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Carla R. McSwain
Lesley University
November 1, 2009
The Patterns of Reasoning 2
Abstract
Reasoning is a fundamental type of learning and thinking activity. Unique patterns of reasoning
exist and can be effectively developed in students if facilitated properly by the teacher. Seven
specific types of reasoning are described here along with various teaching strategies and
assessments to evaluate the reasoning in a high school US History class setting. Various
education theorists’ views are considered to support these patterns of reasoning and validate their
significance. Emphasis is placed on matching the appropriate assessment tool with the
Variables in education may stack up for teachers from student to student and school to
school, but one thing is for certain; every student that walks into the classroom has brain activity
taking place. The brain activity may be chaotic, fuzzy, or a mass of energy with no focus, but it
is happening none the less. Otherwise the student would be in a vegetative state hooked up to a
machine somewhere that does everything for him or her. The goal for teachers is to channel that
brain activity and help students learn how to process all those observations, feelings, memories,
skills, and facts into useful brain productivity. That is where reasoning comes in to play. The
simple dictionary definition for reasoning is a mental process that allows conclusions to be
drawn from facts. Students reason all the time. They may not realize it, but as they constantly
make decisions about what to do or say in response to normal stimuli in life, they are performing
basic reasoning skills. The task of teachers is to assist students in applying reasoning as it
pertains to their academic subjects. Dr. Rick Stiggins describes seven specific patterns of
reasoning that can be utilized by students in the classroom setting (2008). With the help of some
other authors, those patterns will be discussed here along with some concrete and appropriate
Before there can be reasoning, there must be knowledge. There is no such thing as
content free reasoning (Stiggins, 2008). Dr. Benjamin Bloom’s famous taxonomy of higher order
thinking even lists knowledge at the bottom of the hierarchy (1956). So before the different
patterns of reasoning can be described, it is important to realize that knowledge is there first and
is very essential. There is a tendency to lessen the value of knowledge because traditional
methods of teaching and assessing knowledge have focused on rote memorization or basic recall.
The Patterns of Reasoning 4
Yet, as Dr. Stiggins and others assert, knowledge is necessary for understanding. It is important
to see how specific facts fit into a big picture and that requires reasoning (2008). If you do not
have mastery of the facts first, then how can the reasoning take place? Dr. Michael Booker
“attributes the inability of American children to compete internationally to a great extent to our
reliance on Bloom in expecting critical and advanced thinking from kids who have been trained
knowledge learning cannot be overlooked. Dr. Stiggins stresses this also by implying that a big
part of knowledge in our contemporary world comes from knowing where to locate information
and from frequent use of that knowledge (2008). The frequent use of the knowledge happens in
the form of reasoning. Therefore, in order to perform any act of reasoning, there must be some
form of knowledge present. Having emphasized this point, Dr. Stiggins’ seven patterns of
Before getting specific with the different patterns of reasoning, here is some general
thought about appropriate assessment for that reasoning. Dr. Stiggins suggests four methods for
communication (2008). Without going into too much detail, suffice it to say that his suggestion
of a balance of several different assessment methods is sound. Students have a range of abilities
and a range of proficiency at those different skills. Why not give them an opportunity to
showcase those skills and provide some spice and variety in the classroom as well. Plus,
depending on the target for achievement, some assessments are a better fit than others. For years
now in the education world, assessment reform has been in the making. An advocate of tests
worth taking, Grant Wiggins says, “The problem is high-stakes, one-shot accountability tests of
The Patterns of Reasoning 5
any kind. Nobody is saying that this reform has to be ‘either-or’; we need to redress an
imbalance in our testing methods” (Brandt, 1992, p.35). Balance is good for assessment; that is
why as these patterns of reasoning are described, a balance of different teaching methods and
The first pattern of reasoning is analytical. This involves going into depth studying the
different parts of something in order to reason out and understand the whole. A United States
History curriculum example of when analytical reasoning could be used is the discussion of any
war. For example, students may be asked to research the different parts of the Civil War such as:
causes, leaders, battles, advantages and strategies of both the North and South, and results of the
war. By knowing the specific parts, an overall understanding of the war itself and why it
happened and why it resulted in the way it did occurs. Students also have a basis to compare
future wars when prompted. Selected Response questions could be used to assess a student’s
ability to reason about the Civil War. Dr. Stiggins claims that selected response can be used
effectively when we want to determine if students can analyze the elements of something,
compare them, and draw inferences or conclusions (2008). What is key, according to Dr.
