Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
12
= m (
2
1
) (1)
Where
12
is the work consumption by pump
m
is the mass flow rate
1
enthalpy at pump inlet
2
enthalpy at pump outlet
The exergy destruction rate in the pump is given by equation (2)
I
12
= m
0
[(
2
1
)] (2)
18
Where
I
12
is the exergy destruction rate in the pump
0
ambient temperature in K
1
entropy at pump inlet
2
entropy at pump outlet
Process (2-3) Heat addition
In this process heat is added to the working fluid at constant pressure, the process can be
considered isobaric although the slight pressure drop in the evaporator pipes. The working fluids
state out of the evaporator is indicated by point 3 and the heat added to the working fluid can be
calculated by equation (3).
23
=
m
(h
3
h
2
) (3)
Where
Q
23
refers to the heat added to the working fluid
3
refers to the vapor enthalpy out of the evaporator and into the expander.
The temperature of the heat source decreases through the evaporator. Taking the arithmetic mean
temperature (TH) between inlet and outlet temperature, TH = (Tin Tout)/2 [28], the energy
destruction in evaporator can be estimated by equation (4).
I
23
= m
0
(
3
2
)
(
3
2
)
(4)
Where
I
23
is the exergy destruction rate in the evaporator
3
is the vapor entropy at evaporator outlet
Process (3-4) Expansion
This is an expansion process and the absorbed energy at the evaporator is converted to useful
mechanical work by an expander or a turbine. The process is considered to be isentropic although
the expander efficiency can never reach 100%. The state of the working fluid out of the expander is
indicated by point 4 and the useful work out can be estimated by equation (5).
34
= m (
3
4
) (5)
Where
19
34
is the useful work produced by the turbine
4
is the vapor enthalpy at turbine outlet
Equation (6) gives the exergy destruction rate in the expander.
I
34
= m
0
[(
4
3
)] (6)
I
34
is the exergy destruction rate in turbine
4
is the vapor entropy at turbine outlet
Process (4-1) Heat rejection
In this process the heat is rejected in condenser in order to condensate the working fluid and re-
circulates it in the cycle. The heat rejection process is considered to be isobaric despite pressure
drops through the condenser due to friction losses in condenser pipes. The working fluid leaves
the condenser as saturated or undercooled liquid. Point 1 refers to the working fluid at condenser
outlet and pump inlet in T-S diagram. The amount of heat rejected can be estimated by equation
(7).
41
=
m
(
4
1
) (7)
Where
41
stands for the heat rejected heat in condenser
Since heat sink temperature increases continuously from condenser inlet to condenser outlet, the
arithmetic mean temperature, TL = (Tin Tout)/2 can be used to estimate the exergy destruction in
the condenser [13]. Equation (8) gives the exergy destruction in the condenser.
I
41
=
m
0
(
1
4
)
(
1
4
)
(8)
Where
I
41
refers to the exergy destruction rate in condenser
The net thermal efficiency is defined as
thermal
=
W
34
W
12
Q
23
(9)
The thermal efficiency is the ration of the Net Work Out to heat absorbed in the evaporator.
The systems total energy destruction can be calculated by combining equations 2, 4, 6 and 8.
20
I
=
I
12
+
I
23
+
I
34
+
I
41
(10)
Which gives
I
= m
0
(
3
2
)
(
1
4
)
(11)
4.5 System improvement
Unlike Steam Rankine Cycle, the optimization of the Organic Rankine Cycle is quite limited,. The
limitations are mainly affected by the low heat source temperature. Using isentropic and dry fluids
in ORC, the working fluid leaves the expander as superheated vapor and no attention is paid to the
vapor quality at the end of the expander. The superheated vapor has a great advantage for turbo
machine expanders which always get damages due to low vapor quality. The turbo machines
expanders in ORC systems can have a much longer life spam than in steam cycles. To overcome
the low vapor quality at the expander outlet, screw and scroll expanders can be used instead of
turbo machinery expanders. Screw and scroll expanders have much better resistance for vapor
quality than turbo machinery expanders. It follows that superheat is not recommended in cycles
using dry and isentropic fluids [15]. To overcome the low vapor quality in last expansion stages in
Rankine Cycle the superheat is recommended.
The layout of the Organic Rankine Cycle is much simpler than that of the Rankine Cycle. In the
Organic Rankine Cycles, the water-steam drum is eliminated and a single heat exchanger can be
used instead of the three-part heat exchanger (economizer, preheater and superheater). Reheating
and turbine bleeding are not recommended for some working fluids while a recuperator can work
as a preheater and be installed between the expander outlet and the pump outlet [15]. Figure (11)
shows the cycle layout for an ORC using a recuperator and figure (12) illustrates the cycle layout
and figure (13) shows the T-S diagram for ORC.
Figure 12 Cycle layout for an ORC using recuperator
21
Following are the six main thermodynamic processes for an Organic Rankine Cycle uses a
recuperator (internal heat exchanger IHE).
Process (1-2) Pump: the condensate working fluid is pumped from condenser pressure to
evaporator pressure.
Process (2-3) Recuperator: heat transfer process between undercooled working fluid at pump
outlet and superheated vapor at expander outlet.
Process (3-4) Evaporator: after the working fluid leaves the recuperator enters the evaporator to
absorb more thermal energy from heat source. Here the working fluid changes the phase from
undercooled liquid to saturated or superheated vapor.
Process (4-5): Expander: the saturated or superheated vapor enters the expander and the
absorbed thermal energy in recuperator and evaporator converts to useful work. The working fluid
leaves the expander as superheated vapor.
Process (5-6) Recuperator: heat transfer occurs between the high temperature vapor at expander
outlet and low temperature fluid at pump outlet.
Process (6-1): the cooled working fluid at recuperator outlet enters the condenser. The working
fluid stars condensation and more heat is rejected with help of a heat sink.
Figure 13 T-S diagram for an ORC using recuperator
4.6 Recuperator or Internal Heat Exchanger IHE
When the working fluid leaves the turbine at a temperature higher than the temperature at the
pump outlet, a recuperator can be introduced in the cycle to recover the thermal energy from the
working fluid at expander outlet. Here the recuperator can play a major role to increase the thermal
efficiency and the second law efficiency by reducing the exergy losses. The recuperator raises the
liquid temperature when it leaves the pump and the working fluid preheats before entering
22
evaporator. In this process the wasted thermal energy which would be rejected by the condenser is
extracted and supplied again to the working fluid when it leaves the pump. The heat rejection by
the condenser and the condenser size can be reduced.
Figure 14 Recuperator or Internal Heat Exchanger IHE
The fundamental process is that the hot stream (4-6) rejects heat at the rate of
(
4
6
)
while the cold stream (2 5) receives heat at rate of
(
5
2
). The heat transfer in IHX
can be expressed as
(
4
6
) =
(
5
2
) (12)
Where
and
refers to the mass flow rate for hot and cold streams. Assuming the mass
flow rates
and
4
6
=
5
2
(13)
6
and
5
are unknown parameters and to estimate them a second equation is needed. A heat
exchanger effectiveness equation can be introduced from the fact that the maximum possible value
of
5
can never reach
4
. A possible method to measure the performance is through calculating
recuperator effectiveness
.
. Recuperator effectiveness is the ratio between the actual received
energy by hot stream to the maximum possible value [30].
.
=
4
6
4
2
(14)
And it follows that
5
can be estimated as
6
=
4
.
(
4
2
) (15)
From equations (13) and (15)
6
5
can be estimated.
23
5 Working fluid selection
The working fluid selection has been treated in many papers and scientific articles [2,3,5]. Most of
the articles and papers are based on theoretical studies of working fluids using simulations of
thermodynamic models. Many scientific articles mainly treat the thermo-physical properties of
working fluids with a focus on thermal efficiency, second law efficiency, Net Work Out, etc.
The choice of the optimal working fluid depends basically on the heat source and the heat sink
temperature. For any heat temperature level there are a number of candidates which show a good
match between heat source and heat sink temperatures and cycles boundary conditions. The choice
the right working fluid is not an easy process. The fluid selection process is a trade-off between
thermodynamic specifications, safety, environmental and economy aspects. The following criteria
should be taken in consideration in order to figure out the best candidates [15].
5.1 Thermodynamic properties
Thermodynamic properties are of key importance in the design process of Organic Rankine Cycles,
regarding optimal energy utilization and reducing exergy losses. The following are some important
thermodynamic properties for working fluids:
For a certain heat sink and heat source the Net Power Out, the thermal efficiency and the
second law efficiency should be as high as possible.
The condensing pressure should be higher than the atmospheric pressure to avoid leakage
issues.
In sub-critical cycles the critical pressure for the working fluid must be higher than the
pressure in the evaporator.
Vapor density
The higher the density, the lower the specific volume and volumetric flow rate. Low
volumetric flow is desirable to achieve smaller component and more compact machines.
Low density fluids have high specific volume and need bigger components (heat
exchangers and expander). A bigger component size leads to more expensive units and
more costly systems. Furthermore, a high specific volume increases the pressure drop in
the heat exchangers and needs higher pump work.
Saturation vapor line
Regarding saturation vapor line, there are three kinds of working fluids which are dry,
isentropic and wet working fluids.
Using wet fluid may lead to drop formation at the end of expansion process. The drop
formation can lead to serious damages in turbo machinery expanders. To avoid drop
formation, superheat is necessary but it needs a bigger and more expensive evaporator. By
using dry or isentropic fluids, the problems associated to drop formation can be
eliminated.
Large enthalpy variation in the turbine leads to high Net Work Out.
Higher convective heat coefficient and high-thermal conductivity increases the heat
transfer process between the heat source, the heat sink and the working fluid.
High heat capacity (CP) of the liquid leads to better energy recovery from the heat source
and decrease the mass flow rate of the working fluid.
The working fluid should be thermally and chemically stable.
24
5.2 Heat transfer properties
Heat transfer properties are of key importance and a very important parameter in sizing heat
exchangers. High CP value makes working fluid absorbs efficiently the thermal energy from heat
source. High CP allows a better temperature profile approaches in the heat exchangers and
improves efficiencies. There are many factors affecting the heat transfer process. Some factors are
related to the cycle architecture including piping design, flow rates (Reynolds number) and material
selection. Other factors are related to the working fluid properties and affect the overall heat
transfer capability. The working fluid thermal conductivity (k), specific heat (CP) and viscosity ()
are three key properties used to calculate Prandtl numbers (Pr = *CP/k) which are widely used in
heat exchanger design. It is desirable to have a working fluid with a viscosity as low as possible, and
a specific heat and thermal conductivity as high as possible [31].
5.3 Environmental and Safety Criteria
Environmental and safety criteria are of key importance in working fluid selection however many
working are phased out or on the way to be. The phased out working fluids have high ozone
depletion potential ODP and global warming potential GWP. Some working fluids have good
thermodynamic properties but at the same time have undesirable environmental and safety effects
[2].
According to EC Regulation 2037/2000, many working fluids like CFC, CFCs and HCFCs
refrigerant are already phased out. These refrigerants are banned due to their ozone depletion
potential ODP and global warming potential GWP.
The EC Regulation 2037/2000 affects users, producers, suppliers, maintenance and servicing
engineers, and those involved in the disposal of all ozone depletion substances ODS. The new
regulation includes chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), halons, 1,1,1
trichloroethane, carbon tetrachloride and bromochloromethane (CBM). These refrigerants are
mainly used in refrigeration, air-conditioning, foam blowing, as solvents and in fire fighting.
5.3.1 Environmental data
The environmental data includes global warming potential GWP and ozone depilation potential
ODP. In this thesis, the environmental data are mainly taken from the physical, safety and
environmental data by James M. Calm[1].
5.3.1.1 Global Warming Potential (GWP)
The number of Global Warming Potential (GWP) refers to the amount of global warming caused
by a certain working fluid relative to CO2 for a 100 year time-frame. Or in other words, the GWP is
the ratio of the warming caused by a substance to the warming caused by a similar mass of carbon
dioxide. Thus, the GWP of CO2 is defined to be 1.0. Water has a GWP of 0. Carbon dioxide is
used as reference because it has the greatest net impact on global warming. There are some other
refrigerants which typically have a higher GWP than carbon dioxide but they are available in much
smaller quantities [1,2,30,31].
It is worth here to mention that some GWP values like (
~
20) or (<20) reflect uncertainty in
calculations and there is no scientific consensus at this time [1].
25
5.3.2.2 Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP)
The Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP) refers to refrigerants and other chemicals ability to destroy
stratospheric ozone relative to R11 [1]. According to the United States Environmental Protection
Agency EPA the Ozone Depletion Potential ODP is: The ratio of the impact on ozone of a
chemical compared to the impact of a similar mass of CFC-11. Thus, the ODP of CFC-11 is
defined to be 1.0. Other CFCs and HCFCs have ODPs that range from 0.01 to 1.0.
The halons have ODPs ranging up to 10. Carbon tetrachloride has an ODP of 1.2, and methyl
chloroform's ODP is 0.11. HFCs have zero ODP because they do not contain chlorine [16].
The Ozone Depletion Potential ODP is a very important issue in working fluid selection. The
selected working fluids shouldnt have a very low or zero Ozone Depletion Potential ODP.
Working fluids with any ODP have been or will be phased out, as required by the Monorail
Protocol [31].
5.3.2 Safety data
The safety data in this thesis includes the lower flammability level LFL and safety classification of
working fluids and refrigerants. The safety data are mainly taken from The Physical, Safety and
Environmental Data by James M. Calm[1].
5.3.2.1 Lower flammability limit (LFL)
The lower flammability limit LFL is usually measured in volume percent and refers to the lower end
concentration of a flammable solvent in ambient air when the mixture can ignite in a given
temperature and pressure. There is a variation in LFL values among separate laboratories and that is
because they use different vessels or ignition sources or different evaluation standards [1][32].
5.3.2.2 Safety classification
According to ASHRAE standard 34 (ASHRAE, 2010a and 2010b) the letters A refers to lower
toxicity while the letter B means higher toxicity. The numbers 1,2 and 3 refer to flame propagation,
number 1 means no flame propagation, number 2 means lower flammability and number 3 means
higher flammability. The shortening wwf indicates the worse case of fraction of flammability or
worse case of formulation, and it means that the working fluid is flammable in either vapor or
liquid phase. In some cases group 2 is signified with letter L (like A2L and B2L) and here the letter
L means more difficult to ignite [1].
26
Table 1 Safety classification
5.5 Chemical trends
According to the Application Guide AG 31-007 (2002) from McQuay International the following
trends occur with use of various elements.
The trends are:
Increasing carbon generally increases the molecular weight and the boiling point.
Increasing nitrogen generally makes the compound more reactive. This can lead to toxicity and instability
issues.
Increasing oxygen generally reduces atmospheric stability, which is good for GWP and ODP but may lead
to toxicity, flammability and reactivity issues.
Increasing sulfur generally increases toxicity and decreases stability.
Increasing hydrogen generally reduces atmospheric lifetime, which is good for GWP and ODP but increases
flammability.
Increasing fluorine attached to carbon increases GWP.
Increasing chlorine improves lubricant miscibility but also increases ODP and toxicity.
Increasing bromine increases ODP but lowers flammability.
Using boron in lieu of carbon creates chemicals that are reactive and generally toxic.
Using silicon in lieu of carbon creates substances that adversely react with water and have not performed
well thermodynamically.
According to McQuay International the trends above were presented by Calm, J., David D. Didion,
in ASHRAE/NIST Refrigeration Conference, Oct 6-7, 1997 Atlanta, Ga
3
.
3
Calm, J ., David D. Didion, Oct 6-7, 1996. Tradeoffs in Refrigerant Selections: Past, Present and
Future. Refrigerants for the 21st Century, ASHRAE/NIST Refrigeration Conference. ASHRAE,Atlanta, Ga.
27
5.6 The influence of overheat on cycle efficiency
In many scientific articles it is mentioned that super heat is not necessary for organic fluids as it is
necessary for steam in the Rankine Cycle [15]. Superheat is used in Steam Rankine Cycle mainly in
order to improve the vapor quality when it leaves the expander. Low vapor quality leads to drop
formation in the final stages of the expansion. The superheat in Steam Rankine Cycle can also
improve the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
To study superheat impact on organic fluids, two groups of working fluid have been chosen. The
first group consists of five dry fluids (R236fa, R236ea, RC318, R245fa and Butane) and the second
group consists of five wet fluids (H2S, Ammonia, SO2, R152a and R134a).
In this study the same boundary conditions are applied for both groups. The evaporation
temperature is set to 363K and then the working fluid is superheated to 403K. The condensing
temperature is set to 298K. The pump turbine efficiency is set to 0.7 and no Internal Heat
Exchanger IHE is used.
Figure 15 The effect of superheat on thermal efficiency for dry and wet fluids
Figure (15) shows that the thermal efficiency for dry fluids decreases by increasing the superheat
rate. This means that the superheat is not recommended for dry fluid and it increases the exergy
losses. At the same time wet fluid shows improved thermal efficiency by increasing superheat. Dry
fluids already leave expanders as superheated vapor and therefore no attention needs to be paid to
vapor quality. But for wet fluids the case is different. However some wet fluids may leave the
expander as unsaturated vapor.
360 370 380 390 400 410
0.08
0.09
0.1
0.11
0.12
Turbine inlet temperature [K]
T
h
e
r
m
a
l
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
Thermal efficiency versus turbine inlet temperature(Wet fluids)
H2S.fld
Ammonia.fld
SO2.fld
R152a.fld
R134a.fld
360 370 380 390 400 410
0.08
0.09
0.1
0.11
Turbine inlet temperature [K]
T
h
e
r
m
a
l
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
Thermal efficiency versus turbine inlet temperature(Dry fluids)
R236fa.fld
R236ea.fld
RC318.fld
R245fa.fld
Butane.fld
28
Figure 16 The vapor quality at expander outlet
Figure (16) shows the vapor quality at the end of the expansion process. All studied wet fluids seem
to leave the expander as unsaturated vapor when they expand directly from the saturation vapor
line (at 363K). R134a and R152a show good vapor quality and reach saturated vapor rapidly after
only few degrees of superheat. SO2, Ammonia and H2S are far away from reaching saturation
vapor and they need more superheat than R134a and R152a. H2S has the worse vapor quality,
followed by ammonia and then SO2.
Figure 17 Saturation liquid and vapor lines for some working fluids
360 370 380 390 400 410
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
Turbine inlet temperature [K]
V
a
p
o
r
q
u
a
l
i
t
y
H2S.fld
Ammonia.fld
SO2.fld
R152a.fld
R134a.fld
29
Figure(17) is showing the T-S diagram for studied working fluids and it is clear that there is a direct
relation between liquid quality and the slope (dS/dT) of the saturation vapor line. The lower the the
value of (dS/dT) slope, the better the vapor quality at expander outlet.
This study leads to the conclusion that superheat is desirable for wet fluids because it improves
thermal efficiency and vapor quality. At the same time superheat is not recommended for dry fluids
because it decreases the thermal efficiency and increase evaporator size and costs.
5.7 Saturation vapor line in T-S diagram
An important characteristic to take into account during the working fluid selection is the slope of
the saturation vapor line in the T-S diagram. When it comes to the saturation vapor line, the
working fluids can be sorted in three different categories:
Dry fluids which have positive ds/dt slopes. This category includes working fluids
such as Decane, Nonane, Octane, Toluene, Heptane, Cyclohexane, Hexane, R113,
R365mfc, etc.
Wet fluids which have negative ds/dt slopes. Common working fluids in this
category are Heavy water, Ethanol, Methanol, R21, Sulfur dioxide, DME, etc.
Isentropic fluids with infinitely ds/dt slopes. Such common working fluids are
R142b, Cis-butene, R11, R141b, Acetone, etc.
Figure 18 the T-S diagram for dry, isentropic and wet working
30
There are 104 pure working fluids are investigated in this thesis. The data source for investigated
working fluids is NIST REFPROP 9. The figure below shows the percentage of dry, isentropic and
wet working fluids to the number of total working fluids.
Figure 19 The procentage of dry, isentropic and wet working fluid in NIST REFPROP 9
5.8 The effect of normal boiling point on evaporator and condenser pressure
Figure (20) demonstrates the influence of Normal Boiling Point NBP on evaporator and condenser
pressure
4
. In this figure 51 refrigerants (their NBP between 446.27K (decane) and 248.37K (DME))
were investigated. It is obvious that a higher NBP gives a lower evaporator and condenser pressure
at a certain evaporator and condenser temperature. If we set the evaporator temperature to 363K
and the condenser temperature to 298K, the evaporator and condenser pressures for decane will be
0.18 and 6.3Kpa respectively. The pressure in both evaporator and condenser is lower than the
atmospheric pressure. At the same time the evaporator and condenser pressure for DME will be
587.7 and 2712.6kPa respectively. These pressures are much higher than the atmospheric pressure.
