EDUCATION 2

Activity Sheet No. 13

VYGOTSKYS SOCIO-CULURAL THEORY

ELLAINE CASSEY B. PALADIN 11/09/2013
BEED

ACTIVITY: Research on Lev Vygotskys life and works. Limit your answer into 3
paragraphs with a least 3-5 sentences for each. Cite your sources. (20)

Lev Semonovich Vygotsky

1896 1934
Lev Semonovich Vygotsky was born on the 5th of November 1896 in a small Russian
town called Orsche. Within the first year of his life his family moved to Gomel, a city that is in
what is now the independent nation of Belorussia, about 400 miles west of Moscow. He was the
second oldest of eight children. His parents were well educated Jews living in one of a few
designated provinces reserved for Russians of Jewish descent. His father was a respected bank
manager and his mother who had trained as a teacher was a full-time homemaker.
In 1920 Vygotsky experienced the first of a number of attacks of tuberculosis and was
worried that he would not survive. He collected his literary works together to deliver to his
mentor - Yuli Aichenwald, in case of his death from this attack. Aichenwald was exiled from
Russia in 1922. Vygotsky became preoccupied with the theme of death. In 1924 Vygotsky
presented a paper entitled Methodology of reflexological and psychological research at the
Second Psychoneurological Congress in Leningrad. His choice of topic was considered bold,
due to his youthful age and his relative inexpereience among the academics who were present.
Vygotsky was a prolific writer and he had created, with the collaboration of Alexander
Luria and Alexi N Leont'ev, a completely new Marxist based approach to psychology which
emphasises the improtance of social interaction in human development. Vygotsky's approach
did not become known in the West until 1958, and was not published there until 1962. Vygotsky
worked closely with, Alexander Luria and Alexi N Leont'ev. Both of these men carried on with
this work until their deaths.
Vygotsky completed 270 scientific articles, numerous lectures and 10 books based on a wide
range of Marxist based psychological and teaching theories as well as the areas of pedagogy
(the science of teaching), art and aesthetics and sociology, before dying of tuberculosis in June
1934, at the age of 37. Vygotsky died while dictating the final chapter of his book 'Thought and
language'.
EDUCATION 2
Activity Sheet No. 14
KOHLBERGS STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

ELLAINE CASSEY B. PALADIN 11/09/2013
BEED

1. Ana Karen Nina allows her classmates to copy her homework so that they will think she
is kind and will like her to be their friend.
- Interpersonal Relationships
2. Raiza Mae does everything to get passing grades because her mom will take her PSP
away if she gets bad grades.
- Obedience and Punishment
3. The couple for Christ group protests the use of pills for family planning, saying that
although the government allows this, it is actually murder because the pills are
abortifacient.
- Social Contract and Individual Rights
4. Eric lets Vincent copy during the math test because Vincent agreed to let his copy during
their science test.
- Individualism and Exchange
5. Juan Dela Cruz decides to return the wallet he found in the canteen so that people will
praise his honesty and think hes such a nice person.
- Mainaining Social Order
























EDUCATION 2
Activity Sheet No. 16
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

ELLAINE CASSEY B. PALADIN 11/09/2013
BEED


ACTIVITY

1. As a future educator, what is the importance of having a positive attitude towards
diversity in the classroom? (10)

As a future educator, it is important to have a positive attitude towards
diversity because when I do, I will recognize and respect the fact that people are
different and that these differences is generally a good thing. Having a diverse
group of students simply means recognizing that all the people are unique in their
own way. Their differences could consist of their reading level, athletic ability,
cultural background, personality, religious beliefs, and others.



2. How can you utilize the similarities and differences of your future students in
teaching them? (10)

We can utilize diversity in many different ways. One example is, when
attempting to solve a problem, it is better to assemble a diverse team with many
skills and many different ways of approaching the problem than it is to assemble
a team that has all their strength concentrated in one area.




























EDUCATION 2
Activity Sheet No. 17
LIBRARY WORK

ELLAINE CASSEY B. PALADIN 11/09/2013
BEED


ACTIVITY

Make a short research about the following: (cite your sources)

1. Learning-thinking Styles (sensory preferences and global-analytic continuum)
(18)


Learning/Thinking Styles


Learning/Thinking Styles refer to the preferred way an individual processes
information. They describe a person's typical mode of thinking, remembering or problem
solving. There are several perspectives about learning-thinking styles; two of these
are sensory preferences and global analytic continuum.

