Name: Date:

English Test
2
nd
grade
1.Colour according to the instructions given(2 points):

a)The pig is pink.
2.The sheep is black
3.The duck is yellow.
4.The cat is white.
2.Write the words corresponding to the pictures(2 points):
a)My ....................... is small.
b)Toms ............................ is clean.
c)My ................................. is red.
d) ha!e got blue ..................................... .
3.What food can ou find in the sna!e"( # words) ( 2 points)
Icecreampizzavegetablesfruitbutterbreadsausagessteak
".#atch the two columns( 2 points):
$.%hats your name" &)ts 'am.
2.(ow old are you" ))ts )rad.
3.%hats your *a!ourite *ood" +),o-its not.
4.s this your house" .)m eight.
Name: Date:
English test
3
rd
grade
1.Write the das of the wee!: ($ point)
M/////////- T/////////.- %////////.-
T//////////
0/////////..- 1/////////..- 1/////////.
2.$ill in an action( $ point):
a)/////.. lunch
b)/////.. to bed
c)/////.. my *riends
d)/////. a !ideo
e)/////. to music
3.$ill in some or any :( 2 points)
$.&re there////////.. eggs in the *ridge"
2.,o-there arent////////. chips on the plate but there
is////////// cheese on it.
3.+an ha!e ////////.. lemonade- please"
".%n&um'le the letters to find the food: ( $ point)
T 2 M & :
+ 3 2 :
4 5 M :
3 3 6 + & 1 T :
(.%nderline the right word: ( $ point)
a)0iona and her mother dont/doesnt go to the theatre at the weekend.
b)%here do/does your sister li!e"
c)0rank has/does has *riends.
d)When/What does she do in the e!ening"
).Write four things a'out ou in four sentences.( 2 points)

Name: Date:
English test
"
th
grade
1.*ive the +ast Tense forms of the ver's in 'rac!ets:
a)1he (eat)/////////.. a burger yesterday.
b).an (not7en'oy)/////////.. the clowns show.
c)%hat time/////////// (the pupils7lea!e) home"
d)5ate and the children(to be)/////////. 8uite happy at the party.
2.*ive the comparative and superlative forms of the following ad&ectives:
a)hea!y
b)*at
c)good
d)large
3.Write a'out our dream holida this summer so as to answer the ,uestions:
%here are you going to go"
%ho are you going to go with"
%here are you going to stay"
%hat are you going to do"
".-ead and fill in where, how, what, who, when, :
$////////. is the *un*air"
n 4ondon.
2//////// is that man"
My cousin-5e!in.
3//////// do you make this *ruit salad"
%ith mangoes and cherries.
4//////// is the pool party"
6n 1aturday.
9/////////. are you going to do later"
%atch T.:.
(. -ead and match:
$.Mary is going to the cinema. &)(es going to go to Me;ico.
2.5elly wants to buy a loa* o* bread. ))1hes going to see a *unny *ilm.
3.Tina is going to the hospital. +)(es going to go swimming.
4.3obert is going to the sea. .)1hes going to the bakers.
9.,ick has got a one<month holiday. 2)1hes going to !isit her aunt.
$< 2< 3< 4< 9<
Intermediate/Upper Elementary School
Subject Case Pronouns
Use the subject case pronouns, which include the singulars I, you, he, she, and it and the
plurals we, you, and they in these grammatical forms:
when the pronoun is the sentence subject. The sentence subject is the do-er of the
sentence.
Example: She and I attended the concert.
when the pronoun is a predicate nominative. predicate nominati!e follows a to
be !erb "is, am, are, was, were, be, being, been) and identifies or refers to the subject.
Example: The students who got into trouble are they.
when the pronoun is part of an appositive, such as after than or as. n appositi!e is
a noun or pronoun placed next to another noun or pronoun to identif# or explain it.
Example: $art# is smarter than I.
%ronoun Tip: &hen compound subjects are joined b# or or nor, the pronoun that
refers to the subjects agrees in number with the antecedent closer to the
pronoun. Example: 'either water nor sodas did their jobs (uenching m# thirst.
%ronoun Tips: To test whether the pronoun is in the nominati!e case, tr# these tric)s:
*ephrase to chec) if the pronoun sounds right.
Example: The last one to arri!e was he. *ephrase+He was the last one to arri!e.
,rop other nouns or pronouns when there is a compound subject and chec) if the
remaining pronoun sounds right. *emember that English is a polite language- the first person
pronouns (I, me, ours, mine) are alwa#s placed last when combined with other nouns or
pronouns.
Example: .ohn and I pla# !ideo games. ,rop and chec)+I pla# !ideo games.
Object Case Pronouns
Use the object case pronouns, which include the singulars me, you, him, her, it and the
pluralsus, you, and them in these grammatical forms:
when the pronoun is the direct object. The direct object recei!es the action of the
!erb.
Example: The challenge excited him.
when the direct object is described b# an appositi!e phrase "a phrase that
identifies or explains another noun or pronoun placed next to it/.
Example: The teacher #elled at two students, *achel and me.
when the pronoun is an indirect object of a !erb. The indirect object is placed between
a !erb and its direct object. 0t tells to what, to whom, for what, or for whom.
Example: *obert ga!e him a )ing-si1e cand# bar.
when the pronoun is an object of a preposition. preposition shows some relationship
or position between a proper noun, a common noun, or a pronoun and its object. The
preposition as)s &hat2 and the object pro!ides the answer.
Example: The fl# bu11ed around her and past them b# me.
when the pronoun is connected to an infiniti!e. n infiniti!e has a to 3 the base form
of a !erb.
Example: 0 want him to gi!e the speech.
%ronoun Tips:
To test whether the pronoun is in the object case, tr# these tric)s:
*ephrase to chec) if the pronoun sounds right.