To increase the pressure levels for decane, both evaporation and condensation temperatures should
be increased. Otherwise decane cant be used in Organic Rankine Cycle due to the very low
pressure in both evaporator and condenser and air infiltration problems to the cycle.
4
In this figure the condenser and evaporator pressure are assumed according to condensing
temperature=298K and evaporating temperature=363K.
43%
50%
7%
Wet
Dry
Isentropic
31
Figure 20 influence of Normal Boiling Point NBP on evaporator and condenser pressure
-100
100
300
500
700
900
1100
1300
1500
1700
1900
2100
2300
2500
2700
2900
3100
240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
[
k
P
a
]
Normal Boiling Point NBP [K]
Condenser pressure
Evaporator pressure
Expon. (Condenser pressure )
Expon. (Evaporator pressure)
32
33
6 Simulation scenarios
In this section some thermodynamic models have been created in MatLab and linked to the
working fluids data base in NIST REFPROP 9. The thermodynamic models are created in MatLab
in order to run numerical calculations, simulations and compare the working fluids from a thermo-
physical perspective. To complete the selection process the safety and environmental criteria were
taken into consideration.
In this thesis 104 working fluids supposed to be simulated and investigated in different scenarios
and by applying different boundary. The studied working fluids are listed in appendix 1. Some
working fluids have very high or extremely low normal boiling point NBP. This kind of working
fluids is not suitable for Organic Rankine Cycle when the heat source temperature can vary between
323 - 523K. The high NBP working fluids need very high condensation and evaporation
temperature to keep the pressure in condenser and evaporator over atmospheric pressure. The low
NBP working fluids need extremely low heat source and heat sink temperature. The problem here
is the heat sink when the temperature in condenser should be under 273K For these reasons, some
working fluids cant be used in the simulations.
Every scenario covers a number of working fluids and it is impossible to apply a single scenario to a
very wide range of working fluids. The purpose is that the available data in NIST REFPROP 9 are
limited and not available for a very wide range of temperature and pressure. To give an example,
methyl stearate which has the highest NBP, which has a moderate NBP and helium which has the
lowest NBP are compared in the table below.
Table 2 The upper and lower temperature limits for methyl stearate, DME and helium
Working
fluids name
Normal
boiling
point NBP
[K]
Critical
temperature
[K]
Critical
pressure
[kPa]
Lower
temperature
limit [K]
upper
temperature
limit [K]
methyl stearate 629,56 775 1239 311,84 1000
DME 248,37 400,38 5336,85 131,65 450
helium 4,22 5,2 227,6 2,18 2000
Lower and upper temperature limits in table above refers to the range of available data in NIST
REFPROP 9. To study a working fluid, the boundary conditions of the thermodynamic model
should be within the upper and lower temperature limits for that working fluid to perform the
numerical calculations.
In every scenario two different cycles with same assumptions are investigated. The first cycle is
without Internal Heat Exchanger IHE while the second cycle has an IHE. Here the target is to
study the influence of IHE on cycle performance and efficiencies. Some working fluids show
interesting improvement in terms of thermal efficiency and second law efficiency when IHE is
introduced to the cycle. The efficiency improvement is strongly dependent on the fluid temperature
at turbine outlet. IHE can be introduced when the vapor temperature at turbine outlet is much
higher than the liquid temperature at pump outlet. Dry and isentropic fluids show a better
efficiency improvement than the wet fluids when IHE is introduced in the cycle. In case of using
wet fluids, the working fluid may leave the expander as unsaturated vapor and at a temperature
lower than the fluid temperature at pump outlet. When using dry or isentropic working fluids, the
working fluid leaves the expander as superheated vapor. Expander efficiency and superheat rate are
some of the factors which can affect the vapor temperature at expander outlet. The lower the
expander efficiency and the higher the superheat rate, the higher the vapor temperature at expander
34
outlet. IHE extracts the thermal energy from the superheated vapor and supply it to the working
fluid at pump outlet. IHE reduces exergy losses and increases thermal and second low efficiencies.
35
6.1 Scenario 1
Scenario 1 is a case study of superheat impact on cycle performance. The condenser and evaporator
temperatures are set to 298K and 363K respectively. After the working fluid evaporates in the
evaporator and reaches the saturated vapor line, it is subjected to extra thermal energy in order to
be superheated. When the working fluid is superheated, it leaves the evaporator and enters the
expander to produce useful work. The numerical calculations consist of 20 loops. In the first loop
the working fluid leaves the evaporator at saturation vapor line and enters the expander. In the
following loops the working fluid is subjected to extra thermal energy until it is superheated by 40K
higher than evaporator temperature. The superheating process takes place in 20 loops and in every
new loop the working fluid temperature is exceeded by extra 2K than the. The figure below shows
the process in scenario 1.
Figure 21 Overheat process in scenario 1
36
6.1.1 Flow chart
Run equations of state
Start
Set boundary conditions
Calculate Net Work Out
Calculate evaporator and
condenser effects
Calculate volumetric flow and
expansion ratio
Calculate thermal efficiency and
second law efficiency
Generate graphs
T3 = 423K
End
T3=T3 + 2
Yes
No
37
6.1.2 Simulation assumptions
The cycle is considered to work in a steady state
Pressure drop in heat exchangers is neglected
Isentropic efficiency for pump and expander assumed to be 0.7
Mass flow rate = 1 kg/s
Ambient temperature TAmb = 298 K
Heat sinks temperature TSink = 288 K
Condensing temperature TCond. = 298 K
Evaporating temperature TEvap. = 363K
Heat source temperature
Tin=423K
Tout varies depending on the selected working fluid and the amount of superheat.
Pinch points for evaporator and condenser 10K and 5K respectively
Condensing and evaporating pressure can be estimated from saturation liquid and
respective temperature in condensing and evaporating temperature; this pressure can vary
from one working fluid to another
The temperature at turbine inlet starts at 363K which is the evaporating temperature;
overheating takes place in 20 stages of 2K until the 40 K overheating is reached
Recuperator or Internal Heat Exchanger (IHE) efficiency is set to 0.8.
Scenario 1 can only cover a number of working fluids in appendix 1 and not all of them. Many
working fluids have very high or very low critical temperature. When the critical temperature is too
high, the pressure in condenser becomes very low and much lower than atmospheric pressure.
When the critical temperature is lower than 363K, it is impossible to perform a subcritical cycle
because the evaporator temperature will be higher than the critical temperature for the working
fluid. The critical temperature should be enough higher than evaporation pressure to avoid very low
pressure in condenser an evaporator temperature higher than critical pressure. To deal with
working fluids with high critical temperature and to overcome the low condensing pressure
problems, condensing temperature can be raised (see scenario 2). To deal with working fluids which
have quite low critical temperature trans-critical or supercritical cycles can be performed. Using
working fluid with very high critical pressure, the condensing pressure becomes very low if
condensing temperature is set 298K. The working fluids in scenario 1 are chosen according to the
following criteria:
The condenser pressure is higher than the atmospheric pressure at condenser
temperature which is 298K.
The critical temperature is higher than 363K which is the evaporation temperature
38
Table 3 Selected working fluids in scenario 1
Table 3 shows the selected working fluids for scenario 1. The table contains 35 working fluids
which are arranged according to their NBP. R11 has the highest NPB = 296.7K and hydrogen has
the lowest NBP = 212.7K.
Figure (22) shows the relation between NBP and pressure ratio in for the working fluids in scenario
1. It is obvious that the higher the NBP, the higher the pressure ratio. Most of working fluids are
fitting very well with exponential relation between NBP and pressure ratio. The working fluids
which are far away from the exponential trend-line (points inside ellipse) present heavy water D2O,
water, ethanol and methanol which all are wet fluids. These wet fluids have much higher pressure
ratio than other refrigerants with similar NBP. These working fluids and R21 are the only wet fluids
having NBP higher than 273K.
Name or Number NBP [K] Critical temp. [K] Critical pr. [kPa] Safty group Atm. life time ODP GWP (100 yr) Expansion
1 R245ca 298,13 447,42 3925 - 6,5 0 726 dry
2 R11 296,708 470,96 4407,6 A1 45 1 4750 isentropic
3 R245fa 288,14 427 3651 B1 7,7 0 1050 dry
4 R601b Neopentane 282,5 433,6 3196 0 20 dry
5 R21 281,86 451,33 5181 B1 1,7 0,04 151 wet
6 R236ea 279,2 412,29 3502 11 0 1410 dry
7 Cis-butene 276,72 435,6 4225,5 isentropic
8 R114 276,6 427,7 3257 A1 190 0,58 9180 dry
9 Trans-butene 273,88 428,46 4027 A3 0,018 0 20 dry
10 R600 BUTANE 272,5 425 3800 A3 0,018 0 20 dry
11 R236fa 271,6 397,9 3200 A1 242 0 9820 dry
12 Perflourobutane 270,99 386,18 2323 dry
13 RC318 267 388,2 2780 A1 3200 0 10300 dry
14 Butene 266,69 419,14 4005 dry
15 Isobutene 266 506,96 4010 dry
16 R142b 263,9 410,1 4060 A2 17,2 0,06 2220 isentropic
17 Sulfur dioxide 263 430,5 7090 B1 0 wet
18 Isobutane 261,3 407,7 3630 A3 0,016 0 20 dry
19 R124 261 395,3 3062 A1 5,9 0,02 619 dry
20 R152a 258,98 386,26 4517 A2 1,5 0 140 wet
21 R227ea 256,7 374,8 2930 A1 38,9 0 3580 dry
22 R1234ze[E] 254 382,4 3640 0,045 0 6 dry
23 CF3i 251,15 396,29 3953 wet
24 DME 248,2 400,23 5340 A3 0,015 0 wet
25 R134a 247 374 4059 A1 14,6 0 1300 wet
26 R1234yf 243,5 367,7 3380 A2L 0,029 0 4,4 dry
27 R12 243,2 385 414 A1 100 0,82 10900 wet
28 C270 Cyclopropane 241,8 398,2 5580 0,44 0 20 wet
29 Ammonia 239,7 405,25 11333 B2L 0,02 0 1 wet
30 R161 235,4 375,2 5090 0,18 0 12 wet
31 R22 232,2 369,1 4990 A1 11,9 0,04 1790 wet
32 R290 Propane 231 369,7 4247 A3 wet
33 R1270 Propylene 225,4 364,1 4560 A3 0,001 0 20 wet
34 Carbonyl sulfide 222,84 378,62 6370 wet
35 Hydrogensulfide 212,7 372,95 9000 wet
39
Figure 22 Relation between NBP and pressure ratio
6.1.3 Simulation results
Under this section simulation results are presented for the top 5 working fluids which show the
highest thermal efficiencies among the studied working fluids. The working fluids are listed in the
table below and have no or very low ODP, very low GWP, very low atmospheric life, low toxicity
(except ammonia) and low flammability. SO2 can be very harmful if any moisture exists in the cycle.
A reaction between SO2 and water may take place and result H2SO3 which is a corrosive acid.
Table 4 The best working fluids in scenario 1
Name or number Safety group Atmospheric
life
Ozone
depletion
potential ODP
Global warming
potential GWP
(100 year)
Ammonia B2L 0.02 0 1
Cyclopropane n.a. 0.44 0 ~20
5
R152a A2 1.5 0 140
Sulfur dioxide SO2 B1 n.a.
6
0 n.a.
R21 B1 1.7 0.04 151
Simulation results for other working fluids in scenario 1 are presented in appendix 2 scenario 1.
6.1.3.1 Volumetric flow rate and expansion ratio
The volumetric flow rate is an important parameter in Organic Rankine Cycle design and
component sizing. The higher the volumetric flow rate, the bigger the component size and the
higher the work absorbed by the fluid circulation pump. Volumetric flow rate at turbine inlet
5
(~) refers to approximated value with some uncertainty in calculations according to [1]
6
Information not available
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
240 290 340 390 440 490
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
r
a
t
i
o
Normal Boiling Pioint NBP
Pressure ratio
Pressure ratio
Expon. (Pressure ratio)
40
together with expansion ratio gives important information about expander design. Volumetric flow
rate at expander inlet can be calculated by dividing mass flow rate to the density at expander inlet.
Where
Where
Where
360 370 380 390 400 410
0
50
100
150
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
k
g
]
Net Work Out versus expander inlet temperature
360 370 380 390 400 410
0
2000
4000
6000
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
(
m
3
)
]
Net Work Out
Ammonia.fld
Cyclopro.fld
R152a.fld
SO2.fld
R21.fld
Ammonia.fld
Cyclopro.fld
R152a.fld
SO2.fld
R21.fld
43
According to the first law of thermodynamics, the thermal efficiency can never exceed 100%
because energy output never exceeds energy input and there is always irreversibility in the cycle.
0% <
< 100%
Figure 25 The thermal efficincy versus expander inlet temperature
Figure (25) illustrates the thermal efficiencies for Ammonia, Cyclopropane, R152a, SO2, and R21.
The solid lines refer to the cycle without an internal heat exchanger IHE and the dashed lines refer
to the cycle which has an internal heat exchanger IHE. When no IHE is introduced in the cycle,
SO2 has the highest thermal efficiency and R152a has the lowest among the illustrated working
fluids. IHE improves the thermal efficiency for Cyclopropane, R21 and R152a, and the difference
between the solid and dashed lines represents IHEs impact on cycle efficiency. Ammonia is not
showing any improvement and an explanation can be that Ammonia leaves the expander as
unsaturated vapor. Ammonias temperature in unsaturated region is the same as condensing
temperature (298K), which is lower than the temperature at pump outlet. For other working fluids
in figure (25) IHE can be used when the fluid temperature at expander outlet is higher enough than
the temperature at pump outlet.
6.1.3.4 Second law efficiency
The second law efficiency (or exergy efficiency) represents the ratio of the total exergy output to
exergy input. The exergy is defined as the maximum work potential of a system or component at a
given state in a specified environment. Exergy efficiency is a very useful tool which can be used to
investigate and compare working fluids with each other. The importance of second law efficiency
resides in its ability to give a clearer picture about system losses, performance and potential
360 370 380 390 400 410
0.095
0.1
0.105
0.11
0.115
0.12
Expander inlet temperature [K]
T
h
e
r
m
a
l
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
Thermal efficiency versus expander inlet temperature
Ammonia.fld
Cyclopro.fld
R152a.fld
SO2.fld
R21.fld
44
improvements. The second law efficiency is an important parameter to assess which working fluid
is better for a given heat source and heat sink temperature.
According to D.Y. Wang the exergy efficiency evaluates the proximity of the real and Carnot cycle
[18].
(1
)
Where
is the arithmetic mean temperature between heat sink inlet and outlet temperature in condenser
is the arithmetic mean temperature between heat source inlet and outlet temperature in
evaporator
The temperature of heat source decrease in evaporator while the temperature of heat sink increase
in condenser and
and
becomes [14],
2
Where
represent the heat sink temperature at condenser outlet and inlet
respectively.
2
Where
represent the heat source temperature at heat exchangers inlet
and outlet respectively.
varies with superheat and the higher the superheat, the higher
the heat source temperature at heat exchangers outlet.
45
Figure 26 The effect of superheat on heat source temperature at heat exchanger outlet
Figure (26) shows three cases where the superheat is 0K, 15K and 30K respectively. The heat
source temperature at heat exchanger inlet is set to 423K. At heat exchanger outlet, the heat source
temperature varies between 330K and 345K as working fluid temperature at expander inlet varies
from 363K to 393K due to superheat.
2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6
x 10
5
280
300
320
340
360
380
400
420
440
460
Entahlpy [J /kg]
T
e
m
p
.
[
K
]
R152a
superheat =0
superheat =15
superheat =30
PinchPoint
46
Figure 27 The second law efficiency versus expander inlet temperature
Figure (27) shows the second law efficiency for Ammonia, Cyclopropane, R152a, SO2 and R21. It
is clear that the second law efficiency increases with the superheat for all working fluids. In cycles
without IHE, SO2 and ammonia show high efficiency (solid lines) but by introducing an IHE to
the cycle, the highest efficiency can be achieved by Cyclopropane and R152a. In this scenario
ammonia doesnt need IHE because the vapor temperature at expander outlet is lower than the
fluid temperature at pump outlet. SO2 has a very low potential compared with R152a and
Cylopropane.
6.1.3.5 Evaporator and condenser load
In this section the heat added to evaporators and the heat rejected from condensers are studied.
This parameter is of key importance in the design of heat exchangers. It is also important to figure
out the influence of IHE on the needed heat to be supplied to the evaporator and rejected from the
condenser. The extra costs for investing and introducing an IHE in the cycle can be compensated
by the reduction in evaporators and condensers load and size. Figure (28) shows the evaporators
and condensers load as a function of expander inlet and outlet temperature.
360 370 380 390 400 410
0.41
0.42
0.43
0.44
0.45
0.46
0.47
Expander inlet temperature [kPa]
S
e
c
o
n
d
l
a
w
e
f
f
e
c
i
e
n
c
y
Second law effeciency versus expander inlet temperature
Ammonia.fld
Cyclopro.fld
R152a.fld
SO2.fld
R21.fld
47
Figure 28 The heat addition and heat rejection rates for ammonia, cyclopropane, R152a, SO2 and R21
The difference between the solid and the dashed lines represents the amount of energy which can
be extracted from the working fluid at expander outlet and be added to the working fluid at pump
outlet. Solid lines refer to cycle without internal heat exchanger IHE and dashed lines refer to cycle
including IHE.
360 370 380 390 400 410
0
500
1000
1500
Expander inlet temperature [K]
H
e
a
t
a
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
t
o
e
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
o
r
[
k
W
]
Heat addition versus expander inlet temperature
290 300 310 320 330 340 350
0
500
1000
1500
Expander outlet temperature [K] H
e
a
t
r
e
j
e
c
t
i
o
n
b
y
c
o
n
d
e
n
s
e
r
[
k
W
]
Heat rejection versus expander outlet temperature
Ammonia.fld
Cyclopro.fld
R152a.fld
SO2.fld
R21.fld
Ammonia.fld
Cyclopro.fld
R152a.fld
SO2.fld
R21.fld
48
49
6.2 Scenario 2
The idea behind scenario 2 is the same as the one in scenario 1 with some simple differences like
heat source, condensing and evaporating temperatures. These temperatures are quite higher than in
scenario 1 in order to investigate and cover more working fluids which werent included in scenario
1. The low condensing temperature in scenario 1 was leading to low condensing pressure and in
some cases a pressure lower than the atmospheric pressure. Subsequently many working fluids were
abandoned in order to avoid air infiltration into the system. In scenario 2 the condensing
temperature is much higher and many new working fluids with high NBP and critical temperature
can be investigated. The heat sink source can be a district heating system which can extract heat
from the working fluid in the condenser and use it for heating a building, offices, etc.
6.2.1 Simulation assumptions
Following are the assumption for scenario 2
The cycle is considered to work at steady state
Pressure drop in heat exchangers is neglected
Isentropic efficiency for pump and expander is assumed to be 0.7
Mass flow rate = 1 kg/s
Ambient temperature TAmb = 298 K
Heat sinks temperature TSink = 333 K
Condensing temperature TCond. = 373 K
Evaporating temperature TEvap. = 473K
Heat source temperature.
Tin=533K
Tout varies depending on the selected working fluid and the amount of superheat.
Pinch points for evaporator and condenser are 10K
Condensing and evaporating pressures can be estimated from the saturation liquid and
from the respective condensing and evaporating temperatures. These pressures can vary
from one working fluid to another
The temperature at expander inlet starts at 473K which is the evaporation temperature and
overheating takes place in 20 stages of 2K until 40 K overheating is reached
Recuperator or Internal Heat Exchanger (IHE) efficiency is set to 0.8
The condensation and evaporation temperatures are too high in this scenario and much higher than
the critical temperature for many working fluids. For this reason, many working fluid with low
critical temperature cant be used in this scenario.
The chosen working fluids in scenario 2 have critical temperatures higher than 463K which is the
evaporation temperature and the condenser temperature is set to 373K. Table (5) shows the
investigated working fluids in scenario 2 and their environmental and safety data are not available.
50
Table 5 The suitable working fluids for scenario 2
It is worth here to mention that water is used in this scenario just to compare its performance with
other working fluids. It is clear that using water in this cycle will lead to performing a Stem Rankine
Cycle and not Organic Rankine Cycle.
6.2.2 Simulation results
The table below shows the working fluids that show the highest thermal efficiency in scenario 2.
