Pergamon

Applied Thermal Engineering Vol. 16, Nos S/9, pp. 635453, 1996
Copyright 0 1996 Elsevier Science Ltd
Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved
1359-431 l/96 $15.00 + 0.00
REVIEW PAPER
THE UTILIZATION OF RECUPERATED AND
REGENERATED ENGINE CYCLES FOR HIGH-EFFICIENCY
GAS TURBINES IN THE 21ST CENTURY
Colin F. McDonald* and David Gordon Wilsont
*McDonald Thermal Engineering, 1730 Castellana Road, La Jolla, Catifornia 92037, USA; and
YDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge,
Massachusetts 02139, USA
(Receiued 15 October 1995)
Abstract-In the gas-turbine field simple-cycle engines (compressor + burner + expander) have been
dominant across almost the full spectrum of power-generation and mechanical-drive applications. Paced
by aerodynamic and materials-technology advancements, efficiency values have progressed significantly
over the last five decades. However, to reduce specific fuel consumption further (by say a step change of
30-&l%) and to reduce emissions significantly, more-complex thermodynamic cycles that include the use
of exhaust-heat-recovery exchangers are necessary. Clearly, there are discrete applications where the use
of recuperators or regenerators will tind acceptance on a large scale, an example being for gas turbines
rated at less than about 100 kW for hybrid automobiles and small generator sets. The role that
recuperators and regenerators can play in future gas turbines is put into perspective in this paper.
Innovative engineering concepts will be required to meet the demanding high-temperature operating
environment and low-cost requirements, and these will essentially necessitate the utilization of
ceramic-composite heat-exchanger configurations that are amenable to large-volume manufacturing
methods. Copyright 0 1996 Elsevier Science Ltd
Keywords-Gas turbines; recuperators; regenerators; high-efficiency cycles.
INTRODUCTION
To date, the use of gas turbines embodying internal heat recovery within the thermodynamic cycle
has been limited. However, reducing specific fuel consumption is necessary if we are to meet the
demanding environmental requirements that will be introduced before or soon in the 2 1 st Century.
One requirement will be a reduction in carbon-dioxide emissions, which is most easily attained by
increasing engine thermal efficiency. One way to do this is to increase compressor and turbine
efficiencies. However, these have reached a near plateau, and future advancements will be small.
Increased cycle efficiency is also brought about by increased turbine inlet temperature, which is
enabled and encouraged by improved materials technology, including ceramics, and better blade
cooling (for metallic turbines), including steam cooling. We expect that incremental improvements
in these areas will continue. However, to provide a significant step change in performance, more
complex thermodynamic cycles will be needed. These include the use of heat exchangers to recover
exhaust heat. It is projected that recuperators and regenerators, the two possible forms of two-fluid
heat exchanger, will play a significant role for high-efficiency gas turbines entering service after the
turn of the century. In this paper recuperators are defined as stationary, fixed-boundary units, and
regenerators as having a matrix that moves between the cold-air and hot-gas streams.
While heat exchangers can be used for a wide range of applications (e.g. those shown in Fig. l),
the focus of this paper is on applications where early introduction of recuperators and regenerators
on a large scale is likely. These applications include small gas turbines for automotive applications
and for small generator sets. A discussion is also included on larger engines for marine propulsion
and power generation that include intercoolers and exhaust heat exchangers.
The different and unique features of recuperators and regenerators are characterized in terms
of the different configurations available and of potential applications. Performance is presented in
terms of major parameter selection for several different cycles. It is projected that within two
636 C. F. McDonald and D. G. Wilson
decades heat-exchanged engines will be in the main stream of gas-turbine applications, and will
be produced in large volumes (particularly for engines of less than 100 kW) rather than in their
current role of meeting specialized needs and of being fabricated in very small quantities. For these
small engines, that could see service in, for instance, hybrid automotive applications involving
gas-turbine engines and some form of energy storage,
the necessary very low projected
heat-exchanger cost (of say $150) will mandate the use of high-temperature ceramic-composite
materials.
BACKGROUND
Evolutionary development of recuperator technology over the last four decades has resulted in
several types of configuration that have overcome many of the early impediments (particularly
structural integrity). Today the engine user can select between prime-surface and plate-fin designs,
both of which can give high effectiveness and low pressure loss. These units have found limited
acceptance for commercial application, but their high cost is not attractive in the current era of
low-cost fossil fuels where simple-cycle engines are dominant. The only recuperator to have been
produced in large quantities (i.e. over 11,000) is for military use in a battle tank [I]. Development
work on rotary regenerators is still in progress some 30 years after the initial ceramic disks were
first demonstrated. This work has been primarily focused on the automobile gas turbine, the
I
Regenerated
Engines
Hybrid
Automobile Gas
Turbines and
Small Generator
NOTE: Pie diagram is illustrative only, proportions are not necessarily representative
Fig. 1. Projected applications for recuperated and regenerated gas turbines.
Engine cycles for 21st Century gas turbines 631
marketplace of which has always been elusive, and always seemingly 10-20 years away. Major
challenges still include materials selection, seal leakage and fabrication cost.