Stiggins, is having a clear vision of what we desire to assess (2008). In this case, the ability to
analyze all the parts of the Civil War to better understand it is the desired outcome.
from various other sources and disciplines together into one theme. There is much overlap of the
US History curriculum with science and literature. A great synthesis unit would incorporate the
scientific inventions, literature and art accomplishments, and expansion of our country during the
early 1800s; all of which promoted a great sense of nationalism in America. Students could apply
The Patterns of Reasoning 6
much of what they study in other classes or at least note the relationship of other disciplines as
vehicle for students to use to synthesize this content as well as demonstrate important research
skills and computer productivity tool skills. Lots of synthesis would be taking place. The crucial
part of this endeavor, however, would be to ensure that it assesses accurately the reasoning.
Specific performance and product criteria would need to be stated at the onset. Students would
need to demonstrate their understanding of what nationalism means and how knowledge from
the related disciplines fits into the big picture. Relevant multimedia images to represent the broad
theme could be a way to give evidence of reasoning and learning. According to Grant Wiggins,
in designing assessment tools, teachers need the same things that students need: “models,
criteria, and feedback” (Brandt, 1992, p.35). So, a teacher planning to prepare this unit of study
and incorporate a multimedia product assessment instrument would need to search for models of
such products that can measure students using the reasoning pattern of synthesis and integrate
those into the planning. Likewise, the teacher must provide models, criteria, and feedback to the
The third type of reasoning is comparative. This simply is identifying what is similar and
what is different between two or more items. Dr. Stiggins is not the only educator who places a
value on this pattern of reasoning. Robert Marzano devotes an entire chapter in his book,
Classroom Instruction that Works, to identifying similarities and differences (2001). There is
good reason for the emphasis. Dr. Marzano suggests that researchers have found indentifying
similarities and differences as “mental operations basic to human thought” and possibly the “core
of all learning” (2001, p.14). These are some strong claims, but scientific studies can support
The Patterns of Reasoning 7
such assertions. In studies reviewed by Dr. Marzano, a “45 point percentile gain” was found in
strategy (2001, p.7). The best part is that there are a multitude of opportunities in which teachers
can use this simple strategy. Dr. Marzano gives many examples such as the obvious, commonly
used method of graphic symbolism such as Venn diagrams, charts, and matrixes (2001). In
addition, Dr. Marzano reminds teachers that using metaphors and analogies and also having
students create them can have the desired effect of achieving reasoning (2001). This simple
strategy is so beneficial in helping students make the content meaningful and memorable. An
example of incorporating this strategy in the US History curriculum would require students to
create a Venn diagram comparing and contrasting two reform movements that were a century
apart. This would provide some good review as well as use reasoning to make those important
connections and contrasts between the reforms of the early 1800s and the Progressive Era.
Again, specific criteria would need to be given to students about what was to be compared and
how in depth, taking care to allow students an opportunity to think of their own categories to
Another pattern of reasoning is Classifying. This allows for reasoning in organizing and
categorizing things according to attributes. Dr. Stiggins emphasizes the importance of defining
parameters of each category and the attributes of the things being classified (2008). Dr. Marzano
also speaks of classifying and adds that there can be teacher-directed tasks that involve
classifying or student- directed classifying tasks (2001). Simply stated, teacher-directed tasks
describe those in which students are supplied the elements to classify and the categories and they
must place items in the correct categories and understand why (Marzano, 2001). The student-
The Patterns of Reasoning 8
directed classification task requires students to be given the items to classify, but the student then
must create the categories (Marzano, 2001). Dr. Marzano adds that students could even be asked
to compose the list of items to classify and the categories (2001). This pattern of reasoning also
allows plenty of opportunity for organized brain activity, which again is the goal of reasoning. A
specific US History content classifying exercise could involve giving a list of key countries
during the inter- war period of the 1920s and 1930s to students and a random list of key
vocabulary, names of leaders, government ideologies, economic philosophies, and other items.