Table 6 The best working fluids in scenario 2
Name or number Safety group Atmospheric
life
Ozone
depletion
potential ODP
Global warming
potential GWP
(100 year)
Heavy water D2O n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Toluene n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Water n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Methanol n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Acetone n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Simulation results for other working fluids in scenario 2 are presented in appendix 2 scenario 2
Methanol, toluene and acetone are known as a flammable working fluids and it is clear that water
has the best environmental and safety data like non-flammability, non-toxicity, etc.
51
6.2.2.1 Volumetric flow rate and expansion ratio
The volumetric flow rate is a significant parameter in sizing components and system design. A low
volumetric flow rate is desirable to reduce components size and material costs when a new system
is being designed and built. Figure (29) shows that water has the highest volumetric flow rate at
expander inlet while acetone has the lowest. This is due to Acetone has a higher density than water
at expander inlet. The expansion ratio together with the volumetric flow rate at expander inlet gives
value information for sizing the expander and determining how big the expander outlet will be.
Increasing the superheat rate increases the volumetric flow rate and decreases the expansion ratio.
Figure 29 The volumetric flow rate and expansion ratio for D2O, toluene, water, methanol and acetone
Heavy water D2O and water have the highest expansion ratio and together with their high
volumetric flow rate, the components size will be huge compared with acetone. Acetone has the
lowest volumetric flow rate and expansion ratio. Using acetone as a working fluid leads to designing
a very compact Organic Rankine cycle system. The expansion process seems to be liner for Heavy
water D2O, water and toluene while it is non-liner for methanol and acetone.
6.2.2.2 Net Work Out
Figure (30) below shows that water gives the highest Net Work Out per kg working fluid. The next
highest Net Work Out is achieved by heavy water D2O, and methanol gives over 110 kJ/ kg before
overheat, while acetone and toluene give the lowest Net Work Out per kg working fluid. The Net
Work Out increases for all working fluids with the increasing of the superheat rate, and the Net
Work Out achieved by acetone exceeds that of toluene when the superheat rate increases.
470 480 490 500 510 520
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
Working fluid temperatur at expander inlet [K]
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c
f
l
o
w
r
a
t
e
[
m
3
/
s
]
Volumetric flow rate at expander inlet
D2O.fld
Toluene.fld
Water.fld
Methanol.fld
Acetone.fld
470 480 490 500 510 520
8
10
12
14
Working fluid temperatur at expander inlet [K]
E
x
p
a
n
s
i
o
n
r
a
t
i
o
[
-
]
Expansion ratio versus expander inlet temperature
D2O.fld
Toluene.fld
Water.fld
Methanol.fld
Acetone.fld
52
Figure 30 The Net Work Out versus expander inlet temperature
Regarding the Net Work Out per volumetric flow rate at expander inlet (lower graph of figure (30)),
methanol gives the highest value and the next highest value is given by acetone. Water and heavy
water D2O give almost the same value and toluene has the lowest value. Here the working fluid
density is affecting the Net Work Out in kJ/m
3
. The higher the working fluid density, the lower the
volumetric flow rate and the higher the Net Work Out in kJ/m
3
.
6.2.2.3 Thermal efficiency
Water and heavy water D2O has the highest thermal efficiency when no IHE is introduced to the
cycle and acetone has the lowest (solid lines). The thermal efficiency increases by increasing
superheat for all working fluids except toluene which is the only dry fluid. Introducing IHE (dashed
lines) to the cycle improves the thermal efficiency for toluene and acetone. The thermal efficiency
for toluene becomes higher than that for water and heavy water when enough superheat is applied.
Water and heavy water are wet fluids and introducing IHE in the cycle doesnt improve their
thermal efficiency because they leave the expander at a temperature lower than the fluid
temperature at pump outlet. Methanol is also a wet working fluid and shows a slight efficiency
improvement when fluid temperature exceeds 510K at expander inlet.
470 480 490 500 510 520
0
100
200
300
400
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
k
g
]
Net Work Out versus expander inlet temperature
470 480 490 500 510 520
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
(
m
3
)
]
Net Work Out
D2O.fld
Toluene.fld
Water.fld
Methanol.fld
Acetone.fld
D2O.fld
Toluene.fld
Water.fld
Methanol.fld
Acetone.fld
53
Figure 31 The thermal efficincy versus expander inlet temperature
6.2.2.4 Second law efficiency
The behavior of second law efficiency is quite similar to that of thermal efficiency. Without
introducing IHE (solid lines), water and heavy water D2O give the highest second law efficiency
and acetone gives the lowest. The second law efficiency increases by increasing superheat rate for
all working fluids except toluene. Introducing IHE (dashed lines) improves dramatically the second
law efficiency for toluene and acetone and slightly for methanol. The second law efficiency for
toluene becomes higher than water and heavy water D2O as soon as IHE introduced. Figure (32)
shows how dramatically the second law efficiency changes for toluene and acetone.
Figure 32 The second law efficiency versus expander inlet temperature
470 475 480 485 490 495 500 505 510 515
0.1
0.11
0.12
0.13
0.14
0.15
0.16
Expander inlet temperature [K]
T
h
e
r
m
a
l
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
Thermal efficiency versus expander inlet temperature
D2O.fld
Toluene.fld
Water.fld
Methanol.fld
Acetone.fld
470 475 480 485 490 495 500 505 510 515
0.38
0.4
0.42
0.44
0.46
0.48
Expander inlet temperature [kPa]
S
e
c
o
n
d
l
a
w
e
f
f
e
c
i
e
n
c
y
Second law effeciency versus expander inlet temperature
D2O.fld
Toluene.fld
Water.fld
Methanol.fld
Acetone.fld
54
6.2.2.5 Heat addition and heat rejection rates
Figure (33) shows that wet working fluids have high heat addition and heat rejection rates. Acetone
(isentropic fluid) and toluene have lower heat addition and heat rejection rates and their rates
decrease when IHE is introduced.
Figure 33 The heat addition and heat rejection rates for D2O, toluene, water, methanol and acetone
470 480 490 500 510 520
0
1000
2000
3000
Expander outlet temperature [K]
H
e
a
t
a
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
t
o
e
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
o
r
[
k
W
]
Heat addition versus expander inlet temperature
360 380 400 420 440 460 480
0
1000
2000
3000
Expander outlet temperature [K] H
e
a
t
r
e
j
e
c
t
i
o
n
b
y
c
o
n
d
e
n
s
e
r
[
k
W
]
Heat rejection versus expander outlet temperature
D2O.fld
Toluene.fld
Water.fld
Methanol.fld
Acetone.fld
D2O.fld
Toluene.fld
Water.fld
Methanol.fld
Acetone.fld
55
6.3 Scenario 3
In this scenario the evaporator pressure is raised to different levels in order to investigate its impact
on the Net Work Out, the cycle efficiency and the cycle performance. It is clear that a higher
evaporator pressure needs a higher pump work and requires a higher evaporation temperature.
Figure (34) shows that a higher evaporator pressure leads also to a higher heat rejection rate by the
condenser if no IHE is introduced. By varying evaporator pressure, the Organic Rankine Cycle can
be adjusted to deal with different heat source temperature levels. The higher the evaporator
pressure, the higher the temperature at which heat added to the working fluid.
Vapor quality significantly varies depending on the used working fluid. The vapor quality at
expander outlet for dry and isentropic fluids increases by increasing the evaporation pressure while
the expansion process starts directly from saturation vapor line. At the same time the vapor quality
for wet fluids may decrease depending on the slope of saturation vapor line and expander
efficiency. Figures (34) and (35) show the process on T-S diagrams for dry, respectively wet
working fluids.
The expansion process starts from the saturation vapor line and at evaporator pressure and ends at
condenser pressure. Using isentropic or dry fluids, the working fluid leaves the expander as
superheated vapor (points 4, 4, 4 and 4 Figures (34)) and this represents a good advantage for
turbo machinery expanders.
Figure 34 The working process and pressure increase loops in scenario 3 (dry fluid)
For wet fluids, the working fluid may leave the expander as unsaturated vapor. The vapor quality
decreases by increasing evaporator pressure figure (35). To avoid drop formation and improve
vapor quality, superheat can be used. Drops formation can induce serious damages in the expander
blades in turbo machinery expanders. Screw and scroll expanders can deal with low vapor quality
and can be used instead of turbo machinery expanders. Figure (35) shows the expansion processes
using wet fluids.
56
Figure 35 The working process and pressure increase loops in scenario 3 (wet fluid)
57
6.3.1 Flow chart
Start
Set boundary conditions
Run equations of state
Calculate Net Work Out
Calculate evaporator and
condenser effects
Calculate volumetric flow and
expansion ratio
Calculate thermal efficiency and
second law efficiency
Generate graphs
PEvap = PCritcal
End
PEvap= PEvap + 100
No
Yes
58
6.3.2 Simulation assumptions
Following assumptions are applied in scenario 3
The cycle is considered to work in a steady state
Pressure drop in heat exchangers is neglected
Isentropic efficiency for pump and expander is assumed to be 0.7
Mass flow rate m = 1 kg/s
Ambient temperature TAmb = 298 K
Heat sinks temperature TSink = 288 K
Condensing temperature TCond. = 298 K
Source temperature is considered to be 20 K higher than the temperature at expander inlet.
The mass flow rates of the heat source and the heat sink fluids are considered to be large
enough so that the temperature between inlet and outlet is 20K and 5K respectively
Pinch-point for condenser is set to 5K
Recuperator or IHE efficiency is 0.8
The suitable working fluids for scenario 3 are the same as the investigated working fluids in
scenario 1 due condensation temperature is the same.
6.3.3 Simulation results
The following table shows the working fluids which demonstrated the highest thermal efficiency in
scenario 3.
Table 7 The working fluids which have the highest thermal efficiency in scenario 3
Name or number Safety group Atmospheric
life (year)
Ozone
depletion
potential ODP
Global warming
potential GWP
(100 year)
Trans-butene A3 0.018 0 ~20
Cis-butene n.a.
7
n.a. n.a. n.a.
Butene n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Sulfur dioxide SO2 B1 n.a. 0 n.a.
Butane A3 0.018 0 ~20
Simulation results for other working fluids in scenario 3 are presented in appendix 2 scenario 3
Environmental and safety data are not available for Cis-butene and Butene. Trans-butene and
Butane are highly flammable, Sulfur dioxide is a toxic working fluid and can be very corrosive if any
moisture exists in the system.
6.3.3.1 Net Work Out
Figure (36) shows that Cis-butene has the highest Net Work Out and it increases when the
expander inlet temperature increases. The optimal expander inlet temperature for Cis-butene is
7
Not available
59
around 422K and at this temperature the Net Work Out reaches its highest value. The equivalent
evaporator pressure at 422K is 3410kPa. A further pressure increase leads to a reduction in Net
Work Out. Sulfur dioxide has the lowest Net Work Out and its optimal temperature at expander
inlet is around 405K.
Figure 36 The Net Work Out (kJ/kg) versus expander inlet temperature
Figure (37) shows the Net Work Out in terms of kJ/m
3
. Here m
3
refers to the volume of working
fluid at expander inlet. The working fluid density at expander inlet increases with evaporator
pressure and subsequently the specific volume of working fluid decrease. SO2 has the highest Net
Work Out in kJ/m
3
while it has the lowest in kJ/kg. The explanation is that SO2 compared to
other working fluids, has much higher density and low specific volume at expander inlet. The
relation for Cis-butene is different; it has the highest Net Work Out in kJ/kg and the lowest Net
Work Out in kJ/m
3
. This is because Cis-butenes density is too low and its specific volume is too
high at expander inlet. The Net Work Out in kJ/m
3
increases very rapidly when the evaporator
pressure increases approaches pressure (right side of figure (37)).
320 340 360 380 400 420 440
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
k
g
]
Net Work Out versus expander inlet temperature
C2butene.fld
T2butene.fld
Butane.fld
SO2.fld
1Butene.fld
60
Figure 37 The Net Work Out (kJ/m3) versus expander inlet temperature
6.3.3.2 Volumetric flow rate
The volumetric flow rate is directly proportional to specific volume and inversely proportional to
fluid density. Cis-butene has the highest volumetric flow rate at expander inlet and it is slightly
higher than the volumetric flow rate for Trans-butene. SO2 has the lowest volumetric flow rate.
The volumetric flow rates decrease dramatically when the expander pressure approaches the critical
pressure (right side of figure (38)).
Figure 38 The volumetric flow rate versus expander inlet temperature
320 340 360 380 400 420 440
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
x 10
4
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
(
m
3
)
]
Net Work Out
C2butene.fld
T2butene.fld
Butane.fld
SO2.fld
1Butene.fld
320 340 360 380 400 420 440
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
Expander inlet temperature [K]
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c
f
l
o
w
r
a
t
e
[
m
3
/
m
i
n
]
Volumetric flow rate at expander inlet
C2butene.fld
T2butene.fld
Butane.fld
SO2.fld
1Butene.fld
61
6.3.3.3 Evaporator load
Figure (39) represents the heat absorbed by evaporator versus expander inlet temperature. The
expander inlet temperature increases as result of increasing the evaporator pressure. The solid lines
represent cycles without IHE and the dashed lines present cycles with IHE. The use of IHE leads
to a reduction in heat requirements from the heat source. IHE recovers the heat energy from the
working fluid when it leaves the expander at a temperature higher than the one at pump outlet. SO2
doesnt need IHE because it is a wet fluid and it leaves the expander at a temperature lower than
the one at pump outlet. SO2 may leave the expander as unsaturated vapor while other working
fluids are dry fluids and leave the expander as superheated vapor, and at a temperature higher than
the temperature at pump outlet.
Figure 39 The heat added to evaporator versus expander inlet temperature
6.3.3.4 Thermal efficiency
The highest thermal efficiency is achieved by sulfur dioxide SO2 when no IHE is introduced in the
cycle (solid lines). Cis-butene gives a higher thermal efficiency than Sulfur dioxide if IHE is
introduced in the cycle (dashed lines). Butene gives the lowest thermal efficiency. The thermal
efficiency for all working fluids increases when the expander inlet temperature increases. Figure
(40) shows that every working fluid has its optimal expander inlet pressure and the equivalent
temperatures vary between 405K 430K. Further increasing in pressure leads higher expander
inlet temperature and reduction in thermal efficiency. The increased temperature is achieved by
increasing evaporator pressure.
320 340 360 380 400 420 440
250
300
350
400
450
500
Expander inlet temperature [K]
Q
e
(
e
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
o
r
)
[
k
W
]
Heat absorbed by evaporator versus expander inlet temperature
C2butene.fld
T2butene.fld
Butane.fld
SO2.fld
1Butene.fld
62
Figure 40 The thermal efficincy for cis-butene, trans-butene, butane, SO2 and butene
6.3.3.5 Second law efficiency
When no IHE is introduced to the cycle (solid lines), the highest second law efficiency is achieved
by SO2while Cis-butene shows the next highest one. Introducing IHE to the cycle (dashed lines)
makes Cis-butene and Butane give higher efficiency than SO2 figure (41). The second law efficiency
for all working fluids is increased until the expander inlet temperature reaches 370K. In the range of
370K 390K all working fluids show the highest second law efficiency. When the expander inlet
temperature exceeds 390K, the second law efficiency decreases for all working fluids.
Figure 41 The second law efficincy for cis-butene, trans-butene, butane, SO2 and butene
320 340 360 380 400 420 440
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
0.16
Expander inlet temperature [K]
T
h
e
r
m
a
l
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
%
Thermal efficiency versus expander inlet temperature
C2butene.fld
T2butene.fld
Butane.fld
SO2.fld
1Butene.fld
320 340 360 380 400 420 440
0.32
0.34
0.36
0.38
0.4
0.42
0.44
0.46
0.48
Expander inlet temperature [K]
S
e
c
o
n
d
l
a
w
e
f
f
e
c
i
e
n
c
y
Second law effeciency versus expander inlet temperature
C2butene.fld
T2butene.fld
Butane.fld
SO2.fld
1Butene.fld
63
Thermal efficiency improvement
The best wet fluids in scenario 3 are SO2, R152a, DME, cychlopropane and ammonia. Simulating
these working fluids in scenario 3 will give the optimal evaporator pressure for the best thermal
efficiency. Simulating these working fluids in scenario 1 and applying the optimal evaporator
pressure and then applying superheat can increase the efficiency further more.
Figure 42 The thermal efficiency for the best wet working fluids in scenario 3
SO2 has the best thermal efficiency and ammonia has the next best. DME and cyclopropane has
almost the same thermal efficiency while R152a has the lowest. The optimal pressures and
equivalent temperatures for these working fluids are listed in the following table.
Table 8 The optimal pressure and maximum efficincy for SO2, R152a, DME, ammonia and cyclopropane (wet
fluids)
Working fluid Optimal
evaporator
pressure [kPa]
Equivalent
evaporator
temperature [K]
Maximum efficiency %
Sulfur dioxide SO2 6574 6774 419,9 421,6 14,71
R152a 3987 - 4087 379,87 381,17 10,38
DME 4527 4729 390,91 393,39 11,48
Ammonia 9623 9823 396,17 397,32 12,60
Cyclopropane 4960 5060 391,22 392,44 11,48
Figure (43) illustrate the thermal efficiency improvement by using the optimal evaporator pressure
and the subjecting the working fluid to 40K superheat. In this investigation, the same
300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
0.16
Expander inlet temperature [K]
T
h
e
r
m
a
l
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
Thermal efficiency versus expander inlet temperature
SO2.fld
R152a.fld
DME.fld
Ammonia.fld
Cyclopro.fld
64
thermodynamic model as the one in scenario 1 is used. Only change is made to the old model, the
evaporator pressure is set the optimal pressure for every working fluid.
Figure 43 Thermal efficiency improvement after superheat
Figure (43) shows that the thermal efficiency for all working fluids has been improved. The change
in thermal efficiency is listed in the table below.
Table 9 The thermal efficiency improvment
Working fluid Thermal
efficiency before
overheat %
Thermal
efficiency after
superheat %
Thermal efficiency
improvement %
Sulfur dioxide SO2 14,71 16,08 9,31
R152a 10,38 11,96 15,22
DME 11,48 13,05 13,68
Ammonia 12,60 14,13 12,14
Cyclopropane 11,48 13,11 14,20
Sulfur dioxide SO2 still has the highest thermal efficiency among the investigated working fluids.
The trend here is that the working fluids which already have a high thermal efficiency shows lower
efficiency improvement than working fluids with low thermal efficiency. R152a has the lowest
thermal efficiency before superheating (10,38%) but its efficiency improvement is the highest
(15,22%).
370 380 390 400 410 420 430 440 450 460
0.1
0.11
0.12
0.13
0.14
0.15
0.16
0.17
Expander inlet temperature [K]
T
h
e
r
m
a
l
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
Thermal efficiency versus expander inlet temperature
SO2.fld
R152a.fld
DME.fld
Ammonia.fld
Cyclopro.fld
65
6.4 Scenario 4
A super- or trans-critical cycle is another possible solution for some system configurations to
recover thermal heat from low grade temperature heat source and convert it to electrical power. In
these cycles working fluids with low normal boiling NBP can be used. The system may operate
under a very high evaporator or both evaporator and condenser pressures. High pressure means a
stronger material should be used to withstand mechanical stresses in heat exchangers and the piping
system. On the other hand the high pressure in the system triggers a higher working fluid density
and a lower volumetric flow rate. Subsequently more compact machines can be built with a smaller
component size.
In scenario 4 the working fluid is pressurized to a pressure higher than the critical pressure. The
heat is supplied to the working fluid at a constant pressure in the evaporator. The expansion
process is considered to start at an entropy rate given by condenser pressure and a vapor quality
equal to 0.9. Figure (44) shows the process in T-S diagram for a wet working fluid. The blue line in
T-S shows how the expansion process occurs. Points 3, 3, 3, 3 refer to different pressure levels
in the evaporator.
Figure 44 The working process and expansion in scenario 4
66
6.4.1 Flow chart
Start
Set boundary conditions
Run equations of state
Calculate Net Work Out
Calculate evaporator and
condenser effects
Calculate volumetric flow and
expansion ratio
Calculate thermal efficiency and
second law efficiency
Generate graphs
n = 30
End
PEvap = PEvap + 100 kPa
No
Yes
67
6.4.2 Simulation assumptions
The cycle is considered to work in a steady state
Pressure drop in heat exchangers is neglected
Isentropic efficiency for pump and expander is assumed to be 0.7
Mass flow rate m = 1 kg/s
Ambient temperature TAmb = 298 K
Heat sinks temperature TSink = 288 K
Condensing temperature TCond. = 298 K
Source temperature is considered to be higher than the temperature at expander inlet by
20K.