There are several advanced thermodynamic cycles being investigated that have the potential for
very high efficiency. These include the humid-air turbine, the intercooled cycle with exhaust-heat
recovery, this same cycle with, additionally, reheat combustion, and cycles that incorporate
chemical recuperation. These cycles are aimed at large machines for electrical power generation.
They require the use of large regenerators or recuperators and are unlikely to see service for at
least 10 years. They will be produced in only small quantities.
The authors feel that a market with large volume potential is the small gas turbine (say 65-100
kW) for hybrid and direct-drive automobiles, and a smaller market for larger engines, 150-500 kW,
for trucks and buses. For the automobile engine (with a manufacturing cost of at most $25/kW)
the exhaust heat exchanger (either a recuperator or regenerator) must be produced for about $150.
Such a heat exchanger must have high-temperature capability (indicating the use of ceramic or
ceramic composite), must be amenable to low-cost production methods, and must be in a modular
form for ease of removal/replacement. Such an engine, fabricated using technology developed for
the production of low-cost turbochargers, could well find acceptance as a compact low-cost
generator set.
While the authors have different views regarding selection of cycle parameters and
heat-exchanger types, one favoring higher-specific-power recuperated variants [2] and the other
low-pressure-ratio highly regenerated machines [3,4], these differences are rationalized in this paper,
and there is strong agreement regarding the potential that heat-exchanged cycles offer to a variety
of users [5]. With emission considerations now being a dominant factor in both cycle selection and
in engine feature definition, the exhaust-heat-recovery exchanger will play an important role in
future gas turbines.
GAS-TURBINE EFFICIENCY TRENDS
Turbine-inlet temperature
Over the last five decades. the most significant advancement in gas-turbine efficiency is
attributable to increased turbine-inlet temperature. This increase has been brought about initially
by the development of better materials, and latterly more by increasingly sophisticated
blade-cooling technologies. These have advanced to the point where a large combined-cycle gas
turbine with metallic turbine blades (steam cooled) will enter service soon with an efficiency of 60%
[6]. For large utility-size machines this trend will increase with the next generation of engines having
turbine-inlet temperatures above 1500C (2732F). For small gas turbines (of say less than 100 kW),
the turbine-blade geometry makes cooling very difficult, and for these units it will be necessary to
use ceramic components. Turbine-inlet temperature will continue to increase, but an additional
factor may impact this, namely ever-more-demanding emission requirements (particularly NO,
reduction) that will require improved combustion. This may be the limiting technology.
Compressor and turbine ejiciencies
In the last 50 years intensive research and development has resulted in very significant technology
advancements to the point where todays large axial-flow engines have compressor and turbine
efficiencies of over 90%, together with very high aerodynamic loading. Further small improvements
will continue from the use of increasingly sophisticated CFD codes, leading to advanced blading
geometries, and from the development of passive means for closer tip-clearance control.
In the case of small engines with radial-flow compressors and turbines, the levels of efficiency
attained are significantly less than 90%. This is a result of the smaller blade heights where
Reynolds-number effects, tip-clearance effects, and surface roughness influence the blading
efficiency.
(A principal reason for the espousal of the low-pressure-ratio cycle by one of the authors is that
the blade heights of the high-pressure stages in the compressors and turbines are typically more
than half those in the low-pressure stages, instead of being of the order of one-quarter or less in
the higher-pressure-ratio cycles. Blading efficiency is therefore significantly increased.)
C. F. McDonald and D. G. Wilson
0.50
0. 45
0.40
0. 35
0. 30
025
0. 20
0. 15
KM 60 RECUPERATED,
lW0 STAGE INTERCOOLED
GAS NRBINE (1953)
FOR COMPARISON
LARGE REDUCllON IN
SFC REFlECTlNG OVER
4 DECADES OF GAS
TURBINE TECHNOLOGI
ADVANCEMENT
DIESEL ENGINE
0.00
0. 75
0. 70
0.05 $
0.50 !!i -
%
E
0.55 3
z
0.50 8
=j
z

0.45 c
8
2
0.40
0.35
0.W
025
0 20 40 60 00 1w
Fig. 2. Representative part-load performance of gas-turbine variants.
Future role of exhaust-heat-recovery exchangers
Only modest increases in the efficiency of small gas turbines can therefore come from the
traditional means of improved aerodynamic efficiencies and blade-cooling technologies. To attain
thermal efficiencies over 40% (i.e. specific fuel consumptions of under 0.35 lbm/hp-hr), the use of
a high-effectiveness recuperator or regenerator is mandatory. As will be outlined in the following
sections, it is projected that heat-exchanged cycles will find acceptance for small (i.e. less than
100 kW) to medium size (i.e. up to 15 MW) gas-turbine applications.
PERFORMANCE OF HEAT-EXCHANGED CYCLES
The quest for low specific fuel consumption (SFC)
The aforementioned technology advancements have resulted in a dramatic decrease in SFC over
the last 50 years. However, improvements in both spark- and compression-ignition engines,
particularly from electronic controls and from increased volumetric efficiency (by use of multiple
valves), have kept the gas turbine out of large-volume markets, such as automobiles and small
generator sets.
Representative SFC data for simple-cycle and heat-exchanged gas turbines are she vn on Fig. 2.