Students would be asked to form their own categories and classify the items appropriately. This
teacher-directed classifying activity allows the students the opportunity to organize information
effectively. This promotes reasoning and also retention of that important inter-war knowledge.
consideration of various facts and specific information leads to a general concept. This is a
marvelous thinking strategy to help students manipulate huge amounts of information that they
possibly do not understand or simply will forget. If students can induce a generalization, this can
help associate vast amounts of detailed content. They may forget specifics over time, but they
will remember the generalization. A superb example of inductive reasoning is the act of viewing
a film. “Viewing a film or video is an inductive process; the spectator abstracts from concrete
visual and aural information” (Nicholson and Zadra, 1998, p.4). As inductive thinking occurs,
many types of supporting information and details are given in a concise and concrete fashion
(1998). Viewers of film and video are able to reference that information not only in context of
setting and situation, but also facial expression, vocal expression, musical expression, and other
factors that can affect understanding (1998). Simply put, video allows for a highly-compressed
The Patterns of Reasoning 9
nugget of complex information to be conveyed from which the viewer can discern overall
meaning (1998). A way to integrate this technique and assess inductive reasoning in the US
History classroom would involve a unit on the Roaring 1920s. Students would be given lots of
rich detail about the trends of the 1920s in fashion styles, popular culture fads, sports, crime,
politics, music, and social behaviors without any generalizations being made whatsoever. In
addition, they would be shown a clip of a party scene from the movie, The Great Gatsby.
Afterwards, they would be assigned the task of constructing an essay that incorporates the
events, trends, styles, fads, laws, and culture into one concept or theme about the decade. As
always, clear expectations in the form of a grading rubric and possibly a model essay from a
thinking as another pattern of reasoning. Deductive, of course, means being given the concept or
rule first and then generating the specific evidence to back up the generalization. Dr. Marzano
goes a step further and describes deductive thinking as the process of using a general concept to
make predictions (2001). His research suggests that deductive reasoning actually contributes to
higher student achievement than inductive (2001, p.106). He attributes this to the possibility that
students may not have the experiences and prior knowledge to generate predictions and that
students may experience more success if teachers present principles directly to students first
before they make predictions (2001). Therefore, a method to inspire deductive reasoning in a US
History classroom would be to present the Mark Twain characterization of the late 1800s in the
United States as the Gilded Age. Next, the teacher could make sure students understand what
gilded means and then release students to find evidence to support that characterization. Again,
The Patterns of Reasoning 10
an essay with clearly stated objectives could be used to appropriately assess the student
deductions.
The seventh and final pattern of reasoning that Dr. Stiggins identifies is evaluative
(2008). This reasoning involves applying criteria to judge the value of something and
immediately brings to mind the idea of defending an argument. The crucial element for teachers
in facilitating this reasoning according to Dr. Stiggins is to “help students understand the criteria
they should be applying when they defend their point of view on the issue” (2008, p.61). Once
this is accomplished, students can get busy applying the criteria and developing a sound
argument for their opinion. A great activity that could be adapted in the US History classroom as
both a review strategy and a method to garner student evaluative reasoning would be to have
students defend a personal list of the five greatest US Presidents and the five least effective US
Presidents. When assessment is considered, Dr. Stiggins gives warning that evaluative reasoning
cannot be tested by selected response because an argument is defended (2008). With evaluative
reasoning assessment, answers are not just right or wrong (2008). A more appropriate
assessment method would be perhaps an oral presentation by the student with criteria based
arguments provided. This would allow for reasoning assessment and the honing of important
In conclusion, after delving into Dr. Stiggins’ specific patterns of reasoning and studying
the views of several other authors, the support is evident that these patterns of reasoning are
indeed worthwhile to a student’s overall achievement and learning. These types of reasoning can
be developed in students using a variety of strategies and assessments if the teacher does proper
planning and preparation of the teaching method, communication of grading criteria and
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expectations, and finally the selection of an appropriately matched assessment. The capacity to
reason is an extraordinary human ability just waiting to be cultivated in students. Hats off to the
educators like Dr. Stiggins, who inspire teachers with their research and theories and also to
those teachers, who aspire to emphasize reasoning in their classrooms every single day.
The Patterns of Reasoning 12
References
Bloom, Benjamin S. (Ed.), et al. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification
Booker, Michael J. (2007). A roof without walls: Benjamin Bloom’s taxonomy and the
Marzano, Robert J., Pickering Debra J., & Pollock, Jane E. (2001). Classroom instruction that
Nicholson, David W., & Zadra, Shelli S. (1998). Much ado about muffins: A practical approach
Media, 25.3, Summer, 229. Retrieved October 24, 2009, from Academic OneFile
database.
Stiggins, Rick. (2008). An introduction to student-involved assessment for learning (5th ed.).