Sensory Preferences. Individuals tend to gravitate toward one or two types of sensory
input and maintain a dominance in one of the following types:


Visual Learners. These learners must see their teacher's actions and facial
expressions to fully understand the content of the lesson. Ri Charde further
breaks down visual learners into: a) Visual Iconic refers to those who are more
interested in visual imagery such as film, graphic displays in order to solidify
learning; b) Visual Symbolic refers to those who feel comfortable with abstract
symbolism such as mathematical formulae or the written word.

Auditory Learners. They learn best through verbal lectures, discussion, talking
things through and listening to what others have to say. They can attend aurally
to details, translate the spoken word easily into written words and are not easily
distracted in their listening ability. Auditory learners also fall into two categories:
a) The listeners are those who prefer to listen; b) The Talkers are those who
prefer talking.

Tactile/kinesthetic Learners benefit much from a hands-on approach, actively
exploring the world around them.


Global - Analytic Continuum


Analytic. Analytic thinkers tend toward the linear, step-by-step process of
learning.
Global. Global thinkers lean towards non-linear thoughts and tend to see the
whole patter rather than particle elements.

LEFT BRAIN (Analytic) RIGHT BRAIN (Global)
Successive Hemispheric Style Simultaneous Hemispheric Style
1. Verbal 1. Visual
2. Responds to word meaning 2. Responds to tone of voice
3. Sequential 3. Random
4. Processes information linearly 4. Processes information in varied order
5. Responds to logic 5. Responds to emotion
6. Recalls peoples names 6. Recalls peoples faces
7. Plans ahead 7. Impulsive
8. Speaks with few gestures 8. Gestures when speaking
9. Punctual 9. Less Punctual
10. Prefers formal study design 10. Prefers sound/music background while
studying
11. Prefers bright lights while studying 11. Prefers frequent mobility while studying


Multiple Intelligences

The theory of multiple intelligences (MI) was first described by Howard Gardner in
Frames of Mind (1983). Gardner defines intelligences as "an ability or set of abilities that
allows a person to solve a problem or fashion a product that is valued in or more
cultures". His most current research indicates that there are nine distinct forms of
intelligences, they are :


Visual/Spatial Intelligence (Picture Smart). Learns visually and organizing
ideas spatially, must see concepts in actions to fully understand them.
Verbal/Linguistic (Word Smart). Learns through the spoken words.
Mathematical/Logical (Number Smart/logic Smart). Learns through reasoning
and problem solving.
Bodily/Kinesthetic (Body Smart). Learns through interaction with one's
environment.
Musical (Music Smart). Learns through patterns, rhythms, and music.
Intrapersonal (Self Smart). Learning through feelings, values and attitudes.
Interpersonal (People Smart). Learning through interaction with others.
Naturalist (Nature Smart). Learns through classification, categories and
hierarchies.
Existential (Spirit Smart). learns through seeing the "big picture" and asks
"why are we here?", "what is my role in this world?" and the like.

Source: http://educ-on-line.blogspot.com/2010/04/learningthinking-styles-and-multiple.html

EDUCATION 2
Activity Sheet No. 19
LEARNERS WITH EXCEPTIONALITIES

ELLAINE CASSEY B. PALADIN 11/09/2013
BEED


ACTIVITY

PART I. Essay (10)
Distinguish the term disability from handicap.

Disability is a measurable impairment or limitation that interferes with a persons
ability, for example, to walk, lift, hear of learn. It may refer o a physical sensory or
mental condition. Handicap is a disadvantage that occurs as a result of a disability or
impairment. The degree of disadvantage is often dependent on the adjustment made
by both the person and his environment. Two persons may have the same disability but
not the same degree of being handicapped.
A disability is a condition caused by an accident, trauma, genetics or disease
which may limit a persons mobility, hearing, vision, speech or mental function. Some
people have more than one disability.
A handicap is physical or attitudinal constraint that is imposed upon a person,
regardless of whether that person has a disability. A set a stairs would be a handicap for
a person with a disability who uses a wheelchair.