The simple-cycle engine has a steep part-load SFC curve. The intercooled/recuperated gas turbine
most closely approaches the very flat curve exhibited by compression-ignition engines. For
applications such as battle tanks, naval propulsion and direct-drive automotive engines, where
much time is spent at part power, a flat SFC curve is important, and the performance of
recuperated/regenerated cycles is acceptable and, for the larger engines, the intercooled-heat-ex-
changed engine is preferable. Substantial improvements in the efficiency and power/weight ratio
Engine cycles for 21st Century gas turbines 639
of electric motors and generators and fly-wheel energy storage have revived interest in hybrid gas
turbine/electric drives. In these, the small gas turbine operates for its full life at full power and
constant speed, making a low SFC at this condition paramount. A similar requirement exists for
small generator sets that must produce power at a constant frequency. The requirement for low
SFC at full power imposes fewer demands on the design of recuperated and regenerated engines
than are made by direct-drive systems.
Recuperated and intercooled cycles
Since the computation of the efficiencies of gas-turbine engines is well understood [7] it will be
only briefly covered in this paper. It is germane, however, to put into perspective the role that heat
exchangers have in enhancing plant performance. The generalized data portrayed in Fig. 3 are
representative in terms of understanding the relationship between the compressor pressure ratio
and efficiency for different thermodynamic cycles, three of which utilize fixed-boundary heat
exchangers. Other major parameters that would make these curves more comprehensive would
include turbine inlet temperature, compressor and turbine efficiency, and heat-exchanger
effectiveness. The data have been kept simple so that the major types of gas turbine may be
compared based on todays technology.
Recuperated variants are well suited to fairly low-pressure-ratio cycles, but with pressure ratios
above about 10, the increasing compressor-discharge temperature and decreasing turbine-exit
temperature essentially negate the use of a heat exchanger. Recuperators have been successfully
used on earlier low-pressure-ratio industrial gas turbines [S] and there may be a market for
retrofitting these engines with higher-performance recuperators. With an abundance of low-cost
natural gas there is essentially no interest today in heat-exchanged industrial gas turbines. As will
be outlined in a following section, the need for heat exchangers early in the next century will be
for automotive applications, marine propulsion and advanced industrial gas turbines.
The introduction of intercooling increases the temperature difference between the compressor
INITIAL ICR ADVANCED INTERCOOLED
HEAVY DUTY
INDUSTRIAL GAS
TURBINES
0 4 8 12 16 26 24 28 32 36 46
COMPRESSOR PRESSURE RATIO
Fig. 3. Representative performance of recuperated gas turbines.
640 C. F. McDonald and D. G. Wilson
COMPRESSOR
PERFORMANCE
POTENTIAL
FOR ADVANCED
ICR ENGINE
250 300 350 400 450
SPECIFIC POWER, KW, KG/SEC
500 550
Fig. 4. Representative parameters and performance for large ICR gas turbines.
and turbine discharges and facilitates the use of heat exchange at higher pressure ratios. Based on
todays level of turbine-inlet temperature, intercooled and recuperated (ICR) gas turbines have an
efficiency potential of about 44% (see later for comments on the possibility of considerably higher
efficiencies). Current aeroderivative engines with pressure ratios in the range of 16 to 20 are ideally
suited to ICR operation, although they require reduced-capacity high-pressure compressor spools
to match the lower-temperature air. As pressure ratio and turbine-inlet temperature continue to
increase, future high-specific-power ICR variants have the potential for an efficiency of 50%, as
shown in Fig. 4.
Regenerative cycles
The performance of regenerative cycles has been well documented [7]. Some representative results
are shown in Fig. 5. While a regenerative cycle is ideally identical to that used in a recuperated
cycle, regenerators have different characteristics that encourage the use of different cycle
parameters. A positive characteristic is that the cost in money and weight and volume for producing
a very-high-effectiveness regenerator is much less than for a recuperator. If, then, a high
effectiveness is used, the cycle pressure ratio for the best thermal efficiency is reduced, from 16:l
to 2: 1 in extreme circumstances. While the economic optimum would be higher than this low value
(because the specific power is also reduced, meaning that a larger machine would be required), the
low pressure ratio has a dramatic effect on the range of blade lengths in the compressors and
turbines. The very short blades that wear fast and are the site of a large proportion of the blading
losses are not found in low-pressure-ratio machines, so that the design-point efficiency is increased.
Engine cycles for 21st Century gas turbines 641
Moreover, the mismatch of inlet to outlet areas in the compressors and turbines is much reduced,
so that the off-design efficiencies are much improved.
The negative characteristics of regenerators are: the seal and matrix carryover leakage, which
together can reach high levels-eg. 15% of the compressor mass flow, a substantial penalty; the
high wear and poor reliability record of many rotary regenerators; and the impracticability hitherto
of being able to manufacture regenerators for engines producing more than about one megawatt.
Some developments recently patented at M.I.T. (developments towards which one author must
confess favorable bias) are aimed at overcoming all three problem areas.
The discontinuous-rotation regenerator. One development is the discontinuously rotating
regenerator with clamping seals. Whereas the normal rotary regenerator rotates continuously with
rubbing seals contacting the matrix face (and becoming worn in the process), in the new technology
the matrix is rotated incrementally, through steps of, for example, 30. During the short periods
when the matrix is moved, the seals are withdrawn from the matrix face a distance of the order
of 0.05 mm (0.002 in.), thus allowing only small seal leakage and almost completely eliminating
the possibility of wear. During the dwell times the seals are clamped to the matrix faces, reducing
leakage almost to zero.