Example: .oe smiled at all of them. *ephrase+t all of them .oe smiled.
,rop other nouns or pronouns when there is a compound subject and chec) if the
remaining pronoun sounds right. *emember that English is a polite language- the first person
pronouns (I, me, ours, mine) are alwa#s placed last when combined with other nouns or
pronouns.
Example: 4he ga!e 5ath# and me a gift. ,rop and chec)+4he ga!e me a gift.
The pronoun who is in the subject case. The who ta)es the role of the subject.
Example: &ho is the best teacher2
Who and Whom
The pronoun who is in the subject case. 0n other words, it ta)es the place of a noun acting as
the subject of a sentence.
Examples: Who did this2
&ho is the best teacher2
%ronoun Tip: Tr# substituting he for who and rephrase, if necessar#. 0f it sounds right,
use who.
The pronoun whom is in the objecti!e case. 0n other words, it is ta)es the place of the direct
object, the indirect object of the !erb, or the object of the preposition.
Examples: Whom did .oan lo!e2
0 li)e whom #ou ga!e the award.
To whom does this letter concern2
%ronoun Tip: Tr# substituting him for whom and rephrase, if necessar#. 0f it sounds right,
usewhom.
Relative Pronouns
The pronoun that can refer to people or things- the pronoun which can onl# refer to things.
Use the pronoun that when the clause is needed to understand the rest of the sentence.
Example: The mo!ie that we watched was entertaining.
Use the pronoun which in clauses that pro!ide additional, but not necessar# information.
Example: That dog, which is friendl#, was eas# to train.
,on6t restate the subject with a pronoun.
Example: That dog, which is friendl#, he was eas# to train. %roblem+The he is unnecessar#
and grammaticall# incorrect.
Middle School
Indeinite Pronouns
n indefinite personal pronoun does not specificall# reference a common noun or proper noun
and so can act as a singular or plural to match the !erb. These pronouns include: anybody,
anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, everyone, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one,
someone, somebody, and something.
%ronoun Tip: 7oo) at surrounding words for singular and plural clues.
n indefinite numerical pronoun does not indicate an exact amount and can act as a singular
or plural depending upon the surrounding words. These indefinite numerical pronouns
includeall, any, half, more, most, none, other, and some.
Examples: in ll of the food is wonderful, all is a singular pronoun. 0n ll girls )now best, all is
a plural pronoun.
%ronoun Tip: &hen the object of the preposition is uncountable, use a singular pronoun to
refer to the object. Example: ll of the salt fell out of its bag. &hen it is countable, use a
plural pronoun to refer to the object.
Example: ll of the coffee beans fell out of their bag.
%ronoun Tip: The ending word parts bod#, one, and thing indicate a singular indefinite
pronoun.
Rele!ive and Intensive Pronouns
*eflexi!e pronouns refer to the subject, and intensi!e pronouns emphasi1e a noun or
pronoun. 8oth are object case pronouns and
include myself, ourselves, yourself, yourselves,himself, herself, itself, and themselves.
reflexi!e pronoun is essential to the sentence. 9ou could not understand the sentence
without the pronoun.
Example: :e ga!e himself a pat on the bac).
0ntensi!e pronouns are not essential to the sentence. 9ou could understand the sentence
without the pronoun.
Example: 0, myself, happen to lo!e eating pi11a.
%ronoun Tip: 'otice that each has self or sel!es as the second s#llable.
%ronoun Tips: pronoun that refers to or replaces a pre!ious common noun, proper noun, or
pronoun is called an antecedent.
$a)e sure antecedents are specific. ;therwise, the pronoun reference ma# be
confusing.
Example: &hen 8obb# as)ed for help, the# as)ed wh#.
%roblem-&ho is they2 <et more specific. &hen 8obb# as)ed for help from his
teachers, theyas)ed wh#.
,on6t ha!e a pronoun refer to the object in a prepositional phrase.
Example: 0n Twain6s The =elebrated >rog of =ala!eras =ount#, he uses political
humor. %roblem+&ho, or what, is he2
$a)e sure that the singular pronouns this and that and the plural
pronouns these and those specificall# refer to what is intended. 5eep these pronouns close to
their references.
Example: :e made an egg, put the dog food in its bowl, and put this on his toast to
eat. %roblem+&hat is this2
,on6t ha!e a pronoun refer to a possessi!e antecedent. possessi!e is a common
noun, proper noun, or pronoun that shows ownership.
Example: 0n 4an ,iego6s famous 1oo, the# treat their 1oo-)eepers well. %roblem+&ho are
the the# and their2
"emonstrative Pronouns
,emonstrati!e pronouns refer to nouns close to or awa# from the spea)er. These pronouns
include this, that, these, and those. The words this "singular/ and these "plural/ refer to nouns
and pronouns close to the writer "spea)er/. The words that "singular/ and those "plural/ refer
to nouns and pronouns awa# from the writer "spea)er/.
#i$h School
%ossessi!e pronouns can connect to gerunds "!erb forms ending in ing that ser!e as a
sentence subject/.
Examples: :is coo)ing is not the best. Their coo)ing the dinner is not the best idea.
Pronouns and Writin$ Style
English is a polite language. %lace others before #ourself. >or example, 4he and 0 enjo# a wal)
in the par), not 0 and she enjo# a wal) in the par).
&hen use of a pronoun will create confusion, repeat the noun and omit the pronoun. >or
example, Eating their dessert caused the bo#s to lose their focus is more clear than Eating
their dessert caused them to lose their focus.
,on6t use first and second person pronouns in essa#s. >ocus on the subject, not the author or
reader in essa#s.