The mass flow rates of the heat source and the heat sink fluids are considered to be large
enough, so that the temperature difference between inlet and outlet is 5K
Pinch-points for condenser set to 5K
The efficiency of the recuperator or IHE efficiency is set to 0.8
For each working fluid, the evaporator pressure for the first loop starts at a level higher by
100 kPa than that of the critical pressure. For the following loops the evaporator pressure
increases by 100 kPa in every loop. The pressure increase takes place in stages of 100 kPa
in 30 loops until the evaporator pressure becomes higher than the critical pressure by 3000
kPa
The temperature at expander inlet increases with evaporator pressure.
The working fluids are chosen according to the following criteria:
The condenser pressure is higher than the atmospheric pressure at condenser temperature
which is 298K.
The critical temperature is higher than the condensing temperature which is 298K.
The evaporator pressure is higher than the critical pressure.
The suitable working fluids for scenario 4 are listed according to their critical temperature in table
(10).
The thermo-physical data for R21 at pressure higher than its critical pressure are very limited.
Because of this limitation the evaporator pressure could be raised just until 500 kPa higher than the
critical pressure.
68
Table 10 The invistigated working fkuids in scenario 4
6.4.3 Simulation results
The following table shows the working fluids that demonstrated the highest thermal efficiency in
scenario 4.
Table 11 The working fluids which have the highest thermal efficiency in scenario 4
Name or number Safety group Atmospheric
life (year)
Ozone
depletion
potential ODP
Global warming
potential GWP
(100 year)
R11 A1 45 1 4750
R21 B1 17 0,04 150
Sulfur dioxide SO2 B1 n.a. 0 n.a.
Ammonia B2L 0,02 0 ~1
Cyclopropane n.a. 0,44 0 ~20
Simulation results for other working fluids in scenario 4 are presented in appendix 2 scenario 4
Name or number NBP [K] Critical temp. [K] Critical pr. [kPa] Safty gr. Atm. life (yr) ODP GWP (100 yr) Expansion
1 R11 296,7 471 3034 A1 45 1 4750 isentropic
2 R21 281,86 451,31 5181 B1 1,7 0,04 150 wet
3 Sulfur dioxide SO2 269 430,5 7090 B1 0 wet
4 Butene 272,69 419,14 4005 dry
5 Isobutene 272 418,1 4010 dry
6 R142b 269,9 410,1 4060 A2 17,2 0,06 2220 isentropic
7 Isobutane 267,3 407,7 3630 A3 0,016 0 20 dry
8 Ammonia NH3 245,7 405,25 11333 B2L r 0,02 0 1 wet
9 DME 254,2 400,23 5340 A3 0,015 0 wet
10 C270 Cyclopropane 247,8 398,2 5580 n.a. 0,44 0 20 wet
11 R236fa 277,6 397,9 3200 A1 242 0 9820 dry
12 CF3I 257,15 396,29 3953 wet
13 R124 267 395,3 3062 A1 5,9 0,02 619 dry
14 R152a 264,98 386,26 4517 A2 1,5 0 140 wet
15 Perflourobutane C4F10 276,99 386,18 2323 dry
16 R1234ze [E] 260 382,4 3640 0,045 0 6 dry
17 Carbonyl sulfide COS 228,84 378,62 6370 wet
18 R161 241,4 375,2 5090 0,18 0 12 wet
19 R227ea 262,7 374,8 2930 A1 38,9 0 3580 dry
20 R134a 253 374 4059 A1 14,6 0 1300 wet
21 H2S Hydrogen sulfide 339,3 372,95 9000 wet
22 R290 Propane 236,9 369,7 4250 A3 0,041 0 20 wet
23 R22 238,2 369,1 4990 A1 11,9 0,04 1790 wet
24 R1234yf 249,5 367,7 3380 A2L r 0,029 0 4,4 dry
25 1270 Propylene 231,4 364,1 4560 A3 0,001 0 20 wet
26 R115 239,8 352,95 3130 A1 1020 0,6 7230 dry
27 R143a 231,76 345,71 3761 A2 48,3 0 3800 wet
28 R218 242,17 345 2671 A1 dry
29 R32 227,3 351,1 5780 A2L r 5,2 0 716 wet
30 R125 230,9 339 3618 A1 32,6 0 2800 wet
31 Sulfur hexafluoride SF6 210,75 318,573 3755 wet
32 R41 200,7 317,1 5900 A1 2,8 0 107 wet
33 Nitrus oxide N2O 190,53 309,37 7245 wet
34 R170 ethane 190,4 305,2 4870 A3 0,21 0 20 wet
35 Carbon dioxide CO2 357,465 303,978 7377,3 wet
69
R11 is a non-flammable and non-toxic working fluid but it has a high atmospheric life, ODP and
GWP. R21 is non-flammable but it is a toxic working fluid and has a high atmospheric life and low
ODP and GWP. Sulfur dioxide is also non-flammable but is a toxic working fluid. The atmospheric
life and the GWP for sulfur dioxide are not available, but this working fluid has a low ODP.
Ammonia is more toxic than sulfur dioxide and 21 and it is also flammable, but difficult to ignite.
Ammonia has a very low atmospheric life, no ODP and a negligible GWP. The safety group for
Cyclopropane is not available and it has a low atmospheric life time, no ODP and a very low GWP.
6.4.3.1 Volumetric flow rate and expansion ratio
The figure below shows that ammonia has the highest volumetric flow rate and R11 has the lowest.
The figure also shows that the volumetric flow rate for all working fluids decreases when the
temperature increases. It is worth here to mention that the temperature increases as result of
pressure raise which increase by 100 kPa in every loop. So the volumetric flow rate decreases
mainly because of the increasing evaporator pressure and not because of the increase in expander
inlet temperature. The lower part of figure (45) shows the expansion ratios for working fluids. R11
has the highest expansion ratio compared to other working fluids. Ammonia has the lowest
expansion ratio and it has the highest volumetric flow rate.
Figure 45 The volumetric flow rate and expansion ratio versus expander inlet temperature
The lower part of figure (45) shows that the expansion ratio increases with expander inlet
temperature (or evaporator pressure). The expansion ratio is highly dependent on pressure ratio
between evaporator and condenser. Higher pressure ratio leads to higher expansion ratio.
400 450 500 550
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
Working fluid temperatur at expander inlet [K]
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c
f
l
o
w
r
a
t
e
[
m
3
/
s
]
Volumetric flow rate at expander inlet
SO2.fld
R11.fld
R21.fld
Ammonia.fld
Cyclopro.fld
400 450 500 550
0
50
100
150
Working fluid temperatur at expander inlet [K]
E
x
p
a
n
s
i
o
n
r
a
t
i
o
[
-
]
Expansion ratio versus expander inlet temperature
SO2.fld
R11.fld
R21.fld
Ammonia.fld
Cyclopro.fld
70
6.4.3.2 Net Work Out
The upper part of figure (46) shows that ammonia has the highest Net Work Out per kg of working
fluid and R11 has the lowest. The lower part of figure (46) shows the Net Work Out in kJ/m
3
and
here m
3
refers to the volume of the working fluid at expander inlet. R11 has the highest Net Work
Out per m
3
due to its extremely low volumetric flow rate. Ammonia has the highest Net Work Out
in kJ/kg and apparently R11 has much higher density than ammonia. That is why R11 shows higher
Net Work Out in kJ/m
3
. The Net Work Out per kg of working fluid remains constant for R21 and
R11 and increases for ammonia, sulfur dioxide and cyclopropane when the evaporator pressure
increases. The Net Work Out per m
3
of working fluid at expander inlet increases for all working
fluids when increasing evaporator pressure.
Figure 46 The Net Work Out versus expander inlet temperature
400 450 500 550
0
100
200
300
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
k
g
]
Net Work Out versus expander inlet temperature
SO2.fld
R11.fld
R21.fld
Ammonia.fld
Cyclopro.fld
400 450 500 550
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
x 10
4
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
(
m
3
)
]
Net Work Out
SO2.fld
R11.fld
R21.fld
Ammonia.fld
Cyclopro.fld
71
6.4.3.3 Thermal efficiency
Sulfur dioxide SO2 has the highest thermal efficiency. R11 and R21 have almost the same value and
cyclopropane has the lowest value. The thermal efficiency for all working fluids improves by
increasing the evaporator pressure and subsequently expander inlet temperature. Introducing IHE
to the cycle in this scenario doesnt improve the thermal and second law efficiency because the
temperature at expander inlet is lower than the temperature at pump outlet. The vapor quality lies
between 0.9 and 1 for most of working fluids and can hardly exceed 1. IHE can be used when
vapor temperature at expander outlet is higher than the fluid temperature at pump outlet.
Figure 47 The thermal efficiency for SO2, R11, R21, ammonia and cyclopropane
6.4.3.4 Second law efficiency
Figure (48) below illustrates how the second law efficiency varies with the evaporator pressure and
subsequently with the expander inlet temperature. R21 has the highest second law efficiency while
cyclopropane and R11 have lower one. R11 and cyclopropane have almost the same second law
efficiency despite the difference in their temperature ranges at expander inlet. The second law
efficiency decrease for all working fluids by increasing the evaporator pressure. The efficiency
reduction occurs dramatically for R11 and cyclopropane.
400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.18
0.2
0.22
Expander inlet temperature [K]
T
h
e
r
m
a
l
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
[
%
]
Thermal efficiency versus expander inlet temperature
SO2.fld
R11.fld
R21.fld
Ammonia.fld
Cyclopro.fld
72
Figure 48 The second law efficiency for SO2, R11, R21, ammonia and cyclopropane
6.4.3.5 Heat addition and heat rejection
The amount of heat added to ammonia is very high and it is much higher than the amount heat
needed for other working fluids (upper part of figure (49)). SO2 and cyclopropane need almost the
same amount of heat but at different temperature levels. The heat rejection rate is the highest for
ammonia and it increases with increasing the evaporator pressure and subsequently expander inlet
temperature (lower part of figure (49)). R11 has the lowest heat rejection rate. Heat rejection rates
for all working fluids seem to be constant increasing expander inlet temperature. These working
fluids leave the expander outlet as unsaturated vapor or at temperature slightly higher than
condensing temperature.
Figure 49 The heat addition and heat rejection rates for SO2, R11, R21, ammonia and cyclopropane
400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540
0.38
0.4
0.42
0.44
0.46
0.48
Expander inlet temperature [K]
S
e
c
o
n
d
l
a
w
e
f
f
e
c
i
e
n
c
y
[
%
]
Second law effeciency versus expander inlet temperature
SO2.fld
R11.fld
R21.fld
Ammonia.fld
Cyclopro.fld
400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540
0
500
1000
1500
Expander inlet temperature [K]
H
e
a
t
a
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
t
o
e
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
o
r
[
k
W
]
Heat addition versus expander inlet temperature
SO2.fld
R11.fld
R21.fld
Ammonia.fld
Cyclopro.fld
297 298 299 300 301 302 303
0
500
1000
1500
Expander outlet temperature [K]
H
e
a
t
r
e
j
e
c
t
i
o
n
b
y
c
o
n
d
e
n
s
e
r
[
k
W
]
Heat rejection versus expander outlet temperature
SO2.fld
R11.fld
R21.fld
Ammonia.fld
Cyclopro.fld
73
6.5 Thermal conductivity and viscosity
The thermal conductivity and viscosity of working fluids are two very important parameters in the
design of heat exchanger and other Organic Rankine Cycle equipment. The knowledge of thermal
conductivity is necessary to estimate the size of heat exchanger while the knowledge of viscosity is
required to determine the required work for pumping the working fluid. High thermal conductivity
and low viscosity is desirable in order to keep down heat exchangers size and to reduce the needed
work for pumping the working fluid. Figures (50 & 51) show the thermal conductivity and viscosity
for the working fluids which give the highest thermal efficiency in simulation scenarios. The
thermal conductivity is estimated at 373K and saturation liquid while the viscosity is estimated at
298K and saturation liquid. The thermal conductivity and viscosity data are not available for sulfur
dioxide SO2. Water is not considered a working fluid for Organic Rankine Cycle and it is added to
these figures just to compare its properties to the properties for other working fluids [35-36].
Figure 50 The thermal conductivity for the working fluids which give the highest thermal efficiency in
simulation scenarios
Figure (50) shows the water and heavy water has the highest thermal conductivity while R11, R21
and R152a has the lowest. Ammonia has the highest thermal conductivity among working fluids
with normal boiling point lower than 373K.
0
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6
0,7
0,8
T
h
e
r
m
a
l
c
o
n
d
u
c
t
i
v
i
t
y
[
W
/
(
m
*
K
)
]
Thermal conductivity
74
Figure 51 The viscosity for the working fluids which give the highest thermal efficiency in simulation scenarios
Figure (51) shows heavy water and water has the highest viscosity while ammonia and cyclopropane
has the lowest. Ammonia has interesting properties like high thermal conductivity, low viscosity,
high thermal efficiency and Net Work Out.
0
0,0002
0,0004
0,0006
0,0008
0,001
0,0012
V
i
c
o
s
i
t
y
[
P
a
*
s
]
Viscosity
75
7 Conclusions
The selection of optimal working fluid for Organic Rankine Cycle is not an easy process. There are
many different working fluids to choose among and many criteria should be taken in consideration.
Some working fluids have good thermodynamic properties but at the same time have undesirable
environmental and safety data. Other fluids have a good environmental and safety data but they are
not efficient thermodynamically. There is no ideal working fluid can achieve all the desired criteria
and the fluid selection process is a trade-off between thermodynamic, environmental and safety
properties.
From a thermodynamic perspective, the selection of the optimal working fluid depends basically on
the heat source and the heat sink temperatures. For every heat source and heat sink temperature
there are a number of working fluid candidates. The most selected working fluids should have good
thermodynamic properties like high thermal efficiency, second law efficiency and Net Work Out.
The volumetric flow rate and the working fluid viscosity should be as low as possible to reduce the
components size, pressure losses and the work needed for pumping. The thermal conductivity of
working fluid is another important aspect that should be taken in consideration in working fluid
selection process.
Regarding evaporation and condensation pressures in the cycle, three different cycle layouts are
possible.
Subcritical Organic Rankine Cycle: the evaporation and condensation pressures are
lower than the critical pressure for the selected working fluid, and the evaporation
temperature should be lower than the critical temperature. The working fluid candidates
for subcritical Organic Rankine Cycles have high critical pressure. Heptane, ethanol,
methanol and ammonia are some of the many working fluids which can be used for
subcritical cycles.
Trans-critical Organic Rankine Cycles: the evaporation pressure is higher than the
critical pressure and the condensation pressure is lower. Suitable working fluid candidates
have a moderate critical pressure and temperature. R152a, DME, R134a and cyclopropane
are some of these suitable candidates.
Supercritical Organic Rankine Cycle: the evaporator and condenser pressures are
higher than the critical pressure. Suitable candidates have low critical pressure and
temperature. Carbon dioxide, Xenon and nitrus oxide are some of the suitable candidates.
In Trans-critical and supercritical cycles the temperature profile between heat source fluid and
working fluid shows a very good match compared with subcritical cycles. This match decreases
exergy losses and increases thermal efficiency and second law efficiency. In such cycles the pressure
level is high in the just evaporator or in both evaporator and condenser. Higher pressure means
stronger and more expensive materials are needed to withstand mechanical stresses. On the other
hand a higher pressure leads to a higher working fluid density and a lower volumetric flow rate. By
low volumetric flow rate, the component size can be dramatically reduced, leading to the creation
of more compact machines.
According to results from simulation in scenarios (1,2 and 3) and regarding thermal efficiency, the
best working fluids for subcritical cycles are: ammonia, cyclopropane, R152a, sulfur dioxide SO2,
R21, heavy water, toluene, methanol, acetone, cis-butene, trans-butene, butane and R11.
Furthermore the best working fluids for trans-critical cycles (scenario 4) are: R11, R21, ammonia,
cyclopropane and SO2.
76
Regarding the environmental and safety criteria, the selected working fluid should have zero ozone
depilation potential ODP, non-flammable, non-toxic and global warming potential should be very
low. Taking all these criteria in consideration, following working fluids are not optimal: ammonia
(flammable and toxic), SO2 (toxic), R21 (flammable, toxic and ODP=0,04), methanol (flammable),
acetone (flammable), trans-butene (highly toixic), butane (highly toxic), R152a (toxic), and R11
(ODP=1 and GWP=4750). The environmental and safety data are not available for toluene and
heavy water and the safety group for cyclopropane is also not available. Here the conclusion is that
there is no ideal working fluid which can have all desirable criteria and properties at the same time.
The trade-off is between high thermodynamic performance and environmental and safety criteria.
There are some safe and environmental friendly working fluids like R124, but their thermodynamic
performance is quite low.
The conclusions of this thesis can be abstracted in following points:
1. The fluid selection process is a trade-off between thermodynamic, environmental and
safety properties
2. The selection of the optimal working fluid depends basically on the available heat source
and the heat sink temperatures
3. Superheat is not recommended for dry working fluids
4. The selected working fluid should have good thermodynamic properties like high thermal
efficiency, second law efficiency and Net Work Out
5. The volumetric flow rate and the working fluid viscosity should be as low as possible
6. GWP and ODP as low as possible
7. Toluene is an interesting working fluid especially when an IHE is introduced to the cycle
8. Ammonia is another interesting working fluid and has high Net Work Out, high thermal
conductivity and low viscosity
9. The simulations shows that the best working fluids are the wet working fluids if no IHE is
introduced
10. Introducing the IHE is very necessary for dry and isentropic working fluids because it
rapidly increases the thermal and second law efficiencies.
11. IHE is not always recommended for wet fluids
12. The thermal efficiency for wet fluids can be improved by first estimating the optimal
pressure and then applying super heat
13. Regarding the thermal efficiency, the best working fluids for subcritical cycles (scenario 1
3) are: ammonia, cyclopropane, R152a, sulfur dioxide SO2, R21, heavy water, toluene,
methanol, acetone, cis-butene, trans-butene, butane and R11. The best working fluids for
trans-critical cycles (scenario 4) are: R11, R21, ammonia, cyclopropane and SO2
14. No working fluid is ideal!
77
8 Recommendations for future works
The environmental and safety data for many working fluids in this thesis were not available during
the time period when this study was conducted and completed. Working fluid prices, stability and
availability are other issues which should be investigated. Many working fluids show interesting
thermodynamic properties and in order take the right decision weather these working fluids can be
used or not in ORC, the environmental and safety data should be available and taken into
consideration.
Furthermore future work should include an investigation of the supercritical cycles for
which it is possible to use working fluids with low critical pressure and temperature. In
such way many other working fluids can be investigated. CO2 is a very interesting working
fluid for such applications!
Performing overcritical cycles leads to low volumetric flow rate and keeps down
component size.
Furthermore overcritical cycles offer a better temperature profile match in
evaporator. This reduces the exergy losses and increases the second law efficiency.
This thesis is focusing on pure working fluids, but it is also recommended and desirable to further
investigate fluid mixtures or the so-called zeotropic mixtures. Zeotropic mixtures can be used in
subcritical, trans-critical and super critical cycles. Some advantages provided by the zeotropic
mixtures are:
Zeotropic mixtures allow a good temperature profile match between the heat source and
the working fluid in the evaporator.
The flammability and toxicity of some working fluids can be reduced by mixing flammable
and toxic working fluids with other fluids.
The ODP and GWP also can be reduced by mixing working fluids.
Zeotropic mixtures offer new working fluids with new thermodynamic properties. The
properties can be adjusted by changing the mixture contents and fractions.
Zeotropic mixtures have the disadvantage of not allowing for an accurate estimation of the
environmental and safety data concerned. The mixtures stability under different working
conditions is another problem which rises when some zeotropic mixtures are used.
Future works should also focus on studying the two-phase expansion where the working fluid
inters the expander before reaching the saturation vapor line. In such way the exergy losses can be
dramatically reduced in subcritical cycles.
Finally, the future work should include practical studies for most interesting working fluids in order
to compare the theoretical and practical results. The practical testing is a necessary issue however
there is uncertainty in databases for some working fluids.
78
79
References
[1] J. M. Calm, G. C. Hourahan (2011). Physical, Safety and Environmental data for current and
alternative Refrigerants, ICR 2011, August 21 26 Prague, Czech Republic
[2] Per Lundqvist, Working fluids for Organic Rankine Cycle.
[3] B. Saleh, G. Koglbauer, M. Wendland, J. Fischer, Working fluids for low-temperature Organic
Rankine Cycles. Energy, 32 (2007), pp. 12101221.
[4] Bahaa S, Koglbauer G, Wendland M, Fischer J. Working fluids for low temperature organic
Rankine Cycles. Energy 2007;32(7):121021.
[5] Karellas S, Schuster A. Supercritical fluid parameters in Organic Rankine Cycle applications.
International Journal of Thermodynamics 2008;11(3):1018.