The modular ceramic regenerator. The matrix is composed of an array of long rectangular-section
modules that are passed endwise through close-fitting seals from the low-pressure exhaust face to
the high-pressure compressor-delivery face (Fig. 6). Thus seals are very short while being extensive
in the flow direction. They may additionally be clamped during the dwell times for the modules
if this is found desirable. Regenerators for large engines could be produced from such modules.
The modules could be mass-produced by extrusion from simple nozzles. They could be removed
from the circuit and replaced while the engine is under load should there be signs of wear or
deposition or failure.
TS
Absolute total temperature at turbine inlet
Absolute total temperature at compressor infet
r I compressor total+ressure ratio
.,
ririaaat-1
(Heat-exchanger effectiveness 95%; total cycle pressure losses 72%;
compressor and turbine efficiencies at state-of-the-art v&m)
0.400 0.800 1.20 1.60 2.00 2.40
NONDIMENSIONAL SPECIFIC POWER
(f&yes produced by T. P. Korakianitis, Washington University)
Fig. 5. Representative performance of regenerated gas turbines.
642 C. F. McDonald and D. G. Wilson
Matrix
module arriving
from hot-exhaust
heat exchanger
Fig. 6. Overall arrangement of a modular ceramic regenerator.
POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS FOR HEAT-EXCHANGED CYCLES
While a wide variety of gas turbines can benefit from the use of heat exchangers (as shown in
Fig. 1) it is unlikely in present circumstances that many of them will reach the market place, since
with an abundance of low-cost natural gas the simple cycle gives acceptable operating economics,
with a reduced capital cost. This situation could completely change should the price of fuel be
increased (including the movement to replace the income tax with a consumption tax). Selected
applications where an exhaust-gas heat exchanger is mandatory are highlighted in Table 1. The
biggest challenge to heat-exchanger designers is in the very-small-engine field, where high operating
temperatures and low cost necessitate the use of ceramics, as emphasized below.
Hybrid automotive gas turbine
Development of automotive gas turbines has been underway since the early 1950s [9] but has been
facing a moving target since the fuel economy and emissions of spark- and compression-ignition
engines have continually improved. Many engines have been built and demonstrated using both
regenerators and recuperators [lo]. in recent years, with emphasis on very-high-temperature
operation, the development work has focused on the use of ceramic rotary regenerators. To realize a
specific fuel consumption of, say, 0.30 lb/hp.hr (i.e. 46% efficiency) requires a very-high-
effectiveness heat exchanger and extensive use of ceramics in the hot section of the engine. Much
work has been documented in the open literature on automotive gas-turbine R & D, and only one
is referred to here [l 11. An example of a compact unit utilizing a single-disk regenerator is shown
in Fig. 7. As mentioned previously, emissions are the dominant factor in the selection of cycle
parameters and engine design features, and this is particularly true in the field of automotive gas
turbines. While work continues on direct-drive systems [12], there is now great interest in the
development of small gas turbines (c 100 kW) for hybrid electric vehicles. Many engine variants
are in the development phase including those with an intercooler [13], ceramic rotary regenerator
[14], metallic recuperators [15-191, and ceramic recuperator [20]. This renewal of interest in the
automobile gas-turbine field [21] provides the designer with many challenges, foremost being cost,
with a goal of the order of $25/kW. A compact engine will probably include the following
features: (1) constant speed, (2) ceramic catalytic combustor (with multi-fuel capability), (3)
low-cost non-metallic composite compressor [22], (4) ceramic turbine, (5) air bearings and (6)
ceramic heat exchanger. A target cost for the heat exchanger is of the order of $150, and the
aforementioned programs will identify the most cost-effective solution (i.e. ceramic recuperator or
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644 C. F. McDonald and D. G. Wilson
Fig. 7. Example of a regenerated automotive gas turbine (courtesy AlliedSignal).
regenerator). The key issues in the general design of motor-vehicle gas-turbine engines have been
reported previously [23].
Small generator sets
There is a need for small, compact, lightweight generator sets (for military, industrial and
recreation use) that have multifuel capability, low emissions and low acoustic signature. Low cost
is paramount for the gas turbine to find acceptance in this marketplace, and technology fallout
from the hybrid automobile gas turbine could make this application a reality.
Advanced tracked vehicles
With its high power, ability to tolerate a wide range of fuels, quick engine-start characteristics
(down to low temperatures) and low acoustic and IR signatures, the gas turbine is an ideal
prime-mover for modern battle tanks. The AGT 1500 engine shown in Fig. 8 has been in service
for several years in the U.S. Army Ml main battle tank and to date over 11.000 engines have been
manufactured. Progress continues on gas-turbine technology for future tank propulsion and
programs have been discussed previously [2&27]. The power level of about 1 MW is near the limit
of the capability of current regenerators, and for this application recuperators are currently
dominant. The recuperator is a key component to realize acceptable fuel economy, particularly at
part-power operation, bearing in mind that a modern battle tank could consume of the order of
2000 1 (500 gallons) of fuel per day. The prime-surface recuperator for the AGT 1500 engine is
important, since it represents the first unit to be manufactured in large quantities. This recuperator,
together with other types under development, is discussed in a later section.