PART II. Complete the statement below. (10)

From the module on Learners with exceptionalities, I learned that, learners with
exceptionalities are students who have special educational needs in relation to societal
or school norms. An inability to perform appropriate academic tasks for any reason
inherent in the learner makes that learner exceptional.















EDUCATION 2
Activity Sheet No. 20
LAWS OF LEARNING

ELLAINE CASSEY B. PALADIN 11/09/2013
BEED

ACTIVITY: Research the prominent behaviorist (40) source; wikipedia.com

IVAN PAVLOV

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (Russian:

; 26 September [O.S. 14
September] 1849 27 February 1936) was a Russian physiologist. From his childhood days Pavlov
demonstrated intellectual brilliance along with an unusual energy which he named "the instinct for
research".

Inspired by the progressive ideas which D. I. Pisarev, the most eminent of the Russian literary
critics of the 1860s and I. M. Sechenov, the father of Russian physiology, were spreading, Pavlov
abandoned his religious career and decided to devote his life to science. In 1870 he enrolled in the
physics and mathematics faculty at the University of Saint Petersburg to take the course in natural
science.
[2
Ivan Pavlov devoted his life to the study of physiology and sciences, making several
remarkable discoveries and ideas that were passed on from generation to generation. He won the Nobel
Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1904.

EDWARD LEE THORNDIKE

Edward Lee "Ted" Thorndike (August 31, 1874 August 9, 1949) was
an American psychologist who spent nearly his entire career at Teachers College, Columbia University.
His work on animal behavior and the learning process led to the theory of connectionism and helped lay
the scientific foundation for modern educational psychology. He also worked on solving industrial
problems, such as employee exams and testing. He was a member of the board of the Psychological
Corporation and served as president of the American Psychological Association in 1912.

JOHN WATSON
John Broadus Watson (January 9, 1878 September 25, 1958) was
an American psychologist who established the psychological school ofbehaviorism. Watson promoted a
change in psychology through his address, Psychology as the Behaviorist Views it, which was given
at Columbia University in 1913.
[1]
Through his behaviorist approach, Watson conducted research on
animal behavior, child rearing, and advertising. In addition, he conducted the controversial "Little Albert"
experiment.

B.F. SKINNER

Burrhus Frederic "B. F." Skinner (March 20, 1904 August 18, 1990) was an
American psychologist, behaviorist, author, inventor, and social philosopher.
[2][3][4][5]
He was the Edgar
Pierce Professor of Psychology at Harvard University from 1958 until his retirement in 1974.
[6]

Skinner invented the operant conditioning chamber, also known as the Skinner Box.
[7]
He was a firm
believer of the idea that human free will was actually an illusion and any human action was the result of
the consequences of that same action. If the consequences were bad, there was a high chance that the
action would not be repeated; however if the consequences were good, the actions that lead to it would
be reinforced.
[8]
He called this the principle of reinforcement.
[9]

He innovated his own philosophy of science called radical behaviorism,
[10]
and founded his own school of
experimental research psychologytheexperimental analysis of behavior. His analysis of human
behavior culminated in his work Verbal Behavior, as well as his philosophical manifestoWalden Two, both
of which have recently seen enormous increase in interest experimentally and in applied
settings.
[11]
Contemporary academia considers Skinner a pioneer of modern behaviorism along with John
B. Watson and Ivan Pavlov.
Skinner discovered and advanced the rate of response as a dependent variable in psychological
research. He invented the cumulative recorder to measure rate of responding as part of his highly
influential work on schedules of reinforcement.
[12][13]
In a June 2002 survey, Skinner was listed as the
most influential psychologist of the 20th century.
[14]
He was a prolific author who published 21 books and
180 articles.
EDUCATION 2
Activity Sheet No. 21
LAWS OF LEARNING