[6] E.H. Wang, H.G. Zhang, B.Y. Fan, M.G. Ouyang, Y. Zhao, Q.H. Mu. Study of working fluid
selection of Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) for engine waste heat recovery. Energy, 36 (2011), pp.
34063418.
[7] T.C. Hung, T.Y. Shai, S.K. Wang, A review of Organic Rankine Cycles (ORCs) for the recovery
of low grade waste heat. Energy, 22 (1997), pp. 661666.
[8] C.J. Butcher, B.V. Reddy, Second law analysis of a waste heat recovery based power generation
system. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 50 (2007), pp. 23552363.
[9] D. Wei, X. Lu, Z. Lu, J. Gu, Performance analysis and optimization of Organic Rankine Cycle
(ORC) for waste heat recovery, Energy Conversion and Management 48 (2007) 11131119.
[10] Adrienne B. Little, Srinivas Garimella, Comparative assessment of alternative cycles for waste
heat recovery and upgrade. Energy, 36 (2011), pp. 44924504.
[11] H.D.M. Hettiarachchi, M. Golubovic, W.M. Worek, Y. Ikegami, Optimum design criteria for
an Organic Rankine Cycle using low-temperature geothermal heat sources. Energy, 32 (2007), pp.
16981706.
[12] U. Drischer, D. Bruggemann, Fluid selection for the Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) in biomass
power and heat plants. Applied Thermal Engineering, 27 (2007), pp. 223228.
[13] J.C. Bruno, J. Lopez-Villada, E. Letelier, S. Romera, A. Coronas, Modelling and optimisation
of solar Organic Rankine Cycle engines for reverse osmosis desalination. Applied Thermal
Engineering, 28 (2008), pp. 22122226.
[14] A.M. Delgado-Torres, L. Garcia-Rodriguez, Analysis and optimization of the low
temperature solar Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC). Energy Conversion and Management, 51 (2010),
pp. 28462856.
80
[15] Sylvain Quoilin (2011). Sustainable Energy Conversion Through the Use of Organic Rankine
Cycles for Waste Heat Recovery and Solar Applications. Presented to the Faculty of Applied
Science of the University of Lige,Belgium.
[16] http://www.kgraenergy.com/technical/organic-rankine-cycle-history
[17] http://gasengine.farmcollector.com/Gas-Engines/The-Naphtha-Engine.aspx
[18] http://theenergylibrary.com/node/10537
[19] http://www.kgraenergy.com/projects/worldwide-orc-installations
[20] M.B. Ibrahim and R.M. Kovach, A Kalina cycle application for power generation, Energy, vol.
18, Sep. 1993, pp. 961-969.
[21] P. Lolos and E. Rogdakis, A Kalina power cycle driven by renewable energy sources, Energy,
vol. 34, Apr. 2009, pp. 457-464.
[22] C. Dejfors, E. Thorin, and G. Svedberg, Ammonia-water power cycles for direct-fired
cogeneration applications, Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 39, 1998, pp. 1675-
1681.
[23] http://www.eng.usf.edu/~hchen4/Goswami%20Cycle.htm
[24] http://www.wasteheatrecovery.com
[25] Sylvain Quoilin (2009). Technological and Economical Survey of Organic Rankine Cycle
Systems. 5
th
European Conference, Economics and Managements of Energy Technology
[26] http://www.clean-energy-ideas.com/geothermal_power.html
[27] http://www.biomassenergycentre.org.uk
[28] Wei D, Lu X, Lu Z, Gu J. Performance analysis and optimization of organic
Rankine cycle (ORC) for waste heat recovery. Energy Convers Manage
2007;48:11139.
[29] J.P. Roy, M.K. Mishra, Ashok Misra, Performance analysis of an Organic Rankine Cycle with
superheating under different heat source temperature conditions. Applied Energy 88 (2011) 2995
3004.
[30] Gas Turbine Theory
[31] http://www.mcquay.com/mcquaybiz/literature/lit_ch_wc/AppGuide/AG31-006.pdf
[32] http://www.epa.gov/ozone/defns.html#odp
[33] http://www.astm.org/Standards/E681.htm
[34] D.Y. Wang (2011), Analysis of Working Fluid for Organic Rankine Cycle, Department of
Thermal Science and Energy Engineering, University of Science and Technology of China.
81
[35] Marcia L. Huber. Model for the Viscosity and Thermal Conductivity of Refrigerants, including
a New Correlation for the Viscosity of R134a. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2003, 42, 3163-3178
[36] Tayebeh Hosseinnejad, Viscosity and thermal conductivity of some refrigerants at moderate
and high densities on the basis of RainwaterFriend theory and the corresponding states principle.
Fluid Phase Equilibria, Volume 263, Issue 1, 15 January 2008, Pages 8595
82
83
Appendix 1
Refrigerants Physical data Safety data Environmental data Expansion
Number or name NBP TC PC OEL LFL Safty Atmospheric ODP GWP
[C] [C] [kPa]
(ppMv) Group Life Time (100 yr)
1 Methyl stearate 365,41 501,85 12,39 dry
2 Methyl linolenate 355,98 498,85 13,69 dry
3 Methyl olenate 354,03 508,85 12,46 dry
4 Methyl palmitate 329,15 481,85 13,5 dty
5 MD4M 260,75 380,05 8,77 dry
6 Methyl linoleate 255,69 525,85 13,41 dry
7 D6 244,96 372,63 9,61 dry
8 MD3M 229,87 355,21 9,45 dry
9 Dodecane 216,15 384,95 18,17 wet
10 D5 210,9 346 11,6 dry
11 MD2M 194,36 326,25 12,27 dry
12 D4 175,35 313,35 13,32 dry
13 Decane 174,12 344,55 21,03 dry
14 Propylcyclohexane 156,75 357,65 28,6 dry
15 MDM 152,51 290,94 14,15 dry
16 Nonane 150,76 321,4 22,81 dry
17 Octane 125,6 296,17 24,97 dry
18 Toluene 110,6 318,6 41,263 dry
19 Heavy water D2O 101,4 370,7 216,71 wet
20 Methylcyclohexane 100,85 299 34,7 dry
21 MM 100,25 245,6 19,39 dry
22 Water 100 374 220,64 A1 0 <1 wet
84
Refrigerants Physical data Safety data Environmental data Expansion
Number or name NBP T
C
P
C
OEL LFL Safty Atmospheric ODP GWP
[C] [C] [kPa]
(ppMv) Group Life Time (100 yr)
23 Heptane 98,38 27,36 266,98
dry
24 Dimethyl carbonate 90 284,23 48,351 dry
25 Cyclohexane 80,736 280,5 40,75 dry
26 Benzene 80,07 288,87 49,063 dry
27 Ethanol 78,24 61,48 240,75 wet
28 Hexane 68,71 234,67 30,34 dry
29 Methanol 64,5 239,5 81,04 wet
30 Isohexane 60,21 224,55 30,4 dry
31 Acetone 56,07 234,95 47
isentropic
32 Cyclopentane 49,25 238,54 45,15 600 1,1
0,007 0 11 dry
33 R113 47,6 214,1 33,92 1000 none A1 85 0,85 6130 dry
34 R365mfc 40,15 186,85 32,66 dry
35 Pentane 36,1 196,55 33,7 600 1,2 A3 0,009 0 20 dry
36 R141b 32 204,35 42,12 500 5,8
9,2 0,12 717 isentropic
37 Perfluoropentane 29,75 147,4 20,45 dry
38 Isopentane 27,8 187,2 33,78 600 1,3 A3 0,009 0 20 dry
39 R123 27,8 183,68 36,67 50 none B1 1,3 0,01 77 dry
40 R245ca 25,13 174,42 39,25
7,1
6,5 0 726 dry
41 R11 23,708 197,96 44,076 C1000 none A1 45 1 4750 isentropic
42 R245fa 15,14 154 36,51 300 none B1 7,7 0 1050 dry
43 R601b Neopentane 9,5 160,6 31,96 600 1,4
0 20 dry
85
Refrigerants Physical data Safety data Environmental data Expansion
Number or name NBP TC PC OEL LFL Safty Atmospheric ODP GWP
[C] [C] [kPa]
(ppMv) Group Life Time (100 yr)
44 R21 8,86 178,33 51,81 10 none B1 1,7 0,04 151 wet
45 R236ea 6,2 139,29 35,02 1000 none n.a. 11 0 1410 dry
46 Cis-butene 3,72 162,6 42,255 isentropic
47 R114 3,6 154,7 32,57 1000 none A1 190 0,58 9180 dry
48 Trans-butene 0,88 155,46 40,27 1000 2 A3 0,018 0 20 dry
49 R600 BUTANE -0,5 152 38 1000 2 A3 0,018 0 20 dry
50 R236fa -1,4 124,9 32 1000 none A1 242 0 9820 dry
51 Perflourobutane C4F10 -2,01 113,18 23,23 dry
52 RC318 -6 115,2 27,8 1000 none A1 3200 0 10300 dry
53 Butene -6,31 146,14 40,05 dry
54 Isobutene -7 233,96 40,1 dry
55 R142b -9,1 137,1 40,6 1000 8 A2 17,2 0,06 2220 isentropic
56 Sulfur dioxide -10 157,5 70,9 2 none B1 0 wet
57 Isobutane -11,7 134,7 36,3 1000 1,6 A3 0,016 0 20 dry
58 R124 -12 122,3 30,62 1000 none A1 5,9 0,02 619 dry
59 R152a -14,02 113,26 45,17 A2 1,5 0 140 wet
60 R227ea -16,3 101,8 29,3 1000 none A1 38,9 0 3580 dry
61 R1234ze [E] -19 109,4 36,4 1000 7,6 0,045 0 6 dry
62 CF3I -21,85 123,29 39,53 wet
63 DME -24,8 127,23 53,4 1000 3,4 A3 0,015 0 wet
64 R134a -26 101 40,59 A1 14,6 0 1300 wet
65 R1234yf -29,5 94,7 33,8 500 6,2 A2L r 0,029 0 4,4 dry
86
Refrigerants Physical data Safety data Environmental data Expansion
Number or name NBP TC PC OEL LFL Safty Atmospheric ODP GWP
[C] [C] [kPa]
(ppMv) Group Life Time (100 yr)
66 R12 -29,8 112 4,14 1000 none A1 100 0,82 10900 wet
67 C270 Cyclopropane -31,2 125,2 55,8 2,4
0,44 0 20 wet
68 Ammonia -33,3 132,25 113,33 25 16.7 B2L r 0,02 0 1 wet
69 R218 -36,83 72 26,71 A1
dry
70 R161 -37,6 102,2 50,9 3,8 0,18 0 12 wet
71 R115 -39,2 79,95 31,3 1000 none A1 1020 0,6 7230 dry
72 R22 -40,8 96,1 49,9 1000 none A1 11,9 0,04 1790 wet
73 Propane -42 96,7 42,47 A3
wet
74 R290 Propane -42,1 96,7 42,5 1000 2,1 A3 0,041 0 20 wet
75 R143a -47,24 72,71 37,61 A2 48,3 0 3800 wet
76 1270 Propylene -47,6 91,1 45,6 500 2,7 A3 0,001 0 20 wet
77 R125 -48,1 66 36,18 1000 none A1 32,6 0 2800 wet
78 Carbonyl sulfide -50,16 105,62 63,7 wet
79 R32 -51,7 78,1 57,8 1000 14,4 A2L r 5,2 0 716 wet
80 H2S Hydrogen sulfide 60,3 99,95 90 wet
81 Sulfur hexafluoride -68,25 45,573 37,55 wet
82 R116 -78,1 19,9 30,5 1000 none A1 10000 0 12200 isentropic
83 R41 -78,3 44,1 59
A1 2,8 0 107 wet
84 Carbon dioxide 78,465 30,978 73,773 wet
85 R13 -81,5 28,9 38,8 1000 none A1 640 1 14400 wet
86 R23 -82 26,1 48,3 1000 none A1 222 0 14200 isentropic
87 Nitrus oxide -88,47 36,37 72,45 wet
87
Refrigerants Physical data Safety data Environmental data Expansion
Number or name NBP TC PC OEL LFL Safty Atmospheric ODP GWP
[C] [C] [kPa]
(ppMv) Group Life Time (100 yr)
88 R170 ethane -88,6 32,2 48,7 1000 3,1 A3 0,21 0 20 wet
89 Ethylene -103,77 9,2 50,418 wet
90 Xenon -108,1 16,583 58,42 wet
91 R14 -128 -45,6 37,5 1000 none A1 50000 0 7390 wet
92 Nitrogen trifluoride -129 -39,15 44,6 wet
93 R784 Kr-Krypton -153,4 -63,7 55,3
none
0
wet
94 R50 - Methane -161,5 -82,6 46 1000 4,8 A3 12 0 23 wet
95 Oxygen -182,96 -118,57 50,43 wet
96 R740 Ar - Argon -185,8 -122,5 48,6
none A1
0
wet
97 Fluorine -188,11 -128,74 51,724 wet
98 Carbon monoxide -191,51 -140,29 34,94 wet
99 R728 N2 - Nitrogen -195,8 -147 34
none
0
wet
100 R720 Ne - Neon -246 -228 26
none A1
0
wet
101 D2 Deutrerium -249,84 -234,81 16,65 wet
102 Orthohydrogen -252,77 -293,93 13,107 wet
103
R702 H2 - Normal
hydrogen -252,8 -240 13
4 A3
0
wet
104 Parahydrogen -252,88 -240,21 12,858 wet
105 R704 Helium -268,9 -268 2,3
none A1
0
wet
88
89
Appendix 2
Scenario 1
360 370 380 390 400 410
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
Working fluid temperatur at turbine inlet [K]
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c
f
l
o
w
r
a
t
e
[
m
3
/
s
]
Volumetric flow rate at turbine inlet
360 370 380 390 400 410
5
6
7
8
Working fluid temperatur at turbine inlet [K]
E
x
p
a
n
s
i
o
n
r
a
t
i
o
[
-
]
Expansion ratio versus turbine inlet temperature
R245ca.fld
R11.fld
R245fa.fld
Neopentn.fld
R21.fld
R245ca.fld
R11.fld
R245fa.fld
Neopentn.fld
R21.fld
360 370 380 390 400 410
20
30
40
50
Turbine inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
k
g
]
Net Work Out versus turbine inlet temperature
360 370 380 390 400 410
4
6
8
10
x 10
4
Turbine inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
W
/
(
m
3
/
m
i
n
)
]
Net Work Out per minute and volume
R245ca.fld
R11.fld
R245fa.fld
Neopentn.fld
R21.fld
R245ca.fld
R11.fld
R245fa.fld
Neopentn.fld
R21.fld
90
360 370 380 390 400 410
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
Turbine inlet temperature [K]
T
h
e
r
m
a
l
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
Thermal efficiency versus turbine inlet temperature
360 370 380 390 400 410
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
P2 [kPa]
S
e
c
o
n
d
l
a
w
e
f
f
e
c
i
e
n
c
y
Second law effeciency versus T3
R245ca.fld
R11.fld
R245fa.fld
Neopentn.fld
R21.fld
R245ca.fld
R11.fld
R245fa.fld
Neopentn.fld
R21.fld
360 370 380 390 400 410
200
300
400
500
Turbine outlet temperature [K]
H
e
a
t
a
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
t
o
e
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
o
r
[
k
W
]
Heat addition to evaporator versus turbine inlet temperature
280 300 320 340 360 380
100
200
300
400
500
Turbine outlet temperature [K] H
e
a
t
r
e
j
e
c
t
i
o
n
b
y
c
o
n
d
e
n
s
e
r
[
k
W
]
Heat rejection by condenser versus turbine outlet temperature
R245ca.fld
R11.fld
R245fa.fld
Neopentn.fld
R21.fld
R245ca.fld
R11.fld
R245fa.fld
Neopentn.fld
R21.fld
91
360 370 380 390 400 410
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
Working fluid temperatur at turbine inlet [K]
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c
f
l
o
w
r
a
t
e
[
m
3
/
s
]
Volumetric flow rate at turbine inlet
360 370 380 390 400 410
5
5.5
6
6.5
7
Working fluid temperatur at turbine inlet [K]
E
x
p
a
n
s
i
o
n
r
a
t
i
o
[
-
]
Expansion ratio versus turbine inlet temperature
R236ea.fld
C2butene.fld
R114.fld
T2butene.fld
Butane.fld
R236ea.fld
C2butene.fld
R114.fld
T2butene.fld
Butane.fld
360 370 380 390 400 410
0
20
40
60
Turbine inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
k
g
]
Net Work Out versus turbine inlet temperature
360 370 380 390 400 410
7
8
9
10
x 10
4
Turbine inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
W
/
(
m
3
/
m
i
n
)
]
Net Work Out per minute and volume
R236ea.fld
C2butene.fld
R114.fld
T2butene.fld
Butane.fld
R236ea.fld
C2butene.fld
R114.fld
T2butene.fld
Butane.fld
92
360 370 380 390 400 410
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
Turbine inlet temperature [K]
T
h
e
r
m
a
l
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
Thermal efficiency versus turbine inlet temperature
360 370 380 390 400 410
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
P2 [kPa]
S
e
c
o
n
d
l
a
w
e
f
f
e
c
i
e
n
c
y
Second law effeciency versus T3
R236ea.fld
C2butene.fld
R114.fld
T2butene.fld
Butane.fld
R236ea.fld
C2butene.fld
R114.fld
T2butene.fld
Butane.fld
360 370 380 390 400 410
0
200
400
600
Turbine outlet temperature [K]
H
e
a
t
a
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
t
o
e
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
o
r
[
k
W
]
Heat addition to evaporator versus turbine inlet temperature
310 320 330 340 350 360 370
100
200
300
400
500
Turbine outlet temperature [K] H
e
a
t
r
e
j
e
c
t
i
o
n
b
y
c
o
n
d
e
n
s
e
r
[
k
W
]
Heat rejection by condenser versus turbine outlet temperature
R236ea.fld
C2butene.fld
R114.fld
T2butene.fld
Butane.fld
R236ea.fld
C2butene.fld
R114.fld
T2butene.fld
Butane.fld
93
360 370 380 390 400 410
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
Working fluid temperatur at turbine inlet [K]
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c
f
l
o
w
r
a
t
e
[
m
3
/
s
]
Volumetric flow rate at turbine inlet
360 370 380 390 400 410
5
5.5
6
6.5
7
Working fluid temperatur at turbine inlet [K]
E
x
p
a
n
s
i
o
n
r
a
t
i
o
[
-
]
Expansion ratio versus turbine inlet temperature
R236ea.fld
C2butene.fld
R114.fld
T2butene.fld
Butane.fld
R236ea.fld
C2butene.fld
R114.fld
T2butene.fld
Butane.fld
360 370 380 390 400 410
0
20
40
60
Turbine inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
k
g
]
Net Work Out versus turbine inlet temperature
360 370 380 390 400 410
7
8
9
10
x 10
4
Turbine inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
W
/
(
m
3
/
m
i
n
)
]
Net Work Out per minute and volume
R236ea.fld
C2butene.fld
R114.fld
T2butene.fld
Butane.fld
R236ea.fld
C2butene.fld
R114.fld
T2butene.fld
Butane.fld
94
360 370 380 390 400 410
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
Turbine inlet temperature [K]
T
h
e
r
m
a
l
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
Thermal efficiency versus turbine inlet temperature
360 370 380 390 400 410
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
P2 [kPa]
S
e
c
o
n
d
l
a
w
e
f
f
e
c
i
e
n
c
y
Second law effeciency versus T3
R236ea.fld
C2butene.fld
R114.fld
T2butene.fld
Butane.fld
R236ea.fld
C2butene.fld
R114.fld
T2butene.fld
Butane.fld
360 370 380 390 400 410
0
200
400
600
Turbine outlet temperature [K]
H
e
a
t
a
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
t
o
e
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
o
r
[
k
W
]
Heat addition to evaporator versus turbine inlet temperature
310 320 330 340 350 360 370
100
200
300
400
500
Turbine outlet temperature [K] H
e
a
t
r
e
j
e
c
t
i
o
n
b
y
c
o
n
d
e
n
s
e
r
[
k
W
]
Heat rejection by condenser versus turbine outlet temperature
R236ea.fld
C2butene.fld
R114.fld
T2butene.fld
Butane.fld
R236ea.fld
C2butene.fld
R114.fld
T2butene.fld
Butane.fld
95
360 370 380 390 400 410
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
Working fluid temperatur at turbine inlet [K]
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c
f
l
o
w
r
a
t
e
[
m
3
/
s
]
Volumetric flow rate at turbine inlet
360 370 380 390 400 410
4.5
5
5.5
6
6.5
Working fluid temperatur at turbine inlet [K]
E
x
p
a
n
s
i
o
n
r
a
t
i
o
[
-
]
Expansion ratio versus turbine inlet temperature
R142b.fld
SO2.fld
Isobutan.fld
R124.fld
R152a.fld
R142b.fld
SO2.fld
Isobutan.fld
R124.fld
R152a.fld
360 370 380 390 400 410
10
20
30
40
50
Turbine inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
k
g
]
Net Work Out versus turbine inlet temperature
360 370 380 390 400 410
1
1.5
2
x 10
5
Turbine inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
W
/
(
m
3
/
m
i
n
)
]
Net Work Out per minute and volume
R142b.fld
SO2.fld
Isobutan.fld
R124.fld
R152a.fld
R142b.fld
SO2.fld
Isobutan.fld
R124.fld
R152a.fld
96
360 370 380 390 400 410
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
Turbine inlet temperature [K]
T
h
e
r
m
a
l
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
Thermal efficiency versus turbine inlet temperature
360 370 380 390 400 410
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
P2 [kPa]
S
e
c
o
n
d
l
a
w
e
f
f
e
c
i
e
n
c
y
Second law effeciency versus T3
R142b.fld
SO2.fld
Isobutan.fld
R124.fld
R152a.fld
R142b.fld
SO2.fld
Isobutan.fld
R124.fld
R152a.fld
360 370 380 390 400 410
0
200
400
600
Turbine outlet temperature [K]
H
e
a
t
a
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
t
o
e
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
o
r
[
k
W
]
Heat addition to evaporator versus turbine inlet temperature
280 300 320 340 360 380
100
200
300
400
500
Turbine outlet temperature [K] H
e
a
t
r
e
j
e
c
t
i
o
n
b
y
c
o
n
d
e
n
s
e
r
[
k
W
]
Heat rejection by condenser versus turbine outlet temperature
R142b.fld
SO2.fld
Isobutan.fld
R124.fld
R152a.fld
R142b.fld
SO2.fld
Isobutan.fld
R124.fld
R152a.fld
97
360 370 380 390 400 410
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
Working fluid temperatur at turbine inlet [K]
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c
f
l
o
w
r
a
t
e
[
m
3
/
s
]
Volumetric flow rate at turbine inlet
360 370 380 390 400 410
4
5
6
7
8
Working fluid temperatur at turbine inlet [K]
E
x
p
a
n
s