Marine propulsion
For applications where there are volume constraints on the fuel-storage space, high engine
efficiency is paramount. The dominance of simple-cycle gas turbines for marine propulsion is a
reflection of early recuperator impediments (particularly structural integrity). Today the situation
Engine cycles for 21st Century gas turbines 645
.
Tank Engine
Cylindrical prime-surface
recuperator
Multi-waveplate construction
Welded assembly
Effectiveness - 80%
More than 10,000 units fabricated
Over 6 million hours of operation
Fig. 8. Recuperated gas turbine for the U.S. Army Ml battle tank (courtesy Lycoming).
is different and recuperator technology has matured to the point where existing units can meet the
performance and reliability required for marine propulsion [28]. The intercooled-recuperated (ICR)
engine offers a 3040% reduction in specific fuel consumption compared with contemporary gas
turbines. The ICR engine is attractive for naval applications, its main attributes being (1) high
efficiency, (2) excellent part-load efficiency, (3) acceptable specific power, (4) compact power plant,
(5) reduced thermal, IR, and acoustic signatures and (6) potential for high reliability.
Work is well underway on the development of an ICR propulsion engine (WR-21) [29]. This
engine (shown in Fig. 9) is based on an aeroderivative gas turbine and utilizes a metallic plate-fin
recuperator. The power plant is rated at about 20 MW and has an efficiency of over 42%. The
Fig. 9. WR-21 ICR marine-propulsion gas turbine (courtesy Westinghouse Rolls Royce)
646 C. F. McDonald and D. G. Wilson
INDUSTRIAL PLATE-FIN
UNIT FOR LARGE
GAS TURBINES
WAVY-PLATE PRIME
SURFACE RECUPERATOR
FOR TANK ENGINE
ADVANCED CERAMIC
COMPSITE PRIME SURFACE
UNITS FOR ULTRA HIGH
TEMPERATURE SERVICE
INITIAL PLANT
OPERATED WITH
RECUPERATOR
PROJECTED REGIME FOR
COMPACT LIGHTWEIGHT,
DIMPLEO AND PROFILE-
TUBE GEOMETRIES FOR
PROPULSION APPLICATIORS
POSSIBLE REGIME FOR
ENHANCED IFLUTED. FINNED)
TUBULAR GEOMETRIES
TUBULAR RECUPERATORS FOR IWDUSTRIAL GAS TURBINES
INITIAL TUBULAR UNITS
BUILT TO BOILER STANDARDS
I I I I I I I I
1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
YEAR
Fig. 10. Gas-turbine recuperator evolution.
success of this power plant is important, not only for marine propulsion, but for the technology
transfer to the power-generation industry.
Electrical power generation
Todays industrial gas turbines rated below about 15 MW have efficiencies in the low 30s.
Compared with large industrial gas turbines, these engines are characterized by the following: (1)
pressure ratios less than 15, (2) turbine-inlet temperature of less than 1100C (2012F), and (3)
compressor and turbine efficiencies below 90%. Increasing their efficiency into the high 30s by
recuperation has been achieved only on a limited basis. For 21st Century service, where efficiencies
of over 50% are projected, new gas turbines must be developed, and these will have a strong
reliance on heat exchangers [5]. This level of efficiency will be realized with engines embodying
much higher firing temperatures (with ceramic hot-end components) and intercooled-recuperated
cycles. Initially these engines will utilize existing metallic recuperators, but to exploit the cycles
performance potential, ceramic-composite recuperators or regenerators will be necessary.
The summary-level data for the above engines given in Table 1 are viewed as tentative and are
included for comparative purposes for potential gas-turbine applications that will utilize
regenerators and recuperators shortly after the year 2000.
HEAT-EXCHANGER TECHNOLOGY READINESS
Metallic recuperators
Many different types of recuperators have evolved over the last half century, as shown in Fig. 10.
Recuperator state-of-the-art has been discussed previously [30,31] and, since it is not the purpose
Engine cycles for 21st Century gas turbines 647
of this paper to recommend a particular type of recuperator, only a brief discussion is included
on the several types that are available.
Tubular geometries. Development work continues on compact tubular units embodying
enhanced surface geometries. A compact profile-tube design has demonstrated high performance
capability and structural integrity in a gas-turbine cyclic environment. This type of unit has been
discussed previously for vehicular gas-turbine applications [32].
Prime-surface geometries. The ultimate goal of recuperator designers has been to engineer a
configuration based simply on a stack of formed plates that embody the heat-transfer matrix,
headering and manifolds. Obviating the need for secondary surfaces and furnace-brazing
operations, this class of unit is known as a prime-surface heat exchanger. After many years of
investigation, modern manufacturing methods (e.g. laser cutting and welding) have made this
concept a reality, and the following two types of units are in service. As mentioned previously, the
first prime-surface recuperator to enter service and be produced in large quantities was for the
engine in the U.S. Army Ml battle tank (Fig. 8) [33,34]. The cylindrical recuperator consists of
an assemblage of multi-waveplates with integral air and gas headers formed to give a counterflow
configuration. Over 6 million hours of operation have been accumulated with this recuperator. For
industrial gas-turbine applications a multi-year development effort by Solar Turbines culminated
in the development of a very compact and lightweight primary-surface recuperator [35,36].
