer or measurement device Typically expressed as a percent of full scale output (% FS0) Other expressions are used, so be aware! % of reading % of span absolute (in terms of measurand units) # can be determined from %FSO specification In general, accuracy specification will include contributions from several error sources (e.g., linearity, repeatability, hysteresis, etc.) 6 Accuracy Example (due to linearity only) Pressure sensor output 0.000 2.000 4.000 6.000 8.000 10.000 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Pressure, psi O u t p u t ,
v o l t s Press. Vout true Vout act. Error Accuracy Vout act. Error Accuracy psi volts volts Volts % FSO volts Volts % FSO 0 0.000 0.200 -0.200 2.0 0.304 -0.304 3.0 5 0.417 0.420 -0.004 0.0 0.189 0.228 2.3 10 0.833 0.999 -0.165 1.7 0.223 0.611 6.1 15 1.250 2.366 -1.116 11.2 0.451 0.799 8.0 20 1.667 2.387 -0.721 7.2 0.743 0.923 9.2 25 2.083 3.627 -1.544 15.4 0.656 1.427 14.3 30 2.500 3.942 -1.442 14.4 1.164 1.336 13.4 35 2.917 3.896 -0.979 9.8 1.490 1.427 14.3 40 3.333 5.055 -1.721 17.2 1.531 1.802 18.0 45 3.750 5.577 -1.827 18.3 2.227 1.523 15.2 50 4.167 5.931 -1.765 17.6 2.698 1.468 14.7 55 4.583 6.360 -1.777 17.8 2.848 1.736 17.4 60 5.000 7.189 -2.189 21.9 2.853 2.147 21.5 65 5.417 8.073 -2.657 26.6 3.632 1.785 17.8 70 5.833 7.851 -2.017 20.2 4.404 1.429 14.3 75 6.250 7.964 -1.714 17.1 4.183 2.067 20.7 80 6.667 8.500 -1.834 18.3 4.875 1.792 17.9 85 7.083 8.401 -1.318 13.2 5.424 1.659 16.6 90 7.500 8.668 -1.168 11.7 5.756 1.744 17.4 95 7.917 9.115 -1.198 12.0 6.663 1.253 12.5 100 8.333 9.447 -1.113 11.1 7.285 1.048 10.5 105 8.750 9.620 -0.870 8.7 8.088 0.662 6.6 110 9.167 9.293 -0.126 1.3 8.638 0.529 5.3 115 9.583 9.732 -0.149 1.5 9.007 0.576 5.8 120 10.000 9.876 0.124 1.2 9.805 0.195 2.0 What is the accuracy of this sensor? as %FSO as an absolute accuracy Static performance characteristics, cont. N Repeatability (reproducibility, precision) O The maximum difference between output readings when the same measurand value is applied consecutively under the same conditions and in the same direction Typically expressed as %FSO, either as: (max value - min value)/full scale (max deviation from avg. - avg.)/full scale As determined by two calibration cycles unless stated otherwise Better statistical value obtainable with more cycles 7 Repeatability Example What is the repeatability of this sensor? Pressure sensor output -2.000 0.000 2.000 4.000 6.000 8.000 10.000 12.000 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Pressure, psi O u t p u t ,
v o l t s Press. First run Second run 1 - 2 1 - 2 psi volts volts volts % FSO 0 0.042 -0.181 0.223 2.23 5 0.542 0.039 0.503 5.03 10 1.293 1.408 -0.115 1.15 15 1.817 2.511 -0.694 6.94 20 2.660 2.381 0.279 2.79 25 2.923 3.397 -0.474 4.74 30 3.850 3.961 -0.111 1.11 35 4.543 4.464 0.078 0.78 40 5.046 5.141 -0.095 0.95 45 5.468 5.803 -0.335 3.35 50 6.327 6.364 -0.038 0.38 55 6.880 6.694 0.186 1.86 60 6.700 7.190 -0.490 4.90 65 7.291 7.009 0.282 2.82 70 7.532 7.891 -0.359 3.59 75 8.081 8.211 -0.130 1.30 80 8.582 8.544 0.038 0.38 85 9.112 8.734 0.378 3.78 90 9.095 8.452 0.643 6.43 95 9.394 8.615 0.779 7.79 100 9.102 9.116 -0.015 0.15 105 9.386 9.284 0.102 1.02 110 9.916 9.931 -0.016 0.16 115 9.772 9.564 0.208 2.08 120 9.849 10.016 -0.167 1.67 Static performance characteristics, cont. N Linearity O The measure of closeness of a calibration curve to a specified straight line Most sensors attempt to give nominally linear outputs Typically expressed as within X%FSO There are many ways to specify linearity: Theoretical slope Terminal linearity End-point linearity Independent linearity Least-squares linearity (Be careful! There are two possible least- squares lines. The method of absolute differences is a good compromise.) The general idea, fit a straight line through the data, report the maximum deviation as the linearity 8 Static performance characteristics, cont. N Linearity, cont. O The method of absolute differences (MAD) MAD gives the equation of a line approximately midway between the two possible least squares lines Plot the equation, y = mx + b, where, m =