i
o
n
r
a
t
i
o
[
-
]
Expansion ratio versus turbine inlet temperature
R227ea.fld
R1234ze.fld
CF3i.fld
DME.fld
R134a.fld
R227ea.fld
R1234ze.fld
CF3i.fld
DME.fld
R134a.fld
360 370 380 390 400 410
0
20
40
60
Turbine inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
k
g
]
Net Work Out versus turbine inlet temperature
360 370 380 390 400 410
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
x 10
5
Turbine inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
W
/
(
m
3
/
m
i
n
)
]
Net Work Out per minute and volume
R227ea.fld
R1234ze.fld
CF3i.fld
DME.fld
R134a.fld
R227ea.fld
R1234ze.fld
CF3i.fld
DME.fld
R134a.fld
98
360 370 380 390 400 410
0.08
0.09
0.1
0.11
0.12
Turbine inlet temperature [K]
T
h
e
r
m
a
l
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
Thermal efficiency versus turbine inlet temperature
360 370 380 390 400 410
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
P2 [kPa]
S
e
c
o
n
d
l
a
w
e
f
f
e
c
i
e
n
c
y
Second law effeciency versus T3
R227ea.fld
R1234ze.fld
CF3i.fld
DME.fld
R134a.fld
R227ea.fld
R1234ze.fld
CF3i.fld
DME.fld
R134a.fld
360 370 380 390 400 410
0
200
400
600
Turbine outlet temperature [K]
H
e
a
t
a
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
t
o
e
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
o
r
[
k
W
]
Heat addition to evaporator versus turbine inlet temperature
280 300 320 340 360 380
0
200
400
600
Turbine outlet temperature [K] H
e
a
t
r
e
j
e
c
t
i
o
n
b
y
c
o
n
d
e
n
s
e
r
[
k
W
]
Heat rejection by condenser versus turbine outlet temperature
R227ea.fld
R1234ze.fld
CF3i.fld
DME.fld
R134a.fld
R227ea.fld
R1234ze.fld
CF3i.fld
DME.fld
R134a.fld
99
360 370 380 390 400
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
Working fluid temperatur at turbine inlet [K]
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c
f
l
o
w
r
a
t
e
[
m
3
/
s
]
Volumetric flow rate at turbine inlet
360 370 380 390 400
4
5
6
7
Working fluid temperatur at turbine inlet [K]
E
x
p
a
n
s
i
o
n
r
a
t
i
o
[
-
]
Expansion ratio versus turbine inlet temperature
R1234yf.fld
Cyclopro.fld
Ammonia.fld
R161.fld
R22.fld
R1234yf.fld
Cyclopro.fld
Ammonia.fld
R161.fld
R22.fld
360 370 380 390 400
0
50
100
150
Turbine inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
k
g
]
Net Work Out versus turbine inlet temperature
360 370 380 390 400
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
x 10
5
Turbine inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
W
/
(
m
3
/
m
i
n
)
]
Net Work Out per minute and volume
R1234yf.fld
Cyclopro.fld
Ammonia.fld
R161.fld
R22.fld
R1234yf.fld
Cyclopro.fld
Ammonia.fld
R161.fld
R22.fld
100
360 370 380 390 400
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
Turbine inlet temperature [K]
T
h
e
r
m
a
l
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
Thermal efficiency versus turbine inlet temperature
360 370 380 390 400
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
0.55
P2 [kPa]
S
e
c
o
n
d
l
a
w
e
f
f
e
c
i
e
n
c
y
Second law effeciency versus T3
R1234yf.fld
Cyclopro.fld
Ammonia.fld
R161.fld
R22.fld
R1234yf.fld
Cyclopro.fld
Ammonia.fld
R161.fld
R22.fld
360 370 380 390 400
0
500
1000
1500
Turbine outlet temperature [K]
H
e
a
t
a
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
t
o
e
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
o
r
[
k
W
]
Heat addition to evaporator versus turbine inlet temperature
280 300 320 340 360
0
500
1000
1500
Turbine outlet temperature [K] H
e
a
t
r
e
j
e
c
t
i
o
n
b
y
c
o
n
d
e
n
s
e
r
[
k
W
]
Heat rejection by condenser versus turbine outlet temperature
R1234yf.fld
Cyclopro.fld
Ammonia.fld
R161.fld
R22.fld
R1234yf.fld
Cyclopro.fld
Ammonia.fld
R161.fld
R22.fld
101
360 370 380 390 400 410
0.005
0.01
0.015
Working fluid temperatur at turbine inlet [K]
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c
f
l
o
w
r
a
t
e
[
m
3
/
s
]
Volumetric flow rate at turbine inlet
360 370 380 390 400 410
3
4
5
6
Working fluid temperatur at turbine inlet [K]
E
x
p
a
n
s
i
o
n
r
a
t
i
o
[
-
]
Expansion ratio versus turbine inlet temperature
Propylen.fld
COS.fld
H2S.fld
Propane.fld
Propylen.fld
COS.fld
H2S.fld
Propane.fld
360 370 380 390 400 410
10
20
30
40
50
Turbine inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
k
g
]
Net Work Out versus turbine inlet temperature
360 370 380 390 400 410
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
x 10
5
Turbine inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
W
/
(
m
3
/
m
i
n
)
]
Net Work Out per minute and volume
r22.fld
COS.fld
H2S.fld
Propane.fld
r22.fld
COS.fld
H2S.fld
Propane.fld
102
360 370 380 390 400 410
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
Turbine inlet temperature [K]
T
h
e
r
m
a
l
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
Thermal efficiency versus turbine inlet temperature
360 370 380 390 400 410
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
P2 [kPa]
S
e
c
o
n
d
l
a
w
e
f
f
e
c
i
e
n
c
y
Second law effeciency versus T3
Propylen.fld
COS.fld
H2S.fld
Propane.fld
Propylen.fld
COS.fld
H2S.fld
Propane.fld
360 370 380 390 400 410
200
300
400
500
Turbine outlet temperature [K]
H
e
a
t
a
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
t
o
e
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
o
r
[
k
W
]
Heat addition to evaporator versus turbine inlet temperature
290 300 310 320 330 340 350
200
300
400
500
Turbine outlet temperature [K] H
e
a
t
r
e
j
e
c
t
i
o
n
b
y
c
o
n
d
e
n
s
e
r
[
k
W
]
Heat rejection by condenser versus turbine outlet temperature
Propylen.fld
COS.fld
H2S.fld
Propane.fld
Propylen.fld
COS.fld
H2S.fld
Propane.fld
103
Scenario 2
470 480 490 500 510 520
0
5
10
15
20
Working fluid temperatur at expander inlet [K]
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c
f
l
o
w
r
a
t
e
[
m
3
/
s
]
Volumetric flow rate at expander inlet
MSTEARAT.fld
MLINOLEN.fld
MOLEATE.fld
MPALMITA.fld
MD4M.fld
470 480 490 500 510 520
0
200
400
600
Working fluid temperatur at expander inlet [K]
E
x
p
a
n
s
i
o
n
r
a
t
i
o
[
-
]
Expansion ratio versus expander inlet temperature
MSTEARAT.fld
MLINOLEN.fld
MOLEATE.fld
MPALMITA.fld
MD4M.fld
470 480 490 500 510 520
20
40
60
80
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
k
g
]
Net Work Out versus expander inlet temperature
MSTEARAT.fld
MLINOLEN.fld
MOLEATE.fld
MPALMITA.fld
MD4M.fld
470 480 490 500 510 520
0
20
40
60
80
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
(
m
3
)
]
Net Work Out
MSTEARAT.fld
MLINOLEN.fld
MOLEATE.fld
MPALMITA.fld
MD4M.fld
104
470 480 490 500 510 520
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
Expander inlet temperature [K]
T
h
e
r
m
a
l
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
Thermal efficiency versus expander inlet temperature
470 480 490 500 510 520
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Expander inlet temperature [kPa]
S
e
c
o
n
d
l
a
w
e
f
f
e
c
i
e
n
c
y
Second law effeciency versus expander inlet temperature
MSTEARAT.fld
MLINOLEN.fld
MOLEATE.fld
MPALMITA.fld
MD4M.fld
MSTEARAT.fld
MLINOLEN.fld
MOLEATE.fld
MPALMITA.fld
MD4M.fld
470 480 490 500 510 520
0
200
400
600
Expander outlet temperature [K]
H
e
a
t
a
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
t
o
e
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
o
r
[
k
W
]
Heat addition versus expander inlet temperature
440 450 460 470 480 490 500
0
200
400
600
Expander outlet temperature [K] H
e
a
t
r
e
j
e
c
t
i
o
n
b
y
c
o
n
d
e
n
s
e
r
[
k
W
]
Heat rejection versus expander outlet temperature
MSTEARAT.fld
MLINOLEN.fld
MOLEATE.fld
MPALMITA.fld
MD4M.fld
MSTEARAT.fld
MLINOLEN.fld
MOLEATE.fld
MPALMITA.fld
MD4M.fld
105
470 480 490 500 510 520
0
5
10
15
Working fluid temperatur at expander inlet [K]
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c
f
l
o
w
r
a
t
e
[
m
3
/
s
]
Volumetric flow rate at expander inlet
470 480 490 500 510 520
0
100
200
300
400
Working fluid temperatur at expander inlet [K]
E
x
p
a
n
s
i
o
n
r
a
t
i
o
[
-
]
Expansion ratio versus expander inlet temperature
MLINOLEA.fld
D6.fld
MD3M.fld
C12.fld
D5.fld
MLINOLEA.fld
D6.fld
MD3M.fld
C12.fld
D5.fld
470 480 490 500 510 520
20
30
40
50
60
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
k
g
]
Net Work Out versus expander inlet temperature
470 480 490 500 510 520
0
50
100
150
200
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
(
m
3
)
]
Net Work Out
MLINOLEA.fld
D6.fld
MD3M.fld
C12.fld
D5.fld
MLINOLEA.fld
D6.fld
MD3M.fld
C12.fld
D5.fld
106
470 480 490 500 510 520
0.05
0.1
0.15
Expander inlet temperature [K]
T
h
e
r
m
a
l
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
Thermal efficiency versus expander inlet temperature
470 480 490 500 510 520
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Expander inlet temperature [kPa]
S
e
c
o
n
d
l
a
w
e
f
f
e
c
i
e
n
c
y
Second law effeciency versus expander inlet temperature
MLINOLEA.fld
D6.fld
MD3M.fld
C12.fld
D5.fld
MLINOLEA.fld
D6.fld
MD3M.fld
C12.fld
D5.fld
470 480 490 500 510 520
0
200
400
600
800
Expander outlet temperature [K]
H
e
a
t
a
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
t
o
e
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
o
r
[
k
W
]
Heat addition versus expander inlet temperature
440 450 460 470 480 490 500
0
200
400
600
Expander outlet temperature [K] H
e
a
t
r
e
j
e
c
t
i
o
n
b
y
c
o
n
d
e
n
s
e
r
[
k
W
]
Heat rejection versus expander outlet temperature
MLINOLEA.fld
D6.fld
MD3M.fld
C12.fld
D5.fld
MLINOLEA.fld
D6.fld
MD3M.fld
C12.fld
D5.fld
107
470 480 490 500 510 520
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
Working fluid temperatur at expander inlet [K]
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c
f
l
o
w
r
a
t
e
[
m
3
/
s
]
Volumetric flow rate at expander inlet
470 480 490 500 510 520
10
15
20
25
30
Working fluid temperatur at expander inlet [K]
E
x
p
a
n
s
i
o
n
r
a
t
i
o
[
-
]
Expansion ratio versus expander inlet temperature
MD2M.fld
D4.fld
Decane.fld
C3CC6.fld
MDM.fld
MD2M.fld
D4.fld
Decane.fld
C3CC6.fld
MDM.fld
470 480 490 500 510 520
20
30
40
50
60
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
k
g
]
Net Work Out versus expander inlet temperature
470 480 490 500 510 520
200
400
600
800
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
(
m
3
)
]
Net Work Out
MD2M.fld
D4.fld
Decane.fld
C3CC6.fld
MDM.fld
MD2M.fld
D4.fld
Decane.fld
C3CC6.fld
MDM.fld
108
470 480 490 500 510 520
0.05
0.1
0.15
Expander inlet temperature [K]
T
h
e
r
m
a
l
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
Thermal efficiency versus expander inlet temperature
470 480 490 500 510 520
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Expander inlet temperature [kPa]
S
e
c
o
n
d
l
a
w
e
f
f
e
c
i
e
n
c
y
Second law effeciency versus expander inlet temperature
MD2M.fld
D4.fld
Decane.fld
C3CC6.fld
MDM.fld
MD2M.fld
D4.fld
Decane.fld
C3CC6.fld
MDM.fld
470 480 490 500 510 520
200
400
600
800
Expander outlet temperature [K]
H
e
a
t
a
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
t
o
e
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
o
r
[
k
W
]
Heat addition versus expander inlet temperature
440 450 460 470 480 490 500
0
200
400
600
Expander outlet temperature [K] H
e
a
t
r
e
j
e
c
t
i
o
n
b
y
c
o
n
d
e
n
s
e
r
[
k
W
]
Heat rejection versus expander outlet temperature
MD2M.fld
D4.fld
Decane.fld
C3CC6.fld
MDM.fld
MD2M.fld
D4.fld
Decane.fld
C3CC6.fld
MDM.fld
109
470 480 490 500 510 520
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
Working fluid temperatur at expander inlet [K]
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c
f
l
o
w
r
a
t
e
[
m
3
/
s
]
Volumetric flow rate at expander inlet
470 480 490 500 510 520
5
10
15
20
Working fluid temperatur at expander inlet [K]
E
x
p
a
n
s
i
o
n
r
a
t
i
o
[
-
]
Expansion ratio versus expander inlet temperature
Nonane.fld
Octane.fld
Toluene.fld
D2O.fld
C1CC6.fld
Nonane.fld
Octane.fld
Toluene.fld
D2O.fld
C1CC6.fld
470 480 490 500 510 520
0
100
200
300
400
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
k
g
]
Net Work Out versus expander inlet temperature
470 480 490 500 510 520
0
1000
2000
3000
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
(
m
3
)
]
Net Work Out
Nonane.fld
Octane.fld
Toluene.fld
D2O.fld
C1CC6.fld
Nonane.fld
Octane.fld
Toluene.fld
D2O.fld
C1CC6.fld
110
470 480 490 500 510 520
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
0.16
Expander inlet temperature [K]
T
h
e
r
m
a
l
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
Thermal efficiency versus expander inlet temperature
470 480 490 500 510 520
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
Expander inlet temperature [kPa]
S
e
c
o
n
d
l
a
w
e
f
f
e
c
i
e
n
c
y
Second law effeciency versus expander inlet temperature
Nonane.fld
Octane.fld
Toluene.fld
D2O.fld
C1CC6.fld
Nonane.fld
Octane.fld
Toluene.fld
D2O.fld
C1CC6.fld
470 480 490 500 510 520
0
1000
2000
3000
Expander outlet temperature [K]
H
e
a
t
a
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
t
o
e
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
o
r
[
k
W
]
Heat addition versus expander inlet temperature
360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Expander outlet temperature [K] H
e
a
t
r
e
j
e
c
t
i
o
n
b
y
c
o
n
d
e
n
s
e
r
[
k
W
]
Heat rejection versus expander outlet temperature
Nonane.fld
Octane.fld
Toluene.fld
D2O.fld
C1CC6.fld
Nonane.fld
Octane.fld
Toluene.fld
D2O.fld
C1CC6.fld
111
470 480 490 500 510 520
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
Working fluid temperatur at expander inlet [K]
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c
f
l
o
w
r
a
t
e
[
m
3
/
s
]
Volumetric flow rate at expander inlet
470 480 490 500 510 520
8
10
12
14
Working fluid temperatur at expander inlet [K]
E
x
p
a
n
s
i
o
n
r
a
t
i
o
[
-
]
Expansion ratio versus expander inlet temperature
MM.fld
Water.fld
Heptane.fld
Cyclohex.fld
Benzene.fld
MM.fld
Water.fld
Heptane.fld
Cyclohex.fld
Benzene.fld
470 480 490 500 510 520
0
100
200
300
400
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
k
g
]
Net Work Out versus expander inlet temperature
470 480 490 500 510 520
1500
2000
2500
3000
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
(
m
3
)
]
Net Work Out
MM.fld
Water.fld
Heptane.fld
Cyclohex.fld
Benzene.fld
MM.fld
Water.fld
Heptane.fld
Cyclohex.fld
Benzene.fld
112
470 480 490 500 510 520
0.05
0.1
0.15
Expander inlet temperature [K]
T
h
e
r
m
a
l
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
Thermal efficiency versus expander inlet temperature
470 480 490 500 510 520
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Expander inlet temperature [kPa]
S
e
c
o
n
d
l
a
w
e
f
f
e
c
i
e
n
c
y
Second law effeciency versus expander inlet temperature
MM.fld
Water.fld
Heptane.fld
Cyclohex.fld
Benzene.fld
MM.fld
Water.fld
Heptane.fld
Cyclohex.fld
Benzene.fld
470 480 490 500 510 520
0
1000
2000
3000
Expander outlet temperature [K]
H
e
a
t
a
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
t
o
e
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
o
r
[
k
W
]
Heat addition versus expander inlet temperature
350 400 450 500
0
1000
2000
3000
Expander outlet temperature [K] H
e
a
t
r
e
j
e
c
t
i
o
n
b
y
c
o
n
d
e
n
s
e
r
[
k
W
]
Heat rejection versus expander outlet temperature
MM.fld
Water.fld
Heptane.fld
Cyclohex.fld
Benzene.fld
MM.fld
Water.fld
Heptane.fld
Cyclohex.fld
Benzene.fld
113
470 480 490 500 510 520
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
0.03
Working fluid temperatur at expander inlet [K]
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c
f
l
o
w
r
a
t
e
[
m
3
/
s
]
Volumetric flow rate at expander inlet
470 480 490 500 510 520
6
8
10
12
Working fluid temperatur at expander inlet [K]
E
x
p
a
n
s
i
o
n
r
a
t
i
o
[
-
]
Expansion ratio versus expander inlet temperature
Hexane.fld
Methanol.fld
iHexane.fld
Acetone.fld
Cyclopen.fld
Hexane.fld
Methanol.fld
iHexane.fld
Acetone.fld
Cyclopen.fld
470 480 490 500 510 520
0
50
100
150
200
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
k
g
]
Net Work Out versus expander inlet temperature
470 480 490 500 510 520
2000
4000
6000
8000
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
(
m
3
)
]
Net Work Out
Hexane.fld
Methanol.fld
iHexane.fld
Acetone.fld
Cyclopen.fld
Hexane.fld
Methanol.fld
iHexane.fld
Acetone.fld
Cyclopen.fld
114
470 480 490 500 510 520
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
0.16
Expander inlet temperature [K]
T
h
e
r
m
a
l
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
Thermal efficiency versus expander inlet temperature
470 480 490 500 510 520
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
Expander inlet temperature [kPa]
S
e
c
o
n
d
l
a
w
e
f
f
e
c
i
e
n
c
y
Second law effeciency versus expander inlet temperature
Hexane.fld
Methanol.fld
iHexane.fld
Acetone.fld
Cyclopen.fld
Hexane.fld
Methanol.fld
iHexane.fld
Acetone.fld
Cyclopen.fld
470 480 490 500 510 520
0
500
1000
1500
Expander outlet temperature [K]
H
e
a
t
a
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
t
o
e
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
o
r
[
k
W
]
Heat addition versus expander inlet temperature
360 380 400 420 440 460 480
0
500
1000
1500
Expander outlet temperature [K] H
e
a
t
r
e
j
e
c
t
i
o
n
b
y
c
o
n
d
e
n
s
e
r
[
k
W
]
Heat rejection versus expander outlet temperature
Hexane.fld
Methanol.fld
iHexane.fld
Acetone.fld
Cyclopen.fld
Hexane.fld
Methanol.fld
iHexane.fld
Acetone.fld
Cyclopen.fld
115
470 480 490 500 510 520
0
1000
2000
3000
Expander outlet temperature [K]
H
e
a
t
a
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
t
o
e
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
o
r
[
k
W
]
Heat addition versus expander inlet temperature
360 380 400 420 440 460 480
0
1000
2000
3000
Expander outlet temperature [K] H
e
a
t
r
e
j
e
c
t
i
o
n
b
y
c
o
n
d
e
n
s
e
r
[
k
W
]
Heat rejection versus expander outlet temperature
D2O.fld
Toluene.fld
Water.fld
Methanol.fld
Acetone.fld
D2O.fld
Toluene.fld
Water.fld
Methanol.fld
Acetone.fld
116
117
Scenario 3
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
0
20
40
60
80
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
k
g
]
Net Work Out versus evaporator pressure
300 350 400 450 500
0
20
40
60
80
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
k
g
]
Net Work Out versus expander inlet temperature
R245ca.fld
R11.fld
R245fa.fld
Neopentn.fld
R21.fld
R245ca.fld
R11.fld
R245fa.fld
Neopentn.fld
R21.fld