Why not ma%e sense o $rammar instruction &ith a curriculum that &ill help you
eiciently inte$rate $rammar into &ritin$ instruction' (hro& a&ay your
ineective ")O)*) openers and last+minute $rammar test+prep practice, and teach all
the $rammar, mechanics, and spellin$ that most students need in -. minutes per
&ee%) Teaching Grammar and Mechanics, provides a coherent scope and se/uence o
01 no+prep Sentence *itin$lessons &ith(eacher (ips and #ints or the
$rammatically+challen$ed) (he mechanics and $rammar s%ills complement those
ound in the -2 (3M Wor%sheets and tar$et the dia$nostic needs indicated by the
multiple+choice (3M 3rammar and Mechanics "ia$nostic 4ssessments)
TEACHING GRAMMAR - DOES GRAMMAR TEACHING WORK?
(Modern English Teacher 15/2, 2006)
The researches of many commentators have already thrown mch dar!ness on this s"#ect, and it is
$ro"a"le that, if they contine, we shall soon !now nothing at all a"ot it% (Mark Twain)
&'m no longer sre that what is im$ortant is more im$ortant than what is not%
(W. Szymborska)
(itel mistea! is not mesta! (Inscription found on school blackboard circa 19!)
WHY DO PEOPLE WORRY SO MUCH ABOUT GRAMMAR
TEACHING?
"#spit# all th# work that has b##n don# on first$ and s#cond$lan%ua%# ac&uisition' w# know surprisin%ly
littl# about how lan%ua%#s ar# l#arnt' and #(#n l#ss about how th#y can b#st b# tau%ht. Th#ori#s com#
and %o' ass#rtions ar# pl#ntiful' facts ar# in short supply. This is nowh#r# mor# tru# than in th# ar#a of
%rammar. Th# troubl# with t#achin% %rammar is that w# ar# n#(#r &uit# sur# wh#th#r it works or not) its
#ff#cts ar# unc#rtain and hard to ass#ss. If w# t#ach rul#s' som#tim#s stud#nts mana%# to apply th#m and
som#tim#s th#y don*t. +ractic# may ha(# som# #ff#ct' but carry$o(#r to spontan#ous production is oft#n
disappointin%. If stud#nts sp#ak mor# corr#ctly as tim# %o#s by' is this b#caus# of our t#achin%' or would
th#y ha(# %ot b#tt#r anyway, -#s#arch on m#thodolo%y is inconclusi(#' and has not shown d#t#ctabl# and
lastin% #ff#cts' for instanc#' for implicit (#rsus #.plicit instruction' for inducti(# (#rsus d#ducti(#
l#arnin%' or for s#parat#d$out study of structur# (#rsus incid#ntal focus on form durin% communicati(#
acti(ity. /nd#rstandably' t#ach#rs ar# unsur# how much importanc# th#y should %i(# to %rammar' what
%rammar th#y should t#ach' and how th#y should t#ach it. 0an%ua%#$t#achin% fashions cons#&u#ntly
oscillat# from on# #.tr#m#' wh#r# %rammar is %i(#n star billin%' to th# oth#r' wh#r# it is back%round#d or
compl#t#ly i%nor#d.
SHOULD WE TEACH GRAMMAR AT ALL?
1urr#ntly' th# th#or#tical p#ndulum is n#ar th# 2back%roundin%* #nd of th# swin%. In r#c#nt d#cad#s
%rammar t#achin% has b##n call#d into &u#stion for s#(#ral r#asons. Th#s# includ#)
3 4 r#sur%#nc# of th# lon%$standin% disillusionm#nt with th# r#sults of h#a(ily %rammar$ori#nt#d
approach#s) 25# can r#cit# lon% lists of irr#%ular (#rbs but can*t ask for a cup of coff##*.
3 Th# associat#d ris# of mor# 2communicati(#* m#anin%$c#ntr#d approach#s in(ol(in% situational'
functional' notional or task$bas#d syllabus#s' and a cons#&u#nt shift of focus away from %rammar.
3 Th# (i#w' associat#d particularly with St#ph#n 6rash#n' that 2l#arnin%* (th# conscious assimilation of
information about lan%ua%# structur#) cannot l#ad to 2ac&uisition* (th# d#(#lopm#nt of th# unconscious
ability to produc# th# r#l#(ant structur#s spontan#ously).
3 Th# post$6rash#n (i#w that' whil# conscious att#ntion to lan%ua%# form may aft#r all b# n#c#ssary'
this will only l#ad to ac&uisition if it coincid#s with communicati(# us# of lan%ua%#' so that th# s#parat#
study of %rammar' d#coupl#d from communication' is in#ff#cti(#.
3 Th# d#(#lopm#nt of lar%# #l#ctronic corpora' l#adin% to an #.plosion of int#r#st in l#.is' an
incr#as#d und#rstandin% of th# l#.is$%rammar int#rfac#' and a f##lin% in som# t#ach#rs* minds that all of
%rammar th#r#for# r#duc#s to (ocabulary) 2W# don*t do %rammar any mor#. W# follow th# l#.ical
approach*. (7n# should p#rhaps b#war# of anythin% call#d 2Th# 8 approach* or 2Th# 8 m#thod* 9 not
b#caus# of what it do#s' but b#caus# of what it stops on# doin%.)
Th#r# has b##n som#thin% of a split in t#ach#rs* r#actions worldwid# to th#s# d#(#lopm#nts. Many non$
nati(# sp#akin% t#ach#rs ha(# %on# on t#achin% %rammar (#ry much as b#for#' not always for cl#arly
thou%ht$out r#asons. :ati(#$sp#akin% t#ach#rs' on th# oth#r hand' ha(# oft#n b##n influ#nc#d mor#
stron%ly by r#c#nt 4ppli#d 0in%uistic th#ory. (To b# cynical' som# nati(#$sp#akin% t#ach#rs ha(# found
th# down%radin% of %rammar #.tr#m#ly con(#ni#nt. Th# "ir#ct M#thod and its d#sc#ndants absol(#d th#m
of th# n##d to l#arn anythin% about th# %rammar of th#ir stud#nts* lan%ua%#s; now th#y don*t n##d to
l#arn about th# %rammar of th#ir own lan%ua%# #ith#r.)