= = y y x x i cg i N i cg i N 1 1 b y mx cg cg = x N cg i 1 N = = 1 x i y N cg i 1 N = = 1 y i Static performance characteristics, cont. N Sensitivity O The slope of the calibration curve O Typical units are output qty./measurand unit, e.g., mV/C ex. pressure sensor sensitivity O Change in sensitivity error is expressed as a % of FSO (sensitivity drift) 9 Static performance characteristics, cont. N Hysteresis O The maximum difference in output at any measurand value when the value is approached first with increasing measurand and then with decreasing measurand. ex. pressure sensor Internal damping of sensing element produces a lag in action ex. piezoelectric actuators Expressed as a % FSO Friction error (stick-slip) is distinct, but sometimes called hysteresis Can be alleviated by dithering (tapping, vibrating) Hysteresis, (cont.) Pressure sensor output 0.000 2.000 4.000 6.000 8.000 10.000 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Pressure, psi O u t p u t ,
v o l t s 10 Static performance characteristics, cont. N Resolution O The smallest measurable input change ex. potentiometer Will often depend on what the sensor is being read by ex. A/D converter Other Comments About Errors N Zero (null) shift or drift N Changes due to temperature O Mfg. calibration at a given temperature, e.g. 25 C N How to combine error sources to determine overall accuracy O If error sources are independent, use root- sum-of-squares method e tot n 1 2 2 2 2 Where e i are the independent errors expressed in %FS 11 Summary N Data sheets contain key information on mechanical, electrical, and performance characteristics of sensors N Static performance characteristics: O Accuracy O Repeatability O Linearity O Hysteresis O Sensitivity O Resolution Sensor and Transducers Part 2 Dynamic Performance 12 Dynamic Performance of Sensors N Response to inputs that change as a function of time (time response) O Ideal response vs. actual response O What is the error in measurement? N Characterization of dynamic performance through: O Step response O Sinusoidal response O Ramp response O Impulse response System Models N Model the input/output relationship of a transducer using differential equations. N First order model O Time response can be described with a first order differential equation O ex. temperature response of all sensors a Q a Q b Q 1 0 0 + = o o i = Q dQ o o b K o static sensitivity = = 13 System Models, cont. N Second order model O Time response can be described with a second order differential equation: a Q a Q a Q b Q 2 o 1 o o i + + = 0 0 O Mechanical systems with both potential and kinetic energy storage elements (springs and masses) O Electrical systems that store energy in both magnetic and electric fields (inductive and capacitive elements) System Models, cont. N Second order model, cont. O Output (solution) has two parts: Transient (complementary) Steady state (particular) O Transient solution will take on one of three forms depending on roots of characteristic polynomial: Overdamped: >1, sum of two decaying exponentials Critically damped: =1, exponentially decaying ramp Underdamped: <1, exponentially decaying sinusoid Many transducers have =0.7 0.1 O Steady-state part will take on the same form as the input.