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c
f
l
o
w
r
a
t
e
[
m
3
/
m
i
n
]
Volumetric flow rate at expander inlet
300 350 400 450 500
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
Expander inlet temperature [K]
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c
f
l
o
w
r
a
t
e
[
m
3
/
m
i
n
]
Volumetric flow rate at expander inlet
R245ca.fld
R11.fld
R245fa.fld
Neopentn.fld
R21.fld
R245ca.fld
R11.fld
R245fa.fld
Neopentn.fld
R21.fld
118
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
200
300
400
500
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
Q
e
(
e
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
o
r
)
[
k
W
]
Heat absorbed by evaporator versus evaporator pressure
300 350 400 450 500
200
300
400
500
Expander inlet temperature [K]
Q
e
(
e
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
o
r
)
[
k
W
]
Heat absorbed by evaporator versus expander inlet temperature
R245ca.fld
R11.fld
R245fa.fld
Neopentn.fld
R21.fld
R245ca.fld
R11.fld
R245fa.fld
Neopentn.fld
R21.fld
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
x 10
4
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
(
m
3
)
]
Net Work Out per
300 350 400 450 500
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
x 10
4
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
(
m
3
)
]
The net work out
R245ca.fld
R11.fld
R245fa.fld
Neopentn.fld
R21.fld
R245ca.fld
R11.fld
R245fa.fld
Neopentn.fld
R21.fld
119
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
C
y
c
l
e
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
Cycle efficiency versus evaporator pressure
300 350 400 450 500
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
Expander inlet temperature [K]
C
y
c
l
e
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
Cycle efficiency versus expander inlet temperature
R245ca.fld
R11.fld
R245fa.fld
Neopentn.fld
R21.fld
R245ca.fld
R11.fld
R245fa.fld
Neopentn.fld
R21.fld
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
S
e
c
o
n
d
l
a
w
e
f
f
e
c
i
e
n
c
y
Second law effeciency versus evaporator pressure
300 350 400 450 500
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
Expander inlet temperature [K]
S
e
c
o
n
d
l
a
w
e
f
f
e
c
i
e
n
c
y
Second law effeciency versus expander inlet temperature
R245ca.fld
R11.fld
R245fa.fld
Neopentn.fld
R21.fld
R245ca.fld
R11.fld
R245fa.fld
Neopentn.fld
R21.fld
120
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
0
5
10
15
x 10
5
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
(
m
3
/
m
i
n
)
]Net Work Out
300 350 400 450 500
0
5
10
15
x 10
5
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
w
e
r
O
u
t
[
k
W
/
(
m
3
/
m
i
n
)
]
Net Work Wut
R245ca.fld
R11.fld
R245fa.fld
Neopentn.fld
R21.fld
R245ca.fld
R11.fld
R245fa.fld
Neopentn.fld
R21.fld
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
0
20
40
60
80
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
k
g
]
Net Work Out versus evaporator pressure
300 350 400 450
0
20
40
60
80
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
k
g
]
Net Work Out versus expander inlet temperature
R236ea.fld
C2butene.fld
R114.fld
T2butene.fld
Butane.fld
R236ea.fld
C2butene.fld
R114.fld
T2butene.fld
Butane.fld
121
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c
f
l
o
w
r
a
t
e
[
m
3
/
m
i
n
]
Volumetric flow rate at expander inlet
300 350 400 450
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
Expander inlet temperature [K]
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c
f
l
o
w
r
a
t
e
[
m
3
/
m
i
n
]
Volumetric flow rate at expander inlet
R236ea.fld
C2butene.fld
R114.fld
T2butene.fld
Butane.fld
R236ea.fld
C2butene.fld
R114.fld
T2butene.fld
Butane.fld
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
100
200
300
400
500
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
Q
e
(
e
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
o
r
)
[
k
W
]
Heat absorbed by evaporator versus evaporator pressure
300 350 400 450
100
200
300
400
500
Expander inlet temperature [K]
Q
e
(
e
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
o
r
)
[
k
W
]
Heat absorbed by evaporator versus expander inlet temperature
R236ea.fld
C2butene.fld
R114.fld
T2butene.fld
Butane.fld
R236ea.fld
C2butene.fld
R114.fld
T2butene.fld
Butane.fld
122
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
0
5000
10000
15000
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
(
m
3
)
]
Net Work Out
R236ea.fld
C2butene.fld
R114.fld
T2butene.fld
Butane.fld
300 350 400 450
0
5000
10000
15000
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
(
m
3
)
]
Net Work Out
R236ea.fld
C2butene.fld
R114.fld
T2butene.fld
Butane.fld
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
S
e
c
o
n
d
l
a
w
e
f
f
e
c
i
e
n
c
y
Second law effeciency versus evaporator pressure
300 350 400 450
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Expander inlet temperature [K]
S
e
c
o
n
d
l
a
w
e
f
f
e
c
i
e
n
c
y
Second law effeciency versus expander inlet temperature
R236ea.fld
C2butene.fld
R114.fld
T2butene.fld
Butane.fld
R236ea.fld
C2butene.fld
R114.fld
T2butene.fld
Butane.fld
123
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
0
2
4
6
8
x 10
5
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
(
m
3
/
m
i
n
)
]Net Work Out
300 350 400 450
0
2
4
6
8
x 10
5
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
w
e
r
O
u
t
[
k
W
/
(
m
3
/
m
i
n
)
]
Net Work Wut
R236ea.fld
C2butene.fld
R114.fld
T2butene.fld
Butane.fld
R236ea.fld
C2butene.fld
R114.fld
T2butene.fld
Butane.fld
124
0 2000 4000 6000 8000
0
20
40
60
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
k
g
]
Net Work Out versus evaporator pressure
320 340 360 380 400 420 440
0
20
40
60
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
k
g
]
Net Work Out versus expander inlet temperature
1butene.fld
R142b.fld
SO2.fld
iButene.fld
R124.fld
1butene.fld
R142b.fld
SO2.fld
iButene.fld
R124.fld
0 2000 4000 6000 8000
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c
f
l
o
w
r
a
t
e
[
m
3
/
m
i
n
]
Volumetric flow rate at expander inlet
320 340 360 380 400 420 440
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
Expander inlet temperature [K]
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c
f
l
o
w
r
a
t
e
[
m
3
/
m
i
n
]
Volumetric flow rate at expander inlet
1butene.fld
R142b.fld
SO2.fld
iButene.fld
R124.fld
1butene.fld
R142b.fld
SO2.fld
iButene.fld
R124.fld
125
0 2000 4000 6000 8000
100
200
300
400
500
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
Q
e
(
e
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
o
r
)
[
k
W
]
Heat absorbed by evaporator versus evaporator pressure
320 340 360 380 400 420 440
100
200
300
400
500
Expander inlet temperature [K]
Q
e
(
e
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
o
r
)
[
k
W
]
Heat absorbed by evaporator versus expander inlet temperature
1butene.fld
R142b.fld
SO2.fld
iButene.fld
R124.fld
1butene.fld
R142b.fld
SO2.fld
iButene.fld
R124.fld
0 2000 4000 6000 8000
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
x 10
4
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
(
m
3
)
]
Net Work Out
320 340 360 380 400 420 440
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
x 10
4
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
(
m
3
)
]
Net Work Out
1butene.fld
R142b.fld
SO2.fld
iButene.fld
R124.fld
1butene.fld
R142b.fld
SO2.fld
iButene.fld
R124.fld
126
0 2000 4000 6000 8000
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
C
y
c
l
e
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
Cycle efficiency versus evaporator pressure
320 340 360 380 400 420 440
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
Expander inlet temperature [K]
C
y
c
l
e
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
Cycle efficiency versus expander inlet temperature
1butene.fld
R142b.fld
SO2.fld
iButene.fld
R124.fld
1butene.fld
R142b.fld
SO2.fld
iButene.fld
R124.fld
0 2000 4000 6000 8000
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
S
e
c
o
n
d
l
a
w
e
f
f
e
c
i
e
n
c
y
Second law effeciency versus evaporator pressure
320 340 360 380 400 420 440
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
Expander inlet temperature [K]
S
e
c
o
n
d
l
a
w
e
f
f
e
c
i
e
n
c
y
Second law effeciency versus expander inlet temperature
1butene.fld
R142b.fld
SO2.fld
iButene.fld
R124.fld
1butene.fld
R142b.fld
SO2.fld
iButene.fld
R124.fld
127
0 2000 4000 6000 8000
0
5
10
15
x 10
5
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
(
m
3
/
m
i
n
)
]
Net Work Out
320 340 360 380 400 420 440
0
5
10
15
x 10
5
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
w
e
r
O
u
t
[
k
W
/
(
m
3
/
m
i
n
)
]
Net Work Wut
1butene.fld
R142b.fld
SO2.fld
iButene.fld
R124.fld
1butene.fld
R142b.fld
SO2.fld
iButene.fld
R124.fld
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
0
20
40
60
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
k
g
]
Net Work Out versus evaporator pressure
300 320 340 360 380 400 420
0
20
40
60
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
k
g
]
Net Work Out versus expander inlet temperature
R236fa.fld
C4f10.fld
RC318.fld
Isobutan.fld
R152a.fld
R236fa.fld
C4f10.fld
RC318.fld
Isobutan.fld
R152a.fld
128
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c
f
l
o
w
r
a
t
e
[
m
3
/
m
i
n
]
Volumetric flow rate at expander inlet
300 320 340 360 380 400 420
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
Expander inlet temperature [K]
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c
f
l
o
w
r
a
t
e
[
m
3
/
m
i
n
]
Volumetric flow rate at expander inlet
R236fa.fld
C4f10.fld
RC318.fld
Isobutan.fld
R152a.fld
R236fa.fld
C4f10.fld
RC318.fld
Isobutan.fld
R152a.fld
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
0
200
400
600
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
Q
e
(
e
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
o
r
)
[
k
W
]
Heat absorbed by evaporator versus evaporator pressure
300 320 340 360 380 400 420
0
200
400
600
Expander inlet temperature [K]
Q
e
(
e
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
o
r
)
[
k
W
]
Heat absorbed by evaporator versus expander inlet temperature
R236fa.fld
C4f10.fld
RC318.fld
Isobutan.fld
R152a.fld
R236fa.fld
C4f10.fld
RC318.fld
Isobutan.fld
R152a.fld
129
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
0
5000
10000
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
(
m
3
)
]
Net Work Out
300 320 340 360 380 400 420
0
5000
10000
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
(
m
3
)
]
Net Work Out
R236fa.fld
C4f10.fld
RC318.fld
Isobutan.fld
R152a.fld
R236fa.fld
C4f10.fld
RC318.fld
Isobutan.fld
R152a.fld
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
C
y
c
l
e
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
Cycle efficiency versus evaporator pressure
300 320 340 360 380 400 420
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
Expander inlet temperature [K]
C
y
c
l
e
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
Cycle efficiency versus expander inlet temperature
R236fa.fld
C4f10.fld
RC318.fld
Isobutan.fld
R152a.fld
R236fa.fld
C4f10.fld
RC318.fld
Isobutan.fld
R152a.fld
130
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
S
e
c
o
n
d
l
a
w
e
f
f
e
c
i
e
n
c
y
Second law effeciency versus evaporator pressure
300 320 340 360 380 400 420
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
Expander inlet temperature [K]
S
e
c
o
n
d
l
a
w
e
f
f
e
c
i
e
n
c
y
Second law effeciency versus expander inlet temperature
R236fa.fld
C4f10.fld
RC318.fld
Isobutan.fld
R152a.fld
R236fa.fld
C4f10.fld
RC318.fld
Isobutan.fld
R152a.fld
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
0
2
4
6
x 10
5
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
(
m
3
/
m
i
n
)
]Net Work Out
300 320 340 360 380 400 420
0
2
4
6
x 10
5
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
w
e
r
O
u
t
[
k
W
/
(
m
3
/
m
i
n
)
]
Net Work Wut
R236fa.fld
C4f10.fld
RC318.fld
Isobutan.fld
R152a.fld
R236fa.fld
C4f10.fld
RC318.fld
Isobutan.fld
R152a.fld
131
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
0
1
2
3
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
Y
[
D
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
l
e
s
s
]
Y versus expander inlet temperature
300 320 340 360 380 400 420
0
1
2
3
Expander inlet temperature [K]
Y
[
D
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
l
e
s
s
]
Y versus expander inlet temperature
R236fa.fld
C4f10.fld
RC318.fld
Isobutan.fld
R152a.fld
R236fa.fld
C4f10.fld
RC318.fld
Isobutan.fld
R152a.fld
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
0
20
40
60
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
k
g
]
Net Work Out versus evaporator pressure
300 320 340 360 380 400 420
0
20
40
60
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
k
g
]
Net Work Out versus expander inlet temperature
R227ea.fld
R1234ze.fld
CF3i.fld
DME.fld
R134a.fld
R227ea.fld
R1234ze.fld
CF3i.fld
DME.fld
R134a.fld
132
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c
f
l
o
w
r
a
t
e
[
m
3
/
m
i
n
]
Volumetric flow rate at expander inlet
300 320 340 360 380 400 420
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
Expander inlet temperature [K]
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c
f
l
o
w
r
a
t
e
[
m
3
/
m
i
n
]
Volumetric flow rate at expander inlet
R227ea.fld
R1234ze.fld
CF3i.fld
DME.fld
R134a.fld
R227ea.fld
R1234ze.fld
CF3i.fld
DME.fld
R134a.fld
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
0
200
400
600
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
Q
e
(
e
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
o
r
)
[
k
W
]
Heat absorbed by evaporator versus evaporator pressure
300 320 340 360 380 400 420
0
200
400
600
Expander inlet temperature [K]
Q
e
(
e
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
o
r
)
[
k
W
]
Heat absorbed by evaporator versus expander inlet temperature
R227ea.fld
R1234ze.fld
CF3i.fld
DME.fld
R134a.fld
R227ea.fld
R1234ze.fld
CF3i.fld
DME.fld
R134a.fld
133
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
0
5000
10000
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
(
m
3
)
]
Net Work Out
300 320 340 360 380 400 420
0
5000
10000
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
(
m
3
)
]
Net Work Out
R227ea.fld
R1234ze.fld
CF3i.fld
DME.fld
R134a.fld
R227ea.fld
R1234ze.fld
CF3i.fld
DME.fld
R134a.fld
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
C
y
c
l
e
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
Cycle efficiency versus evaporator pressure
300 320 340 360 380 400 420
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
Expander inlet temperature [K]
C
y
c
l
e
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
Cycle efficiency versus expander inlet temperature
R227ea.fld
R1234ze.fld
CF3i.fld
DME.fld
R134a.fld
R227ea.fld
R1234ze.fld
CF3i.fld
DME.fld
R134a.fld
134
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
S
e
c
o
n
d
l
a
w
e
f
f
e
c
i
e
n
c
y
Second law effeciency versus evaporator pressure
300 320 340 360 380 400 420
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
Expander inlet temperature [K]
S
e
c
o
n
d
l
a
w
e
f
f
e
c
i
e
n
c
y
Second law effeciency versus expander inlet temperature
R227ea.fld
R1234ze.fld
CF3i.fld
DME.fld
R134a.fld
R227ea.fld
R1234ze.fld
CF3i.fld
DME.fld
R134a.fld
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
0
2
4
6
x 10
5
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
(
m
3
/
m
i
n
)
]
Net Work Out
300 320 340 360 380 400 420
0
2
4
6
x 10
5
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
w
e
r
O
u
t
[
k
W
/
(
m
3
/
m
i
n
)
]
Net Work Wut
R227ea.fld
R1234ze.fld
CF3i.fld
DME.fld
R134a.fld
R227ea.fld
R1234ze.fld
CF3i.fld
DME.fld
R134a.fld
135
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
0
0.5
1
1.5
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
Y
[
D
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
l
e
s
s
]
Y versus expander inlet temperature
300 320 340 360 380 400 420
0
0.5
1
1.5
Expander inlet temperature [K]
Y
[
D
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
l
e
s
s
]
Y versus expander inlet temperature
R227ea.fld
R1234ze.fld
CF3i.fld
DME.fld
R134a.fld
R227ea.fld
R1234ze.fld
CF3i.fld
DME.fld
R134a.fld
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
0
50
100
150
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
k
g
]
Net Work Out versus evaporator pressure
300 320 340 360 380 400 420
0
50
100
150
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
k
g
]
Net Work Out versus expander inlet temperature
R1234yf.fld
Cyclopro.fld
Ammonia.fld
R161.fld
R22.fld
R1234yf.fld
Cyclopro.fld
Ammonia.fld
R161.fld
R22.fld
136
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
0
0.05
0.1
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c
f
l
o
w
r
a
t
e
[
m
3
/
m
i
n
]
Volumetric flow rate at expander inlet
300 320 340 360 380 400 420
0
0.05
0.1
Expander inlet temperature [K]
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c
f
l
o
w
r
a
t
e
[
m
3
/
m
i
n
]
Volumetric flow rate at expander inlet
R1234yf.fld
Cyclopro.fld
Ammonia.fld
R161.fld
R22.fld
R1234yf.fld
Cyclopro.fld
Ammonia.fld
R161.fld
R22.fld
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
0
500
1000
1500
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
Q
e
(
e
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
o
r
)
[
k
W
]
Heat absorbed by evaporator versus evaporator pressure
300 320 340 360 380 400 420
0
500
1000
1500
Expander inlet temperature [K]
Q
e
(
e
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
o
r
)
[
k
W
]
Heat absorbed by evaporator versus expander inlet temperature
R1234yf.fld
Cyclopro.fld
Ammonia.fld
R161.fld
R22.fld
R1234yf.fld
Cyclopro.fld
Ammonia.fld
R161.fld
R22.fld
137
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
x 10
4
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
(
m
3
)
]
Net Work Out
300 320 340 360 380 400 420
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
x 10
4
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
(
m
3
)
]
Net Work Out
R1234yf.fld
Cyclopro.fld
Ammonia.fld
R161.fld
R22.fld
R1234yf.fld
Cyclopro.fld
Ammonia.fld
R161.fld
R22.fld
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
C
y
c
l
e
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
Cycle efficiency versus evaporator pressure
300 320 340 360 380 400 420
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
Expander inlet temperature [K]
C
y
c
l
e