Engineered in a low-profile recuperator for integration with the turbomachinery, this unit has
demonstrated very high effectiveness (above 90%) and low pressure loss. The surface compactness
of this prime-surface unit is of the same order as some plate-fin units. With over 1.5 million hours
of accumulated time on this prime-surface recuperator, the structural integrity is proven and this
type of unit can meet a variety of users needs in the 1990s.
Plate-& geometry. The major problem with early plate-fin units was their inability to remain
leaktight in the cyclic gas-turbine environment. In the early 1970s a concerted research and
development effort was undertaken by the Garrett Corporation to resolve the problems,
particularly the issue of structural integrity. Major innovations included: (1) seal formed by the
thin-section tube plate to give thermal-inertia compatibility and ensure integrity during engine
transients, (2) integrally formed header manifolds, (3) drastic reduction in number of parts, (4)
modern manufacturing processes, including laser cutting of the tube sheets and (5) improved
brazing process to allow large cores to be manufactured, with attendant reduction in
heat-exchanger cost. This type of recuperator may be used for many applications. Those in service,
on over 60 gas turbines, have accumulated over 3 million hours. These compact recuperators have
demonstrated effectiveness levels up to 90% with low pressure loss 8.
Ceramic recuperators
The recuperators in current engines are fabricated mainly from stainless steel. The gas-inlet
temperature typically varies from 593C (1100F) at full power to perhaps as high as 816C
(1500F) at part power. The latter temperature represents an upper value for the capability of
stainless steels. For operation at higher temperatures, use could be made of super alloys, such as
Inconel 625, Inconel 617 or Haynes 230, but their cost would be prohibitively high for most
applications. It is generally agreed, particularly for military applications, such as an advanced-
battle-tank engine recuperator [37], that ultimately ceramic heat exchangers will be necessary. In
the case of the small hybrid automobile gas turbine, cost considerations mandate the use of ceramic
heat exchangers. In support of various high-temperature systems, development work on ceramic
heat exchangers has been in progress for more than 25 years [38]; examples of early units are shown
in Fig. 11. An excellent example of a compact ceramic recuperator module developed by
AlliedSignal in the late 1980s for a cruise-missile application [39] is shown in Fig. 12. Ceramic heat
exchangers that have been fabricated and tested include plate-fin, prime-surface and tubular
geometries. Many of these have been presented in the open literature by the following: Parker and
Coombs [40], Forster [41], Bakker [42], Kleiner [43], Avran [44], Yoshimura [45]. This continuing
work provides a substantial technology base for efforts now focused on a ceramic recuperator for
an automobile hybrid gas turbine. Challenges facing the designer include the following: (1) selection
of compact and efficient heat-transfer surface and flow-path geometries to meet high-effectiveness
648 C. F. McDonald and D. G. Wilson
Engine cycles for 2 1 st Century gas turbines 649
Fig. 12. Example of a compact plate-fin ceramic recuperator (courtesy AlliedSignal).
and low-pressure-loss requirements, (2) leaktightness, (3) structural integrity, (4) construction
amenable to high-volume-production methods (e.g. extruded, injection molded or roll formed) and
(4) perhaps the greatest challenge relates to meeting cost goals (say $150 heat-exchanger cost for
a 60-kW engine).
Conventional rotary regenerator
Ceramic rotary disk regenerators were introduced more than 30 years ago [46] and have operated
in many development engines. A particularly noteworthy early program was in support of engines
developed by Rover [47], and later vehicular engines [48]. Heat-transfer and performance aspects
of regenerators have been well documented [49] and development efforts over the years have
focused on materials selection, fabrication and reliability [50,51]. Today, development work is still
in progress, particularly in support of automotive gas turbines. One of the major concerns is still
that of seal leakage, and in one of the most recent publications [12] a value of 7% (viewed as the
goal) has been demonstrated. The sealing system and drive mechanism add complexity and cost
to the heat exchanger, and it remains to be seen whether cost goals can be realized with a
regenerator for the automobile gas turbine. If the sealing problem can be solved for rotary heat
exchangers, then perhaps increased compresser pressure ratios could be considered. This would
open up the possibility of using an intercooled-regenerative cycle giving higher specific power. Early
automotive gas turbines used a symmetrical two-disk-regenerator configuration and an adaptation
of this is shown in Fig. 13. This concept has two rotary heat exchangers: (1) a ceramic regenerator
of high effectiveness and (2) a metallic intercooler to cool the air before it enters the second
centrifugal compressor. This engine cycle has the potential for over 50%. By mixing the intercooler
discharge air and the regenerator exhaust a very low IR signature could be realized for military
applications.
Advanced regenerator concepts
To date development efforts have focused on the disk regenerator, but there may be alternative
approaches that offer solutions to the remaining problems. A novel concept based on the utilization
of foil slats has been proposed as an approach to reduce the regenerator size and weight [52]. Two
new forms of regenerator [53,54] designed to reduce leakage and seal wear have been described
above. The concept shown in Fig. 14 embodies a number of flexible annular disks engineered in
a manner to make the leakage negligible. This type has potential applications to intercoolers and
to regenerators in ICR engines, where the higher pressure ratio reduces the turbine-outlet
temperature to levels that could be withstood by stainless steel.