ELLAINE CASSEY B. PALADIN 11/09/2013
BEED

ACTIVITY: Research the concept of the laws of learning according to Edward Lee
Thorndike (20)
Thorndikes Laws of Learning:
1) Law of Readiness:-
First primary law of learning, according to him, is the Law of Readiness or the Law of Action Tendency,
which means that learning takes place when an action tendency is aroused through preparatory
adjustment, set or attitude. Readiness means a preparation of action. If one is not prepared to learn,
learning cannot be automatically instilled in him, for example, unless the typist, in order to learn typing
prepares himself to start, he would not make much progress in a lethargic & unprepared manner.
2) Law of Exercise:-
The second law of learning is the Law of Exercise, which means that drill or practice helps in increasing
efficiency and durability of learning and according to Throndikes S-R Bond Theory, the connections are
strengthened with trail or practice and the connections are weakened when trial or practice is
discontinued. The law of exercise, therefore, is also understood as the law of use and disuse in which
case connections or bonds made in the brain cortex are weakened or loosened. Many examples of this
case are found in case of human learning. Learning to drive a motor-car, typewriting, singing or
memorizing a poem or a mathematical table, and music etc. need exercise and repetition of various
movements and actions many times.
3) Law of Effect:-
The third law is the Law of Effect, according to which the trial or steps leading to satisfaction stamps in
the bond or connection. Satisfying states lead to consolidation and strengthening of the connection,
whereas dis-satisfaction, annoyance or pain lead to the weakening or stamping out of the connection. In
fact, the law of effect signifies that if the response satisfy the subject, they are learnt and selected, while
those which are not satisfying are eliminated. Teaching, therefore, must be pleasing. The educator must
obey the tastes and interests of his pupils. In other words, greater the satisfaction stronger will be the
motive to learn. Thus, intensity is an important condition of law of effect.
Besides these three basic laws, Throndike also refer to five subordinate laws which further
help to explain the learning process. These are-
4) Law of Multiple Response-

According to it the organism varies or changes its response till an appropriate behaviour is hit upon.
Without varying the responses, the correspondence for the solution might never be elicited. If the
individual wants to solve a puzzle, he is to try in different ways rather than mechanically persisting in
the same way. Throndikes cat in the puzzle box moved about and tried many ways to come out till
finally it hit the latch with her paw which opened the door and it jumped out.

5) The Law of Set or Attitude-

Learning is guided by a total set or attitude of the organism, which determines not only what the person
will do but what will satisfy or annoy him. For instance, unless the cricketer sets himself to make a
century, he will not be able to score more runs. A student, similarly, unless he sets to get first position and
has the attitude of being at the top, would while away the time and would not learn much. Hence, learning
is affected more in the individual if he is set to learn more or to excel.
6) Pre- potency of Elements:-
According to this law, the learner reacts selectively to the important or essential in the situation and
neglects the other features or elements which may be irrelevant or non- essential. The ability to deal
with the essential or the relevant part of the situation, makes analytical and insightful learning
possible. In this law of pre-potency of elements, Thorndike is really anticipating insight in learning
which was more emphasized by the Gestaltions.
7) Law of Response by Analogy-
According to this law, the individual makes use of old experiences or acquisitions while learning a
new situation. There is a tendency to utilise common elements in the new situation as existed in a
similar past situation. The learning of driving a car, for instance, is facilitated by the earlier acquired
skill of driving a motor cycle or even riding a bicycle because the perspective or maintaining a
balance and controlling the handle helps in stearing the car.
8) The Law of Associative Shifting-
According to this law we may get an response, of which a learner is capable, associated with any
other situation to which he is sensitive. Thorndike illustrated this by the act of teaching a cat to stand
up at a command. A fish was dangled before the cat while he said stand up. After a number trails by
presenting the fish after uttering the command stand up, he later ousted the fish and the over all
command of stand up was found sufficient to evoke the response in the cat by standing up or her
hind legs.
In brief implications of the Theory are-

1) According to this theory the task can be started from the easier aspect towards its difficult side. This
approach will benefit the weaker and backward children.
2) A small child learns some skills through trial and error method only such as sitting, standing,
walking, running etc. In teaching also the child rectifies the writing after commiting mistakes.
3) In this theory more emphasis has been laid on motivation. Thus, before starting teaching in the
classroom the students should be properly motivated.
4) Practice leads a man towards maturity. Practice is the main feature of trial and error method.
Practice helps in reducing the errors committed by the child in learning any concept.
5) Habits are formed as a result of repeitition. With the help of this theory the wrong habits of the
children can be modified and the good habits strengthened.
6) The effects of rewards and punishment also affect the learning of the child. Thus, the theory lays
emphasis on the use of reward and punishment in the class by the teacher.
7) The theory may be found quite helpful in changing the behaviour of the deliquent children. The
teacher should cure such children making use of this theory.
8) With the help of this theory the teacher can control the negative emotions of the children such as
anger, jealousy etc.
9) The teacher can improve his teaching methods making use of this theory. He must observe the
effects of his teaching methods on the students and should not hesitate to make necessary
changes in them, if required.
10) The theory pays more emphasis on oral drill work. Thus, a teacher should conduct oral drill of the
taught contents. This help in strengthening the learning more.
Source: http://dgwaymade.blogspot.com/2010/10/thorndikes-laws-of-learning-and-its.html
EDUCATION 2
Activity Sheet No. 22
LAWS OF LEARNING

