ANATOMI MATA, TELINGA, HIDUNG DAN ADNEXA NYA

Olfaction: Sense of Smell

1. The receptors for olfaction, which are bipolar neurons, are in the nasal
epithelium along with olfactory glands, which produce mucus that dissolves
odorants.
2. In olfactory reception, a generator potential develops and triggers one or more
nerve impulses.
3. The threshold of smell is low, and adaptation to odor occurs quickly.
. !"ons of olfactory receptors form the olfactory #I$ nerves, which convey nerve
impulses to the olfactory bulbs, olfactory tracts, limbic system, and cerebral
corte" #temporal and frontal lobes$.
Vision
1. !ccessory structures of the eyes include the eyebrows, eyelids, eyelashes,
lacrimal apparatus, and e"trinsic eye muscles.
2. The lacrimal apparatus consists of structures that produce and drain tears.
3. The eye is constructed of three layers% #a$ &brous tunic #sclera and cornea$, #b$
vascular tunic #choroid, ciliary body, and iris$, and#c$ retina.
. The retina consists of a pigmented layer and a neural layer that includes a
photoreceptor layer, bipolar cell layer, ganglion cell layer, hori'ontal cells, and
amacrine cells.
(. The anterior cavity contains aqueous humor) the vitreous chamber contains
the vitreous body.
*. Image formation on the retina involves refraction of light rays by the cornea
and lens, which focus an inverted image on the fovea centralis of the retina.
+. ,or viewing close ob-ects, the lens increases its curvature #accom.modation$
and the pupil constricts to prevent light rays fromentering the eye through the
periphery of the lens.
/. The near point of vision is the minimum distance from the eye atwhich an
ob-ect can be clearly focused with ma"imum accom.modation.
0. In convergence, the eyeballs move medially so they are bothdirected toward
an ob-ect being viewed.
11. The &rst step in vision is the absorption of light by photopigments in rods and
cones and isomeri'ation of cis.retinal. 2eceptor potentials in rods and cones
decrease the release of inhibitory neurotransmitter, which induces graded
potentials in bipolar cells and hori'ontal cells
11. 3ori'ontal cells transmit inhibitory signals to bipolar cells) bipolar or
amacrine cells transmit e"citatory signals to ganglion cells, which depolari'e and
initiate nerve impulses.
12. Impulses from ganglion cells are conveyed into the optic #II$ nerve, through
the optic chiasm and optic tract, to the thalamus. ,rom thethalamus, impulses
for vision propagate to the cerebral corte"#occipital lobe$. !"on collaterals of
retinal ganglion cells e"tend to
the midbrain and hypothalamus.
3earing and 4quilibrium
1. The e"ternal #outer$ ear consists of the auricle, e"ternal auditory canal, and
tympanic membrane #eardrum$.
2. The middle ear consists of the auditory tube, ossicles, oval win.dow, and round
window.
3. The internal #inner$ ear consists of the bony labyrinth and membranous
labyrinth. The internal ear contains the spiral organ #organ of 5orti$, the organ of
hearing.
. 6ound waves enter the e"ternal auditory canal, strike the tympanic
membrane, pass through the ossicles, strike the oval window, set up waves in
the perilymph, strike the vestibular membrane andscala tympani, increase
pressure in the endolymph, vibrate the basilar membrane, and stimulate hair
bundles on the spiral organ #organ of 5orti$.
(. 3air cells convert mechanical vibrations into a receptor potential, which
releases neurotransmitter that can initiate nerve impulses in &rst.order sensory
neurons.
*. 6ensory a"ons in the cochlear branch of the vestibulocochlear #7III$ nerve
terminate in the medulla oblongata. !uditory signals then pass to the inferior
colliculus, thalamus, and temporal lobes of the cerebral corte".
+. 6tatic equilibrium is the orientation of the body relative to the pul8 of gravity.
The maculae of the utricle and saccule are the sense organs of static equilibrium.
9ody movements that stimulate the receptors for static equilibrium include
tilting the head and linear acceleration or deceleration.
/. :ynamic equilibrium is the maintenance of body position in response to
rotational acceleration or deceleration. The cristae in the semicircu.lar ducts are
the main sense organs of dynamic equilibrium.
0. ;ost vestibular branch a"ons of the vestibulocochlear nerve enter the brain
stem and terminate in the medulla and pons) other a"ons enter the cerebellum.
:evelopment of the 4yes and 4ars
1. The eyes begin their development about 22 days after fertili'ation
from ectoderm of the lateral walls of the prosencephalon #forebrain$.
2. The ears begin their development about 22 days after fertili'ation
from a thickening of ectoderm on either side of the rhomben.cephalon
#hindbrain$. The sequence of development of the ear is
internal ear, middle ear, and e"ternal ear.
!ging and the 6pecial 6enses #p. *3*$
1. ;ost people do not e"perience problems with the senses of smell
and taste until about age (1.
2. !mong the age.related changes to the eyes are presbyopia,
cataracts, di<culty ad-usting to light, macular disease, glaucoma,
dry eyes, and decreased sharpness of vision.
3. =ith age there is a progressive loss of hearing and tinnitus occurs
more frequently