THE NEED TO TEACH GRAMMAR
In this articl# I shall tak# th# position that' in %#n#ral' %rammar do#s n##d to b# tau%ht to for#i%n$
lan%ua%# l#arn#rs. I shall not d#f#nd this (i#w in d#tail' but bri#fly)
3 0an%ua%#s ha(# structural f#atur#s that ar# complicat#d and hard to l#arn. <or l#arn#rs to mast#r
th#m' ad#&uat# #.p#ri#nc#' und#rstandin% and us# of th#s# f#atur#s ar# n#c#ssary. Wh#r# tim# is limit#d
and l#arn#rs ha(# littl# out$of$class #.posur# (as in most lan%ua%#$t#achin% situations th# world o(#r)'
this can only b# brou%ht about with th# h#lp of p#da%o%ic int#r(#ntion) #.plicit t#achin% and syst#matic
practic# inform#d by a syllabus of known probl#ms. (<or d#tail#d discussion' s## Swan =>>!.)
3 ?rammar has not %on# away b#caus# w# ha(# r#disco(#r#d l#.is. In @n%lish' r#lati(# claus#s follow
th#ir nouns; pr#positions can com# at th# #nds of claus#s; ad(#rbs cannot %#n#rally b# put b#tw##n a
(#rb and its obA#ct; th#r# ar# two 2pr#s#nt* t#ns#s which ar# us#d in diff#r#nt situations. Th#s# ar# not
facts about words 9 th#y ar# facts' which many stud#nts n##d to l#arn' about %#n#ral lin%uistic
cat#%ori#s. It is tru# that som# wid#$ran%in% structural %#n#ralisations ha(# l#.ical compon#nts 9 @n%lish
&u#stion formation can b# pr#s#nt#d as if it was a fact about th# (#rb 2do*' or p#rf#cti(# asp#ct as if it
was a fact about 2ha(#*. 5ow#(#r' this m#r#ly amounts to som# rath#r unconstructi(# r#lab#llin%' and
t#lls us nothin% n#w that will h#lp in t#achin% th#s# difficult structural points. 4nd whil# childr#n
ar%uably l#arn th# %rammar of th#ir moth#r ton%u#s by startin% with l#.ical 2chunks* which ar# lat#r
analys#d and %#n#ralis#d from' th#r# is no %ood #(id#nc# that this is a %#n#rally (iabl# strat#%y in
s#cond$lan%ua%# l#arnin%.
So I shall assum#' without furth#r ar%um#nt' that w# n##d to t#ach %rammar. If this is so' what #.actly
should w# t#ach' how much priority should w# %i(# it' and how should w# t#ach it,

THERE IS GRAMMAR AND GRAMMAR
If w# ar# unsur# wh#th#r %rammar$t#achin% works' it may b# partly b#caus# th# &u#stion is too %#n#ral.
Th# word 2%rammar* co(#rs (#ry many diff#r#nt kinds of thin%' not all of which ar# #&ually t#achabl# or
l#arnabl#. 4s Ban 5ulstiAn puts it in an important articl# (5ulstiAn 199!)' 2not all %rammar rul#s ar#
#&ual*. 0#t*s look at thr## #.ampl#s.
3 To mak# a yes/no &u#stion in Mandarin 1hin#s#' put 2ma* at th# #nd of th# corr#spondin%
stat#m#nt.
3 To mak# a &u#stion in @n%lish' put th# au.iliary (#rb b#for# th# subA#ct. If th#r# is no au.iliary'
introduc# th# dummy au.iliary do' and proc##d as b#for# (r#m#mb#rin% that do has a distinct C
rd
$p#rson
sin%ular pr#s#nt form does). Dut don*t do any of this if th# &u#stion has as its subA#ct an int#rro%ati(#
#.pr#ssion such as who or what 9 in this cas#' th# structur# is that of a stat#m#nt.
3 Wh#n usin% a -ussian noun' b# sur# to %i(# it th# ri%ht #ndin%. 4 sin%ular -ussian noun can ha(# up to
si. diff#r#nt #ndin%s d#p#ndin% on its %rammatical rol# (#.%. subA#ct' dir#ct or indir#ct obA#ct' poss#ssor'
obA#ct of on# or oth#r pr#position). :ot all nouns tak# th# sam# s#t of #ndin%s) th# forms for a %i(#n noun
d#p#nd on which of thr## %rammatical class#s (2%#nd#rs*) and s#(#ral subclass#s it b#lon%s to. <urth#r'
many nouns ha(# irr#%ular forms which d#(iat# from th#s# patt#rns.
It is cl#arly pointl#ss to %#n#ralis# about wh#th#r conscious l#arnin% of a %rammatical f#atur# can l#ad to
accurat# spontan#ous us#' without takin% into account th# compl#.ity of th# f#atur# and th# amount of
proc#ssin% n#c#ssary for its accurat# and appropriat# production. Th# rul# for 1hin#s# &u#stion formation
is #asy' and can probably b# pick#d up with littl# or no formal t#achin%. @n%lish &u#stion formation is
mor# difficult' and is lik#ly to b# l#arnt mor# &uickly and accurat#ly with th# h#lp of syst#matic t#achin%
and practic#. -ussian noun infl#ctions ar# a l#arn#rs* ni%htmar#' and conscious l#arnin% and practic# of
th#s# forms may w#ll not #nabl# stud#nts to %#t th#m ri%ht.