ELLAINE CASSEY B. PALADIN 11/09/2013
BEED

ACTIVITY: Make a short about the experiment of John Wason on Albert

Little Albert experiment
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia


One of a series of photographs taken during the experiment
The Little Albert experiment was a case study showing empirical evidence of classical conditioning in
humans. This study was also an example of stimulus generalization. It was carried out by John B. Watson and
his assistant Rosalie Rayner at Johns Hopkins University, and the results were first published in the February
1920 issue of the Journal of Experimental Psychology.
John B. Watson, after observing children in the field, was interested in finding support for his notion that the
reaction of children, whenever they heard loud noises, was prompted by fear. Furthermore, he reasoned that
this fear was innate or due to an unconditioned response. He felt that following the principles of classical
conditioning, he could condition a child to fear another distinctive stimulus which normally would not be feared
by a child.

Methodology
The aim of Watson and Rayner was to condition phobias into an emotionally stable child.
[1]
They chose Albert
from a hospital for this study at the age of almost nine months.
[2]
Albert's mother was a wet nurse at the Harriet
Lane Home for Invalid Children. Albert was the son of an employee of the Phipps Clinic at Johns Hopkins
University in Baltimore, where Watson and Rayner were conducting their experiments.
[3]

As the preliminary to the experiment, Little Albert was given a battery of baseline emotional tests: the infant
was exposed, briefly and for the first time, to a white rabbit, a rat, a dog, a monkey, masks with and without
hair, cotton wool, burning newspapers, etc. During the baseline, Little Albert showed no fear toward any of
these items. Albert was then placed on a mattress on a table in the middle of a room. A white laboratory rat
was placed near Albert and he was allowed to play with it. At this point, the child showed no fear of the rat. He
began to reach out to the rat as it roamed around him. In later trials, Watson and Rayner made a loud sound
behind Albert's back by striking a suspended steel bar with a hammer when the baby touched the rat. Little
Albert responded to the noise by crying and showing fear. After several such pairings of the two stimuli, Albert
was again presented with only the rat. Now, however, he became very distressed as the rat appeared in the
room. He cried, turned away from the rat, and tried to move away. Apparently, the baby boy had associated the
white rat (original neutral stimulus, now conditioned stimulus) with the loud noise (unconditioned stimulus) and
was producing the fearful or emotional response of crying (originally the unconditioned response to the noise,
now the conditioned response to the rat).
This experiment led to the following progression of results:
Introduction of a loud sound (unconditioned stimulus) resulted in fear (unconditioned response), a natural
response.
[4]

Introduction of a rat (neutral stimulus) paired with the loud sound (unconditioned stimulus) resulted in fear
(unconditioned response).
[4]

Successive introductions of a rat (conditioned stimulus) resulted in fear (conditioned response). Here,
learning is demonstrated.
The experiment showed that Little Albert seemed to generalize his response to furry objects so that when
Watson sent a non-white rabbit into the room seventeen days after the original experiment, Albert also became
distressed. He showed similar reactions when presented with a furry dog, a seal-skin coat, and even when
Watson appeared in front of him wearing a Santa Claus mask with white cotton balls as his beard, although
Albert did not fear everything with hair. There was some confusion when pairing the noise with the rabbit and
dog.
[4]

Watson was using the same kind of classical conditioning as Pavlov used in his experiments with dogs.
















EDUCATION 2
Activity Sheet No. 23
LAWS OF LEARNING

ELLAINE CASSEY B. PALADIN 11/09/2013
BEED

ACTIVITY: Explain the process of classical conditioning with the help of the diagram (15)

PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
In classical conditioning, an organism learns to associate one stimulus with
another. The organism learns that the first stimulus is a cue for the second
stimulus. In Pavlovs experiment above, the tuning fork cued the dogs that food might
be coming. Following is an example of classical conditioning.