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
Cycle efficiency versus expander inlet temperature
R1234yf.fld
Cyclopro.fld
Ammonia.fld
R161.fld
R22.fld
R1234yf.fld
Cyclopro.fld
Ammonia.fld
R161.fld
R22.fld
138
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
S
e
c
o
n
d
l
a
w
e
f
f
e
c
i
e
n
c
y
Second law effeciency versus evaporator pressure
300 320 340 360 380 400 420
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Expander inlet temperature [K]
S
e
c
o
n
d
l
a
w
e
f
f
e
c
i
e
n
c
y
Second law effeciency versus expander inlet temperature
R1234yf.fld
Cyclopro.fld
Ammonia.fld
R161.fld
R22.fld
R1234yf.fld
Cyclopro.fld
Ammonia.fld
R161.fld
R22.fld
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
0
5
10
15
x 10
5
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
(
m
3
/
m
i
n
)
]
Net Work Out
300 320 340 360 380 400 420
0
5
10
15
x 10
5
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
w
e
r
O
u
t
[
k
W
/
(
m
3
/
m
i
n
)
]
Net Work Wut
R1234yf.fld
Cyclopro.fld
Ammonia.fld
R161.fld
R22.fld
R1234yf.fld
Cyclopro.fld
Ammonia.fld
R161.fld
R22.fld
139
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
Y
[
D
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
l
e
s
s
]
Y versus expander inlet temperature
R1234yf.fld
Cyclopro.fld
Ammonia.fld
R161.fld
R22.fld
300 320 340 360 380 400 420
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
Expander inlet temperature [K]
Y
[
D
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
l
e
s
s
]
Y versus expander inlet temperature
R1234yf.fld
Cyclopro.fld
Ammonia.fld
R161.fld
R22.fld
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
0
10
20
30
40
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
k
g
]
Net Work Out versus evaporator pressure
300 320 340 360 380
0
10
20
30
40
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
k
g
]
Net Work Out versus expander inlet temperature
Propane.fld
Propylen.fld
COS.fld
H2S.fld
R22.fld
Propane.fld
Propylen.fld
COS.fld
H2S.fld
R22.fld
140
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
(
m
3
)
]
Net Work Out
300 320 340 360 380
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
(
m
3
)
]
Net Work Out
Propane.fld
Propylen.fld
COS.fld
H2S.fld
R22.fld
Propane.fld
Propylen.fld
COS.fld
H2S.fld
R22.fld
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
C
y
c
l
e
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
Cycle efficiency versus evaporator pressure
300 320 340 360 380
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
Expander inlet temperature [K]
C
y
c
l
e
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
Cycle efficiency versus expander inlet temperature
Propane.fld
Propylen.fld
COS.fld
H2S.fld
R22.fld
Propane.fld
Propylen.fld
COS.fld
H2S.fld
R22.fld
141
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
S
e
c
o
n
d
l
a
w
e
f
f
e
c
i
e
n
c
y
Second law effeciency versus evaporator pressure
300 320 340 360 380
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
Expander inlet temperature [K]
S
e
c
o
n
d
l
a
w
e
f
f
e
c
i
e
n
c
y
Second law effeciency versus expander inlet temperature
Propane.fld
Propylen.fld
COS.fld
H2S.fld
R22.fld
Propane.fld
Propylen.fld
COS.fld
H2S.fld
R22.fld
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
0
2
4
6
x 10
5
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
(
m
3
/
m
i
n
)
]Net Work Out
300 320 340 360 380
0
2
4
6
x 10
5
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
w
e
r
O
u
t
[
k
W
/
(
m
3
/
m
i
n
)
]
Net Work Wut
Propane.fld
Propylen.fld
COS.fld
H2S.fld
R22.fld
Propane.fld
Propylen.fld
COS.fld
H2S.fld
R22.fld
142
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
0
0.5
1
1.5
Evaporator pressure [kPa]
Y
[
D
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
l
e
s
s
]
Y versus expander inlet temperature
300 320 340 360 380
0
0.5
1
1.5
Expander inlet temperature [K]
Y
[
D
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
l
e
s
s
]
Y versus expander inlet temperature
Propane.fld
Propylen.fld
COS.fld
H2S.fld
R22.fld
Propane.fld
Propylen.fld
COS.fld
H2S.fld
R22.fld
143
Scenario 4
400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540
0
500
1000
1500
Expander inlet temperature [K]
H
e
a
t
a
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
t
o
e
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
o
r
[
k
W
]
Heat addition versus expander inlet temperature
SO2.fld
R11.fld
R21.fld
Ammonia.fld
Cyclopro.fld
297 298 299 300 301 302 303
0
500
1000
1500
Expander outlet temperature [K]
H
e
a
t
r
e
j
e
c
t
i
o
n
b
y
c
o
n
d
e
n
s
e
r
[
k
W
]
Heat rejection versus expander outlet temperature
SO2.fld
R11.fld
R21.fld
Ammonia.fld
Cyclopro.fld
400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540
0
2
4
6
8
x 10
-3
Working fluid temperatur at expander inlet [K]
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c
f
l
o
w
r
a
t
e
[
m
3
/
s
]
Volumetric flow rate at expander inlet
R11.fld
R21.fld
SO2.fld
1Butene.fld
iButene.fld
400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540
0
50
100
150
Working fluid temperatur at expander inlet [K]
E
x
p
a
n
s
i
o
n
r
a
t
i
o
[
-
]
Expansion ratio versus expander inlet temperature
R11.fld
R21.fld
SO2.fld
1Butene.fld
iButene.fld
144
400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540
20
40
60
80
100
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
k
g
]
Net Work Out versus expander inlet temperature
R11.fld
R21.fld
SO2.fld
1Butene.fld
iButene.fld
400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540
1
1.5
2
2.5
x 10
4
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
(
m
3
)
]
Net Work Out
R11.fld
R21.fld
SO2.fld
1Butene.fld
iButene.fld
400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540
0.1
0.15
0.2
Expander inlet temperature [K]
T
h
e
r
m
a
l
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
[
%
]
Thermal efficiency versus expander inlet temperature
R11.fld
R21.fld
SO2.fld
1Butene.fld
iButene.fld
400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
Expander inlet temperature [K]
S
e
c
o
n
d
l
a
w
e
f
f
e
c
i
e
n
c
y
[
%
]
Second law effeciency versus expander inlet temperature
R11.fld
R21.fld
SO2.fld
1Butene.fld
iButene.fld
145
400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540
200
300
400
500
Expander inlet temperature [K]
H
e
a
t
a
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
t
o
e
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
o
r
[
k
W
]
Heat addition versus expander inlet temperature
R11.fld
R21.fld
SO2.fld
1Butene.fld
iButene.fld
297 298 299 300 301 302 303
100
200
300
400
Expander outlet temperature [K]
H
e
a
t
r
e
j
e
c
t
i
o
n
b
y
c
o
n
d
e
n
s
e
r
[
k
W
]
Heat rejection versus expander outlet temperature
R11.fld
R21.fld
SO2.fld
1Butene.fld
iButene.fld
400 420 440 460 480 500
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
Working fluid temperatur at expander inlet [K]
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c
f
l
o
w
r
a
t
e
[
m
3
/
s
]
Volumetric flow rate at expander inlet
R142b.fld
Isobutan.fld
Ammonia.fld
DME.fld
Cyclopro.fld
400 420 440 460 480 500
0
10
20
30
40
Working fluid temperatur at expander inlet [K]
E
x
p
a
n
s
i
o
n
r
a
t
i
o
[
-
]
Expansion ratio versus expander inlet temperature
R142b.fld
Isobutan.fld
Ammonia.fld
DME.fld
Cyclopro.fld
146
400 420 440 460 480 500
0
100
200
300
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
k
g
]
Net Work Out versus expander inlet temperature
R142b.fld
Isobutan.fld
Ammonia.fld
DME.fld
Cyclopro.fld
400 420 440 460 480 500
0.5
1
1.5
2
x 10
4
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
(
m
3
)
]
Net Work Out
R142b.fld
Isobutan.fld
Ammonia.fld
DME.fld
Cyclopro.fld
400 420 440 460 480 500
0.1
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.18
Expander inlet temperature [K]
T
h
e
r
m
a
l
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
[
%
]
Thermal efficiency versus expander inlet temperature
R142b.fld
Isobutan.fld
Ammonia.fld
DME.fld
Cyclopro.fld
400 420 440 460 480 500
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
Expander inlet temperature [K]
S
e
c
o
n
d
l
a
w
e
f
f
e
c
i
e
n
c
y
[
%
]
Second law effeciency versus expander inlet temperature
R142b.fld
Isobutan.fld
Ammonia.fld
DME.fld
Cyclopro.fld
147
400 420 440 460 480 500
0
500
1000
1500
Expander inlet temperature [K]
H
e
a
t
a
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
t
o
e
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
o
r
[
k
W
]
Heat addition versus expander inlet temperature
R142b.fld
Isobutan.fld
Ammonia.fld
DME.fld
Cyclopro.fld
298 298 298 298 298 298
0
500
1000
1500
Expander outlet temperature [K]
H
e
a
t
r
e
j
e
c
t
i
o
n
b
y
c
o
n
d
e
n
s
e
r
[
k
W
]
Heat rejection versus expander outlet temperature
R142b.fld
Isobutan.fld
Ammonia.fld
DME.fld
Cyclopro.fld
370 380 390 400 410 420 430
0
2
4
6
x 10
-3
Working fluid temperatur at expander inlet [K]
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c
f
l
o
w
r
a
t
e
[
m
3
/
s
]
Volumetric flow rate at expander inlet
R236fa.fld
CF3i.fld
R124.fld
R152a.fld
C4F10.fld
370 380 390 400 410 420 430
0
20
40
60
Working fluid temperatur at expander inlet [K]
E
x
p
a
n
s
i
o
n
r
a
t
i
o
[
-
]
Expansion ratio versus expander inlet temperature
R236fa.fld
CF3i.fld
R124.fld
R152a.fld
C4F10.fld
148
370 380 390 400 410 420 430
0
10
20
30
40
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
k
g
]
Net Work Out versus expander inlet temperature
R236fa.fld
CF3i.fld
R124.fld
R152a.fld
C4F10.fld
370 380 390 400 410 420 430
0.5
1
1.5
x 10
4
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
(
m
3
)
]
Net Work Out
R236fa.fld
CF3i.fld
R124.fld
R152a.fld
C4F10.fld
370 380 390 400 410 420 430
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
Expander inlet temperature [K]
T
h
e
r
m
a
l
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
[
%
]
Thermal efficiency versus expander inlet temperature
R236fa.fld
CF3i.fld
R124.fld
R152a.fld
C4F10.fld
370 380 390 400 410 420 430
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
Expander inlet temperature [K]
S
e
c
o
n
d
l
a
w
e
f
f
e
c
i
e
n
c
y
[
%
]
Second law effeciency versus expander inlet temperature
R236fa.fld
CF3i.fld
R124.fld
R152a.fld
C4F10.fld
149
370 380 390 400 410 420 430
0
100
200
300
400
Expander inlet temperature [K]
H
e
a
t
a
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
t
o
e
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
o
r
[
k
W
]
Heat addition versus expander inlet temperature
R236fa.fld
CF3i.fld
R124.fld
R152a.fld
C4F10.fld
298 298 298 298 298 298
0
100
200
300
Expander outlet temperature [K]
H
e
a
t
r
e
j
e
c
t
i
o
n
b
y
c
o
n
d
e
n
s
e
r
[
k
W
]
Heat rejection versus expander outlet temperature
R236fa.fld
CF3i.fld
R124.fld
R152a.fld
C4F10.fld
360 380 400 420 440
0
2
4
6
8
x 10
-3
Working fluid temperatur at expander inlet [K]
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c
f
l
o
w
r
a
t
e
[
m
3
/
s
]
Volumetric flow rate at expander inlet
R1234ze.fld
COS.fld
R161.fld
R227ea.fld
R134a.fld
360 380 400 420 440
0
10
20
30
Working fluid temperatur at expander inlet [K]
E
x
p
a
n
s
i
o
n
r
a
t
i
o
[
-
]
Expansion ratio versus expander inlet temperature
R1234ze.fld
COS.fld
R161.fld
R227ea.fld
R134a.fld
150
360 380 400 420 440
0
10
20
30
40
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
k
g
]
Net Work Out versus expander inlet temperature
R1234ze.fld
COS.fld
R161.fld
R227ea.fld
R134a.fld
360 380 400 420 440
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
(
m
3
)
]
Net Work Out
R1234ze.fld
COS.fld
R161.fld
R227ea.fld
R134a.fld
360 380 400 420 440
0.05
0.1
0.15
Expander inlet temperature [K]
T
h
e
r
m
a
l
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
[
%
]
Thermal efficiency versus expander inlet temperature
R1234ze.fld
COS.fld
R161.fld
R227ea.fld
R134a.fld
360 380 400 420 440
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
Expander inlet temperature [K]
S
e
c
o
n
d
l
a
w
e
f
f
e
c
i
e
n
c
y
[
%
]
Second law effeciency versus expander inlet temperature
R1234ze.fld
COS.fld
R161.fld
R227ea.fld
R134a.fld
151
360 380 400 420 440
100
200
300
400
Expander inlet temperature [K]
H
e
a
t
a
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
t
o
e
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
o
r
[
k
W
]
Heat addition versus expander inlet temperature
R1234ze.fld
COS.fld
R161.fld
R227ea.fld
R134a.fld
298 298 298 298 298 298
100
200
300
400
Expander outlet temperature [K]
H
e
a
t
r
e
j
e
c
t
i
o
n
b
y
c
o
n
d
e
n
s
e
r
[
k
W
]
Heat rejection versus expander outlet temperature
R1234ze.fld
COS.fld
R161.fld
R227ea.fld
R134a.fld
360 380 400 420 440 460
0
2
4
6
8
x 10
-3
Working fluid temperatur at expander inlet [K]
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c
f
l
o
w
r
a
t
e
[
m
3
/
s
]
Volumetric flow rate at expander inlet
H2S.fld
Propane.fld
R22.fld
R1234yf.fld
Propylen.fld
360 380 400 420 440 460
0
5
10
15
20
Working fluid temperatur at expander inlet [K]
E
x
p
a
n
s
i
o
n
r
a
t
i
o
[
-
]
Expansion ratio versus expander inlet temperature
H2S.fld
Propane.fld
R22.fld
R1234yf.fld
Propylen.fld
152
360 380 400 420 440 460
0
20
40
60
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
k
g
]
Net Work Out versus expander inlet temperature
H2S.fld
Propane.fld
R22.fld
R1234yf.fld
Propylen.fld
360 380 400 420 440 460
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
(
m
3
)
]
Net Work Out
H2S.fld
Propane.fld
R22.fld
R1234yf.fld
Propylen.fld
360 380 400 420 440 460
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
0.16
Expander inlet temperature [K]
T
h
e
r
m
a
l
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
[
%
]
Thermal efficiency versus expander inlet temperature
H2S.fld
Propane.fld
R22.fld
R1234yf.fld
Propylen.fld
360 380 400 420 440 460
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
Expander inlet temperature [K]
S
e
c
o
n
d
l
a
w
e
f
f
e
c
i
e
n
c
y
[
%
]
Second law effeciency versus expander inlet temperature
H2S.fld
Propane.fld
R22.fld
R1234yf.fld
Propylen.fld
153
360 380 400 420 440 460
100
200
300
400
500
Expander inlet temperature [K]
H
e
a
t
a
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
t
o
e
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
o
r
[
k
W
]
Heat addition versus expander inlet temperature
H2S.fld
Propane.fld
R22.fld
R1234yf.fld
Propylen.fld
298 298 298 298 298 298
100
200
300
400
500
Expander outlet temperature [K]
H
e
a
t
r
e
j
e
c
t
i
o
n
b
y
c
o
n
d
e
n
s
e
r
[
k
W
]
Heat rejection versus expander outlet temperature
H2S.fld
Propane.fld
R22.fld
R1234yf.fld
Propylen.fld
340 350 360 370 380 390 400 410
0
2
4
6
x 10
-3
Working fluid temperatur at expander inlet [K]
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c
f
l
o
w
r
a
t
e
[
m
3
/
s
]
Volumetric flow rate at expander inlet
R115.fld
R143a.fld
R218.fld
R32.fld
R125.fld
340 350 360 370 380 390 400 410
0
5
10
15
Working fluid temperatur at expander inlet [K]
E
x
p
a
n
s
i
o
n
r
a
t
i
o
[
-
]
Expansion ratio versus expander inlet temperature
R115.fld
R143a.fld
R218.fld
R32.fld
R125.fld
154
340 350 360 370 380 390 400 410
0
10
20
30
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
k
g
]
Net Work Out versus expander inlet temperature
R115.fld
R143a.fld
R218.fld
R32.fld
R125.fld
340 350 360 370 380 390 400 410
2000
4000
6000
8000
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
(
m
3
)
]
Net Work Out
R115.fld
R143a.fld
R218.fld
R32.fld
R125.fld
340 350 360 370 380 390 400 410
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
Expander inlet temperature [K]
T
h
e
r
m
a
l
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
[
%
]
Thermal efficiency versus expander inlet temperature
R115.fld
R143a.fld
R218.fld
R32.fld
R125.fld
340 350 360 370 380 390 400 410
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
Expander inlet temperature [K]
S
e
c
o
n
d
l
a
w
e
f
f
e
c
i
e
n
c
y
[
%
]
Second law effeciency versus expander inlet temperature
R115.fld
R143a.fld
R218.fld
R32.fld
R125.fld
155
340 350 360 370 380 390 400 410
0
100
200
300
Expander inlet temperature [K]
H
e
a
t
a
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
t
o
e
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
o
r
[
k
W
]
Heat addition versus expander inlet temperature
R115.fld
R143a.fld
R218.fld
R32.fld
R125.fld
298 298 298 298 298 298
0
100
200
300
Expander outlet temperature [K]
H
e
a
t
r
e
j
e
c
t
i
o
n
b
y
c
o
n
d
e
n
s
e
r
[
k
W
]
Heat rejection versus expander outlet temperature
R115.fld
R143a.fld
R218.fld
R32.fld
R125.fld
300 310 320 330 340 350 360
0
2
4
6
8
x 10
-3
Working fluid temperatur at expander inlet [K]
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c
f
l
o
w
r
a
t
e
[
m
3
/
s
]
Volumetric flow rate at expander inlet
SF6.fld
R41.fld
N2O.fld
Ethane.fld
CO2.fld
300 310 320 330 340 350 360
1
2
3
4
Working fluid temperatur at expander inlet [K]
E
x
p
a
n
s
i
o
n
r
a
t
i
o
[
-
]
Expansion ratio versus expander inlet temperature
SF6.fld
R41.fld
N2O.fld
Ethane.fld
CO2.fld
156
300 310 320 330 340 350 360
0
5
10
15
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
k
g
]
Net Work Out versus expander inlet temperature
SF6.fld
R41.fld
N2O.fld
Ethane.fld
CO2.fld
300 310 320 330 340 350 360
0
1000
2000
3000
Expander inlet temperature [K]
N
e
t
W
o
r
k
O
u
t
[
k
J
/
(
m
3
)
]
Net Work Out
SF6.fld
R41.fld
N2O.fld
Ethane.fld
CO2.fld
300 310 320 330 340 350 360
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
Expander inlet temperature [K]
T
h
e
r
m
a
l
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
[
%
]
Thermal efficiency versus expander inlet temperature
SF6.fld
R41.fld
N2O.fld
Ethane.fld
CO2.fld
300 310 320 330 340 350 360
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
Expander inlet temperature [K]
S
e
c
o
n
d
l
a
w
e
f
f
e
c
i
e
n
c
y
[
%
]
Second law effeciency versus expander inlet temperature
SF6.fld
R41.fld
N2O.fld
Ethane.fld
CO2.fld
157
300 310 320 330 340 350 360
50
100
150
200
250
Expander inlet temperature [K]
H
e
a
t
a
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
t
o
e
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
o
r
[
k
W
]
Heat addition versus expander inlet temperature
SF6.fld
R41.fld
N2O.fld
Ethane.fld
CO2.fld
298 298 298 298 298 298
50
100
150
200
250
Expander outlet temperature [K]
H
e
a
t
r
e
j
e
c
t
i
o
n
b
y
c
o
n
d
e
n
s
e
r
[
k
W
]
Heat rejection versus expander outlet temperature
SF6.fld
R41.fld
N2O.fld
Ethane.fld
CO2.fld
158
159