<ortunat#ly' @n%lish do#s not ha(# th# kind of morpholo%ical compl#.ity which mak#s -ussian so difficult.
It do#s' how#(#r' ha(# oth#r ar#as of %rammar wh#r# it is difficult or impossibl# to pro(id# l#arn#rs with
rul#s which ar# both accurat# #nou%h to pro(id# a basis for makin% corr#ct structural choic#s' and simpl#
#nou%h to b# r#m#mb#r#d' int#rnalis#d' and act#d on. Such ar#as includ#' for instanc#' th# #.pr#ssion of
th# futur# (will' going to or pr#s#nt pro%r#ssi(#,)' many asp#cts of articl# usa%#' th# thr## options for
noun compoundin% (compar# ta"le leg' )ohn's leg' leg of lam")' or t#ns#Easp#ct probl#ms such as th# us#
of th# pr#s#nt p#rf#ct. Whil# som# l#arn#rs may achi#(# mast#ry of th#s# points throu%h lon% #.posur#'
#.plicit t#achin% will ha(# limit#d succ#ss.
prioritising !o"pr#$#nsi%i&it' (n) (!!#pt(%i&it'
0#a(in% asid# thos# points that can b# pick#d up without t#achin%' and thos# that cannot r#liably b#
tau%ht or l#arnt' w# ar# still l#ft with far mor# %rammar than w# can #(#r fit into any t#achin%
pro%ramm#. 5ow ar# w# to d#cid# what to conc#ntrat# on and what to drop,
In %#n#ral t#rms' th#r# ar# only two %ood r#asons for t#achin% a point of %rammar. 7n# is to do
with com$rehensi"ility) if w# t#ach th# point succ#ssfully' l#arn#rs will mak# th#ms#l(#s und#rstood
b#tt#r' or will und#rstand b#tt#r' than if w# don*t. /nfortunat#ly w# can*t m#asur# th# functional load
of a structur# 9 th# #.t#nt to which %#ttin% it wron%' or usin% it inappropriat#ly' will hind#r
communication. 1ont#.t contribut#s to m#anin% in unpr#dictabl# ways' so that a mistak# which caus#s
communication to br#ak down on Tu#sday mi%ht pass unnotic#d on W#dn#sday. 5ow#(#r' w# can mak#
inform#d %u#ss#s. W# can b# r#asonably sur#' for instanc#' that C
rd
$p#rson 's rar#ly contribut#s to
compr#h#nsibility; it is a lin%uistic fossil' irr#l#(ant to th# m#chanisms of mod#rn @n%lish. 7n th# oth#r
hand' th# acti(#Epassi(# distinction is ob(iously mor# si%nificant) if som#body says F2Bohn told about th#
m##tin%* inst#ad of 2Bohn was told 8*' th# wron% m#anin% is si%nall#d' and cont#.t will not n#c#ssarily
disambi%uat#.
It would b# nic# if w# could tak# compr#h#nsibility as our only crit#rion. /nfortunat#ly' many l#arn#rs
ar# und#r pr#ssur# to achi#(# a hi%h#r l#(#l of accuracy than is n##d#d for #ff#cti(# communication.
Stud#nts may ha(# to satisfy #.amin#rs; and #(#n in th#s# 2communicati(#* tim#s' #.aminations oft#n
impos# crit#ria that ha(# littl# to do with #ff#cti(# lan%ua%# us#. Som#on# who mak#s fr#&u#nt small
mistak#s may also b# unacc#ptabl# to a pot#ntial #mploy#r) d#f#cti(# %rammar could r#fl#ct badly on th#
or%anisation in &u#stion. Sp#ak#rs of a for#i%n lan%ua%# want nati(#$sp#akin% int#rlocutors to acc#pt
th#m on #&ual t#rms; but som#on# whos# lan%ua%# is %rammatically d#(iant may b# r#%ard#d' unfairly'
as un#ducat#d or #(#n unint#lli%#nt. 4nd l#arn#rs th#ms#l(#s may s##k hi%h standards of accuracy'
f##lin% 9 as th#y ha(# a p#rf#ct ri%ht to 9 that th#y want th#ir command of a lan%ua%# to com# clos#
#nou%h to nati(#$sp#ak#r p#rformanc# to satisfy th#ir own p#rsonal aspirations.
So compr#h#nsibility may clash with acce$ta"ility' makin% it difficult to d#cid# what to t#ach and what
not to. :on# th# l#ss' it is h#lpful to k##p th#s# two crit#ria in mind. 4nd if w# f##l 9 as w# oft#n may 9
that a point of %rammar is not only difficult to t#ach' but contribut#s littl# in #ith#r ar#a (th# pr#s#nt
p#rf#ct' for #.ampl#,)' th#n w# should not h#sitat# to %i(# it low priority or drop it alto%#th#r.
ot$#r !rit#ri(
Two oth#r rath#r ob(ious crit#ria ar# th# sco$e of a rul#' and th# fre*ency of th# r#l#(ant it#m. Th#
rul#s d#finin% th# structur# and us# of th# @n%lish futur# p#rf#ct' for instanc#' ha(# (#ry wid# scop# 9
n#arly all (#rbs ha(# futur# p#rf#ct forms 9 but th#y apply to a (#ry infr#&u#nt structur#. 7n th# oth#r
hand' th# rul# sp#cifyin% th# plural of child has #.tr#m#ly narrow scop# 9 only on# noun now forms its
plural in that way 9 but th# word is (#ry fr#&u#nt. Dalancin% scop# a%ainst fr#&u#ncy' w# will probably
d#cid# to t#ach children 9 if w# f##l that th# compr#h#nsibilityEacc#ptability factors ar# important
#nou%h 9 but not to worry about th# futur# p#rf#ct. In anoth#r cas# w# mi%ht mak# th# opposit# choic#'
%i(in% scop# priority o(#r fr#&u#ncy.
4noth#r crit#rion is relevance) th# %rammar that w# t#ach should r#lat# to l#arn#rs* probl#ms with
@n%lish. This is s#lf$#(id#nt to non$nati(# t#ach#rs. 4n Italian t#ach#r knows (#ry w#ll what asp#cts of
@n%lish ar# difficult for Italian l#arn#rs' and what points n##d no att#ntion b#caus# th#y can b# pick#d
up' or transf#rr#d from th# moth#r ton%u#. :ati(# sp#ak#rs t#achin% abroad ha(# to find th#s# thin%s
out. Without knowin% som#thin% about how th#ir l#arn#rs* lan%ua%# works' th#y ar# in dan%#r of t#achin%
unn#c#ssary points and o(#rlookin% oth#rs which ar# important. 1ours#s and %rammar$practic# books
publish#d for a %lobal mark#t n##d to b# us#d critically and s#l#cti(#ly for this r#ason. Sp#ak#rs of
4rabic' ?#rman' <r#nch' Turkish and Bapan#s# all ha(# diff#r#nt kinds of probl#m with @n%lish r#lati(#
claus#s) on#$siz#$fits$all mat#rials cannot tak# facts of this kind into account. Wh#r# a t#ach#r is workin%
with multinational class#s' th#r# is ob(iously a limit to th# #.t#nt to which h# or sh# can p#rsonalis#
%rammar instruction so as to do Austic# to 01$sp#cific probl#ms. 5ow#(#r' knowl#d%# about such probl#ms
is an #ss#ntial part of th# toolkit of an @<0 t#ach#r. <ortunat#ly information about how particular
lan%ua%#s work' and th# probl#ms th#ir sp#ak#rs #ncount#r wh#n th#y approach @n%lish' is nowadays not
hard to %#t hold of.
t#(!$ing too "*!$ gr(""(r
Thinkin% about compr#h#nsibility' acc#ptability' scop#' fr#&u#ncy and r#l#(anc#' th#n' can h#lp us to
prioritis# #ff#cti(#ly' s#l#ctin% for att#ntion thos# it#ms which ar# lik#ly to b# most us#ful to our
stud#nts. <ailur# to prioritis# can caus# (aluabl# tim# to b# wast#d on r#lati(#ly unimportant %rammar
points; in #.tr#m# cas#s t#ach#rs may #ff#cti(#ly b# t#achin% %rammar inst#ad of @n%lish. Th#r# ar# all
sorts of r#asons for this. T#ach#rs may do %rammar simply b#caus# it*s in th# t#.tbook. (Th# c#l#brat#d
mountain##r ?#or%# Mallory #.plain#d his obs#ssion with @(#r#st with th# words 2D#caus# it*s th#r#*. This
may b# a %ood r#ason for tryin% to climb a mountain' but it is a thorou%hly bad r#ason for uncritically
t#achin% a point of %rammar.) 4nd th#n' %rammar is (or at any rat# s##ms) r#asonably tidy and
syst#matic' compar#d with' say' th# Aun%l# of (ocabulary or th# swamp of skills t#achin%. ?rammar is
t#stabl# 9 and th#r# is a pl#asantly symm#trical satisfaction in t#achin% thin%s that can b# t#st#d and
th#n t#stin% what you*(# tau%ht. ?rammar rul#s pro(id# a (lar%#ly illusory) s#ns# of s#curity' standin% out
as si%nposts in th# complicat#d landscap# of lan%ua%# l#arnin%. <or som# t#ach#rs' %rammar has a &uasi$
symbolic charact#r$buildin% rol#) it was an important part of th# #ducational disciplin# that turn#d th#m
into th# spl#ndid p#opl# that th#y now ar#' and th#y want th#ir l#arn#rs to #nAoy th# sam# b#n#fits. 4nd
9 occasionally 9 on# finds t#ach#rs who lik# %rammar b#caus#' mor# than anythin% #ls# in lan%ua%#' it s#ts
th#m apart from th#ir l#arn#rs' %i(in% th#m th# pr#sti%# and pow#r that com# with sup#rior knowl#d%#.
In th#s# comput#r$lit#rat# tim#s' t#ach#rs almost c#rtainly ha(# stud#nts who know (ocabulary that th#y
don*t. 4nd non$nati(# t#ach#rs may w#ll ha(# stud#nts with a b#tt#r pronunciation than th#irs. Dut th#
t#ach#r is th# only p#rson in th# classroom who knows what th# past p#rf#ct pro%r#ssi(# passi(# is. Stick
to %rammar and you stay on top'
"isg*i)#) p#r+#!tionis"
4 common r#ason 9 and th# worst 9 for doin% too much %rammar is a kind of mis%uid#d p#rf#ctionism.
T#ach#rs naturally want to s#t hi%h standards for th#ms#l(#s and th#ir l#arn#rs. This is in its#lf
admirabl#' but it can #asily transmut# into #rror$phobia. :on$nati(# t#ach#rs ar# oft#n s#riously
distr#ss#d by th# fact that th#y th#ms#l(#s som#tim#s mak# mistak#s' f##lin% that this is a si%n of failur#
to mast#r th#ir subA#ct. Th#ir an.i#ty may b# proA#ct#d onto th#ir t#achin%' l#adin% to a p#rf#ctionist
conc#rn for accuracy that is nothin% short of disastrous. T#ach#rs who tr#at l#arn#rs* mistak#s as w##ds
to b# ruthl#ssly root#d out' who pick up #(#ry #rror and allow nothin% to pass uncorr#ct#d' do an
imm#ns# amount of harm. If stud#nts can n#(#r %#t to th# #nd of a s#nt#nc# without a corr#ction' th#y
und#rstandably b#com# r#luctant to produc# s#nt#nc#s at all 9 why should th#y k##p tryin% wh#n
#(#rythin% th#y say is wron%, 4nd so th#y #nd up in a condition that a ?#rman t#ach#r I was talkin% to
d#scrib#d as 2f#hl#rfr#i#s Schw#i%#n* 9 #rror$fr## sil#nc#. Th#y mak# no mistak#s' b#caus# th#y say
nothin%.