Heat-exchanger comparison
Increased engine efficiency by utilizing an exhaust-heat-recovery exchanger, particularly for small
gas turbines, has been the major theme of this paper. A comparison of the two major types is given
ATE 168&--8
650
C. F. McDonald and D. G. Wilson
ROTARY INTERCOOLER
RbTARY CERAMIC REGENERATOR
Fig. 13. Concept of a small gas turbine with rotary regenerator and intercooler.
in Table 2, and the selection of a regenerator or recuperator is a user option. While the recuperator
effectiveness is normally lower, the overall efficiency of both engine variants (in the low-power
range) is about the same, since the higher regenerator effectiveness is offset by the leakage and
carryover losses. An argument can be given, and in fact has been expressed previously [55] that the
ceramic recuperator offers a simpler approach (e.g. freedom from seals and drive mechanism) for
very small gas turbines. This statement must, however, be tempered with the fact that the industry
has not yet demonstrated the reliability and durability of a compact ceramic recuperator, of a
duct (from turbine)
Fig. 14. Flexible-disk regenerator concept.
Engine cycles for 21st Century gas turbines 651
Table 2. Comparison of heat exchanger salient features
Heat exchanger type
Gas turbine applications
Thermal
Thermodynamic cycle
Effectiveness, %
Pressure loss, %
Leakage/carryover loss, %
Engine size, kWe
Engine efficiency. %
Fabrication
Matrix material
Flow configuration
Fabrication method
Construction
cost
Amenable to high volume production
Size/installation
Integrated with engine
Ease of removal/replacement
Accessories
Size and weight
Deployment
Technology base
Regenerator
Hybrid auto
Small generator sets
Low pressure ratio (< 5)
up to 97
4
I
-500
45
Counterflow
Extruded
Cellular
Currently high
Yes
Yes
Complex
Drive mechanism
Compact
Rotary disk unit has over Metallic units available
three decades of R & D (high cost, limited temperature capability)
New concepts being evaluated Composite ceramic technology in its infancy
Reduced leakage Low cost fabrication methods
Lower cost Leaktightness
- 2005 - 2005
Recuperator
Hybrid auto
Small generator sets
Tracked vehicle
Power generation
Up to 12 (higher with intercooling)
9&93
5
0
15,000 (modular Hx)
-45 (can match regen.)
Metallic and ceramic
Composite
Counterflow
TBD for ceramics
Compact plate-fin
Metal units very high
Yes
Yes
Cartridge/modular
None
Larger than regenerator
Major areas of development
Service year
construction type that would yield a low cost when manufactured using high-volume-production
methods.
SUMMARY
The benefits of recuperation and regeneration have long been recognized, but early
heat-exchanger impediments (particularly structural integrity), together with market forces (e.g.
abundance of low-cost fossil fuels), have negated widespread use of this class of gas turbine. For
engines currently being planned for service in the first decade of the 21st Century, low emissions
will be a dominant factor in the selection of thermodynamic cycle and engine features. For a
significant reduction in SFC (say a step-change reduction of 30%) exhaust-heat-recovery
exchangers will be required.
The biggest challenge to the designer of heat exchangers is in the small engine class (for hybrid
automobiles and small generator sets), where very high temperature will require ceramic-composite
heat exchangers, with a cost of the order of $150 for a 60-kW engine. For these applications, where
very high production quantities will be required, both ceramic recuperators and regenerators could
meet the requirements. While ceramic recuperator work is in its infancy, it may have, because of
its simplicity, an advantage in terms of low cost and ease of integration (as a module) for small
engines. Development work on rotary ceramic disk regenerators has been ongoing for over three
decades and significant advancements have been made in materials technology and manufacturing.
Demonstration of long-term durability and the reduction of seal leakage below about 7% remain
to be demonstrated. Complex integration with the rotating machinery, together with the seal system
and drive mechanism, aggravate the already challenging cost goals.
To realize all of the challenging goals for small engines, it is concluded that new thinking may
be required for the regenerator and some novel concepts have been discussed. In the case of the
recuperator (for larger engines) there are viable metallic units (e.g. prime-surface, plate-fin and
profile-tube) available to meet users needs. These units are expensive when produced in only small
quantities and, in times of low-cost natural gas, there is little perceived interest for industrial gas
turbines. In the case of initial deployment of the ICR engine for marine propulsion, metallic
652 C. F. McDonald and D. G. Wilson
recuperators will be used, but in later variants ceramic-composite units will be used as the
technology becomes available. Ceramic-composite recuperator technology is in its infancy, and it
is the potential for high-volume production for small engines that will stimulate development.
Renewed thinking is also required in this area since the recuperator matrix will be produced using
high-volume-production methods (e.g. as for oil filters). Since the recuperator will have a very high
ratio of surface area to volume it is likely that it would be coated with a catalyst, making extended
life a strong requirement. Advantage will be taken of heat-exchanger technology transfer from the
small-engine field to benefit larger engines. It is projected that advanced industrial gas turbines (up
to about 15 MW) entering service after about 2005 will have efficiency levels of 50% based on the
use of intercooling and high-effectiveness ceramic-composite recuperators.