In technical terms, the food is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and the salivation is the
unconditioned response (UCR). The bell is a neutral stimulus until the dog learns to
associate the bell with food. Then the bell becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) which
produces the conditioned response (CR) of salivation after repeated pairings between
the bell and food.








EDUCATION 2
Activity Sheet No. 24
LAWS OF LEARNING

ELLAINE CASSEY B. PALADIN 11/09/2013
BEED

ACTIVITY: Make a short research about the Operant Conditioning of BF Skinner (20)

Operant conditioning
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia


Diagram of operant conditioning
Operant conditioning (or instrumental conditioning) is a type of learning in which an
individual's behavior is modified by its consequences; the behaviour may change in
form, frequency, or strength. Operant conditioning is a term that was coined by B. F.
Skinner in 1937.
[1]
The word operant refers to, "an item of behavior that is initially
spontaneous, rather than a response to a prior stimulus, but whose consequences may
reinforce or inhibit recurrence of that behavior".
[2]

Operant conditioning is distinguished from classical conditioning (or respondent
conditioning) in that operant conditioning deals with the modification of "voluntary
behaviour" or operant behaviour. Operant behavior operates on the environment and is
maintained by its consequences, while classical conditioning deals with the conditioning
of reflexive (reflex) behaviours which are elicited by antecedent conditions. Behaviours
conditioned via a classical conditioning procedure are not maintained by
consequences.
[3]
B.F. Skinner (19041990) is the person whose work is most often cited in connection
with operant conditioning. His book "The Behavior of Organisms",
[6]
published in 1938,
initiated his lifelong study of operant conditioning and its application to human and
animal behavior. Following the ideas of Ernst Mach, Skinner rejected Thorndike's
reference to unobservable mental states such as satisfaction, building his analysis on
observable behavior and its equally observable consequences.
[7]

To implement his empirical approach, Skinner invented the operant conditioning
chamber in which subjects such as pigeons and rats were isolated from extraneous
stimuli and free to make one or two simple, repeated responses.
[8]
Another invention,
the cumulative recorder, produced a graphical record of these responses from which
response rates could be estimated. These records were the primary data that Skinner
and his colleagues used to explore the effects on response rate of various
reinforcement schedules.
[9]
A reinforcement schedule may be defined as, "any
procedure that delivers a reinforcer to an organism according to some well-defined
rule".
[10]
The effects of schedules became, in turn, the basic experimental data from
which Skinner developed his account of operant conditioning. He also drew on many
less formal observations of human and animal behavior.
[11]

Many of Skinner's writings are devoted to the application of operant conditioning to
human behavior.
[12]
In 1957, Skinner published Verbal Behavior,
[13]
which extended the
principles of operant conditioning to language, a form of human behavior that had
previously been analyzed quite differently by linguists and others. Skinner defined new
functional relationships such as "mands" and "tacts" to capture the essentials of
language, but he introduced no new principles, treating verbal behavior like any other
behavior controlled by its consequences, which included the reactions of the speaker's
audience.



















EDUCATION 2
Activity Sheet No. 24b
LAWS OF LEARNING

ELLAINE CASSEY B. PALADIN 11/09/2013
BEED

ACTIVITY: Compare and Contrast the Classical Conditioning vs Operant Conditioning (20)



Classical conditioning or Pavlovian conditioning, to begin with, refers to an
involuntary or automatic response persons reaction to a hot stove; the scent of a
perfume; a certain song etc All of these evoke a strong emotion or involuntary
reaction among the affected persons or animals


Operant conditioning, on the other hand, is another form of learning that is based
on the reaction of a person or animal in a very forced situation. It is a conditioning that
crops up through subsequent rewards or punishments. In short, it is a reaction to past
consequences. Examples for this method of rewards based learning are: getting an A
instead of an F on examinations a person who knows the meaning of the grading
system would strive to a specific stimulus. It also refers to the predictable sequence of
events in which a thinking being responds to the first event in anticipation of the next.
Examples of these predictable relationships are to get an A instead of an F, or
employees that work very hard so as to avoid getting fired.