T#ach#rs with this attitud# can find th#ms#l(#s trapp#d in a battl# of wills' wh#r# stud#nts continu# to
mak# unimportant mistak#s (b#caus# th#y know p#rf#ctly w#ll that th#y ar# unimportant)' whil# th#
t#ach#rs continu# to corr#ct th#m' r#p#at#dly r#$t#achin% th# points and s#ttin% r#m#dial #.#rcis#s. It
can b# hard for t#ach#rs wh#n stud#nts r#fus# to l#arn what th#y t#ach 9 it s##ms lik# an affront to th#ir
prof#ssionalism' a mark of failur# 9 but it is worth askin% who is ri%ht) th# t#ach#r who thinks a small
structural point matt#rs or th# stud#nt who thinks it do#sn*t.
Small childr#n asid#' p#opl# who l#arn for#i%n lan%ua%#s do not usually achi#(# nati(#$sp#ak#r accuracy'
and this includ#s t#ach#rs. To pr#t#nd th# contrary is unr#alistic' count#rproducti(# and dama%in%. Th#r#
is a mar(#llously comfortin% r#mark about th# impossibility of achi#(in% p#rf#ction in par#ntin%'
attribut#d both to Druno D#tt#lh#im and " W Winn#cott) 24 %ood #nou%h par#nt is %ood #nou%h*. Th#
sam# is tru# of lan%ua%# t#achin%) hi%h standards ar# important' but a %ood #nou%h t#ach#r is %ood
#nou%h' and %ood #nou%h @n%lish is %ood #nou%h. -#alisin% and acc#ptin% this can r#li#(# t#ach#rs of a
%r#at d#al of unn#c#ssary %uilt and an.i#ty' and pr#(#nt th#m from wastin% (aluabl# tim# doin% r#m#dial
work on small points of %rammar. Th#r# ar# mor# important thin%s to do.

HOW SHOULD WE TEACH GRAMMAR?
7nc# w# ha(# d#cid#d what to t#ach' how do w# t#ach it, 4n #normous amount has b##n writt#n about
th# m#thodolo%y of t#achin% %rammar. Much of this is us#ful; unfortunat#ly th#r# is also an awful lot of
nons#ns# around. "o%matic pr#scriptions and proscriptions abound (2Stop doin% that $ it*s wron%. 4s a
r#sult of r#c#nt r#s#arch' w# now know 8.*). 5ow#(#r' 2%rammar* is many diff#r#nt thin%s which ar# b#st
tau%ht and l#arnt in (#ry diff#r#nt ways. 0#arn#rs and t#achin% situations also (ary wid#ly; an approach
which works w#ll for on# kind of stud#nt in Dritain or th# /S may b# totally inappropriat# for som#on#
#ls# studyin% @n%lish for C hours a w##k in his or h#r own country. 0#(#l is crucial) th# mor# l#arn#rs
know' th# mor# #ff#cti(#ly %rammar work can b# int#%rat#d into oth#r mor# communicati(# acti(iti#s;
th# low#r th#ir l#(#l' th# mor# lik#ly th#y ar# to b#n#fit from s#parat#d$out syllabus$bas#d #.planations
and practic#. W# should r#A#ct nothin% on doctrinair# %rounds) d#ducti(# t#achin% throu%h #.planations
and #.ampl#s' inducti(# disco(#ry acti(iti#s' rul#$l#arnin%' p##r$t#achin%' d#cont#.tualis#d practic#'
communicati(# practic#' incid#ntal 2focus on form* durin% communicati(# tasks' t#ach#r corr#ction and
r#casts' %rammar %am#s' corpus analysis' l#arnin% rul#s and #.ampl#s by h#art 9 all of th#s# and many
oth#r traditional and non$traditional acti(iti#s ha(# th#ir plac#' d#p#ndin% on th# point b#in% tau%ht' th#
l#arn#r and th# cont#.t.
E,PLANATIONS
Th# purpos# of %rammar #.planations is not simply to d#scrib# structural f#atur#s; it is to build brid%#s
from th# l#arn#rs* pr#s#nt knowl#d%# to th# knowl#d%# w# want th#m to ha(#. If w# ar# %oin% to' so to
sp#ak' tak# l#arn#rs from 4 to D in this way' w# n##d to look car#fully at both #nds of th# brid%#. Wh#r#
is 4, What do th# l#arn#rs know about a point alr#ady' by (irtu# of #ith#r its similarity with a moth#r$
ton%u# structur# or of th#ir pr#(ious #.p#ri#nc#, Wh#r# is D, It can*t b# too far away from 4' or th#
brid%# will collaps#. ?i(#n too much information' l#arn#rs won*t assimilat# it. @.planations don*t ha(# to
%i(# th# whol# truth) th#y must b# tru# #nou%h to b# us#ful' but also short' simpl#' and cl#ar #nou%h to
b# tak#n in' r#m#mb#r#d and act#d on. It should also %o without sayin% (but unfortunat#ly do#sn*t
always) that #.planations should b# in th# moth#r ton%u# if possibl#. Th# old do%ma that th# moth#r
ton%u# should n#(#r b# us#d in lan%ua%# t#achin% has not b##n tak#n s#riously by lin%uists for d#cad#s.
4nd' as far as %rammar is conc#rn#d' it d#fi#s common s#ns#. (Suppos# you w#r# startin% to l#arn' say'
Mon%olian. Would you want your %rammar #.planations in Mon%olian,)
E,AMPLES
Wh#n I start#d t#achin%' t#.tbook #.ampl#s w#r# oft#n #.tr#m#ly unr#alistic. 7n# I r#m#mb#r is 2Dirds
fly hi%h* 9 particularly bizarr# b#caus# it was pr#s#nt#d for transformation into th# past. (Wh#n would you
say 2Dirds fl#w hi%h*, 4ft#r th# com#t struck and th# atmosph#r# was skimm#d off,) Such #.ampl#s ar#
still found occasionally 9 I was r#c#ntly shown an #.#rcis# on irr#%ular plurals which contain#d th#
r#markabl# stat#m#nts 2Th# o.#n ar# st#ppin% on my f##t* and 2Thos# p#opl# ha(# lost th#ir t##th*.
:owadays' how#(#r' th# p#ndulum has swun% th# oth#r way' and th# fla(our of th# month is
auth#nticity. Som# scholars' ind##d' say that w# should pr#s#nt no #.ampl#s which ha(# not b##n
spok#n or writt#n durin% auth#ntic communication. This sounds %ood' but a &uick look at a corpus can
damp#n on#*s #nthusiasm. 4 typical corpus #.ampl# of flywith a third$p#rson plural subA#ct is 25# says
"11> aircraft fly out of @urop# #(#ry day to distribut# flow#rs all around th# world in what is an
#.tr#m#ly (aluabl# industry* 9 scarc#ly an impro(#m#nt on 2Dirds fly hi%h*. 1orpus #.ampl#s ar# %#n#rally
hard to int#rpr#t tak#n out of th# cont#.t that %i(#s th#m th#ir auth#nticity' and ar# full of nuisanc#
(ocabulary that distracts att#ntion from th# r#l#(ant %rammar point. What w# n##d' sur#ly' is not corpus
auth#nticity but classroom auth#nticity) not 2r#al* #.ampl#s' but r#alistic #.ampl#s which s#r(# our
p#da%o%ic purpos#s.
E,ERCISES
Th# communicati(# approach has brou%ht us a %r#atly #nrich#d r#p#rtoir# of #.#rcis#$typ#s' #nablin%
l#arn#rs to practis# %rammar whil# sayin% r#al and int#r#stin% thin%s to #ach oth#r. Th# communicati(#
#mphasis on pair$work and %roup$work is particularly b#n#ficial) if stud#nts sp#ak on# at a tim#' nobody
%#ts #nou%h practic# to mast#r a %rammatical f#atur#. 5ow#(#r' cont#mporary th#ory has %i(#n many
t#ach#rs a bad consci#nc# about doin% anythin% that is not 2communicati(#*. If stud#nts practis# past
t#ns#s by t#llin% #ach oth#r th#ir lif# stori#s' this is ?77"; to r#(is# irr#%ular (#rbs by fillin% in %aps in
s#nt#nc#s is D4". I am all for lif# stori#s' and %ap$fillin% is pr#tty un#.citin%' but h#r# as #ls#wh#r# w#
can b#n#fit from som# common s#ns#. Stud#nts oft#n n##d to %#t us#d to buildin% a structur#' or to
cont#.tualisin% it appropriat#ly' b#for# th#y ar# r#ady to us# it mor# fr##ly. In this r#sp#ct' und#mandin%
2m#chanical* #.#rcis#s which #nabl# stud#nts to think about on# thin% at a tim# ha(# ob(ious (alu#.
WILL IT WORK?
4 common obA#ction to syst#matic %rammar t#achin% is that what is l#arnt may not carry o(#r into
spontan#ous us#. Stud#nts l#arn rul#s' and %#t th#ir %rammar ri%ht durin% practic#' but th#y still mak#
mistak#s wh#n th#y ar# sp#akin% or writin% mor# fr##ly. 2"#clarati(# knowl#d%# isn*t th# sam# as
proc#dural knowl#d%#'* w# ar# r#p#at#dly told; 2+ractic# do#sn*t mak# p#rf#ct* 9 as if th#s# w#r#
r#asons for not pro(idin% d#clarati(# knowl#d%# or doin% practic#. W#ll' of cours# practic# do#sn*t mak#
p#rf#ct 9 nothin% do#s. 1arry$o(#r from rul#$l#arnin% and controll#d practic#' throu%h s#mi$controll#d
work' to corr#ct spontan#ous us#' is (#ry difficult to achi#(# 9 that is on# r#ason why lan%ua%#s ar# hard
to t#ach. Th# fact that a proc#dur# do#sn*t %uarant## succ#ss is not' how#(#r' a r#ason for abandonin%
it. ?#n#rations of t#ach#rs ha(# f#lt that #.plicit syllabus$bas#d %rammar t#achin% and practic# can h#lp
stud#nts alon% th# rocky road towards r#asonably corr#ct spontan#ous production' and th# insi%hts that
th# t#achin% prof#ssion has accumulat#d and pass#d on always n##d to b# tak#n s#riously. +lantin% s##ds
may not %uarant## that th#y will %row; but not plantin% th#m is scarc#ly a sup#rior strat#%y.
RE-ERENCES
5ulstiAn' B. (199!) 2:ot 4ll ?rammar -ul#s ar# @&ual) ?i(in% ?rammar Instruction its +rop#r +lac# in
<or#i%n 0an%ua%# T#achin%* in Schmidt' -. (@d)' +ttention and +wareness in ,oreign (angage (earning'
pp. C!9$CGH' 5onolulu) /ni(#rsity of 5awaii +r#ss
Swan' M. (=>>!) 0#%islation by 5ypoth#sis) Th# 1as# of Task$Das#d Instruction' +$$lied (ingistics =HEC'
pp. CH9I1>