The authors feel strongly that the first decade of the 21st Century will be the era for recuperated
and regenerated gas-turbine engines. While not well recognized today, these engines will then be
in the mainstream of the gas-turbine industry.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
21.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
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C. F. McDonald, Recuperator utilization for gas turbine plant performance enhancement-applications and
technology. Proc. 1990 ASME COGEN-TURBO, ZGTI -5, pp. 151-163 (1990a).
D. G. Wilson and L. Wood, Design analysis of high-efficiency low-stress ceramic gas turbines, ASME Paper 81-GT-130
(1981).
T. P. Korakianitis and D. G. Wilson, Improvements in part-load efficiency by reducing pressure ratio in regenerative
gas turbine engine. ASME Paper 85-GT-147 (1985).
C. F. McDonald, Heat exchanger ubiquity in advanced gas turbine cycles. Proc. ASME COGEN POWER 94, I GTI
9, pp. 681-703 (1994).
R. Farmer and K. Fulton, Design 60% net efficiency in frame 7/9H steam-cooled CCGT. Gas Turbine World, May/June,
12-20 (1995).
D. G. Wilson, The Design of High Ejjiciency Tubomachinery and Gas Turbines. The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA (1984).
K. Kretzinger et al., Gas turbine recuperators. Garrett Technical Paper 85-22130, Rev. 5, January (1985).
D. G. Wilson, Automotive gas turbine pioneers. Global Gas Turbine News, May/June, S-11 (1995a).
J. R. Norbye, The Gas Turbine Engine Design Detwlopment and Applications. Chilton Book Company, Radnor, PA
(1975).
G. L. Boyd and D. M. Kreiner, AGTlOl/ATTAP ceramic technology development. ASMEJ . Engng Power 111,58-167
(1989).
T. Nishiyama et al., Status of the Automotive Ceramic Gas Turbine Development Program-Year Four progress.
ASME Paper 95-GT-447 (1995).
K. Jost, The Patriots Hybrid-Electric Drivetrain. Automotive Engng, December, 3633 (1994).
M. Valenti, Hybrid car promises high performance and low emissions. Mech. Engng, July, 4449 (1994).
R. MacKay, Gas turbine generator sets for hybrid vehicles. SAE Paper 9200441 (1992).
R. MacKay, Hybrid vehicle gas turbines. SAE Paper 930044 (1993).
R. MacKay, Development of a 24 kW gas turbine-driven generator set for hybrid vehicles. SAE Paper 940510 (1994).
R. MacKay, Hybrid turbine engine. SAE Paper 951899 (1995).
P. 0 Brien, Development of a 55 kW low emission turbo generator for hybrid electric vehicles. SAE Paper 951969
(1995).
R. Lundberg and R. Gabrielsson, Progress on the AGATA Project-a European ceramic gas turbine for hybrid
vehicles. ASME Paper 95-GT-446.
R. Harmon, Alternative vehicle propulsion systems. Mech. Engng, March, 58-65 (1992).
D. G. Wilson, Turbine cars: much potential, bumpy road. Technol. Rev. 98, February/March, 5&57 (1995b).
A. C. Pfahnl and D. G. Wilson, Key issues in the general design of the motor vehicle gas turbine engines. ASME Paper
95-GT-393 (1995).
R. J. Duffy and G. K. Hower, Turbine propulsion for heavy armored vehicles. AIAA Paper 87-1911 (1987).
C. Banthin and J. Deman, Battle tanks of the future-a need for turbine power. ASME Paper 88-GT-43 (1982).
W. Brockett and A. Koschier, LVIOO AIPS technology-for future army propulsion, ASME Paper 92-GT-391 (1992).
E. R. Danielson and Hitchock, Ground turbine engines: which cycle is best. SAE Paper 950774 (1995).
C. F. McDonald, Recuperator utilization-a key factor for future marine gas turbine propulsion. Proc. 1.Mech.E.
Seminar on Affordable Gas Turbine Developments for Marine Applications, London, 5 October 1995 (1995a).
J. E. Harmeyer, ICR gas turbine update. ASME Paper 95-GT-429 (1995).
C. F. McDonald, Gas turbine recuperator technology advancements. Proc. I nstitute of Materials Conf. on Materials
I ssues in Heat Exchangers and Boilers, Loughborough, UK, 17 October 1995 (1995b).
C. F. McDonald, Gas turbine recuperator renaissance. J. Heat Recovery 10, I-30 (1990b).
G. Pellischek and E. Reile, Compact energy recovery units for vehicular gas turbines. SAE Paper 920151 (1992).
H. F. Jen, Primary surface recuperator for vehicular gas turbine. SAE Paper 871590 (1987).
V. Kadambi et al., Primary surface heat exchanger for a ground vehicle gas turbine. SAE Paper 920148 (1992).
E. L. Parsons, Development, fabrication, and application of a primary surface gas turbine recuperator. SAE Paper
851254 (1985).
36. M. E. Ward and L. Holman, Primary surface recuperator for high performance prime-mover. SAE Paper 920150 (1992).
37. R. A. Wilson et al., Future vehicular recuperator technology projections. ASME Paper 94-GT-395.
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53. D. G. Wilson, Novel regenerative heat exchanger concept. The MIT Report (1988).
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